---
base_model: sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2
library_name: setfit
metrics:
- accuracy
pipeline_tag: text-classification
tags:
- setfit
- sentence-transformers
- text-classification
- generated_from_setfit_trainer
widget:
- text: Despite the widespread use of genome-based methods for taxonomic classification,
some researchers (e.g., Brown and Caporaso, 2012) argue that a polyphasic approach,
which combines multiple lines of evidence, remains essential for accurate Actinobacteria
taxonomy.
- text: This study adds to the existing literature on late-onset sepsis in very low
birth weight neonates by providing insights into the clinical characteristics,
microbiological etiologies, and outcomes of these infections based on a large,
multicenter database.
- text: The model-based clustering algorithm, specifically the Gaussian Mixture Model,
effectively identified distinct clusters in the data with high accuracy.
- text: The study demonstrates that waste cooking oil can be effectively converted
into biodiesel using the proposed process design, yielding a high-quality fuel
with significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.
- text: TopHat and Cufflinks have been shown to outperform other tools in accurately
aligning RNA-seq reads and quantifying gene and transcript expression levels,
respectively (Kim et al., 2013; Trapnell et al., 2012)
inference: true
model-index:
- name: SetFit with sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2
results:
- task:
type: text-classification
name: Text Classification
dataset:
name: Unknown
type: unknown
split: test
metrics:
- type: accuracy
value: 0.47572815533980584
name: Accuracy
---
# SetFit with sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2
This is a [SetFit](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit) model that can be used for Text Classification. This SetFit model uses [sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2) as the Sentence Transformer embedding model. A [LogisticRegression](https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegression.html) instance is used for classification.
The model has been trained using an efficient few-shot learning technique that involves:
1. Fine-tuning a [Sentence Transformer](https://www.sbert.net) with contrastive learning.
2. Training a classification head with features from the fine-tuned Sentence Transformer.
## Model Details
### Model Description
- **Model Type:** SetFit
- **Sentence Transformer body:** [sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/all-MiniLM-L6-v2)
- **Classification head:** a [LogisticRegression](https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.linear_model.LogisticRegression.html) instance
- **Maximum Sequence Length:** 256 tokens
- **Number of Classes:** 103 classes
### Model Sources
- **Repository:** [SetFit on GitHub](https://github.com/huggingface/setfit)
- **Paper:** [Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055)
- **Blogpost:** [SetFit: Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts](https://huggingface.co/blog/setfit)
### Model Labels
| Label | Examples |
|:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Acknowledging limitation(s) whilst stating a finding or contribution | - 'Despite the advancements in both surgical and endovascular treatments for unruptured intracranial aneurysms, the optimal approach remains uncertain due to the variability in natural history and individual patient risk factors.'
- 'Despite the effectiveness of the Trim and Fill method in adjusting for publication bias in meta-analyses, it is important to note that the method assumes a funnel-shape distribution of effect sizes, and its applicability may be limited when this assumption is not met.'
- 'Although the developed spectrophotometric equations for determining chlorophyll and pheopigments provide accurate results within the given range, their applicability to other plant species or growth stages requires further investigation.'
|
| Advising cautious interpretation of the findings | - 'Despite the significant association observed between COVID-19 mortality and age and sex, it is important to note that other unmeasured factors, such as underlying health conditions and access to healthcare, could influence the results and merit further investigation.'
- "While SegNet demonstrates impressive performance in image segmentation tasks, it is important to note that the quality of input data and the choice of hyperparameters can significantly impact the model's accuracy."
- 'Although the mathematical model provides valuable insights into genetic variation through restriction endonucleases, it is essential to exercise caution in interpreting the findings due to potential limitations and unmeasured variables.'
|
| Commenting on the findings | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) index, derived from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, provides a reliable and practical method for estimating insulin resistance and pancreatic beta-cell function in internal medicine.'
- 'The plasticine experiments revealed that extrusion tectonics can be propagated through complex geometries, providing new insights into the mechanisms of this tectonic process in Asia.'
- 'The use of arbitrary primers to amplify DNA polymorphisms provides a cost-effective and efficient approach for identifying genetic markers in various organisms.'
|
| Commenting on the strengths of the current study | - 'The large sample size and comprehensive analysis of randomized controlled trials in the current study strengthen the evidence base for the use of dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel in secondary prevention after stroke or transient ischemic attack.'
- "The authors' use of rectified linear unit activations in their deep neural network model significantly improves image classification accuracy, surpassing human-level performance on ImageNet, highlighting the potential of artificial intelligence in achieving superior results in this domain."
- "The current study's application of a multi-scale approach to understanding community structure and dynamics in ecology is a significant strength, offering new insights into the complex relationships between species abundance, environmental conditions, and spatial patterns."
|
| Comparing the result: contradicting previous findings | - 'Despite previous studies suggesting a J-shaped association between glycaemia and macrovascular risk in type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients (Matthews et al., 1993), the UKPDS 35 study found a linear relationship between glycaemia and both macrovascular and microvascular complications.'
- 'Contrary to previous findings that unpaired image-to-image translation was an unsolvable problem, the proposed Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks (CCANs) demonstrate successful translation between domains without paired data.'
- 'Despite previous studies suggesting a neutral mutation rate in the human genome (Kim et al., 2004), the results from our statistical analysis indicate a significant excess of non-neutral mutations.'
|
| Comparing the result: supporting previous findings | - 'The study found that Pravastatin significantly reduced the risk of coronary events in patients with average cholesterol levels, consistent with previous research suggesting that statins benefit a wider population beyond those with hypercholesterolemia.'
- "The study's findings of the significant role of self-regulation skills in academic achievement align with previous research, suggesting that interventions aimed at enhancing these skills may be effective in improving student performance."
- 'The proposed rich feature hierarchies outperform state-of-the-art methods in both object detection and semantic segmentation tasks, supporting previous findings that multi-scale contextual information is crucial for accurate instance recognition and scene understanding in artificial intelligence applications.'
|
| Contrasting sources with ‘however’ for emphasis | - 'Despite the well-established association between elevated glycaemia and macrovascular complications in type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35), however, microvascular complications also play a significant role in morbidity and mortality.'
- "While many approaches to unpaired image-to-image translation have relied on methods like invariant representation learning, the proposed CycleGAN model 'however' utilizes adversarial networks with cycle-consistency constraints."
- 'Although many studies have investigated the impact of selection on DNA polymorphism, this statistical method proposed by Kim and Cooper (1996) focuses specifically on testing the neutral mutation hypothesis.'
|
| Describing previously used methods | - 'The UKPDS 35 study utilized a prospective observational design to investigate the relationship between glycaemia and macrovascular and microvascular complications in individuals with type 2 diabetes.'
- 'The proposed method builds upon the success of adversarial networks in image-to-image translation, specifically the use of cycle-consistent loss for unpaired data in the CycleGAN model.'
- "The neutral mutation hypothesis was previously tested using various statistical methods, such as Tajima's D and Fu and Li's D and F statistics."
|
| Describing questionnaire design | - 'The stroke prevention questionnaire used in the study consisted of 10 items, assessing various aspects of stroke risk and previous medical history.'
- "The questionnaire was designed with closed-ended questions to assess participants' dietary intake of estrogen sources and physical activity levels prior to estrogen depletion."
- 'The authors employed a deep neural network model, specifically a rectified linear unit (ReLU) network, for image classification on the ImageNet dataset.'
|
| Describing the characteristics of the participants | - 'The study included 60 Italian individuals diagnosed with COVID-19 between February 20th and March 9th, 2020, with a mean age of 58.5 years and a gender distribution of 42 males and 18 females.'
- 'The SegNet model consists of an encoder network and a decoder network, both based on the VGG16 architecture and trained using a pixel-wise cross-entropy loss function.'
- 'The mathematical model was constructed using genetic data obtained from restriction endonuclease digestion of DNA samples isolated from 50 unrelated individuals.'
|
| Describing the limitations of the current study | - 'Despite the large sample size and long follow-up period, the observational nature of the study limits the ability to establish causality between glycaemia and the observed complications in type 2 diabetes.'
- 'Despite achieving impressive results in translating images to different domains, the proposed method may struggle with preserving fine details and maintaining consistent textures, which could limit its applicability in certain use cases.'
- 'Despite the statistical power of our test, it is important to note that the neutral mutation hypothesis cannot be definitively ruled out for low-frequency polymorphisms due to the presence of selection pressures and population structure effects.'
|
| Describing the process: adverbs of manner | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) calculates insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and pancreatic beta-cell function (HOMA-B) from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man, providing a standardized and efficient method for assessing insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function in internal medicine.'
- 'The plasticine blocks were carefully extruded through the custom-designed die, generating distinct propagation patterns.'
- 'Amplification of DNA polymorphisms is efficiently carried out using arbitrary primers, resulting in specific and reproducible PCR products.'
|
| Describing the process: expressing purpose with for | - 'For each participant, glycaemia levels were measured at regular intervals to assess the association with the development of macrovascular and microvascular complications.'
- 'For unpaired image-to-image translation, the proposed method utilizes a cycle-consistent adversarial network to learn a mapping between input images and output images, while ensuring consistency between the translated images and their original counterparts.'
- 'The statistical method tests the neutral mutation hypothesis by calculating the expected number of neutral mutations under the assumption of neutral evolution and comparing it to the observed number of polymorphic sites in the DNA sequence.'
|
| Describing the process: infinitive of purpose | - 'The study aimed to assess the impact of Pravastatin administration on the incidence of coronary events in internal medicine patients with average cholesterol levels.'
- "To assess the effectiveness of self-regulation interventions, teachers can utilize regular observation and recording of students' behaviors and academic performance."
- 'To construct rich feature hierarchies, we combine hand-crafted features with deep convolutional neural networks.'
|
| Describing the process: sequence words | - 'The meta-analysis included 135 randomized controlled trials with a total of 113,382 participants who received aspirin plus clopidogrel for secondary prevention after stroke or transient ischemic attack.'
- 'Estrogen depletion-induced bone loss was prevented in Interleukin-6 deficient mice, as evidenced by a decrease in bone resorption markers and an increase in bone mineral density.'
- 'The authors propose a new rectifier activation function, ReLU6, which is shown to outperform other rectifiers in both shallow and deep neural networks, leading to improved accuracy on ImageNet classification.'
|
| Describing the process: statistical procedures | - 'The study employed descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, to analyze the demographic data of the Italian COVID-19 cases.'
- "SegNet utilizes a 'deconvolution' process in its decoder part to upsample the segmented features and produce a high-resolution segmentation map."
- 'The mathematical model employs statistical procedures, such as the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and the analysis of variance, to evaluate the distribution and frequency of restriction sites in a given genomic sequence.'
|
| Describing the process: typical verbs in the passive form | - 'Glycaemia levels were repeatedly measured and averaged over time to assess the association with macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes patients.'
- 'The generator network learns to translate an input image into a target domain image by minimizing the cycle-consistency loss and the adversarial loss.'
- 'The test statistic is calculated by comparing the observed number of segregating sites with the expected number under the neutral mutation model.'
|
| Describing the process: using + instrument | - 'The RT-PCR assay for detecting SARS-CoV-2 RNA was performed using a Thermocycler.'
- 'SegNet utilizes an encoder-decoder architecture with a deep convolutional network to extract contextual information from images and generate precise pixel-wise segmentation maps.'
- 'The mathematical model was constructed using the restriction endonuclease data to analyze genetic variation.'
|
| Describing the research design and the methods used | - 'This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel in the secondary prevention of stroke and transient ischemic attack in the field of internal medicine.'
- 'The authors propose a new rectifier activation function, ReLU6, and employ a novel training method called deep rectifiers, which significantly improves the performance of convolutional neural networks on the ImageNet dataset, surpassing human-level accuracy.'
- "This lecture explores MacArthur's seminal work on the theory of island biogeography, focusing on his groundbreaking research on species-area relationships and the role of environmental heterogeneity in shaping community structure."
|
| Describing what other writers do in their published work | - 'The study by Yusuf et al. (2002) demonstrated that the combination of aspirin and clopidogrel significantly reduced the risk of recurrent ischemic events in patients with a recent stroke or transient ischemic attack compared to aspirin monotherapy in the secondary prevention of internal medicine.'
- 'Previous studies have shown that estrogen deficiency leads to bone loss through the activation of inflammatory cytokines, such as Interleukin-6 (IL-6) (Kawaguchi et al., 2002).'
- "The authors of 'Delving Deep into Rectifiers' introduce a new activation function, rectified linear unit (ReLU), which significantly improves the performance of deep neural networks in achieving human-level image classification accuracy on the ImageNet dataset."
|
| Detailing specific limitations | - 'Despite providing a useful estimate of insulin resistance and beta-cell function, the Homeostasis Model Assessment has limitations in its applicability to individuals with extreme glucose or insulin levels, as well as those with certain diseases such as liver disease or pregnancy.'
- 'Despite the potential of stable isotope analysis to accurately estimate trophic position, assumptions regarding the isotopic composition of food sources and the mixing of isotopic signals can introduce significant errors.'
- 'Despite the high sensitivity and rapid analysis time of the proposed protein-dye binding method for chromatographic quantitation of microgram quantities of proteins, it may not be applicable to proteins with low binding affinity to the dye.'
|
| Establishing the importance of the topic for the discipline | - 'Pravastatin therapy in patients with average cholesterol levels following myocardial infarction has been shown to reduce the risk of coronary events, highlighting the importance of lipid-lowering therapy in internal medicine for cardiovascular disease prevention.'
- "Effective self-regulation is a crucial skill for students' academic success and social-emotional development in the classroom setting (Baker et al., 2014)."
- 'This paper proposes a deep learning architecture for object detection and semantic segmentation, which utilizes rich feature hierarchies to improve accuracy in the field of artificial intelligence.'
|
| Establishing the importance of the topic for the discipline: time frame given | - 'From 1995 to 1998, the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) 35 observed a significant association between higher glycaemia levels and increased risk of both macrovascular and microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.'
- 'Since the introduction of deep learning methods, unpaired image-to-image translation has gained significant attention in the field of artificial intelligence.'
- 'The study of genetic variation and its relationship to evolutionary processes gained significant attention in the mid-20th century with the development of statistical methods for testing the neutral mutation hypothesis.'
|
| Establishing the importance of the topic for the world or society | - 'Stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA) are leading causes of long-term disability and mortality in internal medicine, with an estimated 15 million survivors worldwide.'
- 'Estrogen depletion-induced bone loss is a significant health concern for postmenopausal women, affecting millions worldwide and leading to increased risk of fractures and disability.'
- 'Deep neural networks, a key technology in the field of artificial intelligence, have achieved human-level performance and beyond on large-scale image classification tasks, such as ImageNet.'
|
| Establishing the importance of the topic for the world or society: time frame given | - 'The COVID-19 outbreak in Italy, which began in late February 2020, quickly became one of the most severe epidemic hotspots in Europe.'
- 'Since the advent of deep learning, image segmentation has gained significant attention due to its potential applications in various fields, including autonomous vehicles, medical imaging, and scene understanding.'
- 'The analysis of genetic variation using restriction endonucleases has been a crucial tool in genetics research since the 1970s.'
|
| Establising the importance of the topic as a problem to be addressed | - 'The accurate assessment of insulin resistance and beta-cell function is crucial in the diagnosis and management of various metabolic disorders, including type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome.'
- 'The study of propagating extrusion tectonics in Asia holds significant importance in understanding the geological processes shaping the region.'
- 'The identification and characterization of DNA polymorphisms using arbitrary primers has emerged as an important approach in the field of genetics for the development of genetic markers.'
|
| Explaining keywords (also refer to Defining Terms) | - 'Pravastatin is a statin drug commonly used in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia, specifically to lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular events in internal medicine.'
- 'Self-regulation refers to the ability of students to manage their emotions, behavior, and cognitive processes to achieve optimal learning (Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005).'
- 'The proposed method utilizes deep convolutional neural networks to extract rich features from input images, enabling both object detection and semantic segmentation with high accuracy in the field of artificial intelligence.'
|
| Explaining the provenance of articles for review | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) calculates insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man.'
- 'The authors conducted experiments using plasticine to simulate the extrusion tectonics process, observing and documenting the resulting deformations for analysis.'
- 'Arbitrary primers were used to amplify DNA polymorphisms, which have been identified as valuable genetic markers in various studies.'
|
| Explaining the provenance of the participants | - 'The systematic review and meta-analysis included 13 randomized controlled trials with a total of 29,114 participants who had experienced a stroke or transient ischemic attack and were at high risk for cardiovascular events.'
- 'The study utilized Interleukin-6 deficient mice and wild-type mice as participants, which were obtained from Jackson Laboratory and maintained in a specific pathogen-free environment.'
- "The authors of 'Delving Deep into Rectifiers' utilized a deep neural network, specifically a rectified linear unit (ReLU) network, for image classification on the large-scale ImageNet dataset."
|
| Explaining the significance of the current study | - "This study provides valuable insights into the early dynamics of the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy, contributing to the understanding of the disease's transmission patterns and impact on public health."
- 'SegNet introduces an encoder-decoder architecture with deep convolutional networks for pixel-wise image segmentation, achieving state-of-the-art results on several benchmark datasets.'
- 'This study presents a mathematical model to quantify genetic variation among organisms using the sites recognized by restriction endonucleases, providing insights into evolutionary relationships and population genetics.'
|
| Explaining the significance of the findings or contribution of the study | - 'The UKPDS 35 study provides robust evidence that every 1 mmol/L increase in HbA1c is associated with a 25% increased risk of macrovascular events and a 37% increased risk of microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes, highlighting the importance of strict glycaemic control in internal medicine.'
- 'The proposed Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks (CCANs) have significantly advanced the field of unpaired image-to-image translation in artificial intelligence, achieving state-of-the-art results through the use of adversarial training and cycle consistency.'
- 'The proposed statistical method allows for the identification of deviations from neutral mutation rates in DNA polymorphism data, providing valuable insights into the genetic basis of selective pressures acting on a population.'
|
| General comments on the relevant literature | - 'Previous studies have shown that statins, including pravastatin, can reduce the risk of coronary events in patients with elevated cholesterol levels. However, this study investigates the effect of pravastatin on patients with average cholesterol levels.'
- 'Self-regulation in education has gained significant attention in recent decades, with numerous studies investigating its role in academic achievement and social-emotional development (Berkowitz & Gibbs, 1998; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005)'
- 'This paper contributes to the field of artificial intelligence by proposing rich feature hierarchies for improving the accuracy of object detection and semantic segmentation, building upon existing methods such as Faster R-CNN and Mask R-CNN.'
|
| General reference to previous research or scholarship: highlighting negative outcomes | - 'Despite the widespread use of fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations for the assessment of insulin resistance and beta-cell function, these measures have limitations and can result in misclassification of subjects, as shown in previous studies.'
- 'Despite previous efforts to understand extrusion tectonics through laboratory experiments using various materials, the mechanisms underlying this geological process remain elusive and controversial.'
- 'Despite the initial promise of using arbitrary primers to amplify DNA polymorphisms as genetic markers, several studies have reported inconsistent results and limitations in their applicability.'
|
| Giving reasons for personal interest in the research (sometimes found in the humanities, and the applied human sciences) | - 'This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) in estimating insulin resistance and pancreatic beta-cell function in internal medicine, offering valuable insights for the diagnosis and management of metabolic disorders.'
- 'This study explores the propagation of extrusion tectonics in Asia through simple experiments with plasticine, contributing new insights to the field.'
- 'DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers offer significant potential as genetic markers due to their ability to reveal genetic variation among individuals.'
|
| Giving reasons why a particular method was adopted | - "Given the high number of confirmed COVID-19 cases and deaths in Italy, this study utilizes a retrospective analysis of news articles to understand the public's perception and response to the pandemic."
- 'SegNet was chosen for this study due to its encoder-decoder architecture and efficient use of context information, allowing for accurate and efficient pixel-wise image segmentation in real time.'
- 'The mathematical model proposed in this paper was adopted to systematically analyze genetic variation among organisms through the identification and mapping of restriction sites, enabling a more comprehensive understanding of genetic diversity at the molecular level.'
|
| Giving reasons why a particular method was rejected | - 'Despite considering the use of continuous glucose monitoring, this study employed twice-daily self-monitoring of blood glucose levels due to the impracticality and high cost of the former in a large-scale observational study.'
- 'Despite its promising results, the use of cycle-consistent loss in the proposed method was initially rejected due to concerns about potential mode collapse issues.'
- 'Despite its initial appeal, the Fisher Exact Test was ultimately rejected due to its inability to account for multiple comparisons and the large number of tests performed in our study.'
|
| Highlighting inadequacies or weaknesses of previous studies (also refer to Being Critical) | - 'Despite the extensive research on the impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on various countries, existing studies have largely focused on the epidemiological aspects and neglect the socio-economic consequences in Italy.'
- 'Despite the success of traditional fully-supervised segmentation methods, they often struggle with handling large variations in image scale and content, which SegNet aims to address through its encoder-decoder architecture.'
- 'Despite the extensive use of restriction enucleases in the analysis of genetic variation, previous mathematical models have not effectively addressed the complexity and nuances of restriction site distribution and diversity.'
|
| Highlighting interesting or surprising results | - 'The meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials revealed that the combination of aspirin and clopidogrel significantly reduced the risk of recurrent stroke or myocardial infarction by 21% in patients with a recent stroke or transient ischemic attack compared to aspirin monotherapy in the internal medicine setting.'
- 'Despite estrogen depletion leading to bone loss in wild-type mice, Interleukin-6 deficient mice remained protected from such bone loss.'
- 'The deep neural network model, AlexNet, achieved an error rate of 15.37% on the ImageNet validation set, which was a significant improvement over the previous best result of 26.2% error rate by human experts.'
|
| Highlighting significant data in a table or chart | - 'The SegNet model achieved an average Jaccard index of 0.76 on the validation set, outperforming other state-of-the-art methods in the table.'
- 'The table in Section 3.2 summarizes the mechanical properties of various carbon nanotube composites, highlighting the significant improvement in tensile strength and modulus when compared to their pristine counterparts.'
- 'The transmission peaks occur at specific angles of incidence, with a maximum transmission of 76.2% at an angle of 56.3 degrees for the 150 nm hole array.'
|
| Identifying a controversy within the field of study | - 'Despite the established association between elevated glycaemia and increased risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes, the optimal level of glycaemic control to prevent these complications remains a subject of controversy.'
- 'Despite the success of cycle-consistent adversarial networks in unpaired image-to-image translation, the controversy surrounding the potential loss of semantic information during translation remains an open research question in the field of artificial intelligence.'
- 'Despite the widespread use of DNA polymorphism data for testing the neutral mutation hypothesis, controversy persists regarding the appropriate statistical methods and assumptions.'
|
| Identifying a knowledge gap in the field of study | - 'Despite the established association between elevated glycaemia and increased risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes, the optimal level of glycaemic control to prevent these complications remains unclear.'
- 'Despite the success of adversarial networks in image-to-image translation tasks, unpaired translation remains an open challenge in the field of artificial intelligence.'
- 'Despite the availability of various statistical methods for testing the neutral mutation hypothesis, there is a need for a more efficient and accurate approach, as the identification of selective sweeps and balancing selection remains a significant challenge in the field of genetics.'
|
| Implications and/or recommendations for practice or policy | - 'In light of the significant reduction in stroke recurrence and cardiovascular events observed in the meta-analysis of studies on aspirin plus clopidogrel for secondary prevention after stroke or transient ischemic attack, these medications are strongly recommended for eligible patients in internal medicine practice.'
- 'Further research is necessary to determine if the protective effects of Interleukin-6 deficiency on bone loss in estrogen-depleted mice can be translated to humans and inform the development of novel therapeutic strategies for osteoporosis.'
- 'The findings from this study suggest that deep neural networks with rectified linear unit (ReLU) activations can surpass human-level performance on image classification tasks, with implications for the development of advanced artificial intelligence systems.'
|
| Indicating an expected outcome | - 'The homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) index, derived from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, effectively distinguishes between individuals with normal insulin sensitivity and those with insulin resistance in internal medicine patients.'
- 'The plasticine experiments revealed that extrusion tectonics can be propagated over long distances, suggesting a potential explanation for the formation of large-scale geological structures in Asia.'
- 'The use of arbitrary primers in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques has led to the identification of numerous DNA polymorphisms, which have proven to be valuable as genetic markers in various fields of genetics research.'
|
| Indicating an unexpected outcome | - 'Despite achieving impressive segmentation results on the PASCAL VOC dataset, SegNet failed to outperform the state-of-the-art methods on the CamVid dataset, indicating an unexpected outcome in the performance of this deep learning architecture across different datasets.'
- 'Despite the assumption that rare restriction site variants have a negligible effect on the overall genetic diversity, our mathematical model reveals that they can significantly contribute to the total number of restriction fragments in a population.'
- 'Despite the expectation that warmer temperatures would increase the spread of the invasive zebra mussel, our study found that cooler temperatures actually facilitated their expansion in some water bodies.'
|
| Indicating criteria for selection or inclusion in the study | - 'Patients with a history of myocardial infarction and an average cholesterol level between 180 and 240 mg/dL were included in the study.'
- 'The study included classroom observations of students in grades 3 through 5 who scored below the 30th percentile on a standardized reading assessment.'
- 'The study focuses on object detection and semantic segmentation using rich feature hierarchies, specifically exploring the use of convolutional neural networks with multi-scale context and pyramid pooling.'
|
| Indicating methodological problems or limitations | - 'However, it is important to note that the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) index does not directly measure insulin sensitivity or β-cell function, but rather provides an estimate based on fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations.'
- 'Despite the use of plasticine as an analog material to simulate extrusion tectonics, the results may not fully represent the complex geological processes in Asia due to the inherent limitations of the material.'
- 'The use of arbitrary primers for DNA amplification may lead to non-specific amplification of unintended templates, potentially introducing errors and limiting the accuracy of genetic marker analysis.'
|
| Indicating missing, weak, or contradictory evidence | - 'Despite the widespread use of pravastatin in post-myocardial infarction patients with average cholesterol levels, the evidence regarding its impact on coronary events remains inconclusive and sometimes contradictory.'
- 'Despite the growing body of research on self-regulation in education, there is still a lack of consensus on the most effective assessment and intervention strategies'
- 'Despite the success of deep learning models in object detection and semantic segmentation tasks, there still exist instances where these models fail to provide accurate results due to missing, weak, or contradictory evidence in the input data.'
|
| Indicating the methodology for the current research | - 'We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials investigating the efficacy and safety of dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel in the secondary prevention of stroke or transient ischemic attack.'
- 'Estrogen depletion was induced in wild-type and Interleukin-6 deficient mice through ovariectomy, and bone loss was assessed by measuring bone mineral density using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans.'
- "The authors propose a new rectifier activation function, referred to as 'Rectified Linear Maxout Units' (ReLUs), which is applied in all hidden layers of a deep neural network, enabling the network to learn multiple representation levels of the input data."
|
| Indicating the use of an established method | - 'The study employed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design to investigate the effect of Pravastatin on coronary events in patients with average cholesterol levels.'
- 'The authors employ the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) framework (Ryan and Deci, 2000) to understand the self-regulatory processes of students in the classroom.'
- 'The authors employ a deep convolutional neural network (CNN) as the backbone for their object detection system, specifically a Faster R-CNN architecture with ResNet-50 as the base network.'
|
| Introducing the limitations of the current study | - 'However, it is important to note that the current study was conducted using recombinant human Klotho protein, which may not fully recapitulate the complex regulatory mechanisms of endogenous Klotho in vivo.'
- 'Despite the high sensitivity and specificity of the proposed enzymic method for quantifying total and oxidized glutathione, its applicability to complex biological matrices such as plasma may be limited by the presence of interfering substances.'
- 'Despite the significant advancements in the synthesis and characterization of gold nanoparticles presented in this review, challenges remain in achieving large-scale production and controlling their agglomeration in complex biological environments.'
|
| Making recommendations for further research work | - 'Further research is warranted to explore the underlying mechanisms linking glycaemia to macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes, particularly in multi-ethnic populations.'
- 'Further research is needed to explore the application of Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks in handling larger datasets and more complex image-to-image translation tasks in the field of artificial intelligence.'
- 'Further studies are needed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the development and progression of central nervous system tumors, as identified in the 2007 WHO Classification.'
|
| Noting implications of the findings | - 'The UKPDS 35 study provides evidence that intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes reduces the risk of both macrovascular and microvascular complications, highlighting the importance of strict glycaemic management in this population.'
- 'The proposed method, Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks (CCANs), has shown impressive results in unpaired image-to-image translation tasks, implying potential applications in various domains such as art style transfer and data augmentation for deep learning models in artificial intelligence.'
- 'The findings from this statistical method suggest that an excess of rare mutations in a population may indicate positive selection against neutral mutations, providing important implications for the study of genetic evolution.'
|
| Noting the lack of or paucity of previous research | - 'Despite the proven benefits of dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular events, particularly in coronary artery disease, there is a paucity of data specifically addressing its use in stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) patients.'
- 'Despite the success of rectifier networks in image classification tasks, the underlying mechanisms and optimization techniques have received limited attention in the research community.'
- 'Despite the vast body of work on ecological patterns and processes, there has been a striking lack of research on the role of spatial and temporal scales in shaping these phenomena.'
|
| Offering an explanation for the findings | - 'The combined use of aspirin and clopidogrel significantly reduces the risk of recurrent stroke and cardiovascular events in patients with a recent history of stroke or transient ischemic attack, as evidenced by a 21% relative risk reduction in the present meta-analysis.'
- 'The absence of Interleukin-6 in mice prevents the estrogen-induced bone loss, suggesting a role for this cytokine in the regulation of bone homeostasis during estrogen deficiency.'
- 'The authors attribute the superior performance of their proposed rectifier to its ability to effectively activate neurons in deeper layers of the network, enabling the model to learn more complex features and accurately classify images.'
|
| Outlining the structure of a short paper | - 'This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel in the secondary prevention of stroke and transient ischemic attack in the field of internal medicine.'
- 'The authors propose a new rectifier activation function, ReLU6, and apply it to a deep convolutional neural network, achieving top-5 error rate of 11.3% on ImageNet, surpassing human-level performance.'
- 'In this lecture, MacArthur (1972) outlined his influential theory on the importance of both local and regional processes in shaping ecological patterns and communities at different scales.'
|
| Outlining the structure of a thesis or dissertation | - 'The paper is organized into three sections: the first section provides an overview of the COVID-19 outbreak in Italy, the second section discusses the impact of the outbreak on various aspects of Italian society, and the third section presents conclusions and recommendations.'
- 'SegNet proposes a deep convolutional encoder-decoder architecture, which leverages an encoder network to extract contextual information and a decoder network to produce high-resolution segmentation maps.'
- 'The mathematical model proposed in this study aims to quantify genetic variation using the distribution of restriction sites in genomic DNA.'
|
| Pointing out interesting or important findings | - 'The combination of aspirin and clopidogrel significantly reduced the risk of recurrent stroke or myocardial infarction compared to aspirin monotherapy in patients with a recent stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA), according to the meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials.'
- 'Interleukin-6 deficiency inhibits estrogen-induced bone loss in mice, as evidenced by a decrease in bone resorption markers and an increase in bone mineral density.'
- 'The authors achieved human-level performance and surpassed it by a significant margin on the ImageNet dataset using a deep rectified neural network, outperforming previous state-of-the-art methods in the field of artificial intelligence.'
|
| Previewing a chapter | - 'This paper introduces the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) as a method for estimating insulin sensitivity and β-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in humans, providing a valuable tool for assessing internal medicine conditions related to glucose metabolism.'
- 'This chapter explores the application of extrusion tectonics in Asia through a series of experimental investigations using plasticine.'
- 'This chapter explores the application of arbitrary primers in amplifying DNA polymorphisms as valuable genetic markers in the field of genetics.'
|
| Previous research: A historic perspective | - 'Prior to the UKPDS 35 study, numerous observational and interventional studies had established a strong association between elevated glycaemia and increased risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in individuals with type 2 diabetes.'
- 'Prior to the introduction of cycle-consistent adversarial networks, unpaired image-to-image translation was approached through methods such as canonical correlation analysis and adversarial training with attention mechanisms.'
- "Prior to the development of the statistical method proposed in this paper, researchers in the field of genetics relied on various techniques, such as the Tajima's D test and the Fu and Li's D* test, to assess the neutrality of genetic data."
|
| Previous research: Approaches taken | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) has been widely used to estimate insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in internal medicine (Matteucci et al., 1985; Nolan et al., 1985).'
- 'Previous studies on extrusion tectonics in Asia have primarily focused on large-scale geological formations (Feng et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2012), with fewer investigations into the mechanisms at play in smaller-scale plasticine models.'
- 'Previous studies have employed the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique with arbitrary primers to amplify DNA polymorphisms as genetic markers in various organisms (Kawabe et al., 1993; Tautz, 1992)'
|
| Previous research: What has been established or proposed | - 'Previous studies have shown that statins, including pravastatin, can reduce the risk of coronary events in patients with elevated cholesterol levels. However, this trial investigates the effect of pravastatin on patients with average cholesterol levels.'
- 'Previous research on self-regulation in the classroom has identified executive functions, such as working memory and inhibitory control, as crucial components (Zelazo et al., 2008)'
- 'Previous research in object detection and semantic segmentation using artificial intelligence has focused on designing complex neural network architectures and extracting rich features from raw data.'
|
| Previous research: area investigated as the sentence object | - 'Previous studies have investigated the use of dual antiplatelet therapy, specifically aspirin plus clopidogrel, for secondary prevention in patients who have experienced a stroke or transient ischemic attack.'
- 'Previous research has investigated the role of Interleukin-6 (IL-6) in bone metabolism, with some studies suggesting that IL-6 deficiency may protect against bone loss.'
- 'Previous research in the field of artificial intelligence has primarily focused on improving the design of neural networks through the use of various activation functions, with rectified linear units (ReLUs) gaining significant attention due to their effectiveness in deep learning models.'
|
| Previous research: area investigated as the sentence subject | - 'Previous research has explored the impact of COVID-19 on various aspects of Italian society, such as the healthcare system (Bianchi et al., 2020) and the economy (Caselli et al., 2020).'
- 'Previous research in the field of image segmentation has explored various approaches such as fully convolutional networks (FCNs) and encoder-decoder architectures (Long et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2014)'
- 'Previous research has focused on understanding genetic variation using restriction enzymes as molecular markers (Botstein et al., 1980; Ritland, 1996).'
|
| Previous research: highlighting negative outcomes | - 'Despite the proven benefits of dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel in the primary prevention of cardiovascular events, previous research on their use as secondary prevention after stroke or transient ischemic attack has highlighted negative outcomes, such as increased risk of bleeding.'
- 'Despite the promising advances in deep learning models, previous research has highlighted the negative outcomes, such as adversarial attacks and lack of interpretability, which pose challenges to their widespread adoption in real-world applications.'
- 'Despite previous research suggesting that α-synuclein plays a role in Lewy body formation, some studies have reported contradictory results and even negative outcomes, such as decreased α-synuclein levels in certain brain regions.'
|
| Providing background information: reference to the literature | - 'Homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) has emerged as a widely used index for estimating insulin resistance and beta-cell function in clinical practice and research, as demonstrated in numerous studies within the field of internal medicine.'
- 'Previous studies have suggested that extrusion tectonics play a significant role in shaping the geomorphology of Asian landscapes, as evidenced by the presence of characteristic landforms such as push-up mountains and peneplains (Smith et al., 2010; Jones and Brown, 2015).'
- 'DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers have been widely used as genetic markers in various fields of genetics, as reported in numerous studies.'
|
| Providing background information: reference to the purpose of the study | - 'This study aimed to investigate the effect of Pravastatin on coronary events in patients with average cholesterol levels, as previous research has shown conflicting results in this population.'
- "The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between teachers' self-regulation and classroom management, specifically focusing on assessment and intervention strategies."
- 'This study aims to address the challenge of object detection and semantic segmentation in images by proposing a deep learning model with rich feature hierarchies.'
|
| Reference to previous research: important studies | - 'This study builds upon previous research, specifically the works of Guan et al. (2020) and Lavezzo et al. (2020), which have provided valuable insights into the early dynamics and transmission patterns of COVID-19 in China and Europe, respectively.'
- "Previous studies have explored deep convolutional neural networks for pixel-wise image segmentation, but SegNet introduces an encoder-decoder architecture with an efficient encoder and a decoder that utilizes the encoder's features."
- 'Previous studies have employed mathematical models to analyze genetic variation using restriction endonucleases, such as the one by Smith and Jones (1990) that identified key factors influencing restriction site distribution.'
|
| Referring back to the purpose of the paper or study | - "Despite the significant impact of COVID-19 on Italy's healthcare system and economy, further investigation is required to fully comprehend the long-term consequences of the outbreak on Italian society."
- "SegNet's encoder-decoder architecture, based on deep convolutional neural networks, sets a new standard for real-time semantic segmentation in images."
- 'The mathematical model proposed in this study provides a novel approach for analyzing genetic variation based on the distribution of restriction endonuclease sites.'
|
| Referring back to the research aims or procedures | - 'The study enrolled patients with a recent myocardial infarction and an average cholesterol level, who were then randomly assigned to receive either pravastatin or placebo.'
- 'The study employed a mixed-methods design, with both quantitative and qualitative data collected through self-report questionnaires and interviews, respectively.'
- 'The proposed method utilizes a deep convolutional neural network to extract rich features from input images, which are then used for both object detection and semantic segmentation tasks.'
|
| Referring to a single investigation in the past: investigation prominent | - 'In the past, the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) was introduced as a valuable tool for assessing insulin resistance and beta-cell function in internal medicine, using fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations as parameters.'
- 'The authors of this study build upon the work of previous researchers who investigated extrusion tectonics using plasticine, providing new insights into the propagation of these features in Asia.'
- 'In a groundbreaking study published in 1990, Kawasaki and Todorov et al. identified over 100 DNA polymorphisms using arbitrary primers, paving the way for their application as valuable genetic markers in the field of genetics.'
|
| Referring to a single investigation in the past: researcher prominent | - 'The study conducted by Fujita et al. (2002) investigated the effect of Pravastatin on coronary events in internal medicine patients with average cholesterol levels.'
- 'The study conducted by Brown and Green (2012) investigated the relationship between self-regulation skills and academic performance in elementary school students.'
- 'The authors of this paper propose a new method for object detection and semantic segmentation using rich feature hierarchies, building upon the work of Felzenszwalb et al. (2010) and Hariharan et al. (2011).'
|
| Referring to another writer’s idea(s) or position | - "Despite the argument by some scholars (e.g., Rizzo, 2020) that Italy's early response to COVID-19 was effective, this paper aims to challenge that perspective by examining the actual impact of the government's actions."
- "The encoder-decoder architecture proposed by Chollet et al. (2016) in U-Net was an inspiration for the design of SegNet's architecture."
- 'The authors of this study build upon the work of earlier researchers (Botstein and Riggs, 1980) who first utilized restriction endonucleases for mapping genetic markers.'
|
| Referring to data in a table or chart | - 'The meta-analysis of 13 studies, as displayed in Table 2, revealed a significant reduction in the risk of recurrent stroke with the combination therapy of aspirin and clopidogrel (RR: 0.85, 95% CI: 0.78-0.93, p < 0.001).'
- 'Table 1 displays the percentage change in bone density for Il-6 deficient and wild type mice after estrogen depletion.'
- 'Table 1 summarizes the top-1 and top-5 accuracy rates of various deep neural networks, including our proposed rectified linear unit (ReLU) networks.'
|
| Referring to important texts in the area of interest | - 'The UKPDS 35 study (1998) is a seminal work in the field of internal medicine, demonstrating a significant association between elevated glycaemia and both macrovascular and microvascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.'
- 'In the field of artificial intelligence, unpaired image-to-image translation is a challenging problem that has gained significant attention, and Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks (CycleGAN) have emerged as a popular solution.'
- 'The neutral mutation hypothesis, first proposed by Kimura (1968), states that most genetic variation arises from random, selectively neutral mutations. This hypothesis has been extensively tested using various statistical methods, one of which is the one proposed by Tajima (1989) and Fu and Li (1993), as discussed in the current paper.'
|
| Referring to previous work to establish what is already known | - 'Previous studies have demonstrated that statins, including pravastatin, can reduce the risk of coronary events in patients with elevated cholesterol levels. However, the efficacy of pravastatin in patients with average cholesterol levels is less clear.'
- 'Previous research has shown that self-regulation skills are crucial for academic success and social-emotional development in students (Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005)'
- 'Prior works on object detection and semantic segmentation have primarily focused on using hand-crafted features or deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs), but our approach utilizes rich feature hierarchies derived from both sources to achieve improved accuracy.'
|
| Referring to secondary sources | - 'Several previous studies, as summarized in our systematic review, have investigated the use of dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel for secondary prevention after stroke or transient ischemic attack.'
- 'According to a study by Kato et al. (2001), Interleukin-6 plays a crucial role in estrogen-induced bone loss in mice.'
- 'The authors build upon previous work in rectified linear units (ReLUs) by He et al. (2015) and explore their potential in achieving superior performance on large-scale image classification tasks.'
|
| Referring to the literature to justify a method or approach | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) index, derived from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, has been widely used to estimate insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function in internal medicine, as supported by numerous studies.'
- 'To validate our experimental results, we compared them with previous studies on propagating extrusion tectonics using similar materials, such as those reported by Smith et al. (2015) and Jones and Brown (2018).'
- 'According to previous studies, the use of arbitrary primers for PCR amplification of DNA polymorphisms has been shown to be an effective approach for generating genetic markers in various organisms.'
|
| Reporting positive and negative reactions | - 'The study reported that each 1 mmol/L increase in HbA1c was associated with a 25% increased risk of microvascular complications and a 16% increased risk of macrovascular complications in patients with type 2 diabetes.'
- 'The qualitative results demonstrate that our proposed method outperforms the baseline in preserving fine details and textures, while quantitative evaluations using the Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) and Structural Similarity Index Measure (SSIM) metrics show statistically significant improvements.'
- 'The test statistics from our model failed to reject the neutral mutation hypothesis at the 5% significance level for all tested genes.'
|
| Restating a result or one of several results | - 'In this long-term observational study, the UKPDS 35 findings revealed that each 1 mmol/L increase in glycaemia was associated with a 14% higher risk of macrovascular events and a 22% higher risk of microvascular complications in individuals with type 2 diabetes.'
- 'The proposed Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks (CCANs) achieved state-of-the-art performance in unpaired image-to-image translation tasks, as demonstrated by quantitative evaluations and visual comparisons with other methods.'
- "The Tajima's D statistic, a measure of selection, was found to be significantly negative in the studied population, suggesting the presence of balancing selection or positive selection."
|
| Setting out the research questions or hypotheses | - 'This prospective observational study aimed to investigate the association between glycaemia levels and the risk of developing macrovascular and microvascular complications in individuals with type 2 diabetes, as previously identified in the UKPDS 35 study.'
- 'In this paper, we propose the use of cycle-consistent adversarial networks for unpaired image-to-image translation, aiming to address the challenge of translating images from different domains without corresponding pairs.'
- 'The aim of this study is to test the neutral mutation hypothesis in a human DNA sequence using a newly developed statistical method.'
|
| Some ways of introducing quotations | - "This paper explores the impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on Italy's healthcare system, as evidenced in official statistics and reports from healthcare professionals."
- 'SegNet introduces an encoder-decoder architecture, using a deep convolutional network to simultaneously produce high-quality semantic segmentation and efficient mask generation.'
- 'This study proposes a mathematical model to quantify genetic variation using the sites recognized by restriction endonucleases.'
|
| Stating a negative result | - 'Despite having average cholesterol levels, patients treated with Pravastatin did not experience a significant reduction in coronary events compared to the placebo group.'
- 'Despite implementing self-regulation strategies, no significant improvement was observed in the academic performance of the intervention group compared to the control group.'
- 'Despite the use of rich feature hierarchies, the proposed method failed to outperform the state-of-the-art object detection algorithm on certain challenging datasets.'
|
| Stating a positive result | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA-IR) index, calculated from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, reveals a significant insulin resistance in the study group compared to the control group (HOMA-IR: 3.5 ± 1.2 vs. 1.8 ± 0.6, p < 0.001).'
- 'Through our experiments with plasticine, we observed the formation of extrusion folds with distinct characteristics, providing new insights into the propagation of extrusion tectonics in Asia.'
- 'The use of arbitrary primers to amplify DNA polymorphisms has proven to be an effective method for generating genetic markers in various organisms.'
|
| Stating purpose of the current research with reference to gaps or issues in the literature | - 'This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) in estimating insulin resistance and beta-cell function in internal medicine patients, addressing the need for a simple and widely applicable method for diagnosing and monitoring these conditions.'
- 'This research seeks to expand our understanding of extrusion tectonics in Asia by exploring unexplored territories in the literature through the conduction of straightforward experiments using plasticine.'
- 'This research explores the utility of DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers as valuable genetic markers, building upon existing knowledge in the field of genetics.'
|
| Stating the aims of the current research (note frequent use of past tense) | - 'This study aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on Italy, focusing on the early stages of the outbreak and the subsequent government response.'
- 'In this paper, we propose SegNet, a deep convolutional encoder-decoder architecture for real-time image segmentation.'
- 'This study aims to develop a mathematical model for analyzing genetic variation using restriction endonucleases.'
|
| Stating the focus, aim, or argument of a short paper | - 'This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the efficacy and safety of dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel in the secondary prevention of stroke and transient ischemic attack in internal medicine.'
- 'This study investigates the role of Interleukin-6 (IL-6) in estrogen-induced bone loss using IL-6 deficient mice as a model.'
- 'This paper focuses on rectifier networks, specifically rectified linear unit (ReLU) activations, and their ability to surpass human-level performance on the ImageNet classification task.'
|
| Stating the purpose of the thesis, dissertation, or research article (note use of present tense) | - 'This study investigates the impact of Pravastatin on reducing coronary events in internal medicine patients with average cholesterol levels after a myocardial infarction.'
- "This paper explores the role of self-regulation in the classroom setting and proposes assessment and intervention strategies to enhance students' self-regulatory skills."
- 'This paper proposes the use of rich feature hierarchies for achieving accurate object detection and semantic segmentation in the field of artificial intelligence.'
|
| Stating what is currently known about the topic | - 'Type 2 diabetes is characterized by impaired glucose metabolism, and elevated glycaemia is a well-established risk factor for both macrovascular and microvascular complications (UKPDS 1998)'
- 'Artificial intelligence research in image-to-image translation has primarily focused on paired data (Ledig et al., 2016), but unpaired data translation remains an open research question.'
- 'The neutral mutation hypothesis suggests that most genetic variation in a population arises from random, selectively neutral mutations (Kimura, 1983).'
|
| Suggesting general hypotheses | - 'Despite having average cholesterol levels, patients who received Pravastatin experienced a significant reduction in coronary events, suggesting a potential role for statins in preventing cardiovascular events beyond cholesterol level management in internal medicine.'
- 'The results suggest that self-regulatory skills, particularly in the area of attention, significantly impact academic performance in elementary school students.'
- 'The proposed rich feature hierarchies significantly improve the accuracy of object detection and semantic segmentation tasks in artificial intelligence systems, suggesting that the use of multi-level representations can effectively capture complex visual patterns.'
|
| Suggesting implications for what is already known | - 'Despite average cholesterol levels, patients treated with Pravastatin experienced a significant reduction in coronary events, implying that statin therapy may benefit a broader range of cardiovascular patients beyond those with hypercholesterolemia.'
- 'The proposed rich feature hierarchies significantly improve the performance of object detection and semantic segmentation algorithms in artificial intelligence systems, suggesting implications for advancing the state-of-the-art in computer vision tasks.'
- 'The discovery of lin-4 encoding small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14 in C. elegans adds to our understanding of the role of RNA interference in heterochronic gene expression in this model organism.'
|
| Suggestions for future work | - 'Further studies are needed to investigate the optimal duration of dual antiplatelet therapy in secondary prevention of stroke and transient ischemic attack, as well as the role of individual patient characteristics in determining the most effective treatment regimen.'
- 'Further studies are needed to investigate the potential role of IL-6 signaling in the prevention of bone loss in postmenopausal women.'
- 'The authors suggest that exploring the application of their proposed rectifier units in other deep learning architectures and datasets could lead to further improvements in image classification performance.'
|
| Summarising the literature review | - 'Despite the widespread use of pravastatin in post-myocardial infarction patients with average cholesterol levels, the literature regarding its impact on coronary events remains inconclusive.'
- 'Despite the growing body of research on self-regulation in education, there is a need for more effective assessment and intervention strategies to support students in developing these essential skills.'
- 'Previous works in object detection and semantic segmentation have primarily focused on using hand-crafted features or shallow convolutional neural networks, while this study proposes the use of rich feature hierarchies for improved accuracy.'
|
| Summarising the main research findings | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) index, calculated from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, provides a reliable estimate of insulin sensitivity and β-cell function in internal medicine patients.'
- 'This study demonstrates that DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers can effectively serve as genetic markers in the field of genetics.'
- 'This review highlights the importance of considering both diet and physiology when interpreting stable isotope data to accurately estimate trophic position in ecological systems.'
|
| Summarising the results section | - 'The study found that the number of COVID-19 cases and deaths in Italy significantly increased during the lockdown period, with the northern regions being the most affected.'
- 'SegNet achieved state-of-the-art performance in semantic segmentation tasks, outperforming other methods by a significant margin, as evidenced by a mean intersection over union (IoU) score of 75.5% on the PASCAL VOC 2012 dataset.'
- 'The mathematical model identified 10 restriction endonucleases that effectively distinguish between 90% of the genetic sequences in the dataset, providing a potential tool for genetic variation analysis.'
|
| Summarising the studies reviewed | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) has emerged as a valuable tool for assessing insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function in internal medicine, as evidenced by numerous studies reviewed in this paper'
- 'The authors of the reviewed studies propose that extrusion tectonics, a process characterized by the large-scale deformation of rocks under high confining pressures, has played a significant role in shaping the geomorphology of various regions in Asia (Boullier et al., 2008; Tikoff et al., 2012).'
- 'Several studies have demonstrated the utility of amplifying DNA polymorphisms using arbitrary primers as effective genetic markers in the field of genetics.'
|
| Surveys and interviews: Introducing excerpts from interview data | - 'Amongst the 5,385 participants with type 2 diabetes in this study, those with higher glycaemia levels were more likely to develop macrovascular and microvascular complications, as evidenced by a significant association in the multivariable analysis.'
- "The authors of 'Unpaired Image-to-Image Translation Using Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks' reported achieving state-of-the-art results in image translation tasks without requiring paired training data, using their proposed cycle-consistent adversarial networks."
- 'The statistical method identified 15 polymorphic sites, of which 13 were consistent with neutral mutation.'
|
| Surveys and interviews: Reporting participants’ views | - 'In a qualitative analysis of patient interviews, some participants reported a preference for the combination of aspirin and clopidogrel over monotherapy for stroke prevention due to perceived additive benefits.'
- 'Estrogen-deficient female interleukin-6 (IL-6) knockout mice exhibited significantly less bone loss compared to wild-type mice, as evidenced by a decrease in bone resorption markers in serum.'
- 'The researchers interviewed leading experts in the field of artificial intelligence and found that many believed the use of deep rectifiers was a significant breakthrough in achieving human-level performance on image classification tasks.'
|
| Surveys and interviews: Reporting proportions | - 'The homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) index, calculated from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, was used to assess insulin resistance and beta-cell function in this study.'
- 'The experiments with plasticine revealed that 70% of the extrusion directions followed a northeastern trend in Asia.'
- 'The study identified 15 polymorphic loci, each with a frequency greater than 10%, making them potential valuable genetic markers in the field of genetics.'
|
| Surveys and interviews: Reporting response rates | - 'The response rate for the online survey was 45.3%, while the face-to-face interview response rate was 61.7%.'
- 'SegNet achieved a mean Intersection over Union (IoU) score of 75.4% on the PASCAL VOC 2012 dataset, outperforming other state-of-the-art methods in both speed and accuracy.'
- 'The study achieved a response rate of 85% among the 200 selected individuals for genetic analysis using restriction endonucleases.'
|
| Surveys and interviews: Reporting themes | - 'In interviews with patients who experienced a reduction in coronary events after Pravastatin treatment, themes included improved energy levels and increased confidence in managing their heart health.'
- 'The surveys and interviews conducted among teachers revealed that self-regulation strategies, such as setting goals and self-monitoring, were commonly used in their classrooms.'
- 'The authors conducted surveys and interviews with experts in the field of artificial intelligence to gain insights into the current challenges and future directions of object detection and semantic segmentation.'
|
| Synthesising sources: contrasting evidence or ideas | - 'Despite the findings of this study showing a reduction in coronary events with Pravastatin use in patients with average cholesterol levels, contrasting evidence exists suggesting no significant benefit in similar patient populations (Miller et al., 2018).'
- 'Despite the consensus on the importance of self-regulation in academic success, there is ongoing debate regarding the most effective assessment and intervention strategies (Baker & Grant, 2014; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005).'
- 'Despite the success of deep learning models in object detection and semantic segmentation tasks, there is ongoing debate regarding the optimal design of feature hierarchies for these tasks. Some researchers argue for the use of shallow hierarchies with rich features, while others advocate for deep hierarchies with progressively abstract features.'
|
| Synthesising sources: supporting evidence or ideas | - 'The Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) calculates insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, providing valuable information for the assessment and management of internal medicine conditions such as type 2 diabetes.'
- 'The authors of this study conducted experiments using plasticine to simulate the extrusion tectonics process, providing new insights into its propagation in Asia.'
- 'Arbitrary primer-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques have been widely used to amplify DNA polymorphisms, providing valuable genetic markers in various fields of research, including human genetics.'
|
| Transition: moving to the next result | - 'In the UKPDS 35 study, every 1 mmol/L increase in HbA1c was associated with a 25% and 18% increased risk of myocardial infarction and microvascular complications, respectively, in patients with type 2 diabetes.'
- 'The proposed Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Networks model achieved state-of-the-art performance in unpaired image-to-image translation tasks, as demonstrated by quantitative evaluations using metrics such as Structural Similarity Index (SSIM) and Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).'
- 'The test statistic, T, was calculated based on the number of transitions and transversions in the aligned DNA sequences, with a significant value indicating deviation from neutral mutation.'
|
## Evaluation
### Metrics
| Label | Accuracy |
|:--------|:---------|
| **all** | 0.4757 |
## Uses
### Direct Use for Inference
First install the SetFit library:
```bash
pip install setfit
```
Then you can load this model and run inference.
```python
from setfit import SetFitModel
# Download from the 🤗 Hub
model = SetFitModel.from_pretrained("Corran/SciGenSetfit24")
# Run inference
preds = model("The model-based clustering algorithm, specifically the Gaussian Mixture Model, effectively identified distinct clusters in the data with high accuracy.")
```
## Training Details
### Training Set Metrics
| Training set | Min | Median | Max |
|:-------------|:----|:--------|:----|
| Word count | 6 | 28.4192 | 62 |
| Label | Training Sample Count |
|:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|:----------------------|
| Acknowledging limitation(s) whilst stating a finding or contribution | 50 |
| Advising cautious interpretation of the findings | 50 |
| Commenting on the findings | 50 |
| Commenting on the strengths of the current study | 50 |
| Comparing the result: contradicting previous findings | 50 |
| Comparing the result: supporting previous findings | 50 |
| Contrasting sources with ‘however’ for emphasis | 50 |
| Describing previously used methods | 50 |
| Describing questionnaire design | 50 |
| Describing the characteristics of the participants | 50 |
| Describing the limitations of the current study | 50 |
| Describing the process: adverbs of manner | 50 |
| Describing the process: expressing purpose with for | 50 |
| Describing the process: infinitive of purpose | 50 |
| Describing the process: sequence words | 50 |
| Describing the process: statistical procedures | 50 |
| Describing the process: typical verbs in the passive form | 50 |
| Describing the process: using + instrument | 50 |
| Describing the research design and the methods used | 50 |
| Describing what other writers do in their published work | 50 |
| Detailing specific limitations | 50 |
| Establishing the importance of the topic for the discipline | 50 |
| Establishing the importance of the topic for the discipline: time frame given | 50 |
| Establishing the importance of the topic for the world or society | 50 |
| Establishing the importance of the topic for the world or society: time frame given | 50 |
| Establising the importance of the topic as a problem to be addressed | 50 |
| Explaining keywords (also refer to Defining Terms) | 50 |
| Explaining the provenance of articles for review | 50 |
| Explaining the provenance of the participants | 50 |
| Explaining the significance of the current study | 50 |
| Explaining the significance of the findings or contribution of the study | 50 |
| General comments on the relevant literature | 50 |
| General reference to previous research or scholarship: highlighting negative outcomes | 50 |
| Giving reasons for personal interest in the research (sometimes found in the humanities, and the applied human sciences) | 50 |
| Giving reasons why a particular method was adopted | 50 |
| Giving reasons why a particular method was rejected | 50 |
| Highlighting inadequacies or weaknesses of previous studies (also refer to Being Critical) | 50 |
| Highlighting interesting or surprising results | 50 |
| Highlighting significant data in a table or chart | 50 |
| Identifying a controversy within the field of study | 50 |
| Identifying a knowledge gap in the field of study | 50 |
| Implications and/or recommendations for practice or policy | 50 |
| Indicating an expected outcome | 50 |
| Indicating an unexpected outcome | 50 |
| Indicating criteria for selection or inclusion in the study | 50 |
| Indicating methodological problems or limitations | 50 |
| Indicating missing, weak, or contradictory evidence | 50 |
| Indicating the methodology for the current research | 50 |
| Indicating the use of an established method | 50 |
| Introducing the limitations of the current study | 50 |
| Making recommendations for further research work | 50 |
| Noting implications of the findings | 50 |
| Noting the lack of or paucity of previous research | 50 |
| Offering an explanation for the findings | 50 |
| Outlining the structure of a short paper | 50 |
| Outlining the structure of a thesis or dissertation | 50 |
| Pointing out interesting or important findings | 50 |
| Previewing a chapter | 50 |
| Previous research: A historic perspective | 50 |
| Previous research: Approaches taken | 50 |
| Previous research: What has been established or proposed | 50 |
| Previous research: area investigated as the sentence object | 50 |
| Previous research: area investigated as the sentence subject | 50 |
| Previous research: highlighting negative outcomes | 50 |
| Providing background information: reference to the literature | 50 |
| Providing background information: reference to the purpose of the study | 50 |
| Reference to previous research: important studies | 50 |
| Referring back to the purpose of the paper or study | 50 |
| Referring back to the research aims or procedures | 50 |
| Referring to a single investigation in the past: investigation prominent | 50 |
| Referring to a single investigation in the past: researcher prominent | 50 |
| Referring to another writer’s idea(s) or position | 50 |
| Referring to data in a table or chart | 50 |
| Referring to important texts in the area of interest | 50 |
| Referring to previous work to establish what is already known | 50 |
| Referring to secondary sources | 50 |
| Referring to the literature to justify a method or approach | 50 |
| Reporting positive and negative reactions | 50 |
| Restating a result or one of several results | 50 |
| Setting out the research questions or hypotheses | 50 |
| Some ways of introducing quotations | 50 |
| Stating a negative result | 50 |
| Stating a positive result | 50 |
| Stating purpose of the current research with reference to gaps or issues in the literature | 50 |
| Stating the aims of the current research (note frequent use of past tense) | 50 |
| Stating the focus, aim, or argument of a short paper | 50 |
| Stating the purpose of the thesis, dissertation, or research article (note use of present tense) | 50 |
| Stating what is currently known about the topic | 50 |
| Suggesting general hypotheses | 50 |
| Suggesting implications for what is already known | 50 |
| Suggestions for future work | 50 |
| Summarising the literature review | 50 |
| Summarising the main research findings | 50 |
| Summarising the results section | 50 |
| Summarising the studies reviewed | 50 |
| Surveys and interviews: Introducing excerpts from interview data | 50 |
| Surveys and interviews: Reporting participants’ views | 50 |
| Surveys and interviews: Reporting proportions | 50 |
| Surveys and interviews: Reporting response rates | 50 |
| Surveys and interviews: Reporting themes | 50 |
| Synthesising sources: contrasting evidence or ideas | 50 |
| Synthesising sources: supporting evidence or ideas | 50 |
| Transition: moving to the next result | 50 |
### Training Hyperparameters
- batch_size: (300, 300)
- num_epochs: (1, 1)
- max_steps: -1
- sampling_strategy: oversampling
- num_iterations: 5
- body_learning_rate: (2e-05, 1e-05)
- head_learning_rate: 0.01
- loss: CosineSimilarityLoss
- distance_metric: cosine_distance
- margin: 0.25
- end_to_end: False
- use_amp: False
- warmup_proportion: 0.1
- seed: 42
- eval_max_steps: -1
- load_best_model_at_end: False
### Training Results
| Epoch | Step | Training Loss | Validation Loss |
|:------:|:----:|:-------------:|:---------------:|
| 0.0058 | 1 | 0.4364 | - |
| 0.2907 | 50 | 0.1895 | - |
| 0.5814 | 100 | 0.1527 | - |
| 0.8721 | 150 | 0.139 | - |
### Framework Versions
- Python: 3.10.12
- SetFit: 1.0.3
- Sentence Transformers: 3.1.1
- Transformers: 4.39.0
- PyTorch: 2.5.1+cu121
- Datasets: 3.1.0
- Tokenizers: 0.15.2
## Citation
### BibTeX
```bibtex
@article{https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2209.11055,
doi = {10.48550/ARXIV.2209.11055},
url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2209.11055},
author = {Tunstall, Lewis and Reimers, Nils and Jo, Unso Eun Seo and Bates, Luke and Korat, Daniel and Wasserblat, Moshe and Pereg, Oren},
keywords = {Computation and Language (cs.CL), FOS: Computer and information sciences, FOS: Computer and information sciences},
title = {Efficient Few-Shot Learning Without Prompts},
publisher = {arXiv},
year = {2022},
copyright = {Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International}
}
```