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{"metadata":{"id":"002b6852ee52a6b7998d6e60a4e38491","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5bb69237-5ba8-4f1e-ae7a-ba3294499928/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"El aporte de los botánicos suizos","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Valle del General y region Brunca (1893): Phaseolus lunatus (silv.) y P. vulgaris (cult.)"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• \"cubá\" (1908): Phaseolus coccineus L., semillas comestibles, también silvestre"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Phaseolus multiflorus (1908): a menudo en los jardines, planta de adorno"},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• \"frijolillo\" (1908): Phaseolus lunatus L., se encuentra silvestre . . . cultivado algunas veces otros Phaseoli: P. albescens (W México), P. debouckii (SW Ecuador, NW Perú), P. persistentus (C Guatemala) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Los Phaseoli presentes en Costa Rica Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC) Ministerio de Ambiente, Energía y Telecomunicaciones de Costa Rica Resultados (1): Resultados (1): Phaseolus costaricensis Número de poblaciones encontradas y muestreadas en banco de germoplasma (BG) Phaseolus costaricensis Número de poblaciones encontradas y muestreadas en banco de germoplasma (BG) Colecta\\enfermedad Especies No. antes 1987 No. en 1997 moho blanco (1-9) roya (1-6) coccineus 17 17 P. costaricensis Freytag & ▪ descrita como nueva mancha parda bacteriana BCMV No. en 2018 añublo de halo No. en 2007 añublo común (1-9) BG (1-6) (1-6) 17 17 17 Colecta\\enfermedad Especies No. antes 1987 No. en 1997 moho blanco (1-9) roya (1-6) coccineus 17 17P. costaricensis Freytag & ▪ descrita como nueva mancha parda bacteriana BCMV No. en 2018 añublo de halo No. en 2007 añublo común (1-9) BG (1-6) (1-6) 17 17 17 #2119, G40604 costaricensis --- 5.6 3.4 32 6.5 43 5.2 especie en 1996 3.0 58 22 AR #2119, G40604 costaricensis---5.63.4 326.5435.2especie en 1996 3.0 58 22AR #2095, G40804 dumosus #2116, G40806 vulgaris 8 0 4.0 6.5 3.6 15 3.4 4 3.9 4.1 20 23 1.9 3.5 ▪ demostrada como distinta 2.9 AR, R 20 28 a P. coccineus y cercana a 3.8 AR, R 45 41 #2095, G40804 dumosus #2116, G40806 vulgaris8 04.0 6.53.6 15 3.4 43.9 4.120 231.9 3.5▪ demostrada como distinta 2.9 AR, R 20 28 a P. coccineus y cercana a 3.8 AR, R 45 41 #3127, G40811 híbridos 0 8.0 3.0 2 4.5 4 4.3 5 3.2 5 AR #3127, G40811 híbridos08.03.0 24.544.353.25AR #3127, G40811A 6.5 total especies conocidas antes de 1987: 7, y en 2018: 15 3.0 4.2 3.4 P. vulgaris L. 3.6 AR #3127, G40811A6.5 total especies conocidas antes de 1987: 7, y en 2018: 15 3.0 4.2 3.4P. vulgaris L. 3.6AR #3127, G40811B 7.5 2.7 4.0 3.5 ▪ encontrado como silvestre 3.6 R #3127, G40811B7.52.74.03.5▪ encontrado como silvestre 3.6 R fuente: Schwartz et al. 2013 por primera vez en 1987 fuente: Schwartz et al. 2013por primera vez en 1987 vale la pena notar: Phaseolus vulgaris silvestre Característica R gorgojos Especie P. costaricensis proteína total altitud mínima 1,470 m (#2095) ▪ distribuido en 4 cuencas (Virilla, Alto Reventazón, Candelaria, Pirris) altitud máxima genes para Sequía QTLs para Rdto. 2,116 m (#3240) vale la pena notar: Phaseolus vulgaris silvestre Característica R gorgojos Especie P. costaricensisproteína total altitud mínima 1,470 m (#2095)▪ distribuido en 4 cuencas (Virilla, Alto Reventazón, Candelaria, Pirris) altitud máxima genes para Sequía QTLs para Rdto. 2,116 m (#3240) Material G12949, QUES P. vulgaris (silv.) C Morelos 1,006 m (#3337) C & W Durango 1,857 m (#3305) G24423 MaterialG12949, QUES P. vulgaris (silv.)C Morelos 1,006 m (#3337)C & W Durango 1,857 m (#3305)G24423 "}],"sieverID":"69ecfef7-1935-4aa3-8ed5-ea1e02754f0b","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"00bdc57594f13d7c82feba28ce276269","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/NTDL1L/QCQYNP"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"51647907-f3c8-46c4-95a0-dbbf8abd609c","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"00d8b56586ad3f610455f754c87a1f04","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a71a635b-99e1-46b6-aff3-c85e40c63161/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"ENACTS, Data Library, Maproom and GIS Training at Rwanda Meteorological Agency","keywords":["ENACTS Data Library, Maproom, and GIS training at Rwanda Meteorological Agency ENACTS","Data Library","Maprooms","GIS","capacity building"],"chapters":[{"head":"About the authors","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Program Description ENACTS Data (21-22 July)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The workshop began by with an exhaustive overview of the ENACTS daily, 10-day, and monthly rainfall and the 10-day and monthly temperature data for Rwanda. For this we used the Meteo Rwanda Data Library online mapping and data system. Next we discussed the concepts of climatologies and anomalies and how to calculate them using the ENACTS data. We demonstrated how to choose spatial and temporal domains in the data. Some simple statistical analyses were presented using the Data Library built-in tools. At the end of the 2 days, we examined the process of updating the ENACTS 10day rainfall monitoring data product in the Data Library and Climate Monitoring maproom."}]},{"head":"Maprooms (25-28 July)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This part of the workshop was devoted to understanding the ENACTS online maprooms and creating new datasets in the Meteo Rwanda Data Library. The maprooms are divided into 2 main sections."},{"index":2,"size":243,"text":"There is a Climate section and a Malaria Historical Analysis section. First we explored the Climate Analysis maprooms for daily, 10-day, and monthly ENACTS rainfall and temperature data. These maprooms present 30-year climatologies for rainfall and temperature. By selecting a point or administrative boundary on the map, one can also view anomalies for rainfall from 1981-2014 and anomalies for temperature from 1961-2014. It was important for the participants to become familiar with the various maproom controls for zooming in, selecting a point or administrative boundary for analysis, and for saving the map or time series in an acceptable graphics format. The Climate Monitoring maproom was reviewed to show the participants how to look at the most recent rainfall (10day, month, and season) and compare that to the climatology. We discussed usefulness of the ENACTS rainfall monitoring product for the agriculture and health sectors. In the Climate Forecast maprooms we examined the most recent seasonal forecast for Rwanda and the probabilities of the influence of the ENSO and Indian Ocean Dipole indices on the climate of Rwanda. In the Malaria Historical Analysis maprooms we looked at the Seasonal Climate Suitability for Malaria transmission in Rwanda. We also reviewed the 32-year 12-month Weighted Anomaly Standardization Precipitation index relative to a user-selected baseline period for different administrative boundaries in Rwanda. We discussed the usefulness of the results to determine whether climate may have played a role in the success or failure of a disease prevention campaign."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"We spent one day working with the open source Quantum GIS software to digitize seasonal forecasts for Rwanda. Then we demonstrated how to add GIS features to the Data Library and the maprooms. It was important for the participants to understand this so that they could continue to update their Data Library when new seasonal forecast are made and when administrative boundaries change."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Data Library system and backups (29 July)"},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"The last day of the workshop was devoted to Data Library and Maproom maintenance. We examined the critical software services needed for the Data Library system. We demonstrated how to make backups of the computer system and the data. We created and tested a duplicate Data Library and Maproom system on a separate computer for Meteo Rwanda internal access."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Meteo Rwanda has very good infrastructure for supporting the Data Library and ENACTS maprooms installed there. Online reliability is excellent. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" John del Coral is a Senior Staff Associate at the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), at Columbia University, focused on Data Library software, database management, GIS and semantic technology. Contact: [email protected] Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................... 8 Program Description ...................................................................................................... 8 ENACTS Data (21-22 July) .................................................................................................. 8 Maprooms (25-28 July) ......................................................................................................... 8 Data Library system and backups (29 July) .......................................................................... 9 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 9 Appendix 1. Participant List ........................................................................................ 11 Appendix 2. Training Program ...................................................................................a training visit by John del Corral to the Rwanda Meteorological Agency (Meteo Rwanda), 21-29 July 2016. The main objectives were to: (a) train Meteo Rwanda staff on ENACTS data, the Data Library software, Maprooms, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS); (b) install the ENACTS Daily rainfall dataset and Maproom. A secondary objective was to create a backup of the Data Library system for emergency recovery situations at Meteo Rwanda, and install a second Data Library with Maprooms for internal Meteo access. This will allow Meteo Rwanda staff to download data to their desktop or laptop, and to fulfil data requests by other ministries. Twelve individuals were involved in the training. Two were affiliated with CIAT-Rwanda, and 10 were representatives from Meteo Rwanda. "},{"text":" This makes Meteo Rwanda an excellent choice for supporting Climate Services for Rwanda. Interactions during the training visit suggest several recommendations. First, Meteo Rwanda is urged to actively update the ENACTS dekad rainfall for Climate Monitoring. It is currently 2.5 months behind the current dekad. It should be updated every 10 days. One problem is that the merging software for the ENACTS monitoring product is only installed on one computer. This prevents updating by multiple people (in case the designated person is not available, or too busy). Second, add the newly added Sector (subdivision of Districts) boundaries as selection choices in the Rwanda maproom. Third, I recommend that 4-5 top people from the training class of 12 receive follow-up training and assume active roles in supporting the Rwanda Data Library and Maproom. Fourth, review GeoClim software for Africa, and list strengths and weaknesses compared with the Rwanda Data Library and Maprooms. Fifth, install the Data Library Authorization service on the external access Data Library, so that users in other ministries and offices can have access to downloading the data. Finally, review the strengths and weaknesses of the Daily ENACTS rainfall data by comparing with station data. As of the training visit, Meteo Rwanda was not yet ready to approve use of the Daily ENACTS rainfall data. "}],"sieverID":"b43ab75a-78f6-4a61-9ed0-2d013999d0f0","abstract":"CCAFS Workshop Reports aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"01975f69962962a0eef08eaef196396d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bdf65f71-8967-4ec3-8927-97c7da2a20a6/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Study #2210 Contributing Projects: • P349 -Engagement with key stakeholders in design, implementation and evaluation of nutrition-sensitive agricultural policies • P347 -Evidence on enabling environments, effective decision making processes and impacts of nutrition-sensitive agricultural policies • P348 -Tools and methods to assess and promote enabling environments for nutrition-sensitive policies","keywords":["OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Reporting 2021 Evidences Description of activity / study: none Geographic scope: • Regional Region(s): <Not Defined> Comments: Burkina Faso","Ghana","Nigeria","and Senegal are focal countries for Transform Nutrition -West Africa"],"chapters":[{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Recognizing the wide influence of Transform Nutrition, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) invested $4 million to launch the three-and-a-half-year Transform Nutrition-West Africa regional initiative for nutrition knowledge generation and mobilization across the region. The significant outputs from the program were many and effectively disseminated through channels like the Transform web site [1], thematic summaries in journal articles, special issues [2], synthesis pieces [3], and well-attended regional dissemination events [4,5]. Targeted communication and dissemination ensured that these outputs reached the right users in specific countries. Country-specific changes that were achieved through Transform are documented elsewhere."}]},{"head":"The","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"The consortium recognized there was more work that could be done. Unanswered questions remained on how political commitment can be turned into institutional commitment and then how it can be better monitored (unpublished donor report). They recognized more could be done to address the challenges of working across sectors and achieving coherence from national to community levels (unpublished donor report). These ideas, backed by the body of evidence and management track record, were compelling reasons to invest in a continuation of this approach taking a regional focus. In 2017, BMGF awarded IFPRI $4 million to lead Transform Nutrition West Africa (2017-2021). The aims are similar; however, the overall approach is guided by the context in West Africa with country level focus on Nigeria, Senegal, Ghana, and Burkina Faso. This case study describes how investors have used A4NH evidence, tools, and methods to inform their decisions and investment strategies that guide and support nutrition-sensitive agricultural programming and nutrition-sensitive policies, which is one of FP4's stated outcomes for 2022."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Transform Nutrition research program consortium (Transform) was formed of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (lead organization), the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, the Institute of Development Studies the Public Health Foundation of India, and Save the Children, UK. It was funded by the UK Department for International Development from 2011 to 2017. Transform worked to strengthen the content and use of nutrition-relevant evidence to accelerate undernutrition reduction in the two highest burden regions of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, with a special focus on three high-burden countries (India, Bangladesh and Ethiopia), the East African region (especially Kenya) and the wider global context. "}],"sieverID":"ebafff4e-088c-476d-9004-4bf3c310750a","abstract":"Recognizing the wide influence of Transform Nutrition, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation invested $4 million to launch the three-and-a-half-year Transform Nutrition West Africa initiative for nutrition knowledge generation and mobilization across the region Outcome story for communications use: 1."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"01c3943eedfff981c6f2aba73c59ce14","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fd528a42-2a66-4bfa-b446-2dce16de1646/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary For more information on the IBLI project, visit http://livestockinsurance.wordpress.com. Index Area North Horr Index AreaNorth Horr Year 2012 Year2012 Season LRLD SeasonLRLD Date of the most recent data 13-28 Sep 2012 Date of the most recent data13-28 Sep 2012 Predicted Livestock Mortality 0.04 Predicted Livestock Mortality0.04 Czndvi_pre 14.50 Czndvi_pre14.50 Czndvi_pos 14.54 Czndvi_pos14.54 CNzndvi 2.18 CNzndvi2.18 CPzndvi 1.60 CPzndvi1.60 Figure 1. ZNDVI in North Horr from October 2011 to September 2012 Figure 1. ZNDVI in North Horr from October 2011 to September 2012 "}],"sieverID":"802370eb-157c-401b-ab19-63b400914e31","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"023dcf7df9ef70e380e693930e88cddd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Water_Issue_Briefs/PDF/Water_Issue_Brief_1.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":["wetlands / ecosystems / farming / productivity Carolyn Fry","Editing: Mahen Chandrasoma","Layout: Nimal Attanayake"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"In many developing countries wetland agriculture is an important ecosystem service which is often overlooked and undervalued as a pathway out of poverty."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Management approaches that incorporate appropriate sustainable water and agricultural practices can result in a net increase in the overall productivity of wetlands and their long-term economic value."}]},{"head":"Using wetlands sustainably","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"I","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The context","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Wetlands cover at least 6% of the Earth. They contribute to the livelihoods of millions of people in Africa and Asia and are increasingly being used for agriculture as populations rise and upland areas become degraded. Despite the importance of wetlands in supporting rural communities, governments often view them as underexploited resources of water, land and trees or wastelands that hinder development. As a result, many are being lost. Those wetlands that are protected tend to be designated as 'nature sanctuaries', rather than valuable ecosystems that can also be used sustainably by communities. \"There is not enough information on how wetlands can be used in a sustainable way for agriculture,\" explains Matthew McCartney, Hydrologist, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), East Africa and Nile Basin office."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Wetlands provide a diverse range of valuable services. More than three billion people (around half the world's population) obtain their basic water needs from inland freshwater wetlands. A similar number of people rely on rice as their staple food, a crop grown largely in natural and artificial wetlands. In some parts of the world, such as the Kilombero Wetland in Tanzania, almost the entire local population relies on wetland cultivation for their livelihoods. Fisheries are also an extremely important source of protein and income in many wetlands. In addition to food, wetlands supply fiber, fuel and medicinal plants. They also help to reduce the damaging impact of floods, control pollution and regulate the climate."}]},{"head":"IWMI's position on wetlands","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"IWMI believes that wetland agriculture can sustain livelihoods and reduce poverty. Achieving this requires scientific and social knowledge of wetland functions, the way wetlands are used by local communities, and the positive and negative impacts of wetland agriculture. In 2007, IWMI initiated a Global Wetland Inventory and Mapping programme which has contributed to international efforts to map and characterize wetlands. This work is now being developed further through participation in the wetlands theme of the Japanese Aerospace Exploration"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The wetlands surrounding Lake Chilwa in Malawi are the basis of livelihoods for over a million people who use the wetlands for farming and fishing (Source: Rebelo 2009 2 )."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Lakes and wetlands cover a large portion of the world's surface and support the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people (Source: Lehner and Döll 2004 1 )."}]},{"head":"WATERISSUE","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Agency's (JAXA) Kyoto and Carbon Initiative, which aims to provide information on wetlands of international importance. IWMI is also helping to establish a Global Wetlands Observing System."}]},{"head":"Actions needed","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"There are at least 131 million hectares of wetlands in Africa, and 286 million hectares in Asia. Although only a small portion of these wetlands are suitable for agriculture, the goods and services they produce and the livelihoods they support are significant. While unmanaged agriculture has the potential to destroy wetland ecosystems, appropriate small-scale farming can be sustainable, with negligible impacts on ecosystem services. IWMI scientists have been assessing the potential of wetlands to support agriculture by analyzing biophysical and socioeconomic aspects of wetland use. Studies clearly show the large contribution wetland agriculture makes to livelihoods and the potential to lift households out of poverty in both Africa and Asia. For example, cultivation in the 1 square kilometer (km 2 ) GaMampa Wetland in South Africa yields an estimated annual gross value of US$36,788 to people in surrounding communities. However, when a wetland is used for agriculture, there are trade-offs with other ecosystem services. It is important that these trade-offs are properly weighed against the benefits derived from agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"Further research in wetland ecosystems has focused on analyzing the links between wetlands and rural livelihoods. For example, the 2,248 km 2 Lake Chilwa Wetland in Malawi is an important source of livelihoods for over 77,000 people, while some three million people in Cambodia depend on the Tonle Sap Wetland area for their well-being. However, many of the world's wetlands are threatened. Degradation of wetlands and the consequent loss of ecosystem services often increase poverty. In sub-Saharan Africa, of 143 sites listed, by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, as Wetlands of International Importance, 93% support some form of fisheries or agricultural activity and 71% are threatened by those same activities. Finding ways to effectively manage wetlands to support essential ecosystem services and local livelihoods is an important goal for the future. \"It's not practical to have a detailed management plan for every wetland, but you can educate people so they value wetlands and manage them in a way that balances the needs of the environment and agriculture,\" says McCartney."}]},{"head":"How IWMI can help","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. Since 2005, IWMI has been one of five International Organization Partners (IOPs) of the Convention, with representation on its Science and Technical Review Panel. Through this role IWMI is able to highlight issues of importance and increase the Convention's focus on the links between wetlands, livelihoods, poverty and agriculture. At the 2008 Convention of Parties, IWMI scientists contributed directly to a number of resolutions including those relating to the links between wetlands and human health, biofuels, poverty reduction, biogeographic regionalization and biodiversity in rice paddies. These resolutions have the potential to influence policies and strategies implemented in the 159 signatory countries."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"0cc31df2-f162-4ec6-a742-5f4ec27df140","abstract":"Putting Research Knowledge into Action"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"028db540fdd3842be819fa5e38fd5a35","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.akademiya2063.org/uploads/Covid-19-Bulletin-011.pdf"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"This","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"bulletin presents an overview of maize grain price dynamics in Malawi with the view of investigating whether the incidence of COVID-19 and the restrictions on domestic and international travels that were announced by the Government of Malawi had an eff ect on maize prices in local markets. To achieve this goal, we built a model to analyse the seasonal behaviour of maize prices on the basis of historical data from 2015-2019. We used the model to predict prices for the fi rst part of 2020 based on their historical patterns. These predictions were then compared with the actual prices observed in 2020 for all the 23 markets analysed. The bulletin then concludes with a number of key observations and recommendations gleaned from the maize price dynamics across local markets."},{"index":2,"size":185,"text":"The pandemic is likely to be more disruptive to local food markets and thus have more serious eff ects on the poorest and most vulnerable groups and communities than any of the crises in recent years. This is because the poor and vulnerable are aff ected by changes in local food staple prices signifi cantly more than other population groups, not only because of more limited purchasing power but also because of diff erences in consumption baskets. Moreover, domestic markets for local food staples such as yam, cassava, white maize, cowpeas, millet or sorghum tend to behave diff erently during times of crisis than global markets for major commodities such as rice, wheat or yellow maize. For instance, the last global food price crisis had much more signifi cant impacts on the latter group of food commodities. Local food staples markets tend to be rather segmented from global food markets. Staple food prices therefore tend to be isolated from global market shocks. The diff erence with Covid is that the disruption of food supply chains has hit both domestic and global food markets rather badly."},{"index":3,"size":269,"text":"The global nature and complex ramifi cations of the pandemic make it impossible to avoid the pain from rising food prices, in particular among vulnerable groups. Diff erent staples weigh diff erently in local diets. Diff erent communities are aff ected diff erently by changes in prices of diff erent staples. Some markets are more connected than others and therefore price changes for the same staple food vary across geography and over time. Consequently, a good understanding of how local staples markets behave and close tracking of changes in food prices at community level have to be key elements of any strategy to protect livelihoods. AKADEMIYA2063 scientists and their partners are working to ensure that governments and other national stakeholders have suffi cient information to plan and respond to the eff ects of the pandemic on local markets. Maize (Zea mays L) is the staple food for many Malawians and accounts for 60 percent of total food production. It is the most important crop for food security and accounts for over 80% of cultivated land (Stevens & Madani, 2016). As such, lack of maize is associated with a lack of food for most households in Malawi. Maize is grown by the majority of farmers on small plots and commonly eaten as the main meal (locally known as Nsima). Maize yields have remained stagnant at under 2 tons/hectare, which is lower than the 10 tons/hectare or more, that characterizes advanced agricultural systems of Asia and the West (Chilonda, et al., 2013). The demand for maize continues to grow with population growth and similarly, its production is increasingly challenged by erratic"}]},{"head":"Understanding staple food price dynamics is important for planning and targeting of interventions to protect livelihoods among the poor and vulnerable in time of crisis.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The Expertise We Need. The Africa We Want. rainfall and other extreme weather conditions characteristic of that part of Southern Africa. Maize is traded both domestically and with neighbouring countries. It is thus, an important undertaking to analyse maize price movements over the COVID-19 period, in the context of widespread domestic and international commodity movement and travel restrictions."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The production of maize in Malawi varies spatially owing to heterogeneous agro-climatic conditions. For example, the Central region, and the Northern region districts have high production potential whereas the Southern region districts are less favourable for agricultural production (Zinyengere, Crespo, Hachigonta, & Tadross, 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The main agricultural seasons in Malawi comprise of the wet (growing season), (November to April) which is characterised by low food supplies as food stocks from the previous harvest deplete by use and sale. Secondly, there is the dry (harvest) season, which runs from May to October. The beginning of the dry season is generally characterised by high food supplies throughout Malawi."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"Malawi confirmed its first Covid-19 case in early March 2020, but the government had already started taking measures to limit the spread of Covid-19 from as early as February 2020 (Ministry of Health, 2020). It was in mid-February 2020 that the government and the opposition political parties embarked on spreading the initial preventive awareness messages through mass media such as the Malawi Broadcasting Corporation and the private media houses. For purposes of this analysis therefore, it is expected that the effects of the Covid-19 prevention actions would manifest more after February 2020."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"The current bulletin focuses primarily on maize price movements in selected food deficit areas of the southern region and the high food producing areas of the central and northern regions. Figure 1 shows price movements in selected markets of the Southern, Central and Northern administrative Regions of Malawi."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"It is clear that the Northern region enjoyed relatively low maize prices, followed by the Central region. The Southern region had relatively higher maize prices almost throughout the period. This can be ascribed to the usual low production in the region leading to higher prices relative to the rest of country. This may partly be explained by the differences in land availability between the regions, whose population densities are respectively, 84/Km 2 , 210/Km 2 and 240/Km 2 for Northern, Central and Southern regions."},{"index":7,"size":220,"text":"The Figure 1 also shows that prices were on an increasing trend from June 2019 and until the end of February 2020. The prices dropped by almost 50% after February 2020 in all the regions. For example, prices dropped from a peak of MK331/KG in February 2020, to a low of MK170/KG in May 2020, in the Southern region. In the Central (2020) region, the prices dropped from a high of MK303/KG in February 2020 to a low of around MK160/KG in May 2020, and finally the drop was from around MK274/KG to MK130/KG in the Northern region over the same period. The cross-region differences in peak prices may be explained by the production and urbanization differentials between them. However, the sudden changes in the trend after February 2020 were likely as a result of, firstly, the onset of the harvesting season which increased supplies of food in markets, and secondly, the government actions taken domestically and in neighbouring countries in response to Covid-19 spread which dampened market demand for food commodities. With the onset of the harvest period later in April/May, the downward pressure on prices continued as supplies in local markets rose relative to demand for maize purchases. These patterns in price changes are also observable at the level of district markets as shown in the Figure 2."}]},{"head":"P-2","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Figure 2 shows maize price trends in Malawi's major cities of Lilongwe, Blantyre and Mzimba (where Mzuzu city is located). Blantyre in the South has low agricultural potential, while Lilongwe is a key producer of maize and yet also faces enormous urbanization. Mzimba on the other hand is considered as an area with high level of arable land suitable for agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"The price drop from March to May can be interpreted from a perspective of two processes working jointly to yield an unusually low price. Specifically, Figure 3 shows that urban maize prices in Malawi dropped significantly after March 2020 and this drop was contrary to the increase predicted by our model. The differences between the observed urban prices and the predicted urban prices after March appear to be a result of social distancing and movement restrictions announced within Malawi and neighbouring countries, as explained previously. This difference cannot be explained by the onset of the maize harvest season in around April, because "}]},{"head":"P-3","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rural primary maize markets","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Actual Price Predicted Price the models accounted for seasonality. Thus, the international travel restrictions, announced towards the end of March, and in April, as well as the increase in awareness about the dangers of Covid-19 among many consumers reduced food movements within and across borders leading to too much supply of food at low demand over that period."},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"Price movements in the rural markets were similar to those of urban markets, as can be seen from Figure 4. This can similarity be explained by the fact that rural and urban markets are interdependent, since the urban supply often comes from rural markets. There was a steady increase in prices in urban markets from 2019, but this trend was broken by the onset of a period of rapid price drop from March 2020. After March 2020, the observed prices were much lower than the prices predicted by our models despite adjusting for seasonality. This pattern is to be explained by the reduction of demand coming from urban centres and neighbouring countries for the surplus maize production in rural areas as both domestic and cross-border market activities slowed down after the news of the spread of Covid-19 became widespread and control measures by government entered into effect. International travels were also prohibited and flights from and into Malawi restricted from March 25 2020. Schools closed down and the limit for internal gatherings was set a 100 people at a time (Ministry of Health, 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"That many markets in rural and urban centres were experiencing price reductions rapidly after February 2020, is also evident in the analysis of price changes in the 23 markets in focus. Figure 5 and Figure 6 present this evidence by analysing the shares of rural and urban markets in which prices were falling each month."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Figure 5 shows that while by January 2020, 100% of the rural markets had rising prices, by February 14% of the rural markets had, declining prices. By April 2020, more than 80% of the rural markets had declining prices, such that by May 2020 100% of the rural markets recorded declining prices. This overall trend supports the findings from our model estimations presented above and which show a generalized declining trend in prices after the onset of the pandemic. The urban markets depicted a similar pattern, where the share of markets with decreasing prices rose rapidly from March 2020 (see Figure 6)."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"In "}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The unexpected steeper, more than seasonally expected, decline in maize prices across all market types and areas after February 2020 is most likely a result of reduced market activities in both rural and urban markets in response to the spread of Covid-19. This, at a time of increased supplies in local markets from the onset of the harvest period in April and May put maize prices under heavy downward pressure."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Government pronouncements of the need to observe social distancing to limit the spread have impeded arbitrage between markets and further led to rising supplies relative to demand, thus leading to falling prices in local markets."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"From a policy perspective, the decline in prices may have advantaged consumers, but they hurt producers, which may negate their ability and willingness to produce more maize in the next season as maize may be considered non-profitable. Perhaps a policy lesson emerging from this is that future responses should be coordinated in a manner that does not harm producers disproportionately, by for example having programs that encourage market activities rather than discouraging them, when dealing with crises similar to Covid-19."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 .Figure 1 . Figure 2. Maize price trends by key city in the pre and within Covid-19 period "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Predicted and observed maize price trends in rural markets in the pre and within Covid-19 period "},{"text":" Constructed by authors with data from WFP (2020) Source: Constructed by authors with data from WFP ( "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Marked reduction in share of markets with lower than predicted prices "},{"text":" Rapid increase in share of urban markets with lower than predicted prices Rural primary markets Rural primary markets 100% 100% 90% 90% 80% 80% 70% 70% 60% 60% 50% 50% 40% 40% 30% 30% 20% 20% 10% 10% 0% 0% Jan Feb Mar Apr May JanFebMarAprMay Rising prices Declining prices Rising pricesDeclining prices Source: Constructed by authors with data from WFP (2020) Source: Constructed by authors with data from WFP (2020) Urban markets Urban markets 100% 100% 90% 90% 80% 80% 70% 70% 60% 60% 50% 50% 40% 40% 30% 30% 20% 20% 10% 10% 0% 0% Jan Feb Mar Apr May JanFebMarAprMay Rising prices Declining prices Rising pricesDeclining prices Source: Constructed by authors with data from WFP (2020) Source: Constructed by authors with data from WFP (2020) "},{"text":" more heavily on demand and thus tend to push prices downward. Another reason for the price drop in these deficit areas, at least partially, may still be the onset of the harvesting period in April/May which increased food availability, amidst low demand (due to Covid-19 restrictions) thereby pushing down prices. other words, many of the other words, many of the markets in rural and urban areas markets in rural and urban areas experienced a rapid reduction experienced a rapid reduction in prices of maize after March in prices of maize after March 2020, which coincides with the 2020, which coincides with the spread of Covid-19 in Malawi as spread of Covid-19 in Malawi as well as the SADC region, and well as the SADC region, and governments' actions to limit governments' actions to limit the damage resulting from the the damage resulting from the spread. One would have expected spread. One would have expected the disruption of markets to lead the disruption of markets to lead to rising prices in deficit areas to rising prices in deficit areas and the opposite in surplus. The and the opposite in surplus. The fact that prices declined in all fact that prices declined in all types of markets may indicate types of markets may indicate limited interconnection between limited interconnection between markets with supply and demand markets with supply and demand conditions having to adjust locally. conditions having to adjust locally. Because supplies don't move Because supplies don't move much across markets in such much across markets in such conditions, changes in demand conditions, changes in demand due to confinement and other due to confinement and other P-4 P-4 P-4 P-4 "}],"sieverID":"a3a40437-b046-482a-873d-6855045467dc","abstract":"AKADEMIYA 011 Maize Grain Price trends in food surplus and defi cit areas of Malawi under Covid-19 Covid-19 Bulletin LOCAL STAPLE FOOD MARKET DYNAMICS UNDER COVID"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"02d41e8f695197017a83642d6585d776","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9bb19cd6-1a39-41d9-a1ea-24241b7a4112/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Participatory research with farming communities in Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe and Zambia focused on local climate changes and impacts on local food crops, and identified potentially adapted germplasm that is currently hosted in national and international genebanks. In addition, the four country teams analysed the state of access and benefit-sharing (ABS) policies, and evidence of their influence on germplasm flows and benefit sharing, and made recommendations on ways forward to implement the global ABS agreements so that they can support climate-resilient seed systems."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The study findings report that in light of climate change predictions there will be less and less potentially adapted materials in national genebank collections. In contrast, there is a lot of material in foreign genebanks that is potentially adapted to the changing climatic conditions of the four countries. Farmers identified some potentially useful, adapted varieties being grown by one or a few farmers locally, but they are not available for wider use. Impediments to their wider use include lack of quality seed (including foundation seed), seed laws that 'criminalize' their sale and/or exchange, and subsidies for alternative materials promoted by companies and national programmes."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"There are significant challenges to getting materials from other countries: • Most countries in sub-Saharan African do not have online accession-level documentation that is georeferenced, making it impossible to search for potentially adapted materials. • The multilateral system of access and benefit-sharing of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) may not yet have been fully implemented, so the systems may not be in place to provide or benefit from facilitated access. • The Nagoya Protocol has not yet been implemented, so there is inadequate recognition of the interests of farmers and breeders as potential providers of materials outside the multilateral system, leading to disincentives to share materials. • National and regional seed laws make it illegal to market farmers' varieties within countries and in other countries in the regions."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"It will be necessary to invest in capacity building to take full advantage of potential contributions of the ITPGRFA and the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Nagoya Protocol/CBD) for climate resilience. These agreements are not self-executing. Specific efforts are needed to connect formal sector organizations and farmers, to ensure that they participate in systems for providing and receiving seed and genetic resources."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Integrated seed sector development (ISSD) acknowledges the coexistence of multiple seed systems in any country, which all play their role in providing farmers with seed. By recognizing that each seed system has its own benefits and limitations, and requires a unique approach towards strengthening it, ISSD aims to foster pluralism and guide national policymaking in its design to enhance multiple seed systems for providing farmers with quality seed of the varieties they prefer. One of the aims of the ISSD Africa project 1 is to identify opportunities to encourage the adoption and implementation of international agreements in a way that supports a dynamic seed sector, which integrates and takes advantage of multiple seed systems, including the 'informal' or farmer-managed seed system."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Several African countries have made commitments to international agreements and protocols that directly or indirectly affect their agricultural sector, including its key building blocks: seed and germplasm. A key question in this respect is how governments can implement their international commitments in ways that foster a viable and pluralistic seed sector. International commitments in the fields of climate change and access and benefit-sharing are examples of this. The action learning question that this report aims to address is: How can access and benefitsharing policies make valuable contributions to seed systems that promote farmers' resilience to climate change?"},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) estimates that that the global mean temperature will increase by between 1.4 and 5.8 degrees Celsius (ºC) in the period 1990 -2100, and that precipitation patterns will change considerably across the globe (Niang et al., 2014). Broad-scale modelling studies predict that these changes will have deleterious impacts on the productivity of a number of crops in sub-Saharan Africa (Lobell et al., 1 See, for more information, http://www.issdseed.org/issd-africa, accessed 15 February 2017."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Photo: Tinashe Sithole, CTDT Zimbabwe"},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Participants of capacity building workshop on climate resillient seed systems held in Harare Zimbawe, May 2015"},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"2008) One frequently mentioned strategy for adapting to climate changes is that of exploiting genetic sources of resistance to the abiotic and biotic stresses that accompany climate changes (Niang et al., 2014). Both Inter-and intracrop genetic diversity is useful for climate change adaptation. Farmers may adapt by switching to crops that are more resilient under the current and predicted conditions (e.g. from maize to millet in rain-stressed areas), or by using better adapted varieties of the same crops derived from farmer selection, or through formal sector crop improvement programmes. In all cases, access to quality and diverse seed/reproductive materials is essential for enhancing and improving crop productivity and food security."},{"index":7,"size":109,"text":"As climates migrate across the globe, one country's future climate will be similar to another country's current climate (Jarvis et al., 2015). It is likely therefore that plant populations that have been developed in some parts of the world will possess traits that are adapted to future climatic conditions in other parts of the world. Countries are already extremely interdependent on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) (Flores-Palacios, 1997; Khoury et al., 2016). It is predicted that climate change will make countries even more interdependent (Fujisaka, Williams and Halewood, 2013), with the concomitant need to access and exchange ever higher numbers of genetic resources across international borders."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"In recent years, the international community has negotiated international laws on the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources, and on access to those genetic resources and the sharing of benefits associated with their use; these include the CBD, the ITPGRFA, and the Nagoya Protocol (to the CBD). In theory, these agreements should provide useful policy support for the exchange and use of genetic resources as part of countries' climate change adaptation strategies."},{"index":9,"size":133,"text":"This study analyses what is actually happening at the national and subnational levels in terms of climate change and its impacts on particular crops; what experiences countries have had to date with regard to accessing, using and sharing benefits derived from genetic resources for climate change adaptation; and what kinds of ABS policy initiatives or reforms could help those countries to make better use of genetic diversity for climate change adaptation in the future. This study is designed to analyse how these different 'threads' come together at national and subnational level in a few countries, at higher levels of granularity than is possible with the global modelling referred to above. This information is critical for identifying potential future interventions at a regional or sub-regional level, and making farmer-managed seed systems more climate resilient."}]},{"head":"Activities undertaken","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The research was conducted by four individual country case study teams from Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe and Zambia. The researchers followed a common methodology that was developed in consultation with them. In short, each country team agreed to:"},{"index":2,"size":321,"text":"• Identify climate changes in their country, and existing and possible future impacts on cropping systems. Outcomes and lessons learned i Climates are changing, and these changes are negatively effecting key food security crops in Uganda, Rwanda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. All of the four countries, and all of the eight case study communities within those four countries, are already experiencing climate changes. Consistent with the global-and regional-level information and forecasts, minimum temperatures in the four countries have been increasing and, most importantly, the seasonal rains that define/characterize cropping seasons are increasingly irregular and unpredictable. The result has been shortened growing seasons, longer periods of drought, harsher rainstorms, and in some areas a reduction from two growing seasons per year to one growing season as the seasonal rains 'merge' the previously distinct growing seasons. When the seasonal rains appear to start normally, farmers plant their crops. However, if the rains suddenly stop within the first few days of planting, most of the germinating seeds will die off, often without recourse to private or public stores of seed to replant if and when the rains become more regular. In other cases, the droughts may hit mid-way into the growing season before any harvesting can be carried out. Both scenarios, with the common denominator of irregular, unpredictable rain, lead to total crop failure and serious consequences for the farmer. In many cases, the farmers will not have recourse to private or public sources of replacement seed if and when the rains become more regular. WorldClim data 4 predicts that temperatures will rise in each of the eight study communities between now and 2050. Overall, annual precipitation will increase in some of the communities, and decrease in others during the same period. More data concerning the climate changes in each of the communities, and the impacts of those changes on food security crops grown by farmers in those communities, are included in Annex 1 below."},{"index":3,"size":194,"text":"ii Farmers are embracing (inter-and intra-specific) crop diversification as a means to adapt to climate changes. Crop diversification depends upon accessibility, availability and use of inter-and intra-specific crop genetic diversity from local, national and international sources. In each of the countries, national agricultural research organizations, in partnership with international and regional research organizations (and sometimes with community and civil society organizations) are increasingly engaging in research and development projects that involve taking advantage of genetic diversity -between species and within species -to respond to challenges associated with climate change. These include plant breeding programmes and projects that are focused on searching for genetic sources of resistance to climate change related biotic and abiotic stresses; the introduction of new, different species in areas where previously planted crops are no longer performing well (e.g. moving from maize to millet or sorghum); and the use of mixtures of crops and or varieties that are, cumulatively, more resilient to climate shocks. Most of the projects and programmes rely in part on accessing and using genetic resources/crop varieties that either were not present in local agricultural systems (or in the country as a whole), or were present, but underutilized."},{"index":4,"size":332,"text":"iii 'Access to genetic resources' and 'access to seed' are overlapping issues, particularly in 'informal' systems of innovation and exchange. All four national research teams repeatedly raised issues related to farmers' access to seed and unfair impacts of seed regulations on the ability of farmers to access, exchange and sell seed. In this way, they highlighted the fact that the conceptual distinction between genetic resources and seed as separate objects of regulation -ABS laws for genetic resources, and seed laws for seed -is artificial in some contexts. It works when one conceives of ABS laws regulating uses of genetic resources as upstream inputs into formal sector plant breeding and research, and seed laws regulating access to formal sector produced seed. However, in 'informal' seed systems, where farmers select and replant seed, exposing it to human and environmental selection pressures with each generation, the distinction between seed and genetic resources does not make much sense. Farmers use genetic resources as seed and vice versa. Viewed from the perspective of farmers operating in 'informal' or farmer-managed systems, seed laws (if they restrict what can be registered, exchanged, sold, accessed by farmers) can potentially create bottlenecks limiting farmers' roles in climate-resilient seed systems. Indeed, all four country teams provided examples of how national seed laws were 1) threatening availability (and related exchanges of genetic resources/seed) at the level of local markets, and between farmers; and 2) undermining the full use of genetically diverse materials used and conserved by farmers at broader national scales. This highlights the importance of looking at the entire length of different seed value chains to see how and where requisite genetic resources/seed can and should be introduced and made available, and where related benefits can be shared. Then, in this broader context, which captures the reality (and diversity) of seed systems, it is useful to analyse the impacts of both ABS and seed regulations (and other potentially relevant policies and regulations) on the use of genetic resources/seed along the various chains."},{"index":5,"size":283,"text":"iv In some cases, there are climate adapted, potentially useful materials in farmer-managed seed systems (i.e. farmers' varieties), but there are impediments to their wider-scale exploitation. Community participants from each of the eight sites selected a single crop grown in their community on which to focus the purpose of the project's research, based on the criteria of importance to local food security, and perceived vulnerability to ongoing changes in climate. One of the first exercises in each site was to ask farmers to identify materials/varieties of those crops that they use -or are aware of others using -that perform better than other varieties under the current climatic stresses. Some of the varieties that performed well did not represent a mix of the most desirable traits; for example, they performed better than others under drought stress, but they did not taste good. But in some cases, farmers reported that the main bottleneck hampering their use of the materials was the absence of quality seed/planting materials. They also reported that they were encouraged to use other materials introduced by extension agents or companies. The authors of the country papers, and experts that they surveyed, acknowledged that there is inadequate public investment (often, none at all) in enhancing local varieties and multiplying quality seed of those varieties. The four studies also provided examples of other disincentives/bottlenecks in the development of quality seed of locally adapted varieties, including national seed laws that prohibit marketing of farmers' varieties (unless they can satisfy strict registration criteria); lack of recognition of Farmers' Rights to be compensated in some way for the use of their varieties; and lack of engagement of farmers in identifying priorities for agricultural research and development programmes."},{"index":6,"size":131,"text":"v The proportion of PGRFA in the countries' national genebanks that is potentially adapted to those countries' changing climates is decreasing over time. After working with the farmers to identify potentially useful materials from their local agricultural production systems, the national research teams, supported by this project, looked for potentially adapted materials in (first) national genebanks, and (second) genebanks outside the countries concerned. To carry out this research, data concerning past, present and future climates for those eight sites were analysed alongside passport data of collections assembled from within and outside the country, and climate suitability data. Through this method, it was possible to identify materials in those collections that are potentially adapted to a) current climatic conditions, and b) projected future climatic conditions (in 2050), in the community reference sites."},{"index":7,"size":142,"text":"For seven of the eight sites, the number of accessions of the communities' target crops in the respective national genebanks that are potentially adapted to the projected future climatic conditions of the reference sites decreased significantly over time, as those climates changed. Details concerning the numbers of accessions in the national genebanks of the target crops for both current and predicted future (2050) climatic conditions are included in Annex 2 below. While national genebanks are just one of the sources of genetic diversity that countries can and do access (alternative sources are discussed below), these research outcomes are nonetheless significant proxy-indicators concerning the extent to which countries are/will be increasingly reliant on genetic diversity from other countries as a result of changing climates (and even less able to rely on diversity that has evolved and been collected from within their own borders)."},{"index":8,"size":206,"text":"vi There is a wide range of material in foreign genebanks that is potentially adapted to the changing climate conditions of the four countries. Those materials were originally collected from many different countries and continents. The research confirms that countries are becoming increasingly interdependent on genetic resources as a result of climate change. For information about potentially adapted materials in PGRFA collections outside the four countries, the research teams relied on Genesys, which is an online, publicly accessible database that includes accession-level information on all of the international PGRFA collections hosted by the CGIAR centres, national public PGRFA collections of European countries, and collections hosted by the USDA. Genesys does not yet include much accession-level information from genebanks in other countries (though it is hoped that eventually more countries will include such information in Genesys in the future). 5 In all cases, the searches led to the identification of much higher numbers of potentially adapted accessions located (through Genesys) in collections outside the country, than in the national genebank collections. This was the case for both current climatic conditions and those predicted for 2050 in the reference sites. Details regarding the numbers of potentially adapted materials identified through this exercise are included in Annex 2 below."},{"index":9,"size":120,"text":"It is important to underscore that for each crop in each of the eight locations, the potentially adapted materials that were identified in foreign genebanks were originally collected/accessed from several different countries -seven on average. 6 For example, the 537 accessions of finger millet that are potentially adapted for use in Uzumba-Maramba-Pfungwe (UMP) in Zimbabwe, under current climatic conditions, were originally collected from eight different countries. The 331 accessions that are potentially adapted for use under the climatic conditions predicted for 2050 in the same location were originally accessed from seven countries. Annex 2 provides the number of countries from which the potentially adapted materials for all eight sites were originally collected, for both current and projected future climatic conditions."},{"index":10,"size":82,"text":"Since national PGRFA users will have access to less potentially suitable germplasm from their national genebanks for direct use or deployment in crop improvement programmes, they will be increasingly reliant on germplasm obtained from outside their national boundaries for genebased traits that are adapted to changing climatic conditions. Subject to availability of resources, the national genebanks can also respond to this situation by becoming increasingly involved in identifying and obtaining such germplasm with or on behalf of PGRFA users in the future."},{"index":11,"size":327,"text":"vii There are significant constraints on ability to access, use and share benefits associated with materials in other countries as a result of the lack of online accession-level documentation (and linked implementation of the ITPGRFA and Nagoya Protocol). Ideally, our searches for potentially adapted PGRFA would have included collections held by organizations in neighbouring countries with contiguous agro-ecosystems, and other countries in the world where the same crops are grown and may have evolved useful traits as a result of the interaction of genomic recombination, environmental selection, farmer selection and breeding. However, very few of these countries publish such information at all, or in a format (or language) that is easy to use from outside the country. The lack of digitalized, published, accession-level information about materials that are potentially available in countries represents a very significant constraint to their identification and use for climate change adaptation. It makes it impossible, when carrying out research such as that supported by this project, to find out if those organizations or countries (or communities) have potentially adapted materials. It also leads to increased reliance on traditional sources of conserved germplasm -the CGIAR, USDA, and some particularly active European genebanks. Exchanges between countries in developing regions are necessarily limited by the lack of published, accession-level information about materials hosted in their countries. This latter point is closely linked to the state of implementation of the ITPGRFA and the Nagoya Protocol, which will be considered in more detail below. All four countries have ratified both agreements. Ideally, to fully participate in the systems of exchange and benefit sharing that those two agreements support, the countries need to have well documented genetic resources. If information on the materials is lacking, then no one will know the materials are available in the collections and consequently will not try to access them, either under the ITPGRFA's multilateral system of access and benefit-sharing, or via newly negotiated ABS contracts under the framework of the Nagoya Protocol."},{"index":12,"size":60,"text":"viii International partnerships and programmes are important mechanisms for the exchanges of genetic resources into and out of the four countries for agricultural research and development. National agricultural research organizations -and some universities and a few companies -in each of the four countries, are recipients of considerable quantities of improved lines of food security crops from CGIAR plant breeding programmes."},{"index":13,"size":307,"text":"Of the four countries, Zimbabwe has tended to receive the most of such germplasm, and Rwanda has received the least, from the CGIAR centres. Total materials provided to recipients in the four countries from 2007 to 2015 are set out below in Table 1. Further details about the numbers of samples of different crops transferred are available in each of the four country papers. The most likely contributing factor to the relative amounts of germplasm countries received from the CGIAR is the size and capacity of the national agricultural research and breeding organizations. Where countries have sufficient capacity in plant breeding, they are more likely to cross improved materials from the CGIAR with locally adapted materials that have proven, desirable traits. If their breeding capacity is lower, countries will select from among the materials received those lines that perform best under local conditions. One example of a CGIAR crop improvement programme, which has developed a range of improved lines that have been transferred to the four countries, is the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project. This initiative is a partnership between the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) and various national agricultural research organizations in 13 African countries 7 . DTMA has developed over 200 new varieties and distributed 27,720 samples to recipients in these countries; the countries then select potential lines and develop them further through breeding with local maize breeding programmes, or they select promising lines that they then distribute. Through this project, 14 varieties of drought-tolerant maize have been developed for Zambia, ten for Zimbabwe and six for Uganda. The four country papers provide much more detail about the international projects in which their national agricultural research organizations participate, and through which they receive (and also provide) germplasm and associated knowledge."},{"index":14,"size":67,"text":"The Pan-African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) is a breeders' network that works in conjunction with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT); it has facilitated the exchange of varieties and improved lines of beans between 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Uganda, Rwanda, Zimbabwe and Zambia are also part of this network. Over 550 varieties of beans have been shared through this network between the 30 member countries."},{"index":15,"size":130,"text":"The primary mechanism by which germplasm originally collected from the four countries is made available internationally is through the CGIAR genebanks. Table 2 shows the numbers of accessions of different crops and forages that were originally collected in the four countries that are currently conserved in international collections hosted by the CGIAR centres. Most of those materials were collected in the 1970s and 1980s. The centres make those materials available upon request under the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA) adopted by the ITPGRFA's Governing Body in 2006, (as they are directed to do by their agreements with the Governing Body that were also finalized in 2006). Organizations within the four countries also occasionally make material available to other countries through crop improvement and genetic resources networks in which they participate."},{"index":16,"size":102,"text":"ix Stronger linkages between farmers and crop improvement and genetic conservation programmes are needed, including stronger links with intermediaries. Direct distributions from international and national genebanks and formal sector crop improvement programmes to farmers operating primarily in 'informal' seed systems are relatively rare. Only approximately 1% of the materials distributed from CGIAR genebanks is distributed directly to farmers (SGRP, 2009). This reflects the fact that partnerships between communities and international and national agricultural research organizations are knowledge and farmers' rights by engaging farmers in the documentation of their traditional practices, and in the management of their varieties in the community seed bank."},{"index":17,"size":96,"text":"In the absence of these kinds of initiatives, farming communities' direct access to and participation in projects in the formal sector on genetic resources conservation, improvement and sustainable use, is limited. Consequently, their direct access to, and use of, genetic resources and information that might otherwise be available to them is also limited. And formal sector institutions are missing out on chances to benefit from farmer-developed populations and knowledge. More pro-active partnership building and further engagement of farming communities is essential to ensure that genetic resources are being used by the people who need them most."},{"index":18,"size":168,"text":"x Most international exchanges with formal sector organizations reported in the four country studies were facilitated using the SMTA, which appears to provide a useful basis for exchange, although there is dissatisfaction with the benefit-sharing provisions. Most of the exchanges between international organizations and organizations within the four countries were made using the SMTA adopted by the Governing Body of the ITPGRFA. While some of the respondents interviewed expressed concerns that the ITPGRFA system for mandatory financial benefit sharing (through an international benefit-sharing fund -see below for more details) was not working, they also acknowledged that exchanges under the ITPGRFA were in fact becoming streamlined, at least between international and national formal sector organizations. Concerns about unrealized mandatory benefit sharing from commercial users -either because they are choosing not to access materials from the multilateral system or because their uses of those materials are not triggering the benefit-sharing formula -are also acting as disincentives to pro-active national and subnational implementation of the ITPGRFA in a number of countries."},{"index":19,"size":485,"text":"xi Very small numbers of exchanges are being made between organizations within the countries, and between countries … unless international organizations act as intermediaries. Little information is available on 'informal exchanges'. In all four countries, the reported numbers of exchanges within the countries between different users, and obtained directly from other countries, appears to be relatively small. This is partly explained by the fact that 'informal exchanges' that took place without the use of material transfer agreements (MTAs), and the SMTA in particular, tend not to be reported. As the ITPGRFA and the Nagoya Protocol have not yet been fully implemented in any of the four countries, the methods for keeping track of what materials are transferred subject to approved access and benefit-sharing rules are still not in place. Furthermore, the authors note that legal uncertainties that arise because the ITPGRFA and the Nagoya Protocol have not yet been implemented nationally can create disincentives for both access seekers and providers from national and subnational organizations. As a result, it is easier to obtain those materials from international organizations that have systems in place to provide materials subject to the ITPGRFA (and because they often have a fairly high diversity of well documented materials, in good health, ready to supply as part of the crop improvement programmes listed above or available upon request). The research teams noted a number of situations where approvals from national organizations for access to materials within and between countries have been subject to long delays, partly as a result of the lack of clear rules for implementation of these agreements. 8 xii There is inadequate protection of the interests of farmers as providers of resources and traditional knowledge. In all four countries, the authors the fact that there were inadequate systems in place to promote/protect the rights of farmers as providers of genetic resources and associated information. Collecting missions often take place in contexts where farmers don't know about their country's undertakings and policy commitments concerning access needing to be subject to farmers' prior informed consent (PIC) on mutually agreed terms (MAT). Furthermore, in three of the four countries -Zambia, Zimbabwe and Rwanda -there are still no national laws in place setting out the standards and processes that accessseekers need to follow as part of the national strategy for implementing their policy commitments. (Uganda has a law requiring PIC at the community level.) In all four countries, there is inadequate support for strengthening the capacity of farmers and farmer organizations to be able to exercise PIC-related rights. Several respondents also underscored concerns about the inability of farmers or farmer organizations to monitor uses of materials accessed from farmers to effectively enforce their rights in cases of suspected malfeasance by users. In some cases, farmers have been happy, honoured even, to be asked to provide samples and information about materials they use. In other cases, farmers and community organizations have expressed reluctance."},{"index":20,"size":70,"text":"xiii The ITPGRFA and Nagoya Protocol are not selfexecuting agreements. They need to be proactively implemented. And considerable investment in capacity building is necessary for stakeholders -including farmers -to be able to take advantage of them. The ITPGRFA and Nagoya Protocol are designed to address some of the issues/challenges flagged above. However, their contributions are not being realized since they are not yet being fully being implemented at national levels."},{"index":21,"size":95,"text":"The ITPGRFA's multilateral system of access and benefitsharing is meant to provide an even, predictable, safe basis of exchanges of genetic resources between all users at individual, farm, organizational, community, national and international levels. Free facilitated exchange to all the materials -currently 2.3 million accessions -in the multilateral system is meant to be the biggest single benefit associated with the multilateral system. It is also supposed to generate financial benefits (generated by commercial users) to be shared through an international benefitsharing fund to help developing countries increase their capacity to sustainably use and conserve PGRFA."},{"index":22,"size":129,"text":"However, none of the four countries have put systems in place to fully implement the multilateral system of access and benefit-sharing. 9 In the absence of clear rules about who can provide and request materials, some potential exchanges of materials are not taking place. It is necessary 9 Uganda appears to have done the most, having recently developed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) between national agencies, clarifying which agency is responsible for implementing the Nagoya Protocol, and which is responsible for implementing the ITPGRFA. This is an important development, given that there is confusion/lack of clarity in many countries about the relative scope of both agreements, and how they should be implemented in mutually supportive ways. Other countries can follow -and some are already following -Uganda in this regard."},{"index":23,"size":5,"text":"Photo: Tinashe Sithole, CTDT Zimbabwe"},{"index":24,"size":39,"text":"Gloria Otieno from Bioversity International evaluating farmers' varieties during a seed fair in Uzumba-Maramba-Pfungwe, Zimbabwe for governments to explicitly inform public organizations in the country that they can and should be operating under the ITPGRFA framework, using the SMTA."},{"index":25,"size":91,"text":"It is equally important that national governments send clear signals to all potential users, at all levels, down to farm level, that a) the multilateral system exists; b) it was created for their benefit; and c) they should be taking advantage of it. National governments should be reinforcing that message to providers, so that when they receive requests for access -not only from formal sector organizations, but also from farmers, farmers' organizations and community organizations, from their own country and from other countries -they feel empowered to respond pro-actively and positively."},{"index":26,"size":134,"text":"It is clear that many potential users will need considerable assistance to be able to take advantage of the multilateral system. This was underscored by this project's own research and capacity-building activities in the eight communities. It is evidently not enough to inform farmers and community organizations (and many companies) about the existence of the multilateral system, and then expect them to use it. The requisite skills and resources can only be brought together through projects that allow farmers in the communities to work together with experts in climate science, genebank curation, and plant breeding. National agricultural research organizations, or civil society organizations acting as their agents, need to be empowered to convene such projects and activities, and to provide the necessary support for all stakeholders to be able to use the multilateral system."},{"index":27,"size":148,"text":"Under the Nagoya Protocol, national governments undertake to promote the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities to exercise control over access (by others) to their genetic resources and traditional knowledge. However, the Nagoya Protocol is still relatively new, and most countries -including the four countries in this study -have not yet put policies, laws or administrative systems in place to implement it. Furthermore, as in the case of the ITPGRFA, while putting national and subnational laws and policies in place is a critical first step to implementation, this alone will not be enough for a range of stakeholders in the countries concerned to actually take advantage of the Nagoya Protocol. Considerable additional capacity building and support will be necessary, particularly at the farmer and community level, to raise awareness on rights concerning PIC and MAT, and to support communities in getting organized to collectively exercise those rights."},{"index":28,"size":214,"text":"xiv Considerable effort will be required to overcome historical division between formal and 'informal' seed systems, and to integrate them where useful for climate change adaptation. With a few remarkable exceptions, the patterns of germplasm exchange and use, and the partnerships involved in crop variety enhancement and seed multiplication, distribution, and exchange documented in the four papers, generally conformed to the traditionally understood separation/division between formal and 'informal' seed systems (Louwaars and de Boef, 2012). The papers also highlighted the inefficiencies and challenges associated with attempting to implement international legal agreements concerning access and benefit-sharing (the ITPGRFA and CBD/Nagoya Protocol), and seed harmonization laws that reflect formal sector innovation models in countries where the 'informal' or farmer-managed seed systems are the norm. In many ways, perhaps inadvertently, these international agreements reinforce the distinction between and separation of formal and 'informal' seed systems. Our research in the eight communities in the four countries attempted to address this situation, supporting research and development interventions that cut across, and challenged the formal/'informal' seed sector and genetic resources/seed divides. It demonstrates the importance of being able to work across these divides in the future, to ensure that all actors in seed systems are able to access and use genetic resources/seed to respond to challenges associated with climate change. "}]},{"head":"Next steps","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"Based on the four country studies and this comparative analysis, the researchers involved in addressing this action learning question recommend the development of pilot programmes and projects to boost the capacity of national and/or African regional organizations to provide technical backup for stakeholders in their countries/region, to: • Implement the ITPGRFA, Nagoya Protocol and national/regional seed laws in mutually supportive, contiguous ways that reflect the reality and diversity of different seed systems, with the objective of ensuring that all actors involved in formal and 'informal' seed systems -especially farmers -are able to access and use quality reproductive materials (genetic resources/seed) to adapt to climate changes. • Identify and request materials located locally, nationally, and in collections around the world that are potentially adapted to climate changes in the countries concerned. • Seek and obtain access to genetic resources/seed under existing laws implementing the ITPGRFA, Nagoya Protocol, and regional seed harmonization agreements, or in the vacuum that may exist if laws are not in place to implement them."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"These efforts could be supported or coordinated at sub-regional or regional levels. A regional approach makes sense given the realities of contiguous climates and agro-ecosystems spanning across international borders, and the likelihood that adapted germplasm will be located across borders. Regional-level coordination of such capacity building would also help build the shared sense of purpose and trust necessary for actors to be willing to share materials and associated benefits as part of climate change adaptation strategies. Furthermore, given the scarcity of resources to be able to support 'stand-alone' national programmes, it could be much more effective to coordinate activities at a sub-regional or regional scale. 10 Regional centres of excellence and regional crop evaluation networks have demonstrated how countries can work together sharing germplasm and evaluation data, etc. These include the Sorghum and Millet Improvement Programme (SMIP), DTMA, the Eastern Africa Agricultural Productivity Programme (EAPP), the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), PABRA, and rice and cassava networks."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"These initiatives could be built on to regularize systems for regional exchanges. Regional organizations such as the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), South African Development Community (SADC), East African Community (EAC), African Union (AU), and African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO) could play important convening and supporting roles."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"10 One example of an efficiency that can be achieved at a sub-regional level concerns accessing and using climate and soil data. As stated above, some of the best climate and soil data are privately held, and are costly to get access to. Perhaps a regionally organized programme could negotiate a preferential public-private partnership to get reduced cost or free access to requisite data for the purposes of a regional 'seeds without borders' programme. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo: Gloria Otieno, Bioversity International "},{"text":" Photo: Gloria Otieno, Bioversity International "},{"text":" Photo: Gloria Otieno, Bioversity International "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Materials transferred from CGIAR centres to recipients in the four countries using the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA) under the ITPGRFA, 2007-2015 Country Country "},{"text":"Table 2 . Number of accessions of materials conserved and distributed by CGIAR centres that were originally sourced from the four countries Country Country "},{"text":"The climate-related stresses on key crops of each of the sites in Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe Reference site, country Crop Total accessions of crops in national genebank Number of potentially adapted accessions from national genebanks for present climatic conditions Number of potentially adapted accessions from national genebanks for 2050's conditions Number of accessions of crops in foreign genebanks (included in Genesys) Number of potentially adapted accessions in foreign genebanks for present climatic conditions Number of countries from which the materials for present conditions were collected (or were improved) Number of potentially adapted accessions in foreign genebanks (under Genesys) for 2050's conditions Number of countries from which the materials for 2050's conditions were collected (or were improved) Number of local varieties identified Country Uganda Rwanda Annex 1. by farmers Site Crop Summary climate challenges (CCs) Impact of CCs on the specific crop Temperature (2050s), ºC Precipitation (2050s) mm Hoima Beans Shifting growing season, higher temperature, erratic rainfall Loss of diversity, increased incidences of pests and diseases, low productivity +1.5 Increase Mbarara Beans Shifting growing season, shortening of the rainy season, higher precipita-tion and prolonged dry spells Increased incidences of pests and diseases and loss of diversity +1 Increase Bugesera Beans Lower precipitation, higher temperatures and shifting seasons Loss of diversity, increased incidences of pests and diseases, low yields +2 Decrease Rubaya Beans Unpredicted weather patterns, higher temperatures Increased incidences of diseases and pests, specifically birds. Loss of diversity and lower +1.5 Increase Annex 2. Country Uganda Rwanda Annex 1. by farmers Site Crop Summary climate challenges (CCs) Impact of CCs on the specific crop Temperature (2050s), ºC Precipitation (2050s) mm Hoima Beans Shifting growing season, higher temperature, erratic rainfall Loss of diversity, increased incidences of pests and diseases, low productivity +1.5 Increase Mbarara Beans Shifting growing season, shortening of the rainy season, higher precipita-tion and prolonged dry spells Increased incidences of pests and diseases and loss of diversity +1 Increase Bugesera Beans Lower precipitation, higher temperatures and shifting seasons Loss of diversity, increased incidences of pests and diseases, low yields +2 Decrease Rubaya Beans Unpredicted weather patterns, higher temperatures Increased incidences of diseases and pests, specifically birds. Loss of diversity and lower +1.5 Increase Annex 2. UMP, Zimbabwe Finger millet 90 29 6 productivity and food 2279 537 8 331 7 7 UMP, ZimbabweFinger millet90296productivity and food 2279 537833177 Tsholotsho, Zimbabwe Sorghum 178 11 security 20 23,941 514 9 242 9 7 Tsholotsho, Zimbabwe Sorghum17811security 20 23,941514924297 Zambia Bugesera, Rwanda Rufunsa Beans Sorghum Erratic rainfall, shorter growing season, higher 109 21 15 Lower productivity, in-creased fungal diseases, 64 10 5 +2 10 increase 3 8 Zambia Bugesera, Rwanda RufunsaBeansSorghumErratic rainfall, shorter growing season, higher 109 2115Lower productivity, in-creased fungal diseases, 64 105+210increase 38 Rubaya, Rwanda Beans temperatures 109 28 16 loss of diversity 64 13 5 16 4 11 Rubaya, RwandaBeanstemperatures 1092816loss of diversity 64 13516411 Chikankata Chikankata, Zambia Maize Maize Shorter growing season, 300 48 11 Loss of diversity, low 2800 125 5 +2 87 increase 8 6 Chikankata Chikankata, Zambia MaizeMaizeShorter growing season, 300 48 11Loss of diversity, low 2800 1255+287increase 86 Rufunsa, Zambia Sorghum erratic rainfall and higher 176 25 21 23,941 yields and fungal diseases 300 8 195 5 - Rufunsa, ZambiaSorghumerratic rainfall and higher 176 25 21 23,941 yields and fungal diseases 30081955- Hoima, Uganda Beans temperature - - - 64 9 2 29 6 14 Hoima, UgandaBeanstemperature ---649229614 Zimbabwe Mbarara, Uganda Tsholotsho Beans Sorghum Shifting seasons, erratic rainfall, higher tempera--- - Increased incidences of pests, i.e aphids, fungal 64 11 5 +1.5 7 increase 23 Zimbabwe Mbarara, Uganda Tsholotsho BeansSorghumShifting seasons, erratic rainfall, higher tempera----Increased incidences of pests, i.e aphids, fungal 64 115+1.57increase23 tures diseases and lower yields turesdiseases and lower yields Uzumba- Millet Erratic rainfall, higher Low yields and increased +2 increase Uzumba-MilletErratic rainfall, higherLow yields and increased+2increase Maramba- temperatures and incidences of pests and Maramba-temperatures andincidences of pests and Pfungwe (UMP) shifting seasons diseases Pfungwe (UMP)shifting seasonsdiseases "},{"text":"Numbers of accessions in: a national genebanks, and b genebanks in other countries and international organizations, which are potentially adapted to i) current and ii) predicted future (2050) climatic conditions in reference sites in Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe "}],"sieverID":"f7be8604-f196-448f-93bc-697ec5f007ec","abstract":"The international community has negotiated international laws on the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources, and on access to those genetic resources and the sharing of benefits associated with their use. In theory, these agreements should provide useful policy support for the exchange and use of genetic resources as part of countries' climate change adaptation strategies.Climate change is increasingly affecting many farmers and rural communities, specifically impacting agricultural productivity and food security. Farmers need to access and manage crop diversity (both between and within crops) with a range of genetically based functional traits as insurance against increasingly unpredictable precipitation, droughts, shifting growing seasons, and prolonged dry spells."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"02f4cdbdf5846e5186df1fa8190a780a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3f013a3-dd1a-4b23-bc5a-306a33cb20d3/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"This report presents the research activity \"Hydrological evidence for more crop per drop\" carried out in Senegal by the Institute of Geosciences (IGE), as part of the Climate Smart Systemic Solutions and Scaling (C4S) innovation package, under work package 3 Climate policy pathways of the CGIAR initiative on Climate Resilience, ClimBeR. The team leader is also coordinator of the long-term AMMA Catch hydroclimate observatory http://www.amma-catch.org/-Senegal-128-Contact persons: Jean-Martial Cohard observation and modelisation evapotranspiration [email protected] ; Jean-Pierre Vandervaere run-off, infiltration measures to assess land use changes and water cycle [email protected] Background: hydrological evidence for more crop per drop Climate adaptation agricultural and land restoration programmes such as the Great Green Wall often do not integrate enough hydrological evidence in their design, despite water scarcity being a key limiting factor for the agricultural sector."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"As part of the inter and transdisciplinary research collaboration BRIDGE initiated by IRD in 2021, IGE hydrological expertise helps exploring/assessing how to better integrate hydrological scientific methodologies and tools in climate-smart agricultural decision-support systems. The objective here is to connect agricultural modeling expertise with IGE hydrological modeling and experimental framework to better evaluate effect of land use change (vegetation cover change or land/water conservation infrastructure) on water recharge and coping response of agricultural activities to droughts and other future climate stresses. Interdisciplinary climate-crop-water (surface and underground)modeling research could improve the understanding of interrelationships between land use change and the water cycle at different scales, providing evidence for better climate and water smart planning."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"For instance, which, where water recharge/conservation options (eg crop diversification, water conservation technique like bench terracing or water harvesting infrastructure) are the best to improve drought resilience of farming sector in Senegal."}]},{"head":"Methodology and site description","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Terrain measurements for Senegal context: the research team benefits from the new installation of the long-term regional hydroclimatological observatory network AMMA-CATCH, which aims at better understand the changes of the West African Monsoon phenomenon. Cohard and his team has started installing in 2022 new sites in Senegal:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Niakhar site where AMMA CATCH is installing new equipment within/near IRD carbon flow experiment in Faidherbia parkland system (Roupsard)."}]},{"head":"Fig 1. AMMA CATCH hydroclimate instruments in Niakhar site","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Dahra is another possible site in the future (AMMA Catch starting equipment). One reference study for methodology is PARFLOW hydrological modelling of a pilot watershed (Hector B et al, 2018) Interaction with end users to better understand hydro evidence needs and interdisciplinary research gaps."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Planned pilot studies may include:"},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"• impact of farming and land conservation practices (bench terracing \"banquette\") on water budget in pilot watershed (Hector et al, 2018;Descroix et al, 2018) • Faidherbia park modelling (tree crop competition for water) • impact of irrigation scenarios for water resilience."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"The team discussed in January 2022 with the Great Green Wall accelerator management team. There were various interactions with regional players like in Niger, under the AFD-funded Water Cycle and Climate Change and other collaboration programmes. The Great Green Wall is a good example where soil and land conservation investments like tree planting or landscaping operations eg bench terracing often do not use enough hydrological evidence to guide where to implement such nature-based infrastructures. In March 2022 the team attended the World Water Forum. A field visit was organised with Vincent Vadez (BRIDGE coordinator) and Senegalese research partners to the Niakhar site. Interactions with Senegal stakeholders in water sector involved through AFD CECC project, including ANACIM who is the main counterpart for the AMMA Catch observatory."}]},{"head":"Capacity-Building","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"IGE / Grenoble University team (Jean-Pierre Vandervaere) is coordinating the 3EC-Sahel Water, Environment and Climate Change capacity building programme with leading Universities in the Sahel región including Senegal. This projects aims at improving high education curriculum (Master, Phd, vocational training) so that a new generation of water experts could emerge (theme youth, job creation)."}]},{"head":"First hydrological findings to guide C4S policy pathways","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Bench terracing, example of land structure for drought resilient farming landscapes A communication about the impact of bench terracing to reduce run-off in the Sahel. [Vandervaere JP, 2022. Personal communication in French presented in Annex 1] was given at the 2022 World Water Forum.] It shows what type of localized impact of land conservation structures could have on key hydrological variables, which should be integrated in planning more climate resilient agriculture (drought)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Vandervaere, 2022 says that land and water conservation practices widely adopted in Sahel region like demi-lunes, zai pits, bench terracing, against the effects of run-off have been scarcely evaluated in term of hydrological efficacy. Climate change is leading to more frequent intense rainfall events which makes this issue even more relevant. A recent experimental study quantified bench terracing impact on run-off reduction and water recharge to determine if/where this climate smart innovation could be relevant to increase water resilience for agriculture and a good flood management measure."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Bench terracing could increase water stockage (2 meters deep soil horizon) from 90 to 170mm."}]},{"head":"Fig5. Bench terracing with impluvium (upstream), ditch and small land mound. Hydrological measures using neutron probe and water conductivity apparatus.","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pilot study using AMMA Catch remote sensing datasets","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"A pilot PARFLOW watershed methodological study using remote sensing data was completed in summer 2022 using Niger datasets: 34 sites of bench terracing covering 6600ha, data during the period 2018-2021. This NDVI analysis shows that bench terracing has positive impact on recharge and vegetation resilience: the NDVI vegetation cover index has increased by +11% over the period on average but there is a significant variability. Indeed, the impact range between +30% and -15% for a few sites. The causes for variability need to be determined with further research to guide future land restoration implementation."}]},{"head":"Fig6. NDVI impact variation across bench terracing sites","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Findings from these studies will be presented during ClimBeR C4S Senegal stakeholder consultations in 2023. And will serve as template to adapt participatory hydrological modeling activity in Niakhar site, Senegal."}]},{"head":"Interdisciplinary collaborations towards a more integrated assessment","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Interdisciplinary hydro-crop PhD thesis supervised by IGE hydro, IRD CERAAS and Benin Institute . The PhD proposition to improve integration of hydrological measures to assess efficiency and climate resilience of sowing density options, has been successfully submitted. This was possible thanks to the collaboration initiated under ClimBeR programme. This will lead to new climate advisory key for dryland cereal farmers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" BACKGROUND: HYDROLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR MORE CROP PER DROP ............................................................. METHODOLOGY AND SITE DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................... CAPACITY-BUILDING ........................................................................................................................................................ FIRST HYDROLOGICAL FINDINGS TO GUIDE C4S POLICY PATHWAYS ................................................................... BENCH TERRACING, EXAMPLE OF LAND STRUCTURE FOR DROUGHT RESILIENT FARMING LANDSCAPES............................................... PILOT STUDY USING AMMA CATCH REMOTE SENSING DATASETS ............................................................................................. INTERDISCIPLINARY COLLABORATIONS TOWARDS A MORE INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT .................................................................... REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Fig2. Fig2. Carbon flow experimental design in Faidherbia parkland, Niakhar siteCross-learning with other AMMA Catch countries in the Sahel region, eg transfer learnings of bench terracing valuation for climate resilience in Niger. "},{"text":"Fig3. Fig3. Example of PARFLOW water storage map for West Africa "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"c315f8d9-0118-4e1a-acfe-d8af98fca5f2","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0333fdcd6dc2643f3806d8d034f0d9f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d3dc7c37-0210-4896-918e-240087bf58b9/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Regional economies Mali","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"for goods and services was in excess of MF 56,000 million, i.e. almost 20% of the GDP. Shortterm capital movements also contributed to the deterioration of the balance of payments, the tendency being for the net outflows (an average of MF 11,000 million p.a. in 1975 and1976) to exceed long term capital inflows. In fact, Mali was only able to balance its payments during the period under review thanks to unrequited transfers (essentially external aid) and increased external liabilities by the Central Bank."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Although the deterioration in the position of external accounts began during the drought, the continued existence of this situation can be attributed to less stringent monetary and financial management."}]},{"head":"Balance of payments of Mali.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"' In short, by the end of 1976 the Malian economy was ill prepared for the new difficulties it was about to encounter, as its external deficit had led to an increase in the debt of the Central Bank and strong inflationary tendencies were developing. However, a change occurred in 1977: domestic credit decreased from the second quarter onwards, the balance of payments is reported to have shown a surplus and the Central Bank's liabilities, fell by MF 10,000 million during the year. On the other hand claims on government continued to increase as a result of the persistent budgetary deficit estimated at MF 10,000 million in 1977. The government planned to reduce the deficit of MF 5,000 million in 1978."}]},{"head":"Agriculture","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Agricultural production fluctuated in accordance with the unpredictable behaviour of the weather. Crops were seriously affected in 1973 and 1974, including paddy rice for which average yields are estimated to have fallen from 1 tonne per hectare in normal years to under 700 kg. The rice plantations most severely hit were those managed under rural development schemes and plots on traditional farms dependant on natural flooding, for which yields in a normal year are 1,000 and 500 kg/ ha respectively. Under the Office du Niger irrigation scheme, in which land is better protected against the vagaries of the weather, the best plantations produce 2 tonnes per hectare."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The fall in the production of millet, the basic cereal crop, led to a serious food shortage, forcing Mali to call on external assistance and to import cereals (170,000 tonnes in 1973 to 235,000 tonnes in 1974) at prices 2.5 to 3 times higher than the domestic levels. Groundnuts exports dropped from 21,000 tonnes p.a. in 1971 and 1972 to 12,000 tonnes p.a. in 1973 and 1974."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"There was also a smaller drop in cotton exports."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"Agricultural production rose sharply during the 1974-1975 season, when the rains returned to normal, and reached record heights in the following years. In 1976, 34,000 tonnes of cotton and 30 000 tonnes of groundnuts were exported, as well as 36,000 tonnes of cereals. Production levels then fell again due to poor rainfall in the summer of 1977. The shortfall in the cereal harvest was estimated at 250,000 tonnes. Emergency international aid of 112,000 tonnes was recommended and the government had to start purchasing cereals again on the international market. The cotton harvest is reported to have decreased by 15%. It is reported that rainfall returned to normal in the summer of 1978."}]},{"head":"Agricultural production and rainfall in Mali.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Source: Ref. 10, 13"},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Apart from these short-term fluctuations, trends vary for the main agricultural crops Production of basic cereal crops has stagnated, while the output of other crops has increased, in some cases substantially. Between 1968 and 1977, for instance, cotton production rose by 200%; groundnuts by 50% and rice by 30%. The increase in the marketed quantities of these products was even greater, 170% in the case of rice and groundnuts. Only small quantities of traditional cereals are marketed, less than 10,000 tonnes in deficit years, and overall less than 10% of total production."}]},{"head":"Marketed production of agricultural crops in Mali.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Sources: Ref. 7, 10"},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"These figures may be explained by the fact that national agricultural development policy was originally directed towards the promotion of cash crops (cotton, groundnuts, rice). Not until 1972 did Mali extend its agricultural development policy to include subsistence crops, and it was only after the cereal shortages of 1973 and 1974 that schemes for developing millet production in low-rainfall areas were introduced. The maintenance of low producer prices was probably also instrumental in discouraging Malian farmers from producing more cereals than they required for their own needs."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Mali has developed sugar cane production in the irrigated area of the Office du Niger, as well as tea production in the southern region. The expansion of these crops will lead to a reduction in food imports. Sugar cane production, originally planned to supply a sugar refinery with an annual throughput of 6,000 tonnes has recently been increased to supply a second sugar refinery with an annual throughput of 15,000 tonnes. In 1976, 25,000 tonnes of sugar were imported."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Local processing of export crops has not been widely developed. Ginned cotton fibre is exported in raw form, and a large proportion of the residual production of cotton seed is exported or consumed in a raw state. The cottonseed milling capacity has been used very irregularly in past years, but now an additional milling unit is planned. About 50% of the marketed groundnut production was exported after shelling, while the remainder was milled for local consumption (oil) and for export (oil and oilcake). The opening of a second oilmill, which camp into operation at the end of 1976, will make it possible to process almost all the marketed groundnut production locally. It is planned to export the entire production of this new mill."}]},{"head":"Livestock","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"According to official estimates, the number of cattle has dropped by more than 30% since 1970, whereas the drought had little effect on the number of small ruminants. Other sources (vaccination figures, local estimates) indicate that losses have in fact been less serious, with the number of cattle failing by no more than 15%. The semi-arid nomadic areas in the northeast have been affected most severely. According to official estimates, which are undoubtedly exaggerated, livestock losses in that region amount to 80%. On the other hand, herds have continued to increase in sedentary areas, particularly in the south where a 5% annual increase is reported."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Marketed cattle production (official slaughtertngs plus estimated exports of livestock) accounted for almost half of total production in 1970, and was distributed between exports and domestic (urban) consumption at a ratio of 2 to 1. A decrease in marketed production of approximately 30% in 1974 only affected exports, which are estimated to have fallen to 122,000 head in that year and to 110,000 in 1975 and in 1976, as opposed to 200,000 head in the years before the drought. At the same time official figures for the number of cattle slaughtered have shown a tendency to rise. Marketed production of sheep and goats, which represents only a small percentage of the total, appears to be slightly higher than before the drought. In the period 1975-76, exports were estimated at 265,000 head (270,000 prior to the drought) and the numbers officially slaughtered for domestic consumption were given as 230,000 head (140,000 and 180,000 for 1970 and 1972)."}]},{"head":"Marketed production of cattle in Mali.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Sources: Ref.12, 15"},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"In short, whereas agricultural production rose to previous levels with the return of the rains, and in some cases even reached levels higher than before the drought, the livestock sector suffered more long-term damage due to the length of its production cycle. The situation has deprived the Malian economy of substantial exports earnings."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Before the drought, legal sales of live animals were the biggest export item, closely followed by sales of cotton. The position has changed considerably since then: exports of live animals were at the same level in 1976 as in 1970-71, whereas total exports had risen twofold and cotton sales fourfold."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"These figures do not take account of illegal livestock exports, which were estimated to be equal in value to official sales in 1970-71 and appear to have increased still further since that time. These illegal exports obscure the actual role of livestock in export earnings, and also deprive the central treasury of tax revenue. If unauthorized sales are included, the share of live animals in total exports seems to have fallen less than would appear from a study of customs statistics alone."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Increases in domestic livestock and meat prices, which were modest between 1967 and 1972, accelerated with the decline in supply."}]},{"head":"Breakdown of exports from Mali.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"From 1972 to 1976, prices at Bamako rose on average by 20% p.a., with a 46% rise in 1975 and a 26% rise in 1976. There was a 10% increase in 1977. Between 1970 and 1977 meat prices rose to 2.3 times their earlier level, while food prices doubled Retail prices of dairy products in Bamako, which had remained stable until 1975, rose by 33% in 1976 and 50% in 1977. Actual market prices are consistently higher than the official prices charged by the Bamako Dairy Plant (ULB), which operates the only commercial network for collecting and processing milk in the country. Supplies in the Bamako region are insufficient to operate the ULB installation up to capacity-less than 1,000 litres are collected per day, whereas the processing capacity is 10,000 litres. For this reason, ULB also produces recombined milk and dairy products from skim-milk powder and butter oil donated by the World Food Programme."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Retail prices in Bamako."}]},{"head":"Price indicators","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The Malian economy is hedged about by an intricate series of controls. For agricultural crops, prices are fixed at the various stages of the production and marketing process, and marketing is con trolled by parastatal agencies. Input prices are also laid down by the authorities and marketing is the responsibility of the parastatal sector. Prices for agricultural equipment and insecticides, which were previously subsidized, are now fixed in relation to costs in most cases."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"There is also a variable subsidy for the purchase of fertilizers. Livestock and meat marketing has remained in the hands of the private sector, however, with producer prices and to a considerable extent retail prices, determined by market forces."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Marketing arrangements for groundnuts and cotton have generally been satisfactory, but the rigidity of the OPAM-Cooperative system, which is responsible for the distribution of cereals, has resulted in the development of an \"unofficial market\" Information is available on \"unofficial\" prices at the retail stage from surveys conducted in Bamako, but little is known about this trade at the producer level. According to estimates made by the Club du Sahel, producer prices for basic cereals on the \"unofficial market\" are sometimes lower and sometimes higher than official prices. On average, therefore there would appear to be little difference between the two. At the final consumer stage, however, cereal prices on the \"unofficial market\" are always higher than prices charged by the cooperatives."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"In 1976-77 producer prices for agricultural products appeared rather low compared to international prices and those paid to producers in neighbouring countries. The beef/cereal price ratio was 15.6 in 1977, higher than in previous years when it remained level at about 12. The milk/cereal price ratio of 6.2 was also rising, as a result of the sharp increase in milk prices in 1976 and 1977. The beef/ milk price ratio has generally been in the region of 2 to 3 for the past few years. This low beef/milk ratio reflects a situation in which livestock breeding is based on cheap grazing and the dairy industry is not highly developed. By contrast, the beef/cereal and milk/cereal price ratios are higher than the norm."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"If these ratios reflected real production costs, it would be to Mali's advantage to concentrate on cereal production. However, cereal prices are fixed below the market-clearing level, while livestock prices reflect market forces and are in fact even forced up by higher external demand. Thus, these ratios actually reflect price distortions resulting from low, fixed prices for cereals. This pricing policy inevitably encourages Malian farmers to neglect cereal production in favour of more rewarding alternatives. In fact, the long period of stagnation in the production of basic cereals and the consistent growth in herd size until 1973 are likely to have been influenced by this price relationship."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Price ratios in Mali. Price ratio trends in Mali."},{"index":7,"size":141,"text":"Simultaneously, prices of agricultural equipment expressed in output units increased and contributed to the deterioration of farming conditions: it took 1,100 kg. of millet to buy a plough in 1970/71, 1180 kg in 1973/74 and 1,350 kg. in 1977/78. In addition to the gap between prices of cereals and animal products, the disparity between prices of agricultural inputs and outputs has also tended to discourage Malian farmers from producing more cereals than they require for their own needs or modernizing their farms. Price ratios of agricultural equipment in relation to other outputs have also increased, though fertilizer/output price ratios have varied in accordance with subsidy policies. There appears to be a general trend of deterioration in farming conditions. Recent estimates made by the institute for Rural Economy even imply that agricultural production costs are greater than prices obtained by the producers."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"Substantial increases in livestock prices raised to record levels the price ratios of meat in relation to cereals and other agricultural products as well as in relation to potential inputs (oilcake, fertilizers, agricultural equipment). This has emphasized existing distortions in Mali's agricultural sector and strengthened the apparent profitability of livestock breeding. However, as in the past, this profitability reflects price relationships which are to a large extent artificial."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Cereal prices on the world market ranged from 8 US cents/kg. (United State) to 20 cents/kg. (EEC), as opposed to a producer price of 8 cents in Mali. The export price for milled rice was 27 cents/kg. in Bangkok and 8.3 cents/kg. in Mali. Mali exported ginned cotton fibre at 120 US cents/kg. (FM 594) and shelled groundnuts at 35 cents (MF 170), including export tax. Livestock and meat prices, on the other hand. appeared high in relation to world prices (60 US cents/Kg. in Australia for export beef, 140 cents/kg. In the United States, as opposed to 100-125 cents/kg. in Mali). Relative prices for dairy products were even higher. Input prices in Mali in terms of units of output. Input prices in Mali in terms of units of output. 1970 1973 1976 197019731976 Plough (unit) Plough (unit) in kg of cotton 410 472 608 in kg of cotton410472608 in kg of groudnuts 615 787 1140 in kg of groudnuts6157871140 in kg of rice (unhusked) 736 944 1140 in kg of rice (unhusked)7369441140 It kg of millet 1022 1180 1425 It kg of millet102211801425 Fertilizer (kg) Fertilizer (kg) in kg of cotton a - 1.06 1.46 in kg of cotton a-1.061.46 in kg of groundnuts b 2.0 1.80 1.50 in kg of groundnuts b2.01.801.50 in kg of maize c 2.0 2.70 1.90 in kg of maize c2.02.701.90 a. \"complexe cotton\" a. \"complexe cotton\" b. ammonium sulphate b. ammonium sulphate c. \"super simple\" c. \"super simple\" Source: Ref. 19 Source: Ref. 19 "}],"sieverID":"a53140bd-a237-4827-a713-690793e0339e","abstract":"It is difficult to follow the evolution of economic activity in Mali, since no national accounts estimates have been published since 1972. The GDP certainly fell considerably in 1973 (probably by nearly 5%) as a result of a shortfall in agricultural output, and this was followed by a further drop in 1974, when riot only was the harvest poor but meat production also slumped. This trend was reversed by the return of normal rainfall in 1975. Agricultural production is estimated to have increased by 15% in 1975 and at a more moderate rate in 1976 and 1977 . Between 1974 and 1977 industrial production is reported to have increased at a rate of 15% per annum.Thus, after decreasing by about 10% in 1973 and 1974, the GDP could be estimated to have increased substantially in each of the following three years, probably by almost 10% p.a. As a result, the estimated increase over the whole period from 1972 to 1977 is nearly 4% per annum. This growth rate is lower than; the rate achieved during the three-year economic and financial recovery plan period from 1970 to 1972 (4.7% p.a.) but higher than the poor performance recorded during the previous decade (2.3% p.a. from 1959 to 1968). Economic growth is expected to slow down again in 1978. with perhaps even a decline in GDP, due to poor harvests-the drop in cereal production is estimated at almost 15%.During this period of economic fluctuations Mali's external trade position has worsened, with an increasing trade deficit. In addition to foreign donations, grain had to be imported commercially in 1973 and 1974 to offset the shortfall in the harvests. There were no cereal imports in 1975, but exports dropped and there was a substantial increase in the value of traditional imports, apparently due to a rise in prices. In that year exports covered only 31% of the value of imports (c.i.f.) compared to 60% before the drought. The situation improved in 1976 when cotton exports rose to 2.6 times their former level. This recovery is reported to have continued in 1977 when various factors contributed to a rise in exports: good cotton and groundnut harvests, a rise in groundnut prices and improved market conditions for agricultural products."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"03652f540b478d34dd85e3bf899f49ef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/13d9cf5e-1cf0-4c51-b4c1-affcee0d26c2/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"MeWRKY IIas, Subfamily Genes of WRKY Transcription Factors From Cassava, Play an Important Role in Disease Resistance","keywords":["WRKY","cassava","Xam","pathogen defense","cassava bacterial blight"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":266,"text":"WRKY is a type of plant-specific transcription factors, which was first reported in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) as SWEET POTATO FACTOR1 (SPF1) (Ishiguro and Nakamura, 1994), and subsequently, the homologs were isolated from wild oat (Avena fatua) (Rushton et al., 1995) and parsley (Petroselinum crispum) (Rushton et al., 1996). WRKY transcription factors contain the conserved WRKY domain, which was defined by approximately 60 conserved amino acid sequence WRKYGQK at its N-terminal end, together with a novel zinc-finger-like motif (Eulgem et al., 2000). They have been reported to be involved in essential regulatory functions in multitude of processes during plant growth and development (Riechmann and Ratcliffe, 2000;Yu et al., 2012;Han et al., 2014). However, the most remarkable function of WRKY regulators is their response to diverse abiotic stresses (drought, salt, temperature, waterlogging, and ultraviolet stresses) and biotic stresses (Chen et al., 2018), especially the microbial invaders. Because of the important regulatory function, increasing numbers of WRKY genes have been isolated in various species including 74 members in Arabidopsis (Kalde et al., 2003;Wang et al., 2011), 116 members in Gossypium hirsutum (Dou et al., 2014;Gu et al., 2018), 103 members in Oryza sativa (Ramamoorthy et al., 2008), 58 members in Ricinus communis (Zou et al., 2016), 81 members in Solanum lycopersicum (Huang et al., 2012), 55 members in Vitis vinifera (Guo et al., 2014), 97 members in Actinidia (Jing and Liu, 2018), 100 members in Populus (Jiang et al., 2014), 55 members in Cucumis sativus (Ling et al., 2011), 119 members in Zea mays (Wei et al., 2012), and 85 members in Manihot esculenta (Wei et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":262,"text":"WRKY proteins play dual roles in plant pathogen defense, mostly as positive and negative regulators. For example, WRKY functions as a resistance protein to Ralstonia solanacearum (Deslandes et al., 2002), which indicated its positive effect in bacteria defending process. It has been reported that bacterial effectors PopP2 and AvrRps4 interacted with WRKY domain-containing proteins, suggesting that these effectors interfered with the WRKY-dependent defense (Sarris et al., 2015). Also, the expression of pepper CaWRKY40 was induced by R. solanacearum, and it promoted the resistance against R. solanacearum in pepper (Dang et al., 2013). Another pepper WRKY gene, CaWRKY1, was strongly induced by several pathogen infections as well; however, it acted as a negative regulator in pathogen defense processes and inhibited the expression of pathogenesis-related genes (Oh et al., 2008). WRKY genes that functioned as negative regulators often prevented the exaggerated defense response (Birkenbihl et al., 2017). Therefore, multiple WRKY genes worked together to form a transcriptional network with positive and negative feedback loops and feedforward modules to keep the defense response in a moderate range (Eulgem and Somssich, 2007;Pandey and Somssich, 2009). The conserved structural features of WRKY might be essential to integrate the members in the defense network (Eulgem and Somssich, 2007). The promoters of Arabidopsis WRKY genes responding to pathogen and/or SA had a substantial enrichment of W-box (C/T)TGAC(T/C), suggesting that these WRKY genes could be auto-regulated or controlled by other WRKY proteins (Dong et al., 2003). Chromatin immune precipitation assays confirmed that WRKY33 bound its own promoter in vivo, indicating a potential positive feedback regulatory loop (Mao et al., 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":214,"text":"Moreover, WRKY members perform their regulatory functions in diverse ways. Most of the WRKY proteins could bind to the W-box in the promoter of target genes to regulate their expression (Li et al., 2011;Jiang et al., 2012), for example, AtWRKY57 (Jiang et al., 2012) and OsWRKY47 (Raineri et al., 2015). Genome-wide binding site screening revealed that upon the inducement with flg22 (the conserve domain of bacterial flagellin), each of Arabidopsis WRKY18, WRKY40 and WRKY33 binds to more than 1,000 gene loci. W-box elements were the most frequently occurring motifs for all three group WRKY factors (Birkenbihl et al., 2017). WRKY proteins also bound to WT-box (GGACTTTC) (Kanofsky et al., 2017), PRE4 element (Cai et al., 2008), and WK box (TTTCCAC) (Verk et al., 2008). Another common way for WRKY to play regulatory role was to interact directly with other transcription factors. In grapes, VvWRKY03 acted through a combinatorial effect with VvMYB14, suggesting that these two regulators might interact at the protein level as previously reported in other species (Vannozzi et al., 2018). The target genes regulated by WRKY were involved in various plant life activities, including pathogen-related genes, ET, SA, JA, and ABA-induced pathway genes, and so on (Du and Chen, 2000;Tao et al., 2011;Jiang and Yu, 2016;Birkenbihl et al., 2017;Ullah et al., 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":174,"text":"WRKY IIa group genes appear to include a small number of members, for example, 3 in Arabidopsis thaliana (Eulgem et al., 2000), 4 in Oryza sativa (Wu et al., 2005), 6 in Gossypium hirsutum (Dou et al., 2014), 5 in Populus trichocarpa (He et al., 2012), and 3 in Cucumis sativus (Ling et al., 2011), but they participate widely in the regulation of diverse defense processes. Arabidopsis AtWRKY18, AtWRKY40, and AtWRKY60 exhibit a complex pattern of physical and functional interactions in response to the microbial pathogens such as Pseudomonas syringae and Botrytis cinerea (Xu et al., 2006). Arabidopsis wrky18 wrky40 and wrky18 wrky60 double mutants and wrky18 wrky40 wrky60 triple mutants are more resistant to P. syringae but more susceptible to B. cinerea. All OsWRKY IIa members are also involved in modulating plant innate immunity (Peng et al., 2010). Hordeum vulgare HvWRKY1 and HvWRKY2, the homologous proteins of Arabidopsis AtWRKY18 and AtWRKY40, interacted with mildew resistance locus A (MLA) to regulate the mediated resistance to Blumeria graminis f sp. hordei (Shen et al., 2007)."},{"index":5,"size":181,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important staple crop as a source of food and income for hundreds of millions of people in tropical areas (Chaves et al., 2021). Cassava root starch is widely used in the pharmaceutical, textile, paper, and biofuel industries. This major crop is threatened by several pathogens, especially the vascular and systemic Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam) as its devastating effects on the cassava productivity. In cassava, 85 putative WRKY members have been detected using genome sequence analysis (Wei et al., 2016). An increasing number of evidence has confirmed the important roles of WRKY transcription factors in cassava defense processes, and several MeWRKY genes have been identified to be involved in fighting against microbial invaders. For example, MeWRKY20 regulates disease resistance through physically interacting with MeATG8 (autophagy-related protein 8) a/f/h and transcriptional activation MeATG8a (Yan et al., 2017). Similarly, MeWRKY75 was also capable of positively regulating resistance against bacterial blight by forming protein complex with MeWHY1/2/3 and activating the expression of MeWHY3 (Liu et al., 2018). However, the roles of majority MeWRKY family members remain poorly understood."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"In this study, we comprehensively identified 102 typical WRKY members containing the WRKY domain when performing whole-genome scan using conserved WRKY domain sequence as a query. We then focused on six WRKY members from Group IIa and further determined their roles in cassava disease resistance. The six MeWRKY IIas were self-activated and could bind to W-box. The expression of MeWRKY IIas responded to the treatments of SA, JA, and Xam. Moreover, MeWRKY IIa members MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 positively regulate disease resistance against CBB. Thus, WRKY group IIa members MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 are involved in bacteria defense in cassava and can be considered as the target genes for resistance to CBB."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant Materials and Growth Conditions","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The cassava cultivar SC8 (South China 8) and Arabidopsis Col-0 conserved by our laboratory were used in this study. Cassava plants were planted in green house condition (28 • C, 12-h day/12h night cycle, 120-150 µmol m −2 s −1 light intensity, and 80% humidity). Arabidopsis was planted under 16-h light/8-h dark at 22 • C."}]},{"head":"Identification and Comprehensive Analyses of MeWRKYs","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"The conserved hidden Markov model (HMM) profile of WRKYGQK domain (PF03106) of WRKY proteins downloaded from Pfam (http://pfam.xfam.org/) was used as a query for BLAST against all protein sequences of cassava genome v6.0 in Phytozome database (https://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov/pz/portal. html) using HMMER3.0 software (http://hmmer.janelia.org/) with e-value threshold of 1e-10. Then, the cassava-specific HMM file for the WRKY family was constructed by hmmbuild from the aligned results of the initially obtained WRKY protein sequences and used for second round HMM searches against cassava genome. The candidate protein sequences were further identified for the presence of WRKY domain by Pfam and SMART database (http://smart.embl.de/). The MeWRKY proteins were named based on their position on cassava chromosome. In addition, the physical and chemical properties of MeWRKY proteins were analyzed using online software ProtParam (http://web.expasy.org/protparam/). The subcellular locations of MeWRKY proteins were predicted with WoLF PSORT (https://wolfpsort.hgc.jp/). Moreover, the multi-sequence alignment of MeWRKYs was aligned using the ClustalW (Thompson et al., 2003), and the phylogenetic tree was constructed using MEGA7 (Kumar et al., 2016). Genome annotation files of cassava were downloaded from Phytozome database, and gene structure was analyzed using GSDS (http:// gsds.gao-lab.org). The conserved protein motif analysis was carried out using online software MEME (http://gsds.gao-lab. org). All identified motifs were annotated using InterProScan (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/pfa/iprscan/). The gene structure, conserved motifs, and the phylogenetic tree of MeWRKYs were combined using online tool iTOL (Letunic and Bork, 2006). Subfamilies were further identified and named according to the genetic relationship among different clades and the conserved protein domain composition."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Chromosomal locations of MeWRKYs were retrieved from cassava genome annotation file and visualized using TBtools (Chen et al., 2020a). Gene clusters are defined as a single chromosome containing two or more genes within 200 kb (Holub, 2001). All coding proteins in cassava were first aligned using BLASTP (E-value cutoff = 1e-10) against itself. Additionally, the BLASTP hit results were then compiled as the input for MCScanX (Wang et al., 2012) to perform gene duplication and collinearity analysis with default parameters."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Public cassava RNA-seq data for cassava tissues or cassava infected with Xam were obtained from the high-throughput DNA and RNA sequence read archive (SRA) of the NCBI. Analysis of MeWRKY gene expression profiles was performed as previously described (Hong et al., 2021). Heatmaps of MeWRKYs were processed based on log2-transformed FPKM (fragments per kb per million fragments) values and visualized using TBtools."}]},{"head":"Subcellular Localization of MeWRKY IIas","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"To identify the subcellular location of MeWRKY IIas, the fulllength cDNA sequences of six MeWRKY IIas were cloned and linked into pGBT vector and then transferred into cassava protoplast (Wu et al., 2017). The cell nucleus was stained with Hoechst 33,342 solution (Solarbio, Beijing, China). The green fluorescent signals were observed with confocal laser-scanning microscope (TCS SP8, Leica, Heidelberg, Germany)."}]},{"head":"Hormones Treatment and Xam Inoculation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"The in vitro cassava plantlets were transferred to nutrition pots. After 2 months, cassava plants were sprayed with 100 of µmol/L MeJA (methyl jasmonate) and 100 of µmol/L SA (salicylic acid) (both dissolved in 1: 9, v; v ethanol). Mock plants were sprayed with 10% ethanol (1: 9, v; v). Cassava leaves were sampled at 0, 15, 30, and 60 min after the hormone treatment. For the pathogen treatment, the single clone of XamCHN11 on LPGA solid medium was transferred into 5 ml of liquid medium and cultivated at 28 • C for another 48 h (Li et al., 2018). Then, the bacteria were collected by centrifugation. The bacterial suspensions (OD 600 = 0.1, 1×10 8 CFU ml −1 ) were prepared with sterile 10 mmol/L of MgCl 2 and then infiltrated into lower leaves using a 1-ml needleless syringe. Cassava leaves were sampled at 0, 5 h and 1, 2, 4, 8, and 15 days. At least three repetitions were employed for each treatment."}]},{"head":"RNA Isolation and Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Total RNA isolation and first-strand cDNA synthesis were performed using RNAprep Pure Plant Kit (Polysaccharides & Polyphenolics-rich) (TIANGEN, DP441, Beijing, China) and RevertAid First-Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Thermo Scientific, K1622, Waltham, MA, USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The qRT-PCR was performed using the TB Green TM Premix Ex Taq TM II (TIi RNaseH Plus) (TaKaRa, RR820A, Dalian, China) to detect the expression level of target genes. MeUBQ10 (Phytozome: Manes.07G019300) was used as an internal reference gene for qPCR studies. Relative quantification of gene transcription level was analyzed using the comparative threshold cycle 2 − CT method. The gene-specific primers for qPCR analysis are listed in Supplementary Table 1."}]},{"head":"Yeast One-Hybrid Assay of MeWRKY IIas With W-Box","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"To identify the transcriptional activation of MeWRKY IIas, the full-length cDNA sequences of six MeWRKY IIa members were cloned into pGBKT7 vectors and then transferred to Y2HGold yeast strains. After confirmed by PCR, the positive yeast clones were cultivated in SD/-Trp liquid medium at 28 • C until OD 600 reached 0.6. The transformants were diluted into different concentrations and selected on the SD/-Trp, SD/-Trp/X-α-gal, SD/-Trp/X-α-gal/AbA (aureobasidin A), and SD/-Trp-His-Ade deficiency medium. The transcriptional activities were assessed according to the yeast growth status after 2-3 days in an incubator at 28 • C."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"To assess the combining capacity of MeWRKY IIa members with W-box, yeast one-hybrid assay was performed. W-box was cloned into pBait-AbAi vector and transferred into Y1HGold yeast strain according to the manual of Yeast maker Yeast Transformation System 2 (PT1172-1, Clontech Laboratories, Inc. A Takara Bio Company, CA 94043). After culturing on the SD/-Ura solid medium for about 2-4 days, the positive clones were identified and cultivated in liquid medium until OD 600 = 0.6. Then, the diluted yeast culture was dotted on SD/-Ura solid medium containing 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, and 800 ng/ml AbA. After 3-5 days, the growth status of yeast colony was observed and the minimum inhibited concentration of AbA was determined."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"The full-length cDNA sequence of MeWRKY IIas was cloned into pGADT7 vector, individually. Then, the plasmid of pGADT7-MeWRKY IIas was transferred into the Y1HGold yeast strain containing pAbAi-W-box. After cultivating on SD/-Leu solid medium at 28 • C for about 2-4 days, the positive clones were identified by PCR and then cultivated in SD/-Leu liquid medium until OD 600 = 0.6. The yeast culture was diluted by 10, 100, and 1,000 times as well as the control (pABAi-p53+pGADT7-Rec). The dilution was dotted on SD/-Leu solid medium containing different AbA concentrations. The interaction between MeWRKY IIas and W-box was assessed by the growth performance of transformant."}]},{"head":"Generation of MeWRKY IIas Overexpressed Arabidopsis Plants and Pathogen Sensitivity Test","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"A number of six MeWRKY IIas full-length cDNA sequences were cloned into plant expression vector pEGAD. The positive plasmids and empty vector were transferred to Agrobacterium tumefaciens GV3101 and cultivated in YEB liquid medium at 28 • C for about 18 h. Then, the bacteria precipitation was collected and resuspended in 5% sucrose solution containing 0.1% silwet L-77, and the concentration was adjusted to OD 600 = 1.0. The transgenic Arabidopsis plants were generated through Agrobacterium-mediated floral dipping method, and the positive transformants were screened by 0.1% Basta and PCR amplification. The homozygotes of T3 plants were used for detecting the Pst DC3000 sensitivity. Then, 4-week-old transgenic Arabidopsis plants were inoculated with Pst DC3000 as previously described (Huang et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Virus-Induced Gene Silencing in Cassava and Xam Sensitivity Test","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"To analyze the functions of MeWRKY IIa genes in cassava, the loss-of-function plants were created via VIGS method (Tuo et al., 2021). The regions of target genes for genome-wide off-target gene silencing were selected using SGN VIGS Tool (Fernandez-Pozo et al., 2015). The specific primer pairs of MeWRKY IIas fragment sequences for VIGS are listed in the Supplementary Table 1. The amplified fragments were cloned into pCsCMV-NC using the Nimble cloning methods (Yan et al., 2019). pCsCMV-ChlI 345 (345 bp magnesium chelatase subunit I fragment) was used as the positive control and pCsCMV-NC as the negative control. All the vectors were transformed into the Agrobacterium tumefaciens GV3101 with pSoup-p19 helper plasmid. The leaves of cassava plantlets at 8 weeks after planting were injected with 100 µl Agrobacterium containing recombinant plasmid (OD 600 = 0.8). Injections were performed at 8-10 spots (10 µl agrobacterium suspension for each spot) on both sides of the main vein per leaf to enlarge the infiltrated leaf area. When the positive plants exhibited apparent photobleaching in the veins of leaves, the silencing effect of target gene was detected by real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR. Leaves of silenced plants were inoculated with XamCHN11 pathogen (OD 600 = 0.1 or 0.01). Samples were taken at 6 days after inoculation for lesion area investigation. The lesion areas were measured using ImageJ 1.51 (Schneider et al., 2012). The bacterial growth in cassava plants was measured as previously described (Medina et al., 2018). All experiments were taken three times showing similar results."}]},{"head":"Co-expression Analysis of MeWRKY IIas and Identification of MeWRKY IIas-Regulating Genes","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"To find the MeWRKY IIas-regulating genes, the 2-kb upstream sequences (putative promoter regions) of \"ATG\" of total 33,033 genes in the cassava genome were extracted and analyzed with TSSP. The conserved W-box sequence [(T)(T)TGAC(C/T)] in promoter regions was used as a marker to identify MeWRKYregulated gene candidates possibly involved in plant disease resistance. Co-expression modules were generated for the MeWRKY IIas and W-box genes based on the 37 selected transcriptomes (Supplementary Table 2). The network was analyzed with the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) package (Zhang and Horvath, 2005) as previously described (Hong et al., 2021). A pair of MeWRKY and W-box genes with a weight value ≥ 0.15 was defined as associated. The gene modules were visualized with Cytoscape (Shannon et al., 2003)."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Data were presented as mean ± standard deviation. Significant difference was analyzed using student's t-test. The mean values were considered significantly different when p < 0.05. All statistical data were analyzed using SPSS 20.0 software. The measurement values presented were obtained from the means of three biological replicates."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Genome-Wide Identification and Evolutionary Analysis of MeWRKYs","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Genome-wide search using conserved WRKY domain (PF03106) revealed a total of 102 non-redundant candidate MeWRKY genes from cassava genome database after manually removing the redundant sequences. We further named these cassava MeWRKY members as MeWRKY1-102 according to their position on chromosomes. The detailed information of each gene is shown in Supplementary Table 3. In general, the total length of predicted cassava MeWRKYs proteins ranged from 115 (MeWRKY37) to 741 (MeWRKY65) amino acid residues. The relative molecular mass (MWs) and the predicted isoelectric points (pIs) of MeWRKYs ranged from 12.63 (MeWRKY4) to 80.43 kDa (MeWRKY65), and from 4.91 (MeWRKY62) to 9.89 (MeWRKY44), respectively. The predicted subcellular localization of MeWRKYs showed that most of them have a great possibility to locate in the nucleus with a few in the chloroplast (MeWRKY3, MeWRKY88), peroxisome (MeWRKY15, MeWRKY20, MeWRKY54), cytoskeleton (MeWRKY21), and cytoplasm (MeWRKY29)."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"All MeWRKYs were located on chromosomes and showed that an uneven distribution pattern except for MeWRKY100 to 102 were located on the scaffolds. The numbers of the MeWRKYs on chromosome (Chr.) ranged from 1 (Chr. 4/Chr. 11) to 18 (Chr. 1), with a mean of 5.5 MeWRKYs per chromosome (Supplementary Figure 1). Many MeWRKYs tend to distribute at the chromosomal ends. Gene clusters are important for predicting co-expression genes or potential function of clustered genes (Overbeek et al., 1999). A total of thirty MeWRKYs were clustered into 11 clusters in cassava genome (Supplementary Figure 1). The gene clusters irregularly distributed on chromosomes. A total of two clusters were located on both Chr. 1 and Chr. 12, and only one cluster was found on each of Chr. 2,Chr. 3,Chr. 5,Chr. 7,Chr. 10,Chr. 14,and Chr. 16."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"Gene duplication events were considered as the main evolutionary force. According to the previous studies, two or more adjacent homologous genes located on a single chromosome were defined as tandem duplicated genes, whereas homologous genes between different genomic regions or chromosomes were regarded as segmental duplication genes (Liu and Ekramoddoullah, 2009). A total of 60 homologous gene pairs involving 65 MeWRKY genes, accounting for almost 64% of MeWRKYs genes, were identified as segmental duplication genes, whereas only one pair of MeWRKY genes (MeWRKY89 and 90) was identified as tandem duplication genes (Figure 1; Supplementary Table 4). Among all the segmental duplication pairs, 18 pairs were discovered in subgroup IIc, followed by 8 pairs in subgroups I and IIe, 7 pairs in subgroup IId, 6 pairs in subgroup III, and 5 pairs in subgroup IIa. Subgroup II experienced the majority of segmental duplication events. These results indicated that some MeWRKYs might be generated by segmental duplication events, which acted as a major force to drive the evolution of the MeWRKYs. The same phenomenon was also found in many other plant WRKY families, such as peanut (Song et al., 2016), soybean (Yin et al., 2013), willow (Bi et al., 2016), and carrot (Nan and Gao, 2019)."}]},{"head":"Identification of WRKY IIa Group Members Using Conversed Domain Analysis","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":462,"text":"The most prominent structural feature of WRKY proteins is the WRKY domain (WD, a highly conserved heptapeptide stretch of WRKYGQK at the N-terminus followed by a zinc-finger-like motif) (Eulgem et al., 2000). To better understand the phylogenetic relationship and classification of MeWRKYs, neighbor-joining (NJ) phylogenetic tree was generated (Supplementary Figure 2; Figure 2). To identify the variations in WRKY domains, a multiple sequence alignment of the core WRKY domain, spanning about 60 amino acids of all 102 MeWRKYs, is shown in Supplementary Figure 3. The phylogenetic tree and multiple core sequence alignment showed that the 102 MeWRKYs could be divided into three groups based on the number of WRKY domain sequences and the features of the zinc-finger-like motif. The WRKY I and the WRKY III group contained 21 and 12 MeWRKYs members as WRKY I group proteins usually contain two WD sequences and two C2H2 motif (C-X 4−5 -C-X 22−23 -H-X 1 -H), and WRKY III group proteins usually contain C2-H-C motif (C-X 7 -C-X 23 -H-X 1 -C) in addition to one WRKY domain. Generally speaking, group I contained two WRKY domains (an N-terminal and a C-terminal WRKY domain), whereas MeWRKY55, 57, and 83 only contain a C-terminal WRKY domain. Besides, MeWRKY57 contains C2-H-C motif (C-X 7 -C-X 23 -H-X 1 -C), but we still classify it to group I according the phylogenetic tree with Arabidopsis WRKY members (Supplementary Figure 2). The WRKY II group proteins usually contain only one WRKY domain and same type of zinc-finger-like motif with WRKY I group. According to sequence variances in zinc-finger-like motif, WRKY II proteins can be divided into five subgroups IIa [CX 5 CPVKKK(L/V)Q], IIb (CX 5 CPVRKQVQ), IIc (CX 4 C), IId (CX 5 CPARKHVE), and IIe [CX 5 CPARK(Q/M)V(E/D)] with 7, 15, 25, 10, and 12 WRKY members, respectively. The highly conserved WRKYGQK domain was present in 97 MeWRKY members, whereas a group I (MeWRKY57) and three group IIc members (MeWRKY29, 70, and 88) have WRKYGQR and WRKYGKK domains, respectively. The group IIa member MeWRKY4 was observed to have lost its partial WRKY domain. The slight variations in WRKYGQK domain were also found in other plant species, such as carrot (Nan and Gao, 2019), pineapple (Xie et al., 2018), cucumber (Chen et al., 2020b), pepper (Zheng et al., 2019), and tomato (Huang et al., 2012). The variations in WRKY domain may relate to the binding specificity to W-box cis-elements (Guo et al., 2014;Chen et al., 2018). An indirect evidence was that tobacco NtWRKY12, which contains a WRKYGKK domain, could bind to WK-box rather than Wbox (Verk et al., 2008). Moreover, the soybean GmWRKY6 and GmWRKY21, which have a WRKYGKK domain, do not bind normally to the W-box (Zhou et al., 2008). These results indicate a high complexity between cassava MeWRKY genes."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"To explore the structural diversity of MeWRKYs, the exonintron structure analyses of 102 MeWRKYs were performed and mapped to the family phylogenetic tree (Figure 2). All MeWRKYs have at least 2 exons. The number of exons in MeWRKYs ranged from 2 to 6. Among them, 10 of MeWRKYs only have 2 exons, 51 of MeWRKYs had 3 exons, 14 of MeWRKYs had 4 exons, 19 of MeWRKYs had 5 exons, and the rest of 8 MeWRKYs had 6 exons. All MeWRKYs had at least one intron inserted. The PR intron was found in the WRKY domains in group I, IIc, IId, and IIe, whereas the VQR intron distributed in the C2H2 motif of the group IIa and IIb (Supplementary Figure 3). In general, the closest MeWRKY genes in the same subfamily have similar gene structure, supporting their close evolutionary relationships."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"To further study the characteristic regions of the MeWRKYs, the conserved motifs of the 102 candidate MeWRKYs were detected by the MEME and then annotated with InterProScan (Figure 2, Supplementary Table 5). A total of 10 distinct motifs were identified. Motifs 1 and 2, broadly distributed across MeWRKY proteins, were annotated as WRKY DNA-binding domain. Motifs 4 and 7, also identified as WRKY domain (Nterminal), were only found in group I. The motif 6, which was annotated as leucine zippers (LZ), was found to be specific to subgroups IIa (except for MeWRKY4) and IIb. The similar motif composition of the MeWRKY proteins with each subclass indicates that the protein structure and function were relatively conserved within each specific subfamily."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"As plant WRKY IIa genes play an important role in plant disease resistance (Xu et al., 2006;Liu et al., 2007;Shen et al., 2007), we next paid further attentions on cassava MeWRKY IIas. After aligning the seven cassava WRKY IIa protein sequences, i.e., MeWRKY4, MeWRKY27, MeWRKY28, MeWRKY33, MeWRKY64, MeWRKY89, and MeWRKY90, we observed that all of the WRKY IIas from cassava contained one typical WRKY domain, except for MeWRKY4 that only had the zinc finger motif (Supplementary Figures 3, 4). Thus, we selected the six members of cassava WRKY IIa group as candidates for the follow-up functional analysis. The molecular weights of the six proteins varied from 28.45 (MeWRKY27) to 36.52 kDa (MeWRKY64) and the isoelectric points ranged from 8.26 (MeWRKY89) to 9.01 (MeWRKY64)."}]},{"head":"Expression Patterns of MeWRKYs in Different Tissues","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"To assess the potential functions of MeWRKYs during cassava growth and development, the expression patterns of all 102 MeWRKYs in leaves and different stage roots were investigated using a standard transcriptome analysis procedure based on public transcriptomic data (Supplementary Figure 5). Some MeWRKYs showed significantly temporal and spatial differences in expression. For example, MeWRKY56 exhibited the highest transcript levels in Arg7 leaves. In addition, the expression of several MeWRKYs, such as MeWRKY32, MeWRKY40, occurred preferentially in roots. However, MeWRKY6, MeWRKY9, MeWRKY10, MeWRKY14, MeWRKY20, and so on did not show any detectable expression in the leaves and roots. The expression analysis of the different root developmental stages showed that several genes (MeWRKY17, MeWRKY19, MeWRKY39, MeWRKY40, MeWRKY44, MeWRKY56, MeWRKY92, MeWRKY98, MeWRKY101, with FPKM > 20) had higher expression in the early root developmental stage of KU50. These results indicated that MeWRKYs may play an important role in the regulation of cassava growth and development."}]},{"head":"Subcellular Localization of MeWRKY IIas","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Subcellular location is important for gene function. All MeWRKY IIas were predicted to locate in nucleus. To further confirm the localization of MeWRKY IIas, the pGBT recombinant vectors carrying GFP-MeWRKY IIas were transiently expressed in cassava protoplast. The protoplasts expressing GFP-MeWRKY IIas fusion proteins showed fluorescent signals exclusively restricted to the nucleus, whereas the signal in protoplasts expressing GFP protein was observed in both cell nucleus and cytoplasm (Figure 3). Thus, the MeWRKY IIas were located in cell nucleus."}]},{"head":"Expression Patterns of MeWRKY IIas Induced by Xam Strains With a Different Virulence","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Transcriptome data of cassava treated with Xam strain of ORST4 (low pathogenic strain) and ORST4+TALE1 (high pathogenic strain) were obtained from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Heatmap of expression profile was created to display the relative expression of MeWRKYs during Xam infection (Figure 4). Most of the cassava WRKYs responded to the treatment of Xam. For WRKY IIa candidates, the expression of MeWRKY27 was induced and then inhibited by both ORST4 and ORST4+TALE1. Both weak and strong pathogenic strains downregulated the expression of MeWRKY28 and MeWRKY90. The expression of MeWRKY33 and MeWRKY64 was reduced by ORST4 infection, but increased when cassava was infected ORST4+TALE1. MeWRKY89 was repressed by ORST4 and seemed to be not affected by ORST4+TALE1. Thus, the six WRKY IIa members were involved in the response to the infection of Xam, and they might have different functions in the regulatory network."}]},{"head":"Phytohormone and Pathogen-Induced Differential Expression of MeWRKY IIas","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"To determine whether MeWRKY IIas are involved in hormoneinduced plant immune pathway, we investigated the expression patterns of MeWRKY IIas in cassava samples treated with JA and SA. Briefly, six MeWRKY IIas were all induced by JA (Figure 5A). Particularly, the expression of MeWRKY27, MeWRKY33, and MeWRKY90 reached >30-, 22-, and 80-fold changes, respectively, at 2 h after the treatment with JA than with control. The expression of MeWRKY28, MeWRKY64, and MeWRKY89 was found to be upregulated at 60 and 90 min, after peaked at 90 min, and then expression of the three genes declined. The six MeWRKY IIas were also found to be prominently upregulated with maximum transcript level >15-folds with the treatment of SA (Figure 5B). MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY90 displayed similar expression profile that the transcription was rapidly promoted at 90 min and 2 h after treatment and reached the peak value at 2 h. As for MeWRKY28, MeWRKY33, and MeWRKY64, the presence of SA increased their expression at 60 min and then downregulated the expression."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"It is a remarkable fact that the transcription peak value of MeWRKY33 and MeWRKY90 reached to 230-and 170-folds compared with control."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"We also examined the expression profile of MeWRKY IIas in cassava leaves infected with Xam. The expression of all MeWRKY IIas was induced by Xam (Figure 5C). Relative expression of MeWRKY27, MeWRKY28, MeWRKY33, MeWRKY89, and MeWRKY90 was significantly promoted at 5 h, 1 d, and 2 d, and after that, the transcription of these genes declined. MeWRKY64 was an exception with unique expression pattern. The upregulation of MeWRKY64 started from 4 days and kept high expression level until 15 days. Thus, all the six MeWRKY IIa genes were involved in the response to the infection of Xam, and the expression of MeWRKY64 was activated late but lasted for more than 2 weeks at high level."}]},{"head":"MeWRKYIIas Can Combine With W-Box and Activate Report Gene Expression","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"To understand whether the MeWRKY IIa members can serve as transcriptional activators for self-activation, we performed transcriptional activity assay. Yeast strain Y2H carrying pGBKT7-MeWRKY IIas vectors, respectively, were able to grow on SD/-Trp, SD/-Trp/AbA, SD/-Trp/-His/-Ade, and turned blue when X-α-gal was added, just like positive control pGAL4 (Figure 6A). These results showed that MeWRKY IIas were transcriptional factor and could auto-activate the expression of report gene."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"WRKY transcript factor can bind to the W-box element on the promoter of target genes. To test the combination of MeWRKY IIas with W-box, we performed yeast-one-hybrid, where W-box was combined with pABAi vector, and pGADT7-MeWRKY IIas were expressed in the yeast strain Y1H-W-box (Figure 6B). The recombined yeast strains were grown on SD/-Leu medium with AbA of concentration gradients. The growth of yeast strains carrying pGADT7-MeWRKY27/33/64/90 could be inhibited by 500 ng/ml of AbA, and the ones with pGADT7-MeWRKY28 and pGADT7-MeWRKY89 were inhibited by 400 and 600 ng/ml, respectively (Figure 6C). The control yeast strain with pABAi-p53+pGADT7-Rec was repressed by 200 ng/ml. These observations demonstrated that all the six MeWRKY IIas were able to bind to W-box, but their binding ability might vary. "}]},{"head":"MeWRKY IIas Improved the Resistance to Pst DC3000 in Arabidopsis","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"To explore the function of MeWRKY IIas in plant disease resistance, Arabidopsis transgenic plants overexpressing six MeWRKY IIas were generated. The positive transgenic plants were inoculated with Pst DC3000 bacteria suspension and 10 mmol/L of MgCl 2 solution. Col-0 and pEGAD transgenic plants were used as negative controls. After 4 days, Col-0 and Arabidopsis plants with pEGAD empty vector showed disease symptoms with leaves turning yellow in large area (Figure 7), but leaves with MeWRKY 27 and MeWRKY33 overexpressed showed few yellow specks, whereas the phenotype of other MeWRKY IIas overexpression plants was not obvious. These indicated that the overexpression of MeWRKY IIas contributed to the defense against pathogen in Arabidopsis differently."}]},{"head":"Functional Deficiency of MeWRKY IIas Altered Disease Resistance in Cassava","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"As MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 positively regulate the disease resistance of Arabidopsis, we further investigate the function of MeWRKY27 and 33 in cassava by generating MeWRKY27 or 33-silenced plants using CsCMV VIGS system. The plants infected with CsCMV:ChlI 345 were used as positive control and the ones with pCsCMV-NC empty vector as negative control. After 4 weeks, the positive control plants developed severe photobleaching or a yellowing VIGS phenotype in the stems (Supplementary Figure 6A), the expression level of target genes in all plants was detected using qRT-PCR. The results showed that the expression of endogenous genes was downregulated in all virus-induced silenced plants, and the maximum was downregulated by almost 60% compared with those in the CsCMV-NC-infected leaves (Supplementary Figure 6B). Leaves of empty vector (CsCMV-NC) or silenced (CsCMV:MeWRKY27 or CsCMV:MeWRKY33) cassava plants were inoculated with XamCHN11. The function of MeWRKY IIas in defending Xam was determined by the area of water stain speck. We observed that silencing of MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 in cassava plants increased its susceptibility to Xam infection (Figures 8A,B). The lesions of silenced plants were significantly larger than the negative control. Xam growth in MeWRKY27 or 33 silenced leaves was also significantly higher than in empty-vector control leaves at 6 days after inoculation (Figure 8C). Collectively, these results indicate that MeWRKY27 "}]},{"head":"Identification of Candidate Genes Regulated by MeWRKY IIas","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"Co-expression analysis is a powerful approach for investigating expression correlation among different genes. To further investigate the relationship between W-box genes and the selected MeWRKY IIa genes, about 156 genes were screened as harboring a W-box cis-element in their 2-kb promoter region (Supplementary Table 6). Co-expression analyses were performed based on 37 transcriptomes generated from Xaminfected cassava leaf samples. The FPKM values of the 6 MeWRKY IIas and 156 W-box genes in all transcriptomes were calculated and filtered. A total of 162 genes were used for co-expression analysis, whereas 13 genes were removed due to low expression or low expression variation. The gene coexpression modules for the MeWRKY IIas and W-box genes are shown in Figure 9A. A total of three gene co-expression modules were constructed with 41 (blue), 48 (gray), and 60 (turquoise) genes (Supplementary Table 7). All MeWRKY IIas were in turquoise modules. Among them, three W-box genes (MePERK3, MePAL, and MeSCL4) and MeMT2, which may involve in pathogenic responses, showed correlated expression patterns with MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 (weight value ≥ 0.15), respectively."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The expression pattern of selected MeWRKY IIa regulating genes under Xam infection was performed based on transcriptome data (Figure 9B). Both of them could response to Xam infection and showed certain similar expression pattern, especially after highly virulent Xam668 treatment. The functions of most of those W-box genes in cassava are largely unknown. We prepare to research the function and regulatory mechanisms of these genes to cassava disease resistance in the future experiments."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":283,"text":"Members of WRKY family are the important transcription factors with various biological functions (Eulgem et al., 2000;Chen et al., 2018). In this study, we performed BLAST to identify the cassava WRKY family members with conserved WRKYGQK domain, which was more rigorous than the previous study with Arabidopsis and rice WRKY sequences as queries (Wei et al., 2016). In total, 102 WRKY gene sequences were identified, among which 17 new family members were not reported before. These new members enriched each known cassava WRKY subfamily. Compared with the number of WRKY genes in Arabidopsis, rice, and other plant species, the cassava WRKY genes showed no obvious expansion in the process of evolution. The lengths of ORF sequences ranging from 348 (MeWRKY4) to 2,226 bp (MeWRKY65) implied a high degree of complexity among the MeWRKYs. Multiple sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis classified MeWRKYs into three major groups (I, II, and III) with the second group further categorized into five subgroups (IIa-IIe) based on the conserved WRKY and zinc finger-like domain. Of them, groups I and III contain 21 and 12 members, respectively, and 69 members belong to group II that is the largest group, implying that group II of MeWRKY genes may experience more gene duplication events during the evolutionary process. Besides, about 64% (65/102) MeWRKYs were found to evolve from segmental duplication events, suggesting that segmental gene duplication probably played a pivotal role in WRKY gene expansion in cassava genome. Gene structure and conserved motif results indicated that each MeWRKY protein was different to some extent, whereas members with same group shared a similar number of introns and similar motifs. The similar motif compositions of each MeWRKY proteins group indicated its potential functional similarity."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"The heptapeptide WRKYGQK domain is highly conserved among cassava WRKY proteins, but two variations (WRKYGQR and WRKYGKK) are also identified in MeWRKY57 or MeWRKY29, MeWRKY70, and MeWRKY98, respectively. According to the previous reports (Verk et al., 2008;Zhou et al., 2008), those variations in heptapeptide WRKYGQK domain may relate to the binding specificity to W-box cis-elements, thereby suggesting that those family members have functionally diversified. Therefore, it is worthy to further investigate the functions and binding specificities of MeWRKY29, MeWRKY58, MeWRKY70, and MeWRKY98. Moreover, domain acquisition and domain loss events are a mainly divergent force for expansion of WRKY gene family. Among all MeWRKY proteins, MeWRKY4 had no typical WRKY domain and only had an incomplete zinc finger structure. We also found that 18 of 21 group I MeWRKYs contained two WRKY domain, whereas MeWRKY55, MeWRKY57, and MeWRKY83 had lost its Nterminal WRKYGQK-like domain. All these results implied that the MeWRKY genes may have experienced WRKY domain loss during the evolution."},{"index":3,"size":304,"text":"Members from all subfamilies of WRKYs have been reported to be involved in the microbe-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity, PAMP-triggered immunity, effector-triggered immunity, or system acquired resistance (SAR) (Chen et al., 2018). However, the study on cassava WRKY is rare. As phylogenetic analysis showed that several MeWRKYs clustered with AtWRKY18, AtWRKY40, and AtWRKY60 in the group IIa, thereby indicating their probable common biological function, we performed a series of experiments to identify the roles of MeWRKY IIas played in defending bacteria. A total of seven members of the cassava WRKY IIa subfamily were reported here, i.e., MeWRKY4, MeWRKY27, MeWRKY28, MeWRKY33, MeWRKY64, MeWRKY89, and MeWRKY90. Compared with other subgroups, group IIa MeWRKY genes are much fewer. This is consistent with the fact that group IIa WRKYs are the subgroup with the smallest number of members in other plant species (Eulgem et al., 2000;Wu et al., 2005). All MeWRKY IIas (except for MeWRKY4) contain a single-conserved WRKYGQK domain followed by a C2H2-type zinc-finger-like motif. MeWRKY4 contained incomplete WRKY domain and was excluded in the following function research. Also, a putative leucine zipper motif, which was proposed to mediate dimerization and increase the DNA-binding affinity of WRKY proteins, was present at the N terminus of MeWRKY IIa proteins (Eulgem et al., 2000). In addition to the conserved structure of MeWRKY IIas among species, all MeWRKY IIas were observed in nucleus, had self-activation function, and were able to bind W-box in the promoter region. All these characteristics of WRKY IIas are consistent with those observed in other species (Xu et al., 2006;Jiang et al., 2012;Raineri et al., 2015). Those results suggest that the functions of MeWRKY IIa genes are related to the expression regulation of target genes. Thus, MeWRKY IIas are typical WRKY transcription factors and have regulatory function by binding the W-box in the promoters of other genes."},{"index":4,"size":242,"text":"The data from transcriptome revealed that six MeWRKY IIas were all regulated by Xam, and the expression profile of each MeWRKY IIa under Xam with high virulence was different from low virulence. We also verified the result by qPCR in cassava leaves treated with Xam. The result indicated that except for MeWRKY64, all MeWRKY IIas showed similar expression profile that upregulated first and then declined when infected by Xam whereas MeWRKY64 responded to Xam from 4 days. In summary, six MeWRKY IIas members displayed response to Xam infection and may the play roles in defending pathogen. To defend various pathogens, plants have evolved complex defense mechanisms to protect themselves from pathogens and survive under changing environment, among which plant hormone transduction network is an important part (Berens et al., 2017). Hormones, JA and SA, played the vital roles in the interaction of plant and pathogens. WRKY genes were involved in the bacteria resistance in plants modulated by SA and JA. For example, pepper CaWRKY40 are regulated by SA, JA signaling, and coordinate responses to R. solanacearum attacks (Dang et al., 2013). Cotton GhWRKY15 plays a role in resistance to viral and fungal pathogens via SA-and JA-dependent defense pathways (Yu et al., 2012). In this study, we investigated the expression patterns of MeWRKY IIas under the treatment of JA and SA. MeWRKY IIas showed differently upregulated expression. Thus, we concluded that MeWRKY IIas might be involved in pathogen defense via several hormone pathways."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Then, we designed experiment on gain-of-function and lossof-function plants to verify the function of MeWRKY IIas. First, we generated transgenic Arabidopsis with ectopic expression of 6 MeWRKY IIas and found that overexpression MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 obviously enhanced the resistance of transgenic Arabidopsis to Pst DC3000 infection. This result demonstrates that MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 may function as positive regulator in defending Pst DC3000 inoculation. Consistent with this, MeWRKY27-and MeWRKY33-silenced cassava plants showed reduced resistance to Xam."},{"index":6,"size":203,"text":"Many WRKY transcription factors possess the dual roles in the defense. For instance, AtWRKY53 negatively affects plant defense against R. solanacearum while positively regulating plant resistance to P. syringae (Murray et al., 2007;Hu et al., 2008). A total of three AtWRKY IIas members AtWRKY18, AtWRKY40, and AtWRKY60 have redundant roles in response to pathogen whereas AtWRKY18 plays a more important role than the other two (Xu et al., 2006). Besides, it has been wellexplained AtWRKY18, AtWRKY40, and AtWRKY60 interacted with themselves through leucine zipper and formed homologous or heterologous dimers to change the resistance to pathogen (Xu et al., 2006). As we have proved that MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 played the positive roles in resistance to Xam, MeWRKY IIa genes, especially MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33, can be used as the candidate genes for cassava disease resistance breeding against CBB. On the other hand, it is worthy to further investigate the function of MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 to other cassava pathogens. Besides, we boldly infer that in cassava, MeWRKY IIa members may also perform redundant function in resistant to pathogen invading. It is interesting to explore that whether such physically interaction phenomenon could exist between MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 or with other MeWRKY IIas to form homo-or hetero-dimers."},{"index":7,"size":140,"text":"WRKYs in other species have been proved to take part in other growth and development processes, such as seed development, dormancy and germination (Luo et al., 2005;Jiang and Yu, 2009;Ding et al., 2014), plant root development (Zhang et al., 2008), leaf senescence (Ricachenevsky et al., 2010), flowering time (Li et al., 2016;Yu et al., 2016), and so on. Based on the transcriptome data, MeWRKY genes showed tissue-specific expression profiles in cassava tissues at different developmental stages. Many genes from groups I, IId, and III expressed highly in cassava roots, especially the early stage of root development, indicating that they may play a crucial role in cassava root growth and development. Therefore, we speculated that MeWRKYs may work in cassava growth and development, and all MeWRKYs function together in a complicated signal network to keep growth defense in a balanced way."},{"index":8,"size":226,"text":"WRKY transcription factors could recognize and bind to the W-box cis-elements of target to regulate different physiological responses. WGCNA has been used widely to identify gene modules correlated with the identification of putative transcriptional regulation in several plants (Li et al., 2019;Kesel et al., 2020;Xu et al., 2020). Our laboratory also previously reported that six MeERFs were significantly associated with two GCC-box genes, MeTFIIE and MeASHR1 during pathogen response using WWGCNA analysis (Hong et al., 2021). Therefore, based on the principle that genes with close functional relationships or distributed in related pathways may have similar expression profiles (Lin et al., 2019), WGCNA was established to construct correlation gene network between MeWRKY IIas and W-box genes. Several W-box genes have been identified, including MePERK3, MePAL, MeSCL4, and MeMT2. These W-box genes may involve in disease response together with MeWRKY IIas. For example, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) catalyzes the non-oxidative deamination of phenylalanine to trans-cinnamate and plays an important role in plant defense by involving in the biosynthesis of salicylic acid (SA). Pepper CaPAL1 acted as a positive regulator of SA-dependent defense signaling to combat microbial pathogen via its enzymatic activity in the phenylpropanoid pathway (Sung Kim and Kook Hwang, 2014). Rice OsPAL4 was also associated with broad spectrum disease resistance (Tonnessen et al., 2015). Their functions in cassava disease resistant will be further elucidated in the future work."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"In this study, a total of 102 WRKY genes were identified from cassava genome and further classified into three main subgroups. The expression profiles of MeWRKYs under pathogen infection were analyzed based on several transcriptome databases. Furthermore, the expression pattern of MeWRKY IIas was verified by qPCR after JA, SA, and Xam treatment. Gain-offunction and loss-of-function assays showed that the MeWRKY IIas play an important role in cassava disease resistant. Coexpression network analysis showed that different downstream genes regulated by different MeWRKY IIa members. Collectively, our results provide a theoretical basis for further understanding of the molecular response of MeWRKY IIas to pathogen infection in cassava. In addition, it is also helpful for future genetic improvement and breeding."}]},{"head":"DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 | FIGURE 1 | Chromosomal distribution of duplicated MeWRKYs pairs generated by MCScanX. Gray lines represent synteny blocks in the cassava genome, and duplicated MeWRKY gene pairs are connected with red lines. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 | FIGURE 2 | Phylogenetic tree, gene structure, and conserved motifs of 102 MeWRKYs generated from the amino acid sequences with WRKY domains from cassava. The neighbor-joining tree was constructed using MEGA 7.0 with 1,000 bootstraps. The middle circle shows the conserved motifs of the 102 MeWRKYs. The outermost circle shows the exon-intron gene structure of 102 MeWRKYs. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 | FIGURE 3 | Subcellular localization of MeWRKY IIas in cassava protoplast. The cell nucleus was stained with Hoechst 33342. GFP alone serves as a negative control. Bar = 5 µm. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 | FIGURE 4 | Expression profiles of cassava WRKYs in response to different Xam (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis) strains. The 12 transcriptome (Continued) "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 | FIGURE 5 | Expression analysis of MeWRKY IIa genes in response to JA (A), SA (B), and Xam (C). Each value represents the mean ± SD of three replicates. Asterisks indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05) between control and treatments. "},{"text":"FIGURE 6 | FIGURE 6 | MeWRKY IIas are typical WRKY transcription factor. (A) Self-activation assay of MeWRKY IIas. (B) Determination of the minimal inhibitory concentration of AbA for pABAi-W-box. (C) Interaction tests between MeWRKY IIas and W-box by yeast-one-hybrid. "},{"text":"FIGURE 7 | FIGURE 7 | Phenotype of MeWRKY IIas overexpressed Arabidopsis leaves inoculated with Pst DC3000. The transgenic Arabidopsis leaves with the same growth state were infected with 10 mM MgCl 2 (CK) and Pst DC3000. "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 | FIGURE 8 | Enhanced susceptibility of MeWRKY27 or 33-silenced cassava leaves to Xam infection. (A) Disease symptoms on MeWRKY27 or 33-silenced cassava leaves at 6 days after inoculation with XamCHN11 (1 × 10 8 CFU ml −1 ). (B) Lesion areas caused by XamCHN11. (C) Bacterial growth in Xam-infected leaves (1 × 10 7 CFU ml −1 ). Asterisks indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05) between control and treatments. "},{"text":"FIGURE 9 | FIGURE 9 | Co-expression analysis of MeWRKY IIas and W-box gene. (A) The co-expression network of MeWRKY IIas and W-box genes in the turquoise module. Blue and red circles represent MeWRKY IIas and W-box containing genes, respectively. (B) Expression profiles of MeWRKY IIas and selected W-box genes in response to various pathogen treatments. "}],"sieverID":"2ec126f9-a9d5-40f6-befd-76ba5dbd5487","abstract":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important tropical crop for food, fodder, and energy. Cassava bacterial blight (CBB) caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam) occurs in all cassava growing regions and threatens global cassava production. WRKY transcription factor family plays the essential roles during plant growth, development, and abiotic or biotic stress. Particularly, previous studies have revealed the important role of the group IIa WRKY genes in plant disease resistance. However, a comprehensive analysis of group IIa subfamily in cassava is still missing. Here, we identified 102 WRKY members, which were classified into three groups, I, II, and III. Transient expression showed that six MeWRKY IIas were localized in the nucleus. MeWRKY IIas transcripts accumulated significantly in response to SA, JA, and Xam. Overexpression of MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 in Arabidopsis enhanced its resistance to Pst DC3000. In contrast, silencing of MeWRKY27 and MeWRKY33 in cassava enhanced its susceptibility to Xam. Co-expression network analysis showed that different downstream genes are regulated by different MeWRKY IIa members. The functional analysis of downstream genes will provide clues for clarifying molecular mechanism of cassava disease resistance. Collectively, our results suggest that MeWRKY IIas are regulated by SA, JA signaling, and coordinate response to Xam infection."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"03bb16f977610d4fabb58f6650272b18","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8694fc0f-ef80-474d-9a4d-5e99a8862461/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Bring NUS back to the table! by Stefano Padulosi NUS, or Neglected and Underutilized Species, are wild, cultivated or semi-domesticated non-commodity crops at the margin of mainstream agriculture. Their contribution to tackling food and nutrition insecurity and climate change vulnerability is huge and can no longer be overlooked. They might not be 'neglected' for much longer."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"NUS (Neglected and Underutilised Species), also called orphan, abandoned, lost, underused, local, minor, traditional, alternative, niche, or underdeveloped crops are part of a large portfolio of useful species cultivated and nurtured for centuries by users around the world, predominantly local communities. Although NUS have been neglected and underused, they hold great potential: hardy and highly nutritious, these vegetables, pulses, cereals, and fruits form a universe of tastes and flavours that have been shaping traditional systems everywhere. NUS species are impressive: 539 vegetables and 645 fruits in Africa, 2800 edible fruits in the Tropics, 200 leafy vegetables in Kenya, 228 vegetables in southeast Asia and 137 indigenous vegetables in Italy."}]},{"head":"NUS versus commodity crops","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"All countries have a rich NUS basket as part of their unique cultural heritage. Unfortunately these species are disappearing from the field because of their scarce competitiveness in modern agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"This marginalisation raises great concerns in our capacities to feed the world and feed it well. Food today is seen as a pure 'commodity crop yield', lacking nutrition or agro-ecological considerations. Therefore, the main concerns in production systems are crop intensification, heavy use of agrochemicals, mechanisation, standardisation of agronomic practices and unprecedented decline of crop species and varieties in cultivation."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Marginalised by research --and sadly also by development efforts -NUS lose out in national markets and survive only in small local or niche markets. Once symbols of people's cultural identity and sources of their pride, NUS have now become gourmet food for the wealthy. Interestingly, supermarket shelves seem to be loaded with a tremendous diversity of foods, but a closer look reveals that such 'diversity' is the result of intense food processing from only a few crops and varieties. The over 5,000 edible crops estimated to exist today are largely untapped by current food systems, dominated by maize, wheat, and rice that provide more than 50% of the world's plantderived calories to the world."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"The last 60 years of research investments over few resourceintensive crops-the so-called 'Green revolution'-have led to higher yields and important contributions to reduce hunger in the world. However, this huge achievement has been accompanied by a major downside: the heavy erosion of our plant-based diets and the loss of the biological foundation on which our farming practices are based. A staggering 75% of crop diversity has been lost in the course of last century (an estimated 300,000 varieties). Just twelve crops together with five animal species provide 75% of the world's food, and of the 137 most important crops in the world, 20 are cultivated over 80% of the global agricultural area and the remaining 117 on a mere 20%. These trends are worsening every year."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"Not helpful either is the poor conservation of NUS: most samples safeguarded in ex situ gene banks around the world represent very marginally NUS genetic resources, which are mainly maintained by farmers in the field."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Finally, monocropping a limited number of resource-intensive crops has led to land degradation and marginalisation of smallholder agriculture."}]},{"head":"NUS are the solution","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Globally, 800 million people are food insecure, 2 billion suffer from micronutrient deficiencies and 2.1 billion are overweight or obese. A new Green revolution is needed to tackle So what should be done to reverse this condition of extreme vulnerability within our food systems? The answer rests with NUS and their sustainable use enhancement."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Clearly, the world needs to continue securing the production of staple crops to feed the world, but that effort must be complemented by parallel investments on the many nutritious and resilient crops found in the NUS basket. Diversifying the production systems with the injection of various NUS will buffer food systems against socio-economic shocks and at the same time strengthen the health of agroecosystems, support smallholder agriculture, safeguard food cultures and associated economies that revolve around local crops and traditions now fast disappearing. In addition, many NUS are drought-resilient, so they hold potential to tackle negative climate change impacts."}]},{"head":"A methodological framework","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The promotion of NUS is an opportunity to increase traditional crop diversity and associated food traditions. Safeguarding traditional heritage is an important contribution to protecting the identity of local communities and reinforcing their confidence to counteract threats arising from globalisation trends and changes in lifestyles."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Women play a central role in using diverse NUS as well as in the nexus between agrobiodiversity and nutrition security of households. Therefore, women's capacity should be built, including through the dissemination of best practices for cultivation or value addition, the enhancement of marketing skills, and awareness raising of nutrition and better food preparation."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"However, NUS lack the collaborative structures, information, data and services that are instead easily available for commodity crops. For example, extension agents are poorly trained on how to promote NUS and should also be targeted in capacity-building activities. Carrying out research programmes for the promotion of NUS is a great challenge for National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and so is the development of their value chains. To address these challenges, resources are needed to strengthen capacities."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Dealing with NUS requires a collaborative approach among experts from different sectors and disciplines. Bioversity International has been working on NUS for more than two decades. It has developed a successful collaborative framework-the 'holistic value chain approach' (see Figure 1)-that has been tested on several NUS, including Andean grains and minor millets. This framework, followed in several projects (with support from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the European Union) has allowed actors to work closely together to overcome the many bottlenecks encountered in the NUS value chains."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"For example, farmers have engaged with scientists in surveying, collecting, conserving and selecting the genetic diversity of target species; food specialists worked closely with germplasm experts and consumers to develop more nutritious food, easier food technologies and attractive recipes; private companies participated in the marketing of raw and processed products; nutritionists, school teachers and media experts helped raising public awareness on the nutritional and health benefits related to NUS, and decision makers were involved with other stakeholders in the development of policies for removing obstacles along the value chains."}]},{"head":"Positive impacts","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"Bioversity International's NUS project interventions using the holistic value chain approach has strengthened the resilience of livelihood systems in both urban and rural communities through a wider deployment of NUS at household level and in the value chains. More specifically, it has produced a number of encouraging outcomes in target areas: women and men farmers and other value chain actors gained knowledge to identify diverse, stresstolerant, adapted crops with market potential and ways to better document and monitor their use; climate-smart practices are being developed and disseminated; high quality seed of stress-tolerant varieties is produced by local communities and researchers; women's and men's farmer groups are increasingly generating more income thanks to their enhanced skills in cultivation, value addition and marketing; demand for nutritious products from NUS has increased, leading to enhanced nutrition, income and empowerment of vulnerable groups; capacities of farmers to manage weather-associated risks through NUS have been strengthened; market opportunities have been realised which in turn have created incentives for farmers to continue growing and safeguarding NUS on their farm; awareness among policy makers has been raised which led to a number of relevant policies for supporting wider uses (e.g. inclusion of NUS in school meal programmes in Brazil or in the national procurement system in India)."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Looking back at the journey to promote NUS, progress has been made in many regards. However, NUS should be further encouraged, promoted and supported with policies at national and international level to create greater synergy among agencies that have been working on these issues in isolation. █ "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Finger millet. Photo: Bioversity/S. Padulosi the daunting problems of malnutrition in its diverse forms. This cannot succeed without agrobiodiversity. NUS hold the key to this new revolution. Foodbased solutions that diversify what we grow and what we eat provide enduring benefits to local communities and the environment by addressing these problems at their base. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 1: The holistic value chain approach "}],"sieverID":"5dc3b90f-2cd7-4509-ae64-be717df2dbb6","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"03dd0bcff4065afc186ff741053759d6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/67626997-c9ea-4211-b771-91a69c89ba63/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Identification of QTLs Controlling Resistance to Anthracnose Disease in Water Yam (Dioscorea alata)","keywords":["Dioscorea spp.","greater yam","genetic map","marker-trait association","linkage analysis Citation: Agre, P.A.","Darkwa, K.","Olasanmi, B.","Kolade, O.","Mournet, P.","Bhattacharjee, R.","Lopez-Montes, A.","De Koeyer, D.","Adebola, P.","Kumar, L.","Asiedu, R.","Asfaw, A. Identification of QTLs"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is a multi-species monocotyledonous crop widely grown in the tropics and subtropics [1]. It is the most valuable crop in West Africa, where its cultivation began 11,000 years ago [2]. Of the over 600 yam species, water yam (D. alata) is an extensively cultivated species worldwide [3]. In Africa, white Guinea yam (D. rotundata) is the most cultivated yam species, followed by water yam [3]. Yam production in West Africa is mainly by smallholder farmers, making it a significant source of farm employment and income for this group. In addition, yam plays a vital role in traditional medicine and the socio-cultural life of the people as it is involved in many key life ceremonies [4]."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Water yam possesses several valuable attributes for cultivation and consumption. These include high multiplication ratio, early vigor for weed smothering, the higher genetic potential for yield (especially under low to average soil fertility), low post-harvest losses, good processing quality, and high nutritional value, including its possession of low glycemic index [5,6]. However, anthracnose disease caused by the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz) is the most limiting factor affecting the productivity of water yam by devastating all parts of the yam plant at every developmental stage, including leaves, stems, tubers, and seeds in many regions of the world [7,8]. Anthracnose causes mild to acute leaf necrosis, premature leaf abscission, and shoot die-back [9]. Severe infections result in defoliation, leaving naked, black, and drying vines [10]. Yield losses from the disease of up to 90% have been reported under severe conditions on different cultivars of water yam in Africa [10][11][12]. High genetic and pathogenic variances have been reported among isolates of C. gloeosporioides from different geographical locations [7,13,14], suggesting a high probability of the geographic variation in strains, some of which could be overcome existing resistance [15]."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"Cultural control approaches such as the use of disease-free planting materials, adjustment of plant spacing and planting dates, burying infected plant residues in the soil immediately after harvesting, intercropping, crop rotation with non-host crops, and fallowing have been used in other plant pathosystems to reduce pathogen inoculum in the field, delay disease onset, or slow disease progress [16,17]. Nonetheless, these disease management practices have not been effective for controlling anthracnose disease in water yam or result in a substantial increase in tuber yield [8], especially in disease-endemic areas. Additionally, biological control to impede or out-compete the multiplication and spread of virulent C. gloeosporioides strain in yam fields has been limited [18]. Chemical control can be an effective disease management approach. Still, most yam producers are smallholder growers and may not have the prerequisite technical support and finance to afford the use of fungicides [19]."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"Furthermore, inappropriate use of fungicides could potentially result in the development of resistant C. gloeosporioides strains to systemic fungicides [20] as well as detrimental environmental effects. Therefore, the best control option is developing and deploying cultivars with durable resistance to anthracnose. Substantial progress has been made to develop anthracnose resistant water yam varieties at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria, and national agricultural research systems in West Africa and elsewhere through conventional breeding using phenotypic observations [3,21]. Anthracnose-resistant cultivars of yam such as TDa1425 and TDr2040 were identified at IITA [22]. In India, laboratory and field investigations also found highly resistant D. alata lines [23]. However, this effort is arduous and considerably slow due to the crop's heterozygous and vegetatively propagated nature [24]. Genomics-informed breeding techniques such as molecular marker-assisted breeding and genomic selection would accelerate efforts in introgressing anthracnose resistance into preferred genetic backgrounds [3]."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"Earlier investigations on anthracnose disease in water yam showed that resistance is likely dominant and quantitatively inherited [25]. Efforts have also been made to identify QTL controlling yam anthracnose disease (YAD) using low-throughput molecular markers and less dense or unsaturated genetic maps such as Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers [5,26] and Expressed Sequence Tag -Simple Sequence Repeats (EST-SSRs) [27][28][29]. Prospects for locating additional QTLs and applying molecular breeding methods in water yam improvement programs are up-and-coming, mainly due to advances in next-generation sequencing and the recent development of the reference genome sequence of D. rotundata and D. alata. Therefore, it is imperative to apply new molecular tools to develop additional genomic resources from different genetic backgrounds to facilitate the breeding for anthracnose resistance in water yam. The objective of this study was to develop a SNP-based genetic linkage map and identify QTL for anthracnose disease resistance in a diploid bi-parental mapping population of D. alata. It assessed the QTL presence, positions, the effects of QTL alleles, and the underlying putative genes in the QTL vicinities responsible for anthracnose resistance in water yam."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant Materials","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"An F1 recombinant clonal population of 204 individuals derived from a single cross of TDa0500015 × TDa9900048 was used for this study. TDa0500015 (diploid) is a female breeding line showing a tolerant reaction to yam anthracnose disease, while TDa9900048 (diploid) is a male breeding line expressing a susceptible response. The two parents and their F1-derived recombinant clonal progenies, along with a highly susceptible cultivar (TDa92-2), were field-phenotyped in two cropping cycles for two seasons (2017 and 2018) at IITA, Ibadan research farm in Nigeria. The field experiment was carried out using a partial replicated design of three plants per genotype in 1 × 1 m planting spacing during the main rainy seasons when anthracnose incidence and severity are high. Genotypes with high plant numbers were planted in 2 replications, and susceptible reference cultivar TDa92-2 was planted as a spreader row between blocks and around the field."}]},{"head":"Phenotyping","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":259,"text":"Anthracnose disease severity was scored at two months after planting and after that, fortnightly till six months. Severity was scored by visual assessment of the relative area of plant tissue affected by anthracnose using a 1-5 severity rating scale. Where, 1 = No visible symptoms of anthracnose disease or infection spot on the leaf surface; 2 = Few anthracnose spots or symptoms on 1-25% of the plant (i.e., one or two spots of less than 1 cm diameter width, and dry tissue on the leaf surface); 3 = Anthracnose symptoms covering 26-50% of the plant (i.e., one or two spots of more than 1 cm diameter width, and dry tissue on the leaf surface, small dark and no dried spots with more than 1 cm width are present); 4 = Symptoms on >50% of the plant (i.e., coalesced spots with dry tissue and covering a significant proportion of the leaf surface, areas with less than 1 cm width coalesce to more prominent spots and yellowing of green tissue is intense around the spots areas); and 5 = Severe necrosis and death of the plant (i.e., coalesced spots with dry tissue more than 1.5 cm in diameter and covering a significant proportion of the leaf surface and yellowing of the green tissue is generalized in the leaf blade) [30]. The time series severity score was recorded on individual plants in a plot. The mean anthracnose severity for a genotype in a plot was estimated by summing severity scores >1 in a plot divided by the total number of symptomatic plants."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The area under the disease progression curve (AUDPC) was estimated from the mean disease severity scores of a genotype per plot using the trapezoidal method [31]. This method discretizes the time variable and calculates the average disease intensity between each pair of adjacent time points."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"where n = total number of observations, yi = disease severity at the ti observation, and t = time at the ti observation."}]},{"head":"Genotyping","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Young fresh leaf samples were collected from the 207 genotypes (204 recombinant progenies, the two parents and a check variety) and immediately dipped in dry ice. The leaves were stored at −80 °C before lyophilization. Lyophilized leaf samples were sent to CIRAD-France for DNA extraction, library construction, and Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS). DNA extraction and Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS) were performed as described in Cormier et al. [32]. GBS libraries were constructed as described by Elshire et al. [33] using PstI-MseI restriction enzymes. Sequencing was conducted on an Illumina HiSeq 3000 system Montpellier, France (150 bp, single-end reads) at the GeT-PlaGe platform in Toulouse, France."}]},{"head":"Data Analyses","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotype Data","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Anthracnose severity score data collected at different times during the crop's growth period were converted to AUDPC for quantitative comparison over the years. The area under disease progress curve data was subjected to mixed model analysis using lme4 library package implemented in R [34]."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"where Yijk = phenotypic value, µ = overall phenotypic mean, βi = effect of year i, Rij = effect of block j in year i, Gk = effect of genotype k, (βi × Gk) = effect of interaction between year i and genotype k, and eijkm = residual. Block within-year effects were added to the model as a random variable to remove the spatial variation within the trial field. Broad sense heritability was estimated from the model to assess the proportion of phenotypic variation in the data set due to genetic effects. Phenotypic BLUE (Best Linear Unbiased Estimator) values of un-shrunken means for QTL analysis were extracted for the years and over the years."}]},{"head":"SNP Calling and Quality Assessment","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Raw data were first filtered using a pipeline described in Scarcelli et al. [35]. Demuladapt (https://github.com/Maillol/demultadapt accessed on 12 March 2020) was used for demultiplexing. Cutadapt 1.2.1 [36] was used to remove the adaptors and low-quality bases read with a mean quality score <30 using a free perl script https://github.com/SouthGreenPlatform/arcad-hts/blob/master/scripts/arcad_hts_2_Fil-ter_Fastq_On_Mean_Quality.pl accessed on 11 March 2020. For the final SNP calling, GATK was used while mapping was performed using default options of Burrows-Wheeler Aligner (BWA) [37] using the D. alata reference genome. The SNP quality assessment was performed using vcftools [38] and plink [39]. SNPs with low MAF <0.05 and low depth sequencing <5 were removed. This retained 7583 SNPs out of the raw 15,936 SNPs called. For the missing point, SNP markers and genotypes with high missing information >20% were removed as well."}]},{"head":"Genetic Map Construction","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":289,"text":"Linkage analysis was conducted using MAPpoly package [40] in the R environment [34]. A series of filtering steps were applied using all segregating markers polymorphic in at least one of the parents to construct an integrated genetic map. Chi-square (χ2) test was conducted to calculate the marker segregation ratio and exclude markers showing significant segregation distortion from map construction. The p-value threshold to assess the significant marker segregation distortion was set using the filter_segregation function as implemented in MAPpoly package. To construct linkage groups, the pairwise recombination fraction and LOD matrices between markers retained after the segregation test were calculated using the function est_pairwise_rf in MAPploy package. Linkage grouping was then performed using an initial LOD value of >6 obtained from αthres function in MAPpoly. The LOD value of 6.0 that established known linkage groups was then chosen as the significance criterion for multipoint linkage testing. First, for the genetic map construction, marker loci were partitioned primarily into linkage groups (LGs). Secondly, the modified logarithm of odds (MLOD) scores between markers were calculated to further confirm the robustness of markers for each LGs. Markers with MLOD scores <6 were filtered out prior to ordering. Thirdly, the highMap strategy described by Liu et al. [41] was utilized to order the Bin markers and correct genotyping errors within and between LGs. Genetic recombination fraction (RF) was estimated for the retained SNP markers to confirm the non-switch of alleles from one LG to another using \"est.rf\" function implemented in R/QTL [42]. To confirm the well ordering SNP markers across LG, the recombination fraction against the LOD score was then plotted and the graph was viewed using ggplot2 R package. The final GM was then constructed using R/QTL2 [42] and viewed in Linkage-MapView."}]},{"head":"QTL Analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The QTL analysis was performed with mean trait value over years and linkage map constructed from the 159 recombinant clones using the Composite Interval Mapping (CIM) method in R/QTL2 package [42]. A forward and backward simple stepwise regression was run to select background markers with a significant level of P < 0.05. The threshold levels to declare significant QTLs were empirically determined through 1000 permutations of the data, which maintained a chromosome-wise Type I error rate of 0.05 [43] with a fixed LOD of 4 as a minimum threshold of declaring a SNP marker linked with the YAD."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"The location of a QTL was described according to its LOD peak location. The proportion of phenotypic variance accounted for by each detected QTL was estimated by a single-factor analysis of variance using the General Linear Model. The additive (Add) and dominance (Dom) effects and the proportion of phenotypic variation explained (PVE%) by each QTL were estimated using the \"fitqtl\" function in R/QTL. The sign of the additive effect of each QTL was used to identify the origin of the favorable alleles. A simple mixed model was implemented in lmer4 package to estimate QTL interaction/environment using the identified QTL by considering the year and the SNP marker as fixed effect, while the genotypes were considered as a random effect. Markers linked with the yam anthracnose disease were then placed in the respective chromosome, and their position was viewed using Qtl/jittermap. For the gene mining, the related putative genes associated with SNP markers were searched within the upstream and downstream locations of the QTL generic feature format (GFF3) of the reference genome of D. alata. Functions of the different genes associated with the identified QTL were determined using the public database Interpro, European Molecular Biology Laboratory-European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotypic Variability","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed for the reaction of the progenies to YAD in both years (Table 1). The mean squares for the year and genotype-by-year interaction effects were highly significant (p < 0.01). The disease pressure was higher in 2018 compared to 2017. The area under disease progression curve (AUDPC) estimates ranged from 210.0 to 397.5 with an average of 245.5 in 2017, while the range was from 233.4 to 482.1 with an average of 299.8 in 2018. None of the recombinant clones demonstrated immune or highly resistant (mean severity score of 1, equivalent to AUDPC value <105) or highly susceptible (mean severity score of 5, the equivalent of AUDPC > 525) reaction to natural field infestation by anthracnose disease. However, most of the genotypes (67-92%) expressed moderate resistance to anthracnose. Broad sense heritability was high (70.64%). "}]},{"head":"SNP Filtering","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Total of 15,936 SNP markers were identified in the parental individuals and mapping population. Filtering for minor allele frequency (MAF < 0.05), low depth sequencing (< 5), and polymorphism between the parents TDa0500015 and TDa9900048 reduced the number of SNPs to 7,583 SNPs (47.6% of the raw SNPs identified). Further filtering for 20% missing data (both for the SNP and genotype) (Figure S1) and segregation distortion with chi-square test (Figure S2) identified 3257 informative markers and 179 individuals out of 204 progenies with good coverage for linkage map construction. Pairwise recombination fractions calculated for all informative markers showed high SNP markers ordering across the different linkage groups (Figure S3)."}]},{"head":"Linkage Mapping","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"A genetic map was constructed that covered all 20 linkage groups of the water yam genome (Figure 1) with a total genetic distance of 1460.94 cM. The marker order on the linkage map showed perfect genetic recombination (Figure S3) as the recombination fraction of the mapped SNP markers on linkage groups displayed a perfect alignment with no half circles between the recombination fraction and the LOD score (Figure S4). The linkage map had an average of 163 markers per linkage group or chromosome, with the highest SNP markers mapped on linkage 5. Linkage groups 6, 5, and 2 were the longest with 109.52, 109.19, and 109.17 cM, respectively, while linkage group 19 was the shortest with 33.08 cM (Table 2). The genetic gap map intervals ranged from 2.03 and 9.07 cM on chromosomes 19 and 16, respectively (Table 2). "}]},{"head":"QTL Identification","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":265,"text":"The QTLs detected on three chromosomes out of the 20 are presented in Table 3 and Figure 2. Two significant QTLs were detected on chromosome 7 at position 10.60 cM (between 10.596 and 19.217 cM). This QTL (Qyad-7-1) had a LOD score of 4.51 and accounted for 33.7% of the total phenotypic variation in anthracnose severity score (Table 3, Figure 2). The second QTL located on chromosome 7 (Qyad-7-2) was at position 19.21 cM (between 10.596 and 19.218 cM) at LOD score of 5.28 and accounted for 29.54% of the total phenotypic variation in anthracnose severity score. The 3rd significant QTL, Qyad-15, which explained 30.90% of the total phenotypic variance with a LOD score of 4.43 was detected at 28.80 cM on chromosome 15. The QTL on chromosome 18 (Qyad-18) was at position 61.4 cM (between 61.345 and 61.432 cM) at LOD score of 4.65 and contributed 39.40% of the total phenotypic variance. For the four markers associated with the YAD, the favorable alleles were contributed by TDa0500015 tolerant to the YAD. The QTL region linked to YAD resistance on chromosome 7 has known genes in plant biotic stress such as DRNTG_08663.1 (GDSL-like Lipase/Acylhydrolase), DRNTG_08664.1 (Protein kinase domain), and DRNTG_23336.1 (Table S1). Additionally, the regions within the Qyad-15 locus were related to the N-terminal α/β domain gene DRNTG_14305.1. The vicinity of Qyad-18 showed genes that code for ANTH domain Putative clathrin assembly protein (DRNTG_18245.1) and WD domain-WD40 repeat-containing protein (DRNTG_29617.1) (Table S1). Of the four QTLs related to YAD resistance, three were stable over the years and showed non-significant QTL by environment interaction (Table 5). "}]},{"head":"Marker Effect","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The presence of allele T for loci Qyad-7-1 and Qyad-7-2 appeared to lower the AUDPC score in the evaluated population, while the presence of the alleles C tended to increase the disease score, especially with Qyad-7-2 with p-value = 0.03 (Figures 3 and 4). For QTLs detected on chromosomes 15 and 18, allele A of the variant AG/GA was associated with a higher AUDPC value while allele G linked with the lower AUDPC value in the population (Figures 5 and 6). "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"This study selected two parents based on their responses to yam anthracnose disease and created their F1-derived recombinant clonal population to assess the functional association of anthracnose resistance and genetic markers using the QTL mapping approach. The recombinant clonal population showed a differential response to the disease-causing organism over the two-year evaluation period. The recombinant population showed quantitative tolerance with a continuous distribution from resistance to the susceptible range with substantial skewness towards resistance. However, no immune or highly resistant clones were identified. Instead, a large number of the clones expressed tolerance reaction to YAD field infestation. The heritability estimate in the present study was high, indicating the proportion of phenotypic variance that is genetic. Similarly, Petro et al. [26] and Bhattacharjee et al. [29] reported high heritability estimates for YAD in water yam."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"In an earlier effort, Cormier et al. [32] constructed a high-density genetic map of D. alata using 1,579 polymorphic SNP markers with a consensus map length of 2613.5 cM. However, our genetic linkage map was built using 3184 SNPs from the GBS platform that spanned a total length of 1460.94 cM representing the most saturated and accurate genetic map for D. alata to date. Genetic linkage maps of water yam were also developed using EST-SSRs [29] and AFLPs [5,26]. The genetic linkage map presented in this report will offer a unique opportunity for qualitative and quantitative trait analysis in water yam."},{"index":3,"size":177,"text":"Three studies have been conducted to map QTLs controlling resistance to anthracnose in water yam [5,26,29]. The study by Mignouna et al. [5] and Petro et al. [26] utilized AFLP maps and identified one and nine QTLs, respectively, for anthracnose resistance, explaining 10% and 26-74% of the total phenotypic variation. Bhattacharjee et al. [29] utilized an EST-SSR genetic map for their study and identified a major QTL on linkage group 14, explaining 69% of the total phenotypic variance. Even though the previous studies ordered markers on 20 linkage groups, the absence of a standard genetic map and the different marker systems makes it difficult to compare the location of the detected QTLs in these studies. In the present study, four QTLs located on three chromosomes, accounting for 29.54-39.4% of the total phenotypic variation in the trait, were identified. QTL interaction over the years revealed the stability of three QTL and indicated their potential to predict the specific effect of variation in strain or intensity of strains of C. gloeosporioides infestation over the years during the field experimentation."},{"index":4,"size":247,"text":"Furthermore, gene annotation in the QTL regions related to YAD resistance showed known genes that code for plant defense mechanisms. Notably, the region composed of Qyad-7-1 shows the GDSL-like Lipase/Acylhydrolase gene that is reported to regulate systemic resistance to Alternaria brassicicola in Arabidopsis [44,45]. Hong et al. [46] also found this gene involved in the defense against drought and Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vesicatoria in pepper. Additionally, the protein kinase domain is involved in regulating the resistance against bacterial blight (Xanthomonas oryzae) in rice [47] and resistance to the necrotrophic fungal pathogen Plectosphaerella cucumerina in Arabidopsis [48] is also present within the QTL region related to YAD in our study. Moreover, the QTL loci on chromosomes 15 and 18 showed the ANTH domain associated with defense against Pseudomonas syringae in Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis [49], and the WD domain enhanced the resistance to anthracnose leaf blights in maize caused by Colletotrichum sublineolum [50,51]. The F-box protein found within the QTL region of chromosome 15 was reported to be involved in cell death and defense response during the pathogen recognition of Pseudomonas syringae and Tobacco mosaic virus in tomato and tobacco [52]. The N-terminal domain within the flanking sequence of the QTL region was involved in the resistance to the downy mildew pathogen Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis in Arabidopsis [53]. Therefore, enough evidence exists to confirm that the genes within the flanks of the significant QTLs for anthracnose disease resistance discovered in this study code for response to plant biotic stress."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"This study developed a highly saturated and accurate genetic linkage map for water yam. The linkage mapping approach used in this study identified and mapped QTLs linked to yam anthracnose disease. The QTL regions identified in this study showed six already known genes involved in plant defense. Our results are valuable tools for developing water yam cultivars with quantitative resistance to anthracnose disease. However, these QTLs need to be validated in different genetic backgrounds and environments to be routinely applied in marker-assisted selection in water yam breeding programs in Africa."}]},{"head":"Supplementary Materials:","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The following supporting information can be downloaded at: www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/genes13020347/s1, Table S1: List of the putative genes identified in the vicinity of the QTL associated with yam anthracnose disease; Figure S1 "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Genetic linkage map showing the SNP distribution across the 20 yam chromosomes. Each vertical line represents a yam chromosome with genetic distance in Kosambi units (cM). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Genetic map of water yam showing significant QTLs associated with yam anthracnose disease resistance. Only those chromosomes where significant QTL are located are displayed. The identified QTLs are highlighted in blue on each chromosome. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. The boxplot showing the effect of the different alleles (variants) of Qyad-7-1 on the AUDPC values. The letters on the X-axis represent alleles (CC, CT, and TT). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. The boxplot displaying the effect of the different alleles (variants) of Qyad-7-2 on the AUDPC estimates. The letters on the X-axis represent alleles (CC, CT, and TT). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Comparison of the effects of the different alleles (variants) of Qyad-15 on the AUDPC estimates in the study population. The letters on the X-axis represent alleles (AA, AG, and GG), *** statistical significance at p values 0.0001 while ns is non-significant "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Comparisons of allelic effects of the QTL Qyad-18 on AUDPC estimates in the study population. The letters on the X-axis represent alleles (AG and GG), ** and *** are statistical significance at p values 0.05 and 0.001 "},{"text":" : SNP quality assessment for missing markers and genotypes (missing threshold = 20%) showing informative markers (the left figure) and genotypes with good coverage (right figure) for linkage map construction. The blue horizontal dotted lines represent the threshold; Figure S2: Evaluation of polymorphic SNP markers in the biparental population for segregation distortion using chi-square test; Figure S3: Recombination fraction of genotyped GBS markers. A pairwise comparison of recombination fractions after SNP markers were ordered across the 20 chromosomes. Recombination fractions are in the upper left triangle, the LOD scores are in the lower right triangle, and the red corresponds to the large LOD or a small recombination fraction; Figure S4: Plot of recombination fraction against the LOD score showing perfect alignment as no half circles were observed. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mean squares and heritability estimate for yam anthracnose disease severity in the mapping population. Mean Squares CV Broad Sense Heritability Mean SquaresCVBroad Sense Heritability Trait Genotype Year Genotype × Year (%) (%) TraitGenotypeYearGenotype × Year(%)(%) AUDPC 163.01 * 2190.01 ** 3371.8 *** 17.6 70.64 AUDPC163.01 *2190.01 **3371.8 ***17.670.64 AUDPC: area under disease progression curve; *, **, *** significance at 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 p-values, AUDPC: area under disease progression curve; *, **, *** significance at 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 p-values, respectively; CV: coefficient of variation. respectively; CV: coefficient of variation. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Distribution of SNP markers and linkage group length (cM) in each chromosome. Genetic map Genetic map Location (cM) Location (cM) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1234567891011121314151617181920 Chromosome Chromosome Chromosomes Number of SNPs Chromosome Length (cM) Average SNP Dis-tance Maximum Gap ChromosomesNumber of SNPsChromosome Length (cM)Average SNP Dis-tanceMaximum Gap Chr1 80 80.93 1.95 5.00 Chr18080.931.955.00 Chr2 84 109.17 1.28 6.01 Chr284109.171.286.01 Chr3 115 64.63 0.56 4.48 Chr311564.630.564.48 Chr4 520 92.32 0.16 8.26 Chr452092.320.168.26 Chr5 199 109.19 0.50 7.71 Chr5199109.190.507.71 Chr6 191 109.52 0.57 5.54 Chr6191109.520.575.54 Chr7 127 59.84 0.48 5.26 Chr712759.840.485.26 Chr8 200 91.39 0.48 4.44 Chr820091.390.484.44 Chr9 124 77.12 0.62 5.80 Chr912477.120.625.80 Chr10 104 57.13 0.55 5.52 Chr1010457.130.555.52 Chr11 85 55.95 0.66 7.94 Chr118555.950.667.94 Chr12 125 83.22 0.65 4.30 Chr1212583.220.654.30 Chr13 116 95.55 0.78 5.47 Chr1311695.550.785.47 "},{"text":"Table 3 . Summary of significant QTLs detected for yam anthracnose disease resistance in water yam. Markers Chr Pos (cM) LOD Add/Dom CI. Low CI. High R 2 (%) Putative Genes MarkersChrPos (cM)LODAdd/DomCI. LowCI. HighR 2 (%)Putative Genes Qyad-7-1 7 10.60 4.51 −2.56 10.596 19.217 33.7 DRNTG_08663.1 Qyad-7-1710.604.51−2.5610.59619.21733.7DRNTG_08663.1 QTL-7-2 7 19.21 5.28 −5.98 10.596 19.218 29.54 DRNTG_08664.1, DRNTG_23336.1 QTL-7-2719.215.28−5.9810.59619.21829.54DRNTG_08664.1, DRNTG_23336.1 Qyad-15 15 28.80 4.43 −10.12 10.171 28.817 30.90 DRNTG_14305.1 Qyad-151528.804.43−10.1210.17128.81730.90DRNTG_14305.1 Qyad-18 18 61.4 4.65 −3.48 61.345 61.432 39.40 DRNTG_18245.1, DRNTG_29617.1 Qyad-181861.44.65−3.4861.34561.43239.40DRNTG_18245.1, DRNTG_29617.1 Chr: chromosome; pos: position; LOD: logarithm of odds score; CI: confidence interval; R 2 : % vari- Chr: chromosome; pos: position; LOD: logarithm of odds score; CI: confidence interval; R 2 : % vari- ation explained; Add: additive; Dom: dominance. ation explained; Add: additive; Dom: dominance. "},{"text":"Table 4 . Interactions among the detected QTL. Marker Interactions df MS p-Value Adjusted Squared R- Marker InteractionsdfMSp-ValueAdjusted SquaredR- Qyad-7-1: QTL-7-2 1 55.9 0.835 0.04147 Qyad-7-1: QTL-7-2155.90.8350.04147 Qyad-7-1: Qyad-15 1 5303.5 0.0456 * 0.02544 Qyad-7-1: Qyad-1515303.50.0456 *0.02544 Qyad7 -1: Qyad-18 1 155.2 0.734 −0.0002131 Qyad7 -1: Qyad-181155.20.734−0.0002131 QTL-7 -2: Qyad-15 1 2580.7 0.158 0.04395 QTL-7 -2: Qyad-1512580.70.1580.04395 Qyad-7-2: Qyad-18 1 6341.0 0.026 * 0.06074 Qyad-7-2: Qyad-1816341.00.026 *0.06074 Qyad-15: Qyad-18 1 1408.4 0.309 −0.01079 Qyad-15: Qyad-1811408.40.309−0.01079 Qyad-7-1: QTL-7-2: Qyad-15: Qyad-18 3 1247.7 0.068 0.04413 Qyad-7-1: QTL-7-2: Qyad-15: Qyad-1831247.70.0680.04413 df: degree of freedom; MS: mean square; * statistical significance at p-value 0.05. df: degree of freedom; MS: mean square; * statistical significance at p-value 0.05. "},{"text":"Table 5 . QTL by environment analysis considering the major QTL. Sum Sq Mean Sq F Value Sum SqMean SqF Value "}],"sieverID":"3cdc9fed-75e0-4315-85c2-4aa59a44c3b1","abstract":"Anthracnose disease caused by a fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is the primary cause of yield loss in water yam (Dioscorea alata), the widely cultivated species of yam. Resistance to yam anthracnose disease (YAD) is a prime target in breeding initiatives to develop durable-resistant cultivars for sustainable management of the disease in water yam cultivation. This study aimed at tagging quantitative trait loci (QTL) for anthracnose disease resistance in a bi-parental mapping population of D. alata. Parent genotypes and their recombinant progenies were genotyped using the Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS) platform and phenotyped in two crop cycles for two years. A high-density genetic linkage map was built with 3184 polymorphic Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (NSP) markers well distributed across the genome, covering 1460.94 cM total length. On average, 163 SNP markers were mapped per chromosome with 0.58 genetic distances between SNPs. Four QTL regions related to yam anthracnose disease resistance were identified on three chromosomes. The proportion of phenotypic variance explained by these QTLs ranged from 29.54 to 39.40%. The QTL regions identified showed genes that code for known plant defense responses such as GDSL-like Lipase/Acylhydrolase, Protein kinase domain, and F-box protein. The results from the present study provide valuable insight into the genetic architecture of anthracnose resistance in water yam. The candidate markers identified herewith form a relevant resource to apply markerassisted selection as an alternative to a conventional labor-intensive screening for anthracnose resistance in water yam."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"03fe55996bbf7141b1665c7e85e12535","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e446214a-f7ee-4ef0-9395-4721f12ffbe0/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION Agrarian Resilience","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Enables to respond to changes in agricultural systems • Differential pathways across gender "}]},{"head":"Differential access Gender","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND RESILIENCE","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"How does prosocial behavior of women contribute to resilience? We use logit regressions to estimate the associations between prosocial behaviour and participation in community organizations. ❑ Being an active member increased the odds of donation during the pandemic by 1.8 times ❑ Other factor that affect donation behaviour are incomes."}]},{"head":"Membership in community bodies","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Leadership positions","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Prosocial behaviour","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Social","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"VARIABLES","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"❑ However, it is related negatively to the donation behaviour because the computed odds ratio is less than 1. "}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"VARIABLES","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IMPLICATIONS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Thank YOU"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"▪ Randomly sampled participants of a lab-based field experiment conducted for another study ▪ Questionnaire: Individual and household details, Employment details Time preferences Participation in bodies such as SHGs ▪ 10 questions about social esteem were also included, responses to which were measured using a 5-point Likert scale ▪ A section of the questionnaire also contained information on the behaviour of the respondents during the Covid pandemic ANALYSIS ▪ Measurement of prosocial behaviour ▪ Whether they made donations during pandemic ▪ Independent variable ▪ Leadership position of the organization ▪ Independent variable ▪ Frequency of attending meetings "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"16057830-3723-4b38-8fb1-263b74ba127e","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0443618c91f1f3615ca082f5425fb450","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/78f704f9-3c60-4a60-94b5-6802350edc1c/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Deliverables associated:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"• D16544 -At least three (3) maize hybrids with tolerance to FAW identified for further utilization in breeding. • D26197 -SPR undertaken on selected CIMMYT maize hybrids at Eluru, India's major maize seed production hub (https://twk.pm/i3ao6vuh62)"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• D5563 -A sustainable and profitable maize production system with at least 10% monitory gains to the maize farmers over current system (Not disseminated)"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• D27481 -At least 1000 hybrids will be evaluated stage I, II and III trials under optimum, low N and high density (Not disseminated)"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• D27486 -30 new MLN tolerant three-way hybrids identified and advanced to stage • EiB -Excellence in Breeding Platform"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" (Not disseminated) • D26188 -Marker-based coefficient of parentage matrix developed for CIMMYT-LatAm breeding pipelines. (Marked as Confidential) • D28381 -Market segmentation maps for Peru and Colombia (Marked as Confidential) • D6788 -At least 650 new 3W and SX hybrids screened under artificial MLN inoculation, and at least 3-5 new hybrids with MLN tolerance identified. (Not disseminated) • D31793 -Assessment of Functional and Pasting Properties of Fresh Orange Maize Hybrids and Open-Pollinated Varieties (https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2021.757728/full) • D21062 -Two days training modules for CIMMYT staff and stakeholders. (Not disseminated) • D21038 -Grain quality database for hybrids develeped in Mexico and some common commercial hybrids in Africa (Not disseminated) • D16536 -At least 600 hybrids (developed from MLN and drought tolerant lines) evaluated under natural disease pressure, (Not disseminated) • D26218 -At least 20kg of breeder seed of parental lines of licensed CIMMYT hybrids in LatAm (aprox. 20 inbred lines). (Marked as Confidential) • D27496 -Regional trials involving stage IV OFT entries implemented in at least 60-70 on-farm locations during main and off-seasons in 2020 (Marked as Confidential) • D6804 -Key traits (yield components, architecture and stress tolerance) associated with genetic gain under drought stress and optimal conditions quantified (Not disseminated) • D26139 -Identification of new hybrids from the cold stress program of CIMMYT-Asia program suitable for cold stress tolerance in South Asia (Marked as Confidential) • D5571 -At least two new high-yielding stress-resilient maize hybrids identified for each targeted agro-ecological zones (Not disseminated) • D16612 -2. At least 2 hybrids suitable for stage-gate advancement in India identified (by 2020) ( Not disseminated) • D26199 -SPR trials of Stage-4 hybrids conducted at ARS-Vijayarai (https://twk.pm/5s26vo8pe6) • D26219 -Seed production technology information generated and disseminated for parental inbred lines of at least 10 Stage 4 hybrids (Marked as Confidential) • D18613 -Line increases and hybrid productions for distribution of drought, heat and tar spot resistant materials. (https://maizecatalog.cimmyt.org/technology/44479) • D16535 -At least 600 hybrids (developed from MLN and drought tolerant lines) evaluated at Naivasha under MLN artificial inoculation (Not disseminated) • D6755 -Maize hybrids in Mexico with high stover-fodder quality identified (Not disseminated) • D6785 -At least 900 hybrids (developed from MLN and drought tolerant lines) evaluated under natural disease pressure (Not disseminated) • D26222 -Identification of stable response hybrids across environments. (Marked as Confidential) • D27484 -MLN converted lines with high GCA identified, in combination with other MLN converted lines and specific combinations which can contribute to high potential three-way hybrids ( Not disseminated) • D26341 -Lines and hybrids shipped to East Africa and South Asia and in evaluation trials with CIMMYT colleagues. (https://data.cimmyt.org/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:11529/10548612) • D26223 -Identification of test sites with non-redundant information (Marked as Confidential) • D28360 -• Top 5 hybrids from regional trials with a minimum of 10% yield advantage over the mean of the benchmark hybrids advanced through stage-gate; (Not disseminated) • D28361 -• 8 new elite highland maize lines converted with MLN resistance QTL from KS23. (Not disseminated) • D5572 -At least 4 new high-yielding stress-resilient maize hybrids are officially released by OUAT (Not disseminated) • D27497 -Data analysed for stage-gate product advancement and announcement process ( Marked as Confidential) • D10750 -Produce hybrids of most advanced drought lines with key African testers (Not disseminated) • D26200 -5 kg seed of each of the parents of promising Stage-4 CIMMYT hybrids produced (https://twk.pm/ngfjlarlc6) • D27951 -DEVELOPMENT OF NORTHERN CORN LEAF BLIGHT RESISTANT EARLY AND EXTRA-EARLY MATURING INBRED LINES AND HYBRIDS, (Not disseminated) • D26189 -Reference SNP dataset made available publicly for all the released CMLs through Dataverse. (Marked as Confidential) • D26191 -2 Parentage verification analysis of 41 female single crosses. (Marked as Confidential) • D28382 -Go to market strategy implemented in Mexico. (Marked as Confidential) • D26187 -Information of genetic purity, identity ascertained, and feedback provided to the breeding and seed systems teams, and germplasm bank. (Marked as Confidential) • D27483 -Seed of the 4 potential highland inbred lines multiplied in suffecient amount and prop0sal submitted for release as CML (Not disseminated) • D27482 -At least 2000 segregating lines advanced to next stages (Not disseminated) • D26220 -At least 3 on line training course on Maize Seed Production organized in LatAm (Ecuador, Peru and Mexico) (Marked as Confidential) • D26209 -At least 10 kg of pre basic seed of parental lines of licensed CIMMYT hybrids in LatAm; (Marked as Confidential) • D28259 -Mexico market penetration map with CIMMYT germplasm. (Marked as Confidential) • D26186 -200-300 CIMMYT-LatAm coded inbred lines, CML candidates, parental lines of the hybrids allocated to partners genotyped using QA/QC KASP SNP panel. (Marked as Confidential) • D27480 -At least 15-20 best performing highland hybrids identified form 2019 yield trials will evaluated in stage IV trials (Not disseminated) • D26195 -Technically support the NARS partners in Pakistan and collect relevant data from on-sation trials of CIMMYT's improved maize hybrids (https://www.cimmyt.org/tag/allocations/) • D26158 -At least 3 kg seed of 10-12 CIMMYT Stage 4 hybrids produced for testing in at least 50 on-farm locations (https://twk.pm/wgydh4dxhk) • D26214 -Regional on-farm data used for stage-gate advancement; (https://tinyurl.com/2kcqexdp) • D20736 -Conduct at least 15 on-farm trials/demonstrations of pre-commercial or newly commercialized hybrids, and evaluated by men and women farmers in highland ecologies (Not disseminated) • D26159 -Trials involving selected Stage 4 entries implemented in at least 50 on-farm locations during main and off-seasons in 2021 (https://twk.pm/bxpj6sq2g2) • D16546 -At least 100-120 new hybrids formed for testing in 2019B and 2020A under various stresses including FAW (Not disseminated) • D28359 -• At least 300-400 late maturing hybrids (Stages I, II, III, IV) developed and evaluated under optimum and targeted abiotic and biotic stresses; (Not disseminated) • D20738 -At least 10 kg certified seeds of 15 hybrids identified for on-farm and NPVT will be produced for evaluation in subsequent years (Not disseminated) • D6803 -information on gains due to genetic improvemen (Not disseminated) • D26193 -1. Seed producibility data generated in Nepalgunj on at least 15-20 Stage-3 and/or Stage-4 hybrids (https://www.cimmyt.org/tag/allocations/) • D7005 -At least 50 lines, OPVs and hybrids with good end use traits identified (Not disseminated) • D10751 -Yield trials of advanced drought lines x African tester hybrids (Not disseminated) • D6786 -At least 3000 DH lines (developed from MLN tolerant by drought tolerant lines) evaluated at Naivasha under artificial MLN infestation (Not disseminated) • D27959 -At least 20 hybrids assessed for end use traits across environments & least 25 OPVs assessed for end use traits across environments (Not disseminated) • D26185 -Hybrids allocated to partners and identified CMLs genotyped using mid-density genotyping platforms and feedback provided to breeding and seed systems teams (https://hdl.handle.net/11529/10548632) • D26190 -1. Genetic purity analysis of 83 elite inbred lines tested and updated inventories. ( Marked as Confidential) • D26192 -3. Genotyping inbred lines and Female Single Crosses (Marked as Confidential) • D6779 -hybrid seed produciability (Not disseminated) • D27485 -MLN x MLN SC females assessed for female yield and flowering time together with MLN converted lines (Marked as Confidential) • D18614 -Phytosanitary certification and shipment outside of Mexico. (https://tinyurl.com/2hq2xsbq) • D28362 -• Three-generation cycle implemented in Kiboko to generate F1, BC1F1, and BC2F1 seed. (Not disseminated) • D26194 -At least 15 on-farm trials/demonstrations conducted on at least 5-10 hybrids (https://tinyurl.com/2kcqexdp) • D28363 -• 5-6 selected high-value lines introduced and used in breeding for improving genetic resistance to FAW, enriching the trait diversity of highland maize germplasm (Not disseminated) • D6425 -Development o1. At least 900 hybrids (developed from MLN and drought tolerant lines) evaluated at Naivasha under MLN artificial inoculationf (Not disseminated) "},{"text":" 3 in 2021; ( Marked as Confidential) • D26208 -1. Seed producibility research (SPR) data generated for at least 6 Stage 5 hybrids from CIMMYT-LatAm breeding pipelines. (https://repository.cimmyt.org/handle/10883/21314) • D10749 -Yield trials of advanced drought tolerant hybrids in 2 locations in Zimbabwe and 2 locations in Kenya. (Marked as Confidential) • D10752 -Yield trials of preliminary heat tolerant hybrids in 2 locations in India. (Not disseminated) • D16537 -At least 1000 DH lines (developed from MLN tolerant by drought tolerant lines) evaluated at Naivasha under artificial MLN infestation (Not disseminated) • D26213 -Data for farmer/ gender preferences collected; (https://www.cimmyt.org/news/reaching-women-with-improved-maize-and-wheat/) • D27495 -At least 3 kg seed of 10-12 CIMMYT Stage IV hybrids produced for 60-70 on-farm testing locations (Marked as Confidential) • D26157 -Network of partners for on-farm testing for SAWLDT and SADT established (https://twk.pm/bxpj6sq2g2) • D26210 -Generate DUS data for at least 10 new parental lines. (Marked as Confidential) • D26215 -Atleast 100-200 kg intial (breeder, NPT/demo) seeds of FAW hybrids increased at Kiboko (https://tinyurl.com/2q54mosy) • D16545 -At least 5-7 maize inbreds with tolerance to FAW identified and used to develop FAW tolerant hybrids. (Not disseminated) • D26212 -Genetic gain under farmer conditions assessed; (https://tinyurl.com/2qfe75lm) • D26198 -Seed production of inbred parents of promising Stage 4 CIMMYT hybrids and maintenance of reference samples for QA/QC. (https://twk.pm/i1lnumi9ts) • D26196 -Performance data collected from the on-farm trials conducted in Nepal to support CIMMYT-Asia stage-gate advancement process. (https://www.banglajol.info/index.php/SJA/article/view/54776) • D21061 -Go to marketing strategy for Eastern Africa. (Not disseminated) • D10541 -The Effect of Foliar Fertilizer on Maize Seed prodcuction of Single cross hybrids and inbred Lines (Not disseminated) • D21060 -Country overview for Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zambia (Not disseminated) • D27494 -Network of partners for on-farm testing for PP1 and PP2 established (Marked as Confidential) • D34473 -Yield trial evaluation under stress conditions (https://tinyurl.com/2zbug9m4) • D26160 -Data analysed for stage-gate product advancement and announcement process (https://www.cimmyt.org/tag/allocations/) • D16611 -1. At least 200 inbred lines and 100 hybrids evaluated for Java (Indonesian) strain of DM in Indonesia. (Not disseminated) • D26221 -5-year data from more than 50 hybrids and 100 sites analysed (Marked as Confidential) • D21059 -Setting purposes and objectives of side-by-side plots for the successful replacement of products. (Not disseminated) • D6789 -MLN Quarantine operations in Kenya and Zimbabwe supported for safe exchange of elite maize germplasm to partners in the region (Not disseminated) • D6787 -At least 1435 DH lines and 2390 S4 lines screened under artificial MLN inoculation (Not disseminated) • D28364 -• About 1500 segregating lines (of different filial generation) evaluated (Not disseminated) • D26184 -1. Approx. 400 parental lines of CIMMYT-Asia stage-gate advanced hybrids (entering Stages 3 and 4) and CML candidates genotyped with QA/QC SNPs. (https://hdl.handle.net/11529/10548632) Contributing CRPs/Platforms: "}],"sieverID":"c1eff12d-b14d-4fd4-97ad-724bd3d2a7ba","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"045617c501a237d63e2fa82a15ad488a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c99b09d4-3bea-48f6-9821-d07b842af1f7/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Understanding of markets in traditional economics Traditional economics","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Assumptions of neoclassical school","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":" perfectly rational traders full information well-defined and stable preferences homogeneous goods and services self-interested actors zero transaction costs (transaction hurdles) information search, inspection, negotiation and bargaining, decision making and cost of making wrong decisions, monitoring and enforcement \"Pareto efficient\" exchange equilibrium Real markets involve frictions,"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"positive transaction costs heterogeneous goods and services information and power asymmetries between market actors imperfect foresight boundedly rational economic actors:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• intention to make rational decisions but substantively not so because of limited information and/or limited cognitive capacity"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• hence room for opportunism (self-interest seeking with guile)"},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":" Differences among actors with respect to their abilities, initial resource positions, information endowments, risk preferences, and a great variety of constraints in markets that limit options identifying implications of given institutional arrangements for economic behavior"},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"• real life markets are imperfect check their sustainable supply potential and integrity identify the legal status of potential trading partners, etc."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"2. Contracting: agreeing on prices and other stipulations fresh milk seller and a processing company may have to negotiate and reach agreement on the terms:"},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"the price for a specific quality of milk the duration to stay in the trade relationship time and frequency of delivery mode and frequency of payment level of compensation in case either party fails to obey the terms of the agreement, etc."},{"index":9,"size":50,"text":"3. Post-contractual: execution, control, and enforcement a milk processing firm may need to employ a lawyer to take legal action against a milk supplier if the milk is adulterated or not fresh of lower quality than the agreed upon one supply declines or abruptly stops, etc."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":" the milk producer may also incur transaction costs if the milk processer suddenly stops accepting milk or fails to make payments as per the agreement, etc. -Asset specificity"},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"• assets which have no value outside a particular transaction example: transaction agreement between XYZ bakery and University of Nairobi for particular sized and shaped bread for its student canteen involves specific asset "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" lowering transaction costs as the common goal Important to understand characteristics and organization of specific markets Transaction costs incurred both ex-ante and ex-post, in addition to those during the period of making exchange decision 1. Pre-contractual: Search and Inspection 5/8/2013 10 A milk processing company may have to look for fresh milk producing dairy farms search for information on the list of prices identify potential buyers of processed dairy products check the qualities of milk from different producers "},{"text":" Application of NIE to analyze the impacts of VC-IPs on market performance IPs as hybrid structures with formal and informal rules and contracts Need to understand how VC-IPs in Volta2 project are organized, operate, and interact in the process of attaining local development objectives and institutional innovation 5/8/2013 "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"5e63052c-6a21-49b7-998b-9c6fe9b86ecf","abstract":" dealt with the determination of equilibrium (market) prices based on demand and supply of goods and services in the market but what is market? place where buyers and sellers meet, exchange commodities and establish prices consistent with neoclassical model of a capitalist economy based on many unrealistic assumptions"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"04bbc6e0796a300cd554b6bac3bb1a5a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dce10a88-7c20-4828-a2c6-eec6ab38fa48/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Climate Change Atlas for Trees of Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Milestones:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"• Policy-makers have incorporated appropriate certification standards into delivery systems in two countries. Changes in policies and strategies by national governments and implemented by national extensions services have resulted in entrepreneurial suppliers becoming more engaged in delivery in three countries. The role tree nursery operators within efficient tree seed and seedling systems will be understood and demonstrated. Tools will be available to account for the potential effects of climate change when planning for national and regional tree seed production and distribution."}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• 8 -More efficient use of inputs "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Geographic Scope: National Number of individual improved lines "},{"text":"entity to take innovation to this stage: ICRAF -World Agroforestry Centre Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage "},{"text":" • 12 -Increased conservation and use of genetic resources "}],"sieverID":"e090dc03-9cb7-4cf0-96cd-23d2b1cc2b51","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"04ead1d03f71b9018b1e8b9737ffe9fa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8fc20980-0ac9-4596-9ffa-94bd16cf59eb/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Land Access in the Development of Horticultural Crops in East Africa. A Case Study of Passion Fruit in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda","keywords":["access to land","passion fruit","Burundi","Kenya","Rwanda"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Rural smallholder farmers are central in the supply of agricultural products to agro-industries, consumer-oriented local markets, and export markets at the regional or international level. They are central in attaining food security and contribute substantially to economic growth. However, these farmers in sub-Saharan Africa have poor access to land resources and as a result, this undermines their potential in spearheading economic development and improvement of livelihoods [1][2][3]. The current advances in the adoption of new crops by these farmers have the potential to alter their roles and contribution to food and export products. For example, the adoption of passion fruits by rural smallholder farmers may result in changes in land use, income generation, and food security among participating households and their communities. In the recent past, a tendency of farmers to shift from cereal crops (wheat and maize) cultivation to high-value horticultural crops has been observed in East Africa, but the impact of such changes on food supply and sufficiency has not been well evaluated [4,5]."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"High population pressure in sub-Saharan Africa contributes to the rapid development of settlements. This promotes the clearance of forests and grasslands for settlements and crop cultivation [6]. Moreover, high population pressure causes an increase in land fragmentation, which hinders sustainable and productive agricultural ventures [6,7]. Most farmers in rural areas have small pieces of land (less than 1.5 ha), as a result of land fragmentation caused by inheritance of land resources [8,9]. Furthermore, these farmers have limited alternative sources of income, hence, they lack the potential to expand their farmlands [1]."},{"index":3,"size":278,"text":"Land rights in East Africa include customary land tenure systems, trust land tenure, and private land tenure systems. Customary land tenure systems comprise land resources collectively owned by communities, they are common in Kenyan pastoralist communities found in semi-arid and arid areas as well as in similar communities of both Burundi and Rwanda [10]. Government trust land is owned by the state corporations and other public institutions, such as public parks, public offices, public institutions, public land reserves, and protected areas [11]. Private land owned by individuals is normally under freehold or leasehold terms. Trust and private lands are formally registered and there is the issuance of title deeds. Land registration is well organized in Kenya, but poor in both Burundi and Rwanda [12]. Challenges to legal rights to land in the latter are due to poor regulations, for example, land rights in Burundi are poor since a majority of landowners do not possess legal documents proving their ownership [6,13]. There is a lack of sufficient regulations to support customary land tenure systems in the three study countries, therefore, some of such lands are not registered. Furthermore, communal land tenure systems face challenges of land-use conflicts within or between members of the communities. On the other hand, women have low access to customary land [7,14]. However, the development of democracy and new regulations have promoted East African states to ratify international conventions on natural resource conservation involving the management of land resources, such as Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and United Convection to Combat Desertification. There is potential that such developments will promote the improvement of land policies and regulations."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"Land inequalities began during colonization through dispossessions of land from African communities [15], at independence, new challenges comprising poor access to resources by the Africans, high economic pressure, an urgency to maintain the productivity of white settler farms, and the need for compensation of departing white settlers resulted in the poor transfer of ownership of the land resource, promoting high land access to political elites, skilled Africans, and other wealthy Africans [15][16][17]. Post genocide Rwanda, on the other hand, has faced a challenge of land redistribution [18], while persistent civil wars in Burundi have resulted in the displacement of people from their lands. Since this country is densely populated, returning internally displaced refugees often found their land already occupied by other people, hence resulting in a pressure of land reallocation, social tension, and land disputes [6,19,20]."},{"index":5,"size":132,"text":"At present, most rural areas in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda are densely populated [21,22]. This contributes to land scarcity for agricultural activities such as crop cultivation, as such, farmers have challenges of increasing their cultivated land. With limited resources, they could increase their cultivated land through land purchase and land rental markets [1,21]. Besides, land scarcity could pressure farmers to increase land productivity for high income; such changes have previously involved intensive farming and adoption of high-value horticultural crops such as fruits and vegetables. These agrarian changes associated with the intensification of agricultural production and the high population growth raise questions on the sustainability of rainfed agriculture [6]. Previous studies have observed that changes resulting in abandonment of food crops for the benefit of horticultural crops affect food production and supply [4]."},{"index":6,"size":169,"text":"Passion fruit is a common horticultural fruit crop adopted by rural households in East Africa that have small agricultural land sizes [5]. However, the impacts of the introduction and adoption of this fruit crop in rural areas of Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda are unknown. Previous studies have strongly suggested that the present upsurge in the uptake of new horticultural crops, including passion fruits, would increase farm income [3], but there is lack of sufficient data to support this, furthermore, there is an absence of data on how land access challenges affect the adoption of horticultural crops and the likely impacts on income and food supply. Thus, there is a need for research to evaluate how land access and associated land-use changes affect the introduction of horticultural crops among rural smallholder farmers. Therefore, this study evaluated land access and land-use changes associated with the adoption of the passion fruit by smallholder farmers in East Africa and provides a critical assessment of probable long-term effects in the context of land scarcity."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Choice and Description of Study Areas","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Key regions for passion fruit production in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda were selected for the study. In Burundi, Matongo and Isare are the main passion fruit production regions (Figure 1) [5,23,24]. Matongo municipality receives an average annual rainfall ranging from 1200 to 1600 mm per annum with an average temperature of about 18 • C. Isare, on the other hand, receives an average rainfall of 1100 to 1800 mm per annum with an average temperature range of 17 to 23 • C [25]. In Kenya, Embu and Meru counties are the major passion fruits growing regions (Figure 2) [5,26,27]. These regions have adequate and well-distributed rainfall (600 to 1800 mm per annum), temperature regimes range from 12 to 26 • C, and the soils are fertile and well-drained [28,29]. In Rwanda, Nyamagabe and Rulindo are the major passion fruit production regions (Figure 3) [5,30]. The average annual rainfall for these two regions ranges from 1300 to 2300 mm per annum with an average temperature range of between 18 and 19 "}]},{"head":"3","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Passion fruit is a common horticultural fruit crop adopted by rural households in East Africa that have small agricultural land sizes [5]. However, the impacts of the introduction and adoption of this fruit crop in rural areas of Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda are unknown. Previous studies have strongly suggested that the present upsurge in the uptake of new horticultural crops, including passion fruits, would increase farm income [3], but there is lack of sufficient data to support this, furthermore, there is an absence of data on how land access challenges affect the adoption of horticultural crops and the likely impacts on income and food supply. Thus, there is a need for research to evaluate how land access and associated land-use changes affect the introduction of horticultural crops among rural smallholder farmers. Therefore, this study evaluated land access and land-use changes associated with the adoption of the passion fruit by smallholder farmers in East Africa and provides a critical assessment of probable long-term effects in the context of land scarcity."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Choice and Description of Study Areas","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Key regions for passion fruit production in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda were selected for the study. In Burundi, Matongo and Isare are the main passion fruit production regions (Figure 1) [5,23,24]. Matongo municipality receives an average annual rainfall ranging from 1200 to 1600 mm per annum with an average temperature of about 18 °C. Isare, on the other hand, receives an average rainfall of 1100 to 1800 mm per annum with an average temperature range of 17 to 23 °C [25]. In Kenya, Embu and Meru counties are the major passion fruits growing regions (Figure 2) [5,26,27]. These regions have adequate and well-distributed rainfall (600 to 1800 mm per annum), temperature regimes range from 12 to 26 °C, and the soils are fertile and well-drained [28,29]. In Rwanda, Nyamagabe and Rulindo are the major passion fruit production regions (Figure 3) [5,30]. The average annual rainfall for these two regions ranges from 1300 to 2300 mm per annum with an average temperature range of between 18 and 19 °C [30,31]. "}]},{"head":"Research Design","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The study employed ex post facto research design involving exploratory surveys, the use of semistructured interviews with key stakeholders, and field observations. To understand the trajectory of adoption of the passion fruit, we used the snowball approach where the municipal extension officers/agronomists and index farmers introduced researchers to the most experienced passion fruit farmers. The latter, in turn, identified other farmers who adopted this crop. As such, we were able to obtain the first sample of 135 farmers in Burundi through the assistance of extension "}]},{"head":"Research Design","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The study employed ex post facto research design involving exploratory surveys, the use of semistructured interviews with key stakeholders, and field observations. To understand the trajectory of adoption of the passion fruit, we used the snowball approach where the municipal extension officers/agronomists and index farmers introduced researchers to the most experienced passion fruit farmers. The latter, in turn, identified other farmers who adopted this crop. As such, we were able to obtain the first sample of 135 farmers in Burundi through the assistance of extension "}]},{"head":"Research Design","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"The study employed ex post facto research design involving exploratory surveys, the use of semistructured interviews with key stakeholders, and field observations. To understand the trajectory of adoption of the passion fruit, we used the snowball approach where the municipal extension officers/agronomists and index farmers introduced researchers to the most experienced passion fruit farmers. The latter, in turn, identified other farmers who adopted this crop. As such, we were able to obtain the first sample of 135 farmers in Burundi through the assistance of extension officers and index farmers. The exploratory survey in Burundi revealed that respondent farmers with less than three years of passion fruits farming had limited knowledge on the actual production costs, cost-effective production management practices, and knowledge on the available support systems from the country's horticultural sector. Therefore, we included only farmers with at least five years of experience in passion fruit production. These experienced farmers were part of our in-depth investigation whose results are the subject of this article."}]},{"head":"Sample Size Estimation and Sampling","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The starting sample in each country was 135 farmers, as used in the exploratory survey. Therefore, to determine the appropriate sample size, we adopted the Yamane formula [32]."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"where n is a sample size, N is the total target population, and e is the level of precision with N = 135 and e = 10%. Purposeful sampling was used in the study, and according to the Yamane formula, a sample of 58 respondents was arrived at. However, in the survey, the achievable sample size of farmers with five years of experience in passion fruit production was 60 in Burundi, 51 in Kenya, and 60 in Rwanda, leading to a total of 171 passion fruit farmers."}]},{"head":"Data Collection and Analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Semistructured interviews advocated by trained field officers led the discussions, observations, and interviews. The interlocutors could express themselves as freely as possible, and this allowed the interviewers (field officers) to capture the details of the situation at the farm level before and after the adoption of the passion fruit farming. Field observations combined with field surveys allowed the collection of reliable information on farm characteristics."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"The data collected through surveys and field observations were used to determine the total agricultural land, number and sizes of plots under passion fruits production, farming systems used in passion fruit production (monoculture or polyculture), and information on farm space occupied by other crops. These data were organized in excel files and subjected to qualitative statistics using SPSS Statistics software (version 20.0. IBM, Armonk, NY, USA, 2018). The results were in the form of averages, frequencies, and standard deviations. Farm sizes data from the surveyed farmers in the three study countries were further subjected to analysis of variance using R software version 3.6.0, and the significant means were separated by the Student Newman Keuls Test (SNK test) at alpha = 0.05."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"To analyze land fragmentation, the estimated average land area possessed by respondent passion fruit farmers in each study country was considered as the total land area in a typical passion fruit farming household. The majority of households had a size of four in Kenya, five in Rwanda, and six in Burundi; on average the mean household size for the surveyed farmers was five. Similarly, literature had indicated a high fertility rate of women in rural areas of East Africa, where each married woman was expected to have between 5 and 6 children [33,34]. As such, we adopted five children per household as a standard representative number of heirs per household as well as the expected number of heirs in the subsequent generations. Land access by inheritance was considered, hence, the average farm size per household was divided by five to allow each heir to have his/her share, for the first, second, and third generations, respectively."}]},{"head":"Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Land Area Available for Agricultural Activities among Surveyed Farmers","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Among the passion fruit farming households included in the study from the three study countries, the average farm sizes ranged from 0.8 ha, 0.9 ha, to 2.7 ha in Rwanda, Burundi, and Kenya, respectively. The proportion of small farms (<1.0 ha) was high in Burundi (68%) and Rwanda (78%), but low in Kenya (6%). The proportion of medium-sized farms (1.0 ≤ 2.0 ha) was moderate in Kenya (39%) and Rwanda (23%), but low in Burundi (10%). A majority (55%) of passion fruit farms in Kenya were large (>2.0 ha) (Table 1). The average farm size for Kenyan farmers included in the study was significantly higher compared with that of farmers in Burundi and Rwanda (Table 2). Similarly, the sizes of farms dedicated to passion fruits production in Kenya were significantly larger compared with those of farmers in Burundi and Rwanda (Table 3). The spatial occupancy of land under passion fruits (monoculture and polyculture farming) compared with other crops among the surveyed households was moderate in the three countries: Burundi, 39%; Rwanda, 28%; and Kenya, 25%, (Table 4). "}]},{"head":"Modes of Land Acquisition among Surveyed Farmers","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Three modes of land access were identified during the fieldwork, they comprised inheritance, purchase, and leasehold. Inheritance was observed to be the main mode of land acquisition for passion fruit production by the surveyed farmers in the three countries, and it was reported by 75%, 59%, and 55% farmers in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda, respectively. Land purchase for passion fruit production was high in Rwanda (41%) and moderate in both Kenya (33%) and Burundi (21%). Leasing land for passion fruit production was low among surveyed farmers in all the three study countries, ranging from 8%, 5%, to 4% in Kenya, Burundi, and Rwanda, respectively (Figure 4). "}]},{"head":"Modes of Land Acquisition among Surveyed Farmers","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":284,"text":"Three modes of land access were identified during the fieldwork, they comprised inheritance, purchase, and leasehold. Inheritance was observed to be the main mode of land acquisition for passion fruit production by the surveyed farmers in the three countries, and it was reported by 75%, 59%, and 55% farmers in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda, respectively. Land purchase for passion fruit production was high in Rwanda (41%) and moderate in both Kenya (33%) and Burundi (21%). Leasing land for passion fruit production was low among surveyed farmers in all the three study countries, ranging from 8%, 5%, to 4% in Kenya, Burundi, and Rwanda, respectively (Figure 4). The inheritance, which was observed to be the predominant method of land access, could be a contributor to land fragmentation, hence a factor in the reduction of farm sizes possessed by individual households; this could have occurred as the land resource was passed from one generation to the other. For example, in Burundi, with an average of 0.882 ha per household of five heirs, each inherits 0.176 ha in the first generation, 0.035 ha in the second, and 0.007 ha in the third generation (Table 5 and Figure 5). The inheritance, which was observed to be the predominant method of land access, could be a contributor to land fragmentation, hence a factor in the reduction of farm sizes possessed by individual households; this could have occurred as the land resource was passed from one generation to the other. For example, in Burundi, with an average of 0.882 ha per household of five heirs, each inherits 0.176 ha in the first generation, 0.035 ha in the second, and 0.007 ha in the third generation (Table 5 and Figure 5). "}]},{"head":"Land Use Changes among Surveyed Farmers during the Adoption of Passion Fruit Production","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":398,"text":"In Kenya, most of the land under passion fruit production was previously used in the production of other crops (95%). Land-use change from other crops to allow passion fruit production was also high in Rwanda (64%) but low in Burundi (18%). Polyculture farming was observed to be high in In Kenya, most of the land under passion fruit production was previously used in the production of other crops (95%). Land-use change from other crops to allow passion fruit production was also high in Rwanda (64%) but low in Burundi (18%). Polyculture farming was observed to be high in Burundi (78%), moderate in Rwanda (23%), and low in Kenya (3%). Clearance of land to allow passion fruit production was low in the three study countries, ranging from 13% in Rwanda, 4% in Kenya, to 2% in Burundi (Figure 6). Crops abandoned to pave way for passion fruit production were diverse: food crops, cash crops, vegetable crops, fruit crops, forage crops, and agroforestry trees. Food crop abandonment was high in all three countries. Rwanda registered the highest level of food crop abandonment (97%), followed by Burundi (88%) and Kenya (55%), respectively. Abandonment of cash crops was absent in the surveyed farms in Rwanda but present at low rates in both Kenya (15%) and Burundi (5%). Abandonment of vegetable crops was high in Kenya (17%) but low in both Burundi (2%) and Rwanda (1%). Cases of fruit crops and forage abandonment were absent in Burundi and Rwanda but present in Kenya at low rates (3% and 9%, respectively). Abandonment of agroforestry trees was low in the three study countries (Table 6) Crops abandoned to pave way for passion fruit production were diverse: food crops, cash crops, vegetable crops, fruit crops, forage crops, and agroforestry trees. Food crop abandonment was high in all three countries. Rwanda registered the highest level of food crop abandonment (97%), followed by Burundi (88%) and Kenya (55%), respectively. Abandonment of cash crops was absent in the surveyed farms in Rwanda but present at low rates in both Kenya (15%) and Burundi (5%). Abandonment of vegetable crops was high in Kenya (17%) but low in both Burundi (2%) and Rwanda (1%). Cases of fruit crops and forage abandonment were absent in Burundi and Rwanda but present in Kenya at low rates (3% and 9%, respectively). Abandonment of agroforestry trees was low in the three study countries (Table 6). "}]},{"head":"Methods Used in Increasing Land Available for Passion Fruit Production","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Methods used by surveyed farmers to increase land availability for passion fruit production comprised land purchase, polyculture farming, and crop abandonment. The land purchase was high in Rwanda (95%) and Burundi (88%), but moderate in Kenya (52%). Although polyculture practices were low in the three study countries, more farmers undertook this practice in Kenya (16%), followed by Burundi (12%) and Rwanda (3%), respectively. Crop abandonment as a method of increasing land resources available for passion fruit production was only observed in Kenya (31%) and Rwanda (3%), but absent in Burundi (Table 7). "}]},{"head":"Land Area under Different Passion Fruit Cropping Systems among Surveyed Farmers","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Monocroping of passion fruits was observed to cover small farm sizes in all the three countries, Burundi (0.15 ha), Rwanda (0.26 ha), and Kenya (0.50 ha) (Table 8). However, on average, Kenya had significantly larger monoculture plots compared with both Burundi and Rwanda (Table 9). The maximum land area under passion fruit monoculture was 1.50 ha in Kenya, 0.90 ha in Burundi, and 2.0 ha in Rwanda. On the other hand, the average farm area under passion fruit polyculture farming was significantly high in Kenya compared with Rwanda and Burundi (Table 10). In terms of the proportion of surveyed passion fruit farmers adopting either monocropping or polyculture farming, Kenyan and Burundian farmers were observed to allocate more farmland to mixed farming with an average of 1.06 ha in Kenya compared with 0.34 ha in Burundi and 0.18 ha in Rwanda (Table 8). "}]},{"head":"Discussions","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agricultural Land Area Owned by Farmers Practicing Passion Fruit Production in East Africa","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"In this study, the majority of farmers adopting passion fruit production in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda were observed to have relatively small to moderate farm sizes. These observations are closely related to previous studies where horticulture farmers practicing passion fruits production in East Africa were observed to have small farm sizes [28,35,36]. The probable explanation to this is the steady decline in land available for various economic activities in many rural areas of East Africa; a key contributor to this is the high population pressure [1,21]. These observations are contrary to the expectation that larger farms are more likely to adopt passion fruits production or other new crops due to their high potential to manage risks associated [37]. The scenario in these three countries is a little different. Poor living conditions due to limited income may be the driving force for these smallholder farmers to risk venturing in the production of new horticultural crops."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"Despite the small farm sizes among the surveyed farming households, the findings of this study indicate that households devoted large farmland to passion fruits compared with other crops. This is similar to other reports, where passion fruits were allocated more space than other crops in Kenya, Burundi, and Rwanda [5]. The allocation of large farm space to passion fruit production in comparison with food crops may indicate a reduction in food production. This may harm food supply for such households, especially when the limited food supplied at markets becomes expensive and unaffordable. The situation is complex, and there may be a need for refinancing food crops despite their replacement by passion fruits since food crops have key roles in food and nutritional security, however, there is also the knowledge that the newly introduced crops such as passion fruits are in an urgent need of financing for research in the development of their production [38][39][40]."}]},{"head":"Modes of Land Access in the Adoption of Passion Fruit Production among Farmers in East Africa","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Land tenure systems dictate the availability of land for economic ventures, and farmers with large tracts of land have been observed to have a high ability to adopt new crops compared to smallholder farmers. However, the majority of rural farmers in East Africa have small-sized farms, but they are observed to adopt passion fruit in their crop production activities despite the small farm sizes. Common methods of land access observed among these rural farmers are described below."}]},{"head":"Inheritance","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"The majority of responded farmers in the study countries had acquired their land through inheritance. In other studies, rural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa have always relied on the inheritance of land resources from their families [1,41]. This is a traditional mode of land access and has both advantages and disadvantages. Through inheritance, a new generation of farmers, with a higher level of education, take up the ownership of land, these farmers are more exposed to modern farming practices and are likely to favor improved crop farming practices such as increased use of farm inputs, sustainable farming methods, and adoption of new high-value crops [42,43]. Therefore, we believe farmers inheriting land are likely to try the adoption of new crops and this explains what was observed from farmers in the three countries. In previous studies, young farmers were observed to adopt new sustainable and efficient production practices compared with older ones [44]. Moreover, the high rate of land inheritance among surveyed farmers in East Africa would promote land subdivision, which would result in reduced land resources per household. This would promote the buildup of pressure among farmers to adopt new high-value crops, better land management practices (crop rotation), sustainable soil nutrient management, high-input-use efficiency, and crop diversification [45,46]. Such changes would potentially cushion against huge losses in unexpected market price fluctuations and risk of losses associated with monoculture farming and ensure a steady income to farmers [47][48][49]."},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"Although land fragmentation is a common phenomenon under high population growth in many parts of rural sub-Saharan Africa [7,50,51], estimates from this study indicate that this practice may create a danger of reduced economical value of the fragmented farmlands [41]. In India, land fragmentation has been associated with increased inefficiencies in farm activities and a reduction in net profits [45]. The potential problem of land fragmentation among surveyed passion fruit farmers may be much more complex than a result of land inheritance since there are evidence of poor reallocation of land to internal refugees, especially in Burundi and Rwanda. It is unknown how the small pieces of land reallocated to the internal refugees would be inherited. On the other hand, limited resources among smallholder farmers hinder the acquisition of new parcels of land (for increasing farm sizes), and sometimes smallholder farmers sell their land to generate finance for other uses or as a method of obtaining immediate benefits; this has been observed in Asia and other parts of the world [52,53]. Very few rural farmers could save some income for use in buying or leasing land for their agricultural production."}]},{"head":"Land Purchase","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"In this study, the purchase of agricultural land among respondent farmers was moderate. This agrees with previous reports that indicate low capital among rural smallholder farmers [3]. However, we observe tendencies of farmers to buy land, which may indicate that farmers adopting passion fruit production in East Africa have alternative sources of income or they have savings, which they could use to acquire inputs for their agricultural production. On the other hand, possible factors promoting land purchase by passion fruit farmers comprise migration, lack of land to inherit, population growth, and political crisis. Farmers have also been observed to sell their land in events of political crisis and lack of income to cope with unforeseen and urgent expenses [53,54]. On the other hand, some rural farmers sell land to obtain finances for other uses, for example, changing agricultural production systems from traditional to modern input-intensive systems promoted the sale of agricultural land among poor farmers in a highly populated region of western Kenya [55]; such events may result in increased poverty among smallholder farmers."},{"index":2,"size":196,"text":"In Burundi, land purchase in rural areas was prohibited before the 1980s by the ancestral customs which considered land as a common heritage. A similar stance can also be seen elsewhere in Africa. In another study, it has been illustrated that rural societies often oppose the sale of land to prevent access by other clans or immigrant families [56]. But in the face of the high demand for more agricultural land, such customs are eroding and this has promoted land purchase as a mode of land access in sub-Saharan Africa [50,57]. The main beneficiaries of land sales are often the average households who want to be able to produce more food on a larger farm, save money, or conserve the land resource as an asset to pass on to their offspring. Thus, land no longer has the sole function of agricultural production but also functions as capital and reserve of assets. This situation may promote retention or reacquisition of land by wealthy households [58]. However, the sale of agricultural land owned by the rich would enhance land redistribution to poor smallholder farmers and landless peasants; this has previously been observed in some parts of Africa [53,57]."},{"index":3,"size":209,"text":"It has often been thought that the inheritance mode of land access is the main cause of land-use pressure due to increased subdivision and the need for intensification of agricultural land. But we also suspect that the intensification of production systems, changes in eating habits, and market demand may be contributing to land-use pressure. In this study, we noted that the majority of passion fruit farmers in the three study countries were purchasing land to increase the farm sizes. This indicates that passion fruit farmers could make savings to improve their production a likely indicator of an increase in income from the sale of passion fruits. This is evidence that supports the potential of passion fruit to increase the income of farmers. This is supported by work done by Bashangwa Mpozi [5] which estimated that integrating 781 passion fruit plants in one hectare of coffee/banana system would provide farmers with an additional annual income of about 1148 USD/ha/year in Burundi and 2686.64 USD/ha/year in Kenya. In addition to land purchase, some farmers were observed to practice polyculture as a strategy to increase land for passion fruit production. This indicates that farmers adopting passion fruit production are aware of sustainable production systems which will enhance increased income to farmers [59-62]."}]},{"head":"Leasehold","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"Leasing of land by farmers in the three study countries for passion fruit production was low. In other studies, especially in vegetable production, the leasing of land is very high [62]. But our observations are similar to the reports on the land rental markets in sub-Saharan Africa. Previous studies indicated a rate of between 6% and 21% [50]. Furthermore, leasehold has been observed to be less common among passion fruit farmers in East Africa compared with smallholder farmers in other countries, particularly in West Africa [62]. Challenges that might have contributed to low leasehold among respondent farmers consist of poor leasehold contracts in East Africa. In East Africa, leasehold agreements are temporal for a limited period of about three years and have been linked to the discouragement of farmers from long-term investments [50]. However, this mode of access to land is becoming increasingly important in high-density areas where land has become scarce and highly fragmented [63,64], for example, the growth of land rental markets in Malawi have been promoted by high population density [64]. Some studies show that rental markets contribute to increased use of land resources in economic activities even where sales have had an opposite effect [65,66]. Other studies suggest that land leasing can serve as a safety net for poor smallholder farmers and also improve the living conditions of these farmers, and landowners may also benefit from the money paid by tenants [1,65,67]."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"Land tenure security for farmers is synonymous with using the rented land for a period that allows them to benefit from the investments made. Land tenure security, therefore, influences decisions on the adoption of new agricultural technologies that improve soil quality, agricultural production, and the adoption of promising innovations. On the other hand, land insecurity limits the possibility of making long-term agricultural investments, for example, there is evidence of low adoption of agricultural technologies such as agroforestry linked to land tenure insecurity and poor regulations of rental markets in sub-Saharan Africa [1,50]. Furthermore, tenure insecurity caused by inefficient rental markets has been associated with poor productivity of rented land in Ethiopia [67]. Farmers growing passion fruits in insecure land are deterred from investing in practices like soil erosion management using hedges, using sustainable irrigation systems, and agroforestry due to the fear of breaching their rental contracts or not being able to benefit from such investments in the events of lack of renewal of their lease contract."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Land tenure security has a great influence on land resource development through the adoption of new agricultural technologies [3,[68][69][70][71][72]. This may comprise ventures directed at improving soil quality through the use of organic fertilizers, the set up of irrigation systems, and practicing agroforestry. On the other hand, land insecurity limits the possibility of making long-term agricultural investments [1,50]."},{"index":4,"size":183,"text":"For example, there is evidence of the low adoption of agricultural technologies such as agroforestry linked to land tenure insecurity [3,67]. In our study, we observed some level of tenure insecurity among the few farmers engaged in leasehold arrangements, since some of their lease arrangements were verbal or written on papers without legal value and in the absence of witnesses, while some of the written/documented leasehold contracts could not be registered by rural administration following the absence of legal rights to land by landlords, especially in Rwanda and Burundi. In such cases, leases were based on trust. Therefore, there is an urgent need for setting up of legal procedures, policies, and regulations to guide agricultural land rental markets in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda. This view is in line with the concerns of the Strategic Framework for Horticulture Development in Burundi, which calls for the establishment of a legal framework that would guarantee the use of agricultural land leased for at least five years with a focus on sustainable agricultural land use [68]. Such developments would allow formalizing and security to all leasehold contracts."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"In general, there are several potential benefits from the rental market, such as increased agricultural production in rural areas as well as the creation of nonagricultural employment opportunities. Some of the nonagricultural jobs would comprise managers for land markets and public services in charge of land issues. Also, the cadastral services could provide mapping services for the rented land, which could favor the mapping of agricultural lands in rural areas and greatly reduce land conflicts. As such, reforms for better regulation of land rental markets appeared to be urgently needed in East Africa to promote the expansion of agricultural land and enhance increased agricultural production."}]},{"head":"Methods of Increasing the Land Area for Passion Fruits Production","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"Respondent farmers were observed to abandon crops, practice polyculture, and to clear vegetation to increase land available for passion fruits production. These methods of increasing agricultural land are common to other crops as well and they have been observed in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Where farmers opt to practice polyculture, there are increased advantages of reduced weeding requirements, increased access to mulching materials (especially the leaves from other crops), reduced pests and disease attacks, and provision of green manures [59, 60,[70][71][72][73]. Besides, passion fruits in polycultures can benefit from the nitrogen fixed by legumes. Farmers may also use the income from the other crops to finance passion fruit production. For example, coffee and tea sales have been reported to finance passion fruit production in Burundi [35]. Furthermore, Le Roy [74] observed that applications of fertilizers to cotton and other industrial crops could benefit food crops, hence we believe that food crops would be able to benefit from previous crop management practices done in passion fruit farms. On the other hand, food crops could benefit from funds obtained from the sale of passion fruits and used in the purchase of quality seeds, fertilizers, and payment of agricultural labor."}]},{"head":"Land Access and Passion Fruits Integration Approaches into Crop Production Activities of Farmers Surveyed","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":293,"text":"Passion fruit integration strategies differ from country to country and from farmer to farmer. The results of this study indicate that it was common for farmers in Burundi who adopt the passion fruits to combine them with existing crops. While farmers adopting the passion fruits in Kenya and Rwanda would use land that was previously occupied by other crops. Land clearing was also more pronounced in Rwanda than in Burundi and Kenya. These results show that there is some land-use competition between passion fruits and other crops, this was also manifested by crop abandonment, and such observations have also been documented previously during the introduction of new crops [4,75]. Food crops were the most replaced by passion fruit in Burundi and Rwanda compared with Kenya, while market gardening, fodder crops, and agroforestry were commonly replaced by passion fruits in Kenya. Previous studies have observed the replacement of coffee and cotton farming in Tanzania with rice and maize production [75]. In the context of East Africa, the replacement of some crops with passion fruit does not imply the total replacement of these crops, but it may be an indicator of reduced production of the abandoned crops. As seen in the majority of the surveyed farmers, there was the cultivation of diverse crops, although, competition between passion fruit and other crops for space was evident, and this is important for sustainable agricultural ventures. It is even beneficial that alongside the competitive relationship between passion fruits and other crops concerning the use of agricultural land, there are other complementary relationships where these crops benefit from each other, as illustrated by Bashangwa Mpozi [5] who noted that income from passion fruit could be used to finance food crops and other perennial crops in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda."}]},{"head":"Influence of Land Access and Land Sizes on Passion Fruit Cropping Systems in East Africa","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":268,"text":"Among the respondent farmers, there were two common passion fruit cropping system, monoculture and polyculture farming. Monoculture was characterized by small land sizes in the three countries, Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda. The probable reason for such small farm sizes is the high population pressure and persistent land subdivision in rural areas of East Africa. Similar observations have previously been reported by Karani-Gichimu and Limo [28,36]. Kenyan and Burundian households were observed to have slightly larger intercropped farms compared with Rwanda, and the probable reason is that in general, Kenyan farmers in this study were observed to have fairly large farm sizes, while Burundian farmers preferred to integrate passion fruits to other crops rather than abandon crops or subdivide farm plots. Previous studies have suggested that when farmers are faced with challenges of limited land for crop cultivation, they are likely to practice polyculture [76]. Polyculture is an intensive farming method common in densely populated areas, a characteristic similar to rural parts of Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda included in this study. Limited polyculture in Rwanda may indicate less land access pressure among some of the farmers adopting passion fruits production. Farming in Rwanda is picking up as immigrants are returning to the country; most of the farmers are just beginning to invest and this may be a reason for lower cases of polyculture. The practice of polyculture among passion fruit-adopting farmers in East Africa indicates an increase in sustainable farming practices. This practice would safeguard against crop abandonment and contribute to crop diversification, which is associated with increased sustainability and greater resilience to pests in agricultural production systems [77,78]."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"This study has shown that land access among rural passion fruit farmers in Burundi, Kenya, and Rwanda is through inheritance, purchase, and leasehold arrangements. Land purchase and leasehold systems are modern methods of land access; therefore, they could indicate the modernization of agricultural practice among smallholder farmers in these countries. These changes could also indicate an increase in the value of agricultural land and increased income for rural smallholder farmers. Since some of the surveyed farmers were found to buy land as well as abandon other crops to pave way for passion fruit production, it appears that there could be some type of attraction for this crop; monetary, high nutritional value, or other benefits. Crop abandonment could affect food production and, in some cases, affect household income, especially when the prices of passion fruits fall. As such, this situation reveals the need to regulate the different modes of access to agricultural land to guarantee sustainable agricultural production and also to avoid dysfunctions that may accentuate land conflicts. Governments of these countries should consider land issues in public development agendas, especially through promoting set up of clear policies on land purchase, registration, and leasehold procedures. Local authorities should also train their communities on strategies for an equitable share of communal land for agricultural activities, as well as discourage widespread farmland fragmentation through inheritance. Empowerment of rural farmers through agricultural sector financing could also increase the ability of these farmers to purchase land for the cultivation of new crops such as passion fruits."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Adoption of high-value horticultural crops is supported for the increased income of rural farmers in East Africa, however, constraints on land access may limit the achievement of optimum income from the cultivation of these crops. Therefore, efforts should be directed on the improvement of land access and tenure security in rural areas of East Africa."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. A map showing the study regions in Burundi. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. A map showing the study regions in Burundi. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. A map showing the study regions in Kenya. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. A map showing the study regions in Rwanda. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. A map showing the study regions in Kenya. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. A map showing the study regions in Kenya. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. A map showing the study regions in Rwanda. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. A map showing the study regions in Rwanda. "},{"text":"7 "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Land access patterns among surveyed passion fruits farming households (in %). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Land access patterns among surveyed passion fruits farming households (in %). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Land fragmentation during inheritance for households with an average of five children. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Land fragmentation during inheritance for households with an average of five children. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Origin of the land used in passion fruit production among surveyed farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Origin of the land used in passion fruit production among surveyed farmers. "},{"text":"Table 1 . The proportion of farm sizes of the households included in the study. Country Proportion of Farm Sizes CountryProportion of Farm Sizes <1 ha 1 ≤ 2 ha >2 ha <1 ha1 ≤ 2 ha>2 ha Kenya (51) 5.96% 39.18% 54.86% Kenya (51)5.96%39.18%54.86% Burundi (60) 68.34% 23.33% 8.33% Burundi (60)68.34%23.33%8.33% Rwanda (60) 78.30% 10.03% 11.67% Rwanda (60)78.30%10.03%11.67% "},{"text":"Table 2 . Mean farm size of the households included in the study. Country Mean Farm Size ± Std. Error (ha) CountryMean Farm Size ± Std. Error (ha) Kenya (51) 2.73 ± 0.24 a Kenya (51)2.73 ± 0.24 a Burundi (60) 0.88 ± 0.10 b Burundi (60)0.88 ± 0.10 b Rwanda (60) 0.83 ± 0.16 b Rwanda (60)0.83 ± 0.16 b P-value <0.001 P-value<0.001 "},{"text":"Table 3 . Farm area under passion fruit production among households included in the study. Country Country "},{"text":"Mean Farm Size ± Std. Error (ha) Kenya (51) 0.67 ± 0.08 a Kenya (51)0.67 ± 0.08 a Burundi (60) 0.34 ± 0.05 b Burundi (60)0.34 ± 0.05 b Rwanda (60) 0.23 ± 0.04 b Rwanda (60)0.23 ± 0.04 b P-value <0.001 P-value<0.001 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Spatial occupancy (ha) of crops grown in the farms surveyed. Crops and Cropping System Kenya % Burundi % Rwanda % Crops and Cropping SystemKenya%Burundi%Rwanda% Monoculture passion fruit 19.40 13.95 4.60 8.68 10.40 20.97 Monoculture passion fruit19.4013.954.608.6810.4020.97 Polyculture passion fruit 14.90 10.71 15.80 29.81 3.60 7.26 Polyculture passion fruit14.9010.7115.8029.813.607.26 Other crops 104.80 75.34 32.60 61.51 35.60 71.77 Other crops104.8075.3432.6061.5135.6071.77 Total 139.10 100.00 53.00 100.00 49.60 100.00 Total139.10100.0053.00100.0049.60100.00 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Spatial occupancy (ha) of crops grown in the farms surveyed. Crops and Cropping System Kenya % Burundi % Rwanda % Crops and Cropping System Kenya%Burundi%Rwanda% Monoculture passion fruit 19.40 13.95 4.60 8.68 10.40 20.97 Monoculture passion fruit19.40 13.954.608.6810.4020.97 Polyculture passion fruit 14.90 10.71 15.80 29.81 3.60 7.26 Polyculture passion fruit14.90 10.7115.8029.813.607.26 Other crops 104.80 75.34 32.60 61.51 35.60 71.77 Other crops104.80 75.3432.6061.5135.6071.77 Total 139.10 100.00 53.00 100.00 49.60 100.00 Total139.10 100.00 53.00 100.00 49.60 100.00 "},{"text":"Table 5 . Household size characteristics for the surveyed passion fruit farmers. Country Minimum Maximum Modal Mean Country Minimum Maximum Modal Mean Kenya 01 09 04 4.22 Kenya0109044.22 Burundi 02 10 06 5.87 Burundi0210065.87 Rwanda 01 10 05 4.75 Rwanda0110054.75 "},{"text":"Table 5 . Household size characteristics for the surveyed passion fruit farmers. Country Minimum Maximum Modal Mean CountryMinimum MaximumModalMean Kenya 01 09 04 4.22 Kenya0109044.22 Burundi 02 10 06 5.87 Burundi0210065.87 Rwanda 01 10 05 4.75 Rwanda0110054.75 3.3. Land Use Changes among Surveyed Farmers during the Adoption of Passion Fruit Production 3.3. Land Use Changes among Surveyed Farmers during the Adoption of Passion Fruit Production "},{"text":"Table 6 . Frequency of abandoned crop categories. 4.18% 4.18% 18.02% 18.02% 77.80% 77.80% 12.71% 12.71% 64.41% 64.41% 22.88% 22.88% 1.87% 1.87% 95.33% 95.33% 2.80% 2.80% 0.00% 20.00% 40.00% 60.00% 80.00% 100.00% 120.00% 0.00%20.00%40.00%60.00%80.00%100.00%120.00% Types of Crops Abandoned Kenya Burundi Rwanda Types of Crops Abandoned Kenya Burundi Rwanda Food crops 55.29% 87.73% 97.33% Food crops55.29% 87.73% 97.33% Cash crops 14.48% 5.17% 0.00% Cash crops14.48% 5.17%0.00% Vegetable crops 17.14% 1.78% 1.27% Vegetable crops17.14% 1.78%1.27% Fruit crops 2.59% 0.00% 0.00% Fruit crops2.59%0.00%0.00% Forage crops 9.20% 0.00% 0.00% Forage crops9.20%0.00%0.00% Agroforestry trees 1.30% 5.32% 1.40% Agroforestry trees1.30%5.32%1.40% "},{"text":"Kenya Rwanda Burundi Cleared land Land space from crop abandonment Land occupied by polyculture "},{"text":"Table 6 . Frequency of abandoned crop categories. Types of Crops Abandoned Kenya Burundi Rwanda Types of Crops AbandonedKenyaBurundiRwanda Food crops 55.29% 87.73% 97.33% Food crops55.29%87.73%97.33% Cash crops 14.48% 5.17% 0.00% Cash crops14.48%5.17%0.00% Vegetable crops 17.14% 1.78% 1.27% Vegetable crops17.14%1.78%1.27% Fruit crops 2.59% 0.00% 0.00% Fruit crops2.59%0.00%0.00% Forage crops 9.20% 0.00% 0.00% Forage crops9.20%0.00%0.00% Agroforestry trees 1.30% 5.32% 1.40% Agroforestry trees1.30%5.32%1.40% "},{"text":"Table 7 . Strategies to increase land resources for passion fruits production. Strategies Kenya Burundi Rwanda StrategiesKenyaBurundiRwanda Purchase of land 52.24% 88.37% 94.60% Purchase of land52.24%88.37%94.60% Practicing polyculture 16.42% 11.63% 2.70% Practicing polyculture16.42%11.63%2.70% Crop abandonment 31.34% 0.00% 2.70% Crop abandonment31.34%0.00%2.70% "},{"text":"Table 8 . Farm area (ha) under different passion fruit cropping systems among surveyed farmers. Cropping System Cropping System Farm Area Characteristics Burundi Rwanda Kenya Farm Area CharacteristicsBurundiRwandaKenya Monoculture Polyculture Monoculture Polyculture Monoculture Polyculture Monoculture PolycultureMonoculture PolycultureMonoculture Polyculture Mean 0.15 0.34 0.30 0.18 0.50 1.06 Mean0.150.340.300.180.501.06 Minimum 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.10 0.40 Minimum0.010.010.010.010.100.40 Maximum 0.90 1.75 2.00 1.05 1.50 2.00 Maximum0.901.752.001.051.502.00 Std. deviation 0.23 0.39 0.36 0.29 0.33 0.60 Std. deviation0.230.390.360.290.330.60 "},{"text":"Table 9 . Farm sizes under passion fruits monocropping. Country Mean Farm Size ± Std. Error (ha) CountryMean Farm Size ± Std. Error (ha) Kenya (51) 0.50 ± 0.05 a Kenya (51)0.50 ± 0.05 a Burundi (60) 0.15 ± 0.04 b Burundi (60)0.15 ± 0.04 b Rwanda (60) 0.26 ± 0.06 b Rwanda (60)0.26 ± 0.06 b P-value < 0.001 P-value< 0.001 Means with the same letters within a column are not significantly different at the SNK test, alpha = 0.05. Means with the same letters within a column are not significantly different at the SNK test, alpha = 0.05. "},{"text":"Table 10 . Farm sizes under passion fruit in polyculture farming. Country Mean Farm Size ± Std. Error (ha) CountryMean Farm Size ± Std. Error (ha) Kenya (51) 1.06 ± 0.16 a Kenya (51)1.06 ± 0.16 a Burundi (60) 0.34 ± 0.06 b Burundi (60)0.34 ± 0.06 b Rwanda (60) 0.18 ± 0.06 b Rwanda (60)0.18 ± 0.06 b P-value <0.001 P-value<0.001 "}],"sieverID":"d2e321ac-38f6-489e-b7a8-b461facde6d4","abstract":"Rapid population growth in fertile agricultural lands of East Africa creates land scarcity, which has become a major hindrance to land access for the introduction of new horticultural crops. But their introduction in these areas is increasing, because of their high market price, which improves farmers' income. As such, this research evaluated land access dynamics (availability, acquisition, and use changes) on the introduction of passion fruits in East Africa. The study used purposeful sampling to collect information from 171 passion fruit farmers from Burundi (60), Kenya (51), and Rwanda (60) through interviews during field surveys. Among the respondents from all three countries, inheritance and land purchase were the predominant modes of land access (>50% and >21%, respectively). Furthermore, the substitution of other crops by passion fruits was high (>60%) among Kenyan and Rwandan farmers, but low (18%) among Burundian farmers. Our findings indicate that land access influences the patterns of adoption of new crops, since, when limited in supply, it may require the acquisition of new land space, abandonment of other crops, or opting for mixed farming. As such, land access should be a consideration in the promotion of new crops for sustainable agricultural ventures."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"04ecea05012d4a4c9766df7d25072605","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/864a9999-593f-4413-8c54-f4efca07e61b/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Ploidy level of the banana (Musa spp.) accessions at the germplasm collection centre for the East and Central Africa","keywords":["Banana germplasm","breeding ex situ germplasm collection","flow cytometry","ploidy"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The regional ex situ Banana Germplasm Collection (BGC) Centre for the East and Central Africa (ECA), located in Mbarara district, Uganda, was established in 1998 to serve as the banana reference collection for the ECA and to house duplicate banana accessions of the formerly Uganda National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO)-Kawanda banana collection. The collection was re-established in 2008 to serve as a back-up and regional repository for genetic improvement of banana and plantain in the region. This was after an agreement reached by the Banana Research Network for East and Southern Africa (BARNESA) steering committee meeting held in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania in 2007(Bioversity International, 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"The BGC is managed and maintained by Bioversity International in collaboration with NARO on behalf of BARNESA. Its main goal was to conserve maximum banana diversity from the East African region and to provide genes of desired traits for the banana genetic improvement activities initiated by Bioversity International in early 2009 (Bioversity International, 2010, 2011). Since 2009, the BGC in Mbarara has been enriched through collecting and planting new and unique accessions from both the East African region and International banana research Institutes. In addition, since its re-establishment, the collection has acquired 120 accessions, both local and exotic, with most of the accessions being landraces. Priority for acquisition of new accessions was given to the areas in the region that were not well represented in the BGC in Mbarara (Karamura et al., 2013). After acquisition, the accessions are evaluated for traits of interest such as resistance to pests, diseases, environmental stresses and agronomic attributes. The results of evaluation are thereafter forwarded to breeders for subsequent utilization in the banana breeding programs. Accessions from the collection are also disseminated to different stakeholders, especially students and researchers in the region, particularly to provide a platform for support to people interested in gaining knowledge of identification and description of banana."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"A number of ploidy levels exist in Musa spp. (Tenkouano et al., 2011). Knowledge of ploidy level in Musa accessions is vital for breeding, conservation and tissue culture as they are affected by ploidy (Suman et al., 2012). Accurate determination of ploidy of germplasm has practical implications for breeding a perennial crop like banana that has got a long generation time and extensive land requirements (Pillay et al., 2006). Ploidy level influences fertility of banana. For instance, most triploids are sterile while diploids and tetraploids are fertile (Tenkouano et al., 2011). Depending on ploidy information, breeders are able to decide on the materials to evaluate for banana variety development. Banana breeding usually involves the transfer of useful genes from diploids to triploids by carrying out 3x by 2x crosses. Such a cross can generate a variety of progeny with ploidy levels ranging from diploid, triploid, tetraploid, aneuploidy and hyperploid progeny (Pillay et al., 2002). It is important that the ploidy of banana accessions be verified prior to using them for breeding."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Whereas, the ploidy level of most accessions in the regional ex situ BGC in Mbarara was reported (Karamura et al., 2016), the results were not exhaustive. Accessions in this collection are planted in three separate blocks based on three ploidy levels (2x, 3x and 4x). The first block of the collection is planted with diploids, the second; with triploids (excluding the East African Highland bananas and tetraploids, and the third with triploid East African Highland bananas, which are the major local cultivars in the East African region."},{"index":5,"size":172,"text":"Ploidy level of the accessions that were added to the BGC since 2010 collection missions was determined from accessions\" morphological appearance. Studies have however revealed that ploidy level of banana determined primarily by morphological characteristics may not be reliable (Pillay et al., 2003(Pillay et al., , 2006)). Banana ploidy level is determined by other several methods, of which flow cytometry has been found user-friendly, faster and reproducible for screening a large number of accessions (Takayama et al., 2011). In addition to chromosome counting, which is slow and labour intensive, there are other indirect methods such as estimation of stomata size and density, which are not accurate (Vandenhout et al., 1995;Dolezel et al., 1998). The present study assessed the ploidy level of additional 120 accessions in the collection using the flow cytometry method. This was done to verify the ploidy level of these accessions in order to guide their placement in the correct blocks at the collection centre, as well as to provide accurate ploidy information of these 120 banana accessions to breeders."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant material","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Fresh midrib tissue samples of approximately 100 mg from cigar leaves of 120 accessions were collected from the ex situ BGC in Mbarara. These samples were individually chopped using a sharp razor blade in a disposable Petri dish containing 0.5 ml of cold OTTO I buffer (0.1 M citric acid monohydrate and 0.5% Tween 20) to form a homogenate. An additional 0.5 ml of cold OTTO I was added to the homogenate and mixed thoroughly. The homogenate was filtered through a nylon filter of 50 μm pore size into a polystyrene tube. The samples were incubated for 1-5 min with occasional shaking. Prior to analysis, 2 ml of OTTO II (0.4 M anhydrous disodium phosphate, 4 μg/ml (2 mg/500ml) of 4,6diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and 1 μl/ml of β-mercaptoethanol) were added to each sample. This is the staining solution that allows measurement of fluorescence due to the presence of DAPI."}]},{"head":"Flow cytometric analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Relative fluorescence intensity of stained nuclei was analysed using a Partec Ploidy Analyser (Partec GmbH, MÜnster, Germany) with a mercury arc lamp. The distribution of fluorescence intensities (relative DNA content) obtained after flow cytometric analyses are usually given as channel numbers (arbitrary units). For ploidy screening, the instrument was calibrated using \"Calcutta 4\" as a reference (standard) diploid (2x) with its peak set at channel 50. TMB4x660K-1 on the other hand was used as the reference tetraploid (4x) with its peak set at channel 100, while Enyeru, an EAHB was used as a reference triploid (3x) with its peak set at channel 75. The peaks of the unknown samples were determined by examining the position of their peaks relative to the reference accessions. All the samples with peaks at channel 50±5 were Table 1. Expected ploidy levels of the 120 banana accessions before analysis and the observed ploidy levels after analysis using the flow cytometry method. "}]},{"head":"S/N Accession name","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The coefficients of variation for the samples analysed were less than 10% (Table 1), indicating the quality of preparation of samples and reliability of the results. Ploidy levels of the 120 accessions analyzed are shown in Table 1. Most of the accessions were triploids (83%), followed by diploids (16%) and tetraploids (1%). Following these results, accessions were reallocated to their respective correct blocks at the regional germplasm collection centre as shown in Table 2."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"It is interesting to note that Selangor (Musa acuminata) previously reported as a diploid (Pillay et al., 2006;de Jesus et al., 2013), displayed tetraploid nuclei in the present study (Figure 1)."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The inter-study result differences could be ascribed to the presence of different cytotypes in banana. Possibly chromosome counting from a large number of accessions from a wide geographical range is necessary to determine the existence of cytotypes in Selangor. Changes in ploidy levels in bananas may occur when plants are maintained under in vitro conditions (Dolezelova et al., 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"Banana taxonomists have always assigned ploidy levels to different accessions on the basis of morphological traits such as leaf orientation, and on the basis of physiological, cellular and biochemical aspects (Mustafa, 2013). Polyploids such as bananas are often apparent by their distinct and robust morphology (Briggs and Walters, 1984). However, diploids are delicate in nature, lean in size and even perish in harsh weather conditions. Following this system, plants with erect leaves are considered diploids while those with drooping leaves as tetraploids, and those with an intermediate leaf orientation as triploids. This method of ploidy determination is subjective and not always reliable. It becomes even more unreliable when evaluating hybrids from a breeding program that consist of a mixture of ploidy levels including aneuploids."},{"index":5,"size":179,"text":"The various indirect methods of determining banana ploidy level, for example by estimating stomata size and density (Vandenhout et al., 1995) or measurement of pollen grain sizes were reported (Tenkouano et al., 1998). While these methods depend on statistical analysis to determine ploidy, they are not accurate because the measured parameters are greatly influenced by changes in the growth environment (Xu and Zhuo, 2008). Therefore, chromosome counting remains the only accurate method of ploidy level determination in banana. However, the method requires cell synchronization to metaphase stage for easy visualization of chromosomes. The technique is not routinely used because it is labour intensive and obscure by the low quality of squash slide preparations (Dolezel et al., 1998). The ploidy of plants with large chromosomes can easily be determined by chromosome counting but bananas present a challenge due to its small chromosomes which are always hard to spread out during squash preparations (Dolezel et al., 1998;Pillay and Tenkouano, 2011). Flow cytometry is a user-friendly technique, considering the fact that it is faster and reproducible for screening large number of accessions."},{"index":6,"size":187,"text":"With the flow cytometry ploidy analysis methods, the banana ploidy level is determined by measuring the cell nuclear DNA content and subsequently comparing the relative position of the sample peak to that of the reference accession. With this approach, synchronization of cells is not required. Cells in G 1 and G 2 phases can be differentiated easily including aneuploids. The amount of fluorescence given off by the cell nucleus is directly proportional to the DNA content, which in turn positively correlates with the number of chromosomes. Therefore, increase in ploidy level is perceived as a shift in peak position to the right. This method together with chromosome counting was used to confirm chromosome number of Sukali ndizi, which for a long time was reported as diploid AB instead of triploid AAB (Pillay et al., 2003). Unfortunately, plant cytogenetic does not appear to be the forte of many researchers since the advent of molecular biology, yet it is key in answering basic questions for breeders. Misallocation of ploidy levels to different accessions remains a challenge in banana germplasm collections, which calls for deliberate efforts to embrace cytogenetic tools."},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"Using flow cytometry, previous studies have shown inconsistencies in ploidy levels of banana accessions whose ploidy was determined based entirely on morphological traits (de Jesus et al., 2013;Dolezel et al., 1994;Irish et al., 2009;Pillay et al., 2006;Nsabimana and van Staden, 2006). Knowledge of the ploidy of bananas is valuable for banana breeding schemes as it involves interploidy crosses leading to several possible ploidy levels in the progeny. Flow cytometry provides a rapid way of determining ploidy levels in this crop."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Histogram showing Selangor as a tetraploid with its peak at channel 100 and Calcutta 4, a diploid (control genotype) with its peak set channel at 50. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Contd. Expected ploidy Observed Ploidy CV (%) S/N Accession name Expected ploidy Observed ploidy CV (%) Expected ploidyObserved PloidyCV (%)S/N Accession nameExpected ploidyObserved ploidyCV (%) 1 Rwoyalwansega 3x 3x 5.7 61 Butuhan 2x 2x 5.6 1Rwoyalwansega3x3x5.761Butuhan2x2x5.6 2 Ilalyi 3x 3x 4.5 62 Mjenga Michael 2x 2x 5.4 2Ilalyi3x3x4.562Mjenga Michael2x2x5.4 3 Cula 3x 3x 4.6 63 Gashulie 3x 3x 5.0 3Cula3x3x4.663Gashulie3x3x5.0 4 Namutobisho 3x 3x 3.9 64 Nalwezinga 3x 3x 2.5 4Namutobisho3x3x3.964Nalwezinga3x3x2.5 5 Luholele 3x 3x 4.3 65 Kasenene 3x 3x 5.4 5Luholele3x3x4.365Kasenene3x3x5.4 6 Haahaa 3x 3x 3.5 66 Kambani-Rungwe 2x 3x 6.7 6Haahaa3x3x3.566Kambani-Rungwe2x3x6.7 7 Kalasa 3x 3x 5.3 67 Bitambi 3x 3x 7.7 7Kalasa3x3x5.367Bitambi3x3x7.7 8 Mlema 3x 3x 4.5 68 Kirun 2x 2x 6.3 8Mlema3x3x4.568Kirun2x2x6.3 9 GT 4x 3x 4.7 69 Cultivar Foce 2x 3x 6.1 9GT4x3x4.769Cultivar Foce2x3x6.1 10 Ntindi 1 3x 2x 6.7 70 Mlambichi 2x 2x 6.5 10Ntindi 13x2x6.770Mlambichi2x2x6.5 11 Logiri 1 3x 3x 6.7 71 Pisang Mas 2x 2x 5.6 11Logiri 13x3x6.771Pisang Mas2x2x5.6 12 Paji 2x 3x 4.6 72 Oruhuna 3x 3x 6.4 12Paji2x3x4.672Oruhuna3x3x6.4 13 Ntebwe 3x 3x 6.5 73 Obutsipa 3x 3x 6.6 13Ntebwe3x3x6.573Obutsipa3x3x6.6 14 Kabila 3x 3x 6.1 74 Katejurantamere 3x 3x 6.0 14Kabila3x3x6.174Katejurantamere3x3x6.0 15 Kikonjekonje 3x 3x 5.3 75 Inyumbu 3x 3x 7.5 15Kikonjekonje3x3x5.375Inyumbu3x3x7.5 16 Ekitabwila 3x 3x 4.9 76 Mlelembo 2x 2x 6.5 16Ekitabwila3x3x4.976Mlelembo2x2x6.5 17 Kanjabu 3x 3x 5.2 77 SH-3362 2x 2x 8.2 17Kanjabu3x3x5.277SH-33622x2x8.2 18 Engotte 3x 3x 5.2 78 Ingoromora 3x 3x 5.1 18Engotte3x3x5.278Ingoromora3x3x5.1 19 PV 0344 4x 4x 5.5 79 Paka 2x 2x 6.9 19PV 03444x4x5.579Paka2x2x6.9 20 Babyesala 3x 3x 6.6 80 9722-1 2x 2x 8.8 20Babyesala3x3x6.6809722-12x2x8.8 21 Opu (Nyakisangani) 3x 3x 5.2 81 Kabana 6H 3x 3x 4.1 21Opu (Nyakisangani)3x3x5.281Kabana 6H3x3x4.1 22 Nyamabere 3x 3x 5.3 82 Kahuma 3x 3x 5.9 22Nyamabere3x3x5.382Kahuma3x3x5.9 23 Short Gros Michel 3x 3x 6.9 83 Ndiibwabalangira 3x 3x 5.1 23Short Gros Michel3x3x6.983Ndiibwabalangira3x3x5.1 24 Ibwi 3x 3x 7.3 84 Nyalambya 3x 3x 4.5 24Ibwi3x3x7.384Nyalambya3x3x4.5 25 FHIA 25 4x 3x 6.7 85 Galeo 3x 2x 9.3 25FHIA 254x3x6.785Galeo3x2x9.3 26 Kitarasa 3x 3x 6.4 86 Green Red 3x 3x 6.5 26Kitarasa3x3x6.486Green Red3x3x6.5 27 TMB x 25511/2 3x 4x 4.8 87 Logiri2 3x 3x 7.1 27TMB x 25511/23x4x4.887Logiri23x3x7.1 28 Menvu 3x 3x 6.6 88 Enkongo 3x 3x 5.7 28Menvu3x3x6.688Enkongo3x3x5.7 29 Suu 3x 3x 9.2 89 Intariho 3x 3x 6.6 29Suu3x3x9.289Intariho3x3x6.6 30 Marimbi 3x 3x 4.8 90 548/4 PITA 1 3x 3x 6.4 30Marimbi3x3x4.890548/4 PITA 13x3x6.4 31 Ensika 3x 3x 6.0 91 Nyerere 3x 3x 5.3 31Ensika3x3x6.091Nyerere3x3x5.3 32 Selangor 2x 4x 5.5 92 Nyamahwa 3x 3x 6.2 32Selangor2x4x5.592Nyamahwa3x3x6.2 33 Mbiya 3x 3x 4.5 93 Maganya 3x 3x 5.7 33Mbiya3x3x4.593Maganya3x3x5.7 34 Kikundi 3x 3x 6.8 94 Eti Kehel 2x 2x 6.9 34Kikundi3x3x6.894Eti Kehel2x2x6.9 35 Enyanshenyi 3x 3x 6.3 95 Halahala 2x 2x 7.3 35Enyanshenyi3x3x6.395Halahala2x2x7.3 "},{"text":"Table 2 . Properly rearranged Musa accessions based on the confirmed ploidy levels after ploidy analysis. "},{"text":"Accession Ploidy level Blocks where accessions were before determination of ploidy level Blocks where accessions are after determination of ploidy level 1 Diana 3x Block 1 Block 2 1Diana3xBlock 1Block 2 2 Bura 3x Block 1 Block 2 2Bura3xBlock 1Block 2 3 Kambani Rungwe 3x Block 1 Block 2 3Kambani Rungwe3xBlock 1Block 2 4 Pagatau 3x Block 1 Block 2 4Pagatau3xBlock 1Block 2 5 Galeo 2x Block 2 Block 1 5Galeo2xBlock 2Block 1 6 Ntindi 1 2x Block 2 Block 1 6Ntindi 12xBlock 2Block 1 7 Mwitu Pemba 2x Block 2 Block 1 7Mwitu Pemba2xBlock 2Block 1 8 Mzungu Mwekundu 3x Block 2 Block 2 8Mzungu Mwekundu3xBlock 2Block 2 9 GT (tetraploid) 3x Block 2 Block 2 9GT (tetraploid)3xBlock 2Block 2 10 Cultivar Foce 3x Block 2 Block 2 10 Cultivar Foce3xBlock 2Block 2 11 FHIA 25 3x Block 2 Block 2 11 FHIA 253xBlock 2Block 2 12 Selangor 4x Block 2 Block 2 12 Selangor4xBlock 2Block 2 "}],"sieverID":"590d11ff-87db-423e-90d9-98ac0bbe988f","abstract":"Banana Germplasm Collection serves as a source of useful genes for banana breeding. However, insufficient and/or inaccurate information on the ploidy level of the germplasm renders its utilization in breeding difficult. The objective of this study was to determine and validate the ploidy level of 120 banana accessions in the ex situ germplasm collection centre for the East and Central Africa, located in Mbarara, Uganda. Flow cytometric analysis of the nuclear DNA content was used to determine the ploidy level of the accessions. Results indicate that accessions: Bura, Diana, Kambani-Rungwe, Paji and Pagatau, and Rungwe that were previously classified as diploids are actually triploids, whereas Selangor previously known to be a diploid is a tetraploid. Accessions such as Galeo, Mwitupemba and Ntindi 1 that were previously classified as triploids were found diploids. GT, FHIA 25 and Muzungu Mwekundu that were considered as tetraploids, were found triploids. The information generated will guide correct placement of these accessions in the regional germplasm collection centre for the East and Central Africa and their utilization in banana breeding."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"056402445d50be78681296cb21447b3a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/3861/223250412cf177c547f901072f61b238.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Tilapia Disease Outbreak Investigation -Version 1.1 Tilapia Disease Outbreak Investigation: Model template for gathering preliminary information about any reported case of unusual mortalities of farmed and/or wild tilapia in WorldFish program/partner/scaling countries","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"5c0e8228-97db-4377-be33-0dbe3c6288b2","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"05a9fb9007a9a5ad629bb75f4e630624","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/170/4164_2017_Karim_Impacts.pdf"},"pageCount":22,"title":"The impacts of integrated homestead pond-dike systems in relation to production, consumption and seasonality in central north Bangladesh","keywords":["consumption","integrated agriculture-aquaculture","location","pond-dike","productivity","seasonality","well-being"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"and results in raised dikes suitable for the production of vegetables and fruits, that is, flood-free but with immediate access to irrigation water. Such \"integrated pond-dikes\" on smallholder farms therefore have potential to support self-sufficiency in a diverse range of food items (Nhan et al., 2007(Nhan et al., , 2008)). The traditional roots of IAA based on ponds were in southern China (Ruddle & Zhong, 1988) and strongly linked to land and nutrient-limited food production systems."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"The sediments of such ponds acted as nutrient sinks and their regular removal and reuse in surrounding agriculture are critical to ensuring food security. In the modern era of relatively cheap and available nutrients, on-farm water storage and reuse have become a more important motivation for IAA (Karim, 2006;Nhan et al., 2007Nhan et al., , 2008))."},{"index":3,"size":294,"text":"In general, aquaculture has the potential to reduce poverty directly or indirectly (De Janvry & Sadoulet, 2002;Edwards, 1999;Kassam, 2013) not only through establishing and strengthening food consumption linkages, but also through \"income linkages\" and \"employment linkages\" (Ahmed & Lorica, 2002;Belton, Ahmed & Murshed-e-Jahan, 2014;Belton et al., 2011). Reducing poverty in low-income countries through smallholder development remains compelling where the majority of people live in rural areas, and agriculture remains the largest single source of employment (Hazell, Poulton, Wiggins & Dorward, 2010;Otsuka, Liu & Yamauchi, 2016;Wiggins, Kirsten & Llambi, 2010). In Bangladesh, direct benefits from aquaculture are largely determined by the availability and access to assets and thus, the capacity of poor people to benefit from aquaculture occurs mostly through indirect food consumption linkages (Belton & Little, 2011;Bogard et al., 2017;Roos, Wahab, Chamnan & Thilsted, 2007;Toufique & Belton, 2014). The reliability and generalizability of research aiming to clarify the outcomes of aquaculture on poverty have often been compromised because they are based on case studies and/or limited in geographical scope, and are designed with variable degrees of methodological rigour (B ene et al., 2016). With limited exceptions (Belton & Azad, 2012;Belton et al., 2016;Hallman, Lewis & Begum,2003;Irz, Stevenson, Tanoy, Villarante & Morissens, 2007), studies that relate aquaculture to poverty alleviation do not explicitly categorize households according to their poverty status, limiting their analytical precision, while the majority of the longitudinal analyses (Hallman et al., 2003;Rand & Tarp, 2010;Thompson, Firoz Khan & Sultana, 2006) compare data from two time periods only, and thereby fail to capture the nuances of seasonality. A major omission has been the assumption that ponds are managed to produce only fish, rather than having become crucial to on-farm irrigation of vegetables and fruits in Bangladesh (Pant, Barman, Murshed-E-Jahan, Belton & Beveridge, 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Attempts have been made in Bangladesh to promote vegetable cultivation alone and integrated with other farming components (such as pond and livestock) to meet the gap between supply and demand, and improve households food and nutrition security as well as increase income (Weinberger & Genova, 2005). In Bangladesh, the improved returns from vegetables produced on pond-dikes compared to fish culture alone have been identified (Shamsuddoha & Janssen, 2003)."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"However, a comprehensive understanding of the linkages between the systems with respect to nutritional and income benefits or impacts of seasonality are unavailable. Bangladesh has placed emphasis on diversified food production, employment and income generation activities at the farm level similar to many other countries in order to achieve food security in its Poverty Reduction Strategy (Bangladesh Planning Commission, 2005; Murshed-E-Jahan, Ahmed & Belton, 2010)."},{"index":6,"size":383,"text":"Understanding the potential mechanisms through which aquaculture and IAA might contribute to poverty reduction needs to be framed in the known factors characteristics of poor people in the country, that is, a lack of assets, particularly land, and high levels of vulnerability (Paul & Routray, 2011;Vadacchino, De Young & Brown, 2011). Aquaculture is undoubtedly more common among better-off households in rural Bangladesh (Belton & Azad, 2012), but a major issue is if poorer farming households can benefit, and if so, in what ways. Functional landlessness affects almost half the rural population limiting such people to produce enough food for themselves. Thus, \"homestead\" vegetable gardening, possible even on the small areas of land, has emerged as a potential strategy in recent studies (Bouis, 2000;Davidsson & Honig, 2003;HKI, 2003) as a food security (Belton, Haque & Little, 2012) and poverty-focused intervention. The shortage of agricultural land suggests that intensification and diversification through IAA, such as pond-dikes, may be a good strategy for improving the quality of life of the poor (Murshed-E- Jahan & Pemsl, 2011;Murshed-E-Jahan et al., 2010). An important role may well be improved access to nutritionally limiting food through the seasons since lower levels of consumption of key foods occur during \"hungry gaps\" (Abdullah & Wheeler, 1985;Ahmed, Bestari, Edwards, Katon & Pullin, 2005). A key benefit of integrated farming may therefore be their role in providing a buffer in the \"hungry gap\" of poorer households meeting not only their immediate food (e.g. fish) needs but also smooth seasonal cash shortages (Belton et al., 2012), the pond serving as \"bank in the water\" (B en e, 2009). Moreover, pond-raised fish may act as more easily liquefiable assets that can be sold to acquire income, similar to the demonstrated role of livestock within smallholder systems (Helgeson, Dietz & Hochrainer-Stigler, 2013;Little & Edwards, 2003). Productive ponds can result in fish surplus to subsistence requirements entering markets and benefiting the broader community (Edwards & Demaine, 1997;Islam, Chowdhury, Rahman & Hossain, 2004;Little & Bunting, 2005). Smoothing consumption of fish can, in principle, relieve hungry periods common in post-disaster situations and positive impact on expenditure and income (Little et al. 2007). The importance of homestead ponds supporting livelihoods directly through food consumed by the producer household compared to indirectly through generating cash through the seasons has remained largely unexplored."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"Aquaculture in Asia has often developed fastest around urban centres, but the impacts of location are often ignored in interpretations of status and trends in the sector (Little & Bunting, 2005)."},{"index":8,"size":145,"text":"Urban, peri-urban and rural areas are interlinked in terms of resource flows, and can enjoy mutual benefits (Karim et al., 2011). Dwellers of urban cities, such as in Dhaka, absorb huge amounts of food and depend largely on surrounding peri-urban areas for food supplies though the variation in infrastructure affects travel time which can greatly affect the strength of linkages to markets. Thus, peri-urban IAA can provide good access to food, a source of income, employment and good quality food for the poor and offer the possibility of savings and returns on investment for middle-income families (UNDP, 1996). The level of farmed fish consumption in urban areas has been increased consistently over decades in Asia, which is particularly significant in Bangladesh, as fish is the most important food after rice in terms of share of the food budget and real incomes (Reardon et al., 2014)."},{"index":9,"size":75,"text":"Promotion of homestead pond-dike systems holds potential for improving nutritional security through increasing the availability of micronutrient-rich fish and vegetables for both farming households and non-farming consumers (Roger & Bhuiyan, 1995). Considerable nutritional benefits are reported to result through pond-dike systems either from direct consumption or from expanded income that supports purchase of other cheaper foods, which benefit household food consumption (Ahmed & Lorica, 1999;Prein & Ahmed, 2000;Ruddle & Prein, 1998;Sultana, 2000;Thilsted & Ross, 1999)."},{"index":10,"size":45,"text":"In Bangladesh, there has been a major shift away from diverse capture species towards consumption of a limited number of farmed fish species, while at the same time the level of fish consumption has increased by 30% between 1991 and 2010 (Bogard et al., 2017)."},{"index":11,"size":88,"text":"The per capita fish supply increased from 7.6 kg capita À1 year À1 in 1990 to 19.2 kg capita À1 year À1 in 2013 (Food Balance sheets, 2016). The share of aquaculture in overall fish supply has increased from 16% to 55% over the last three decades (DOF, 1994(DOF, , 2006(DOF, , 2015)). This growth has taken place as a result of astonishing development around \"upstream\" (farm, seed and feed supply networks, etc.), \"mid stream\" and \"downstream\" (transportation, wholesale and retail markets, etc.) segments of the value chain."},{"index":12,"size":28,"text":"However, limited information is available yet about the dynamics of food consumption and their links with seasonal changes, income and expenditure in Bangladesh, though these are often associated."},{"index":13,"size":89,"text":"Comparative analysis with respect to location (rural and peri-urban), well-being and farming system is important because it was anticipated that the level of well-being and location are likely to affect households' level of adoption and adaptation of pond-dike systems. Further, the contribution of fish to household food and nutrition security primarily depends on the availability and access on the one hand, and cultural and personal preferences on the other. These factors are largely determined by location, seasonality and price (Beveridge et al., 2013;Chastre, Duffield, Kindness, Lejeune & Taylor, 2007)."},{"index":14,"size":70,"text":"Considering the above context, it was hypothesized that households' adopting homestead pond-dike systems have a different livelihood status compared to non-adopting households. The level of well-being, education, age, access to finance and information and location might be expected to impact on adoption, adaptation and rejection of pond-dike systems. This study aimed to clarify the potential role of aquaculture and associated horticulture in smoothing consumption and enhancing income of adopting households."},{"index":15,"size":53,"text":"However, the key objectives of the present study are to (i) analyse the livelihood impacts of fish ponds integrated within farming system through a baseline survey and (ii) exploring the relationship between seasonality and livelihood outcomes (principally income and consumption) with relation to location and well-being, for households actively managing their pond-dike systems."}]},{"head":"| MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Farmer selection process","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"A total of six villages were selected from six sub-districts identified as being rural or peri-urban locations in Mymensingh district where Participatory Community Appraisals (PCAs; Karim, 2006) had previously been carried out. Villages were identified as rural and periurban on the basis of access to markets as indicated by distance to the nearest district centre. Well-being ranking exercises were conducted to categorize participating households broadly into two socioeconomic levels viz. better off and worse off (Adams, Evans, Mohammed & Farnsworth, 1997;Mukherjee, 1993)."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"A baseline survey was carried out from December 2002 to January 2003 with a total of 205 farming households categorized into three groups based on the PCAS: (i) \"active\" (pond water used to irrigate vegetable crops), (ii) \"passive\" (dike space used for crops, typically perennials, without irrigation) and (iii) \"non-pond\" (households with no access to a pond but producing vegetables; Karim et al., 2011). The households were selected randomly from a village registration list. The sample size was 30 (2 well-being 9 3 farming systems 9 5 representatives) from each village totalling a minimum of 180 households from 6 villages; additional households were sampled and a total of 205 were interviewed. A total of 72 active integrated households were subsequently monitored over a 12-month period from April 2003 to March 2004 through a total of 864 separate interviews to determine seasonality issues. Links between seasonality (especially critical rice pre-harvesting periods) and vulnerability were observed during the seasonal calendar exercises of the community appraisals and then in more detail through the households' longitudinal monitoring study."}]},{"head":"| Questionnaire design and interview process","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"The questionnaire covered household-level information to assess the nature and level of different assets (natural, social, financial, human and physical) implicit with the livelihood framework. It also included questions related to the vulnerability, coping strategies and transforming structures and processes. In general, the head of the household was interviewed; however, his or her spouse and other family members were also commonly present and participated. Participants were asked about the types of food they consumed along with frequency (meals/week) and source in the last 7 days prior to the survey day. The active integrated farmers were monitored through repeat interviews of the same household head and available family members monthly over the following 12 months resulting in a total of 864 separate interviews. This study used a modified \"dietary history recall method\" in which consumption was assessed on the basis of a 72-hr recall period and cross-checked with availability of food items using a checklist at community level (Klaver, Burema, Van Staveren & Knuiman, 1988)."}]},{"head":"| Data analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"Initially data were recorded in Microsoft Access TM database before exporting to Microsoft Excel TM for exploratory numerical analysis (descriptive statistics, graphs, pivot tables, etc.). Based on the initial analyses, a general linear model (GLM) (Field, 2005;Wimmer & Dominick, 1987) was used to identify relationships among variables (2 locations, 2 well-being groups and 3 treatment groups). Location, well-being group and treatment groups were included as independent fixed variables. Village was considered as a random variable and nested within location and households for all analysis. All main effects as well as two-and three-factor interactions were evaluated where appropriate. Homogeneity/normality of data was assessed (Roscoe, 1975) prior to analysis and non-normally distributed data were transformed using log n or square root transformations. Input and output costs were based on prevailing farm-gate prices and labour inputs assessed through recall. Output was considered as the amount of fish and vegetables sold and consumed. Financial performance was assessed through analysis of gross returns (sale + consumption value), gross margins and returns to labour and investment. Gross margin refers to value (gross return) of fish or vegetable (both sale and consumption) minus total variable cost (all inputs). All statistical differences were considered significant at the 5% level. "}]},{"head":"Human capital","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The mean household size of the survey population was 6 (AE2), while the mean age of the respondents was 47.41 (AE14.3) years. The literacy level was significantly higher among the household heads of active (76%) than passive (58%) or non-pond (44%) households (Tables 1)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The mean illiteracy rate of the worse-off household heads was more, v 2 (1) = 25.68, p = .001, than double (55%) that of betteroff (20%) households. The literacy rates in the rural and peri-urban areas were 57% and 68%, respectively, although the difference was not significant. Active households' literacy levels were higher (p < .05) than passive and non-pond households; conversely, illiteracy rates of non-pond and worse-off farming household were higher than any other groups."}]},{"head":"Natural capital","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The overall average land holding of all households was 0.9 (AE0.9) ha, but varied from 0.02 to 5.51 ha (Tables 1 and 2), which is within the range considered as small or marginal land holders 1). Better-off households' owned significantly (p < .05) more land compared to worse-off households, but active (worse-off) had less land than passive (better-off) households."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Poorer households leased in more land than richer both in rural and peri-urban areas."}]},{"head":"Social capital","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"A total of 30% of farming households had an affiliation with an organization (local, international, autonomous) as a participant and/or employee. Irrespective of category, the household head in most (88%) families, in almost all cases a man, was the key person who had access to information, followed (in 10% of households) by a son."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"In a very small number of families (5% and 2%), wives and fathers of the respondents, respectively, played such a role of main information conduit."}]},{"head":"Physical capital","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The physical capital owned by households included houses constructed of various qualities of materials (tin, wood, brick, soil and tin), means of transportation (bicycle and motorbike) and other property (radio, tape recorder, television, water pump and agricultural machinery). Only a few households owned a non-motorized pulling van (4%), rickshaw (5%) or motorbike (1%). The largest (35%) percentage of households with a bicycle were in the pond-dike active group. Livestock were important assets with chickens being reared by almost all (92%) households followed by cattle and ducks. Integrated (active and passive) farming system households had more (p < .05) chickens and ducks compared to non-pond households, while better-off households had more (p < .05) chickens than worse off."}]},{"head":"Financial capital","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Around 39% households took credit from different formal and nonformal institutions The highest proportion of indebted households accessed credit from their neighbours (53%) followed by national NGOs, banks, village cooperatives and local NGOs respectively (Tables 1 and 2). Active and passive households borrowed more money than non-pond groups. A higher percentage of worse-off households' accessed credit, though the amount was lower than 76) 45 ( 68) 34 ( 52) 27 ( 41) 24 (36) 3 ( 5) 1 (2) 3 ( 5)"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Total average 125 ( 86) 116 ( 80) 98 ( 68) 84 ( 58) 71 ( 49) 69 ( 48) 14 ( 10) 10 ( 7) 10 ( 7 "}]},{"head":"| Transforming processes and structures","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Access to information and market","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":268,"text":"A significantly higher percentage (32%) of active households had access to multiple sources of information, mainly from the Department of Fisheries (DoF) and relatives, compared to passive (16%) and non-pond (5%) households. A higher percentage of better-off households had access to services from the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) than worse-off households, while more worse-off households had greater access to NGOs than better-off households. A higher percentage of rural households had access to both DAE and DoF than peri-urban households. On the other hand, NGOs were more important as a source of information to peri-urban than rural households. Farmers received different types of information which also varied from one farmer to another, however, when disaggregated by type into three major categories, viz. agricultural technology, fish culture and crop and fish disease, it was found that significantly more active households received information on \"fish culture\" (26%) than passive groups (10%; Figure 2). A higher percentage of active (69%) households sold fish than passive (52%), and more peri-urban households (70%) sold fish than rural households (54%) regardless of group. The other households retained all their fish for family consumption and local gifting. Most sales of fish were dependent on middleman, but the proportion was higher among rural households than for peri-urban (82%). The remaining households sold fish directly. The majority of households sold fish to intermediaries at the local market (54%), followed by the farm gate (29%) and auction market (22%) (located at the sub-district, district or in the city). An average of nearly half (47%) of sampled households sold vegetables through intermediaries (83%) and directly (20%) to the consumers."}]},{"head":"| Livelihood strategies","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Occupation Among farming groups, agriculture was the primary occupation of 70% of active integrated households, 76% of passive integrated households and 56% non-pond households (Table 3). Rural people were found to be more dependent on agriculture (74%) and less on service, while peri-urban households were relatively more likely to be employed in government or non-government organizations. In this study, around half (48%) of the sampled household heads' had a secondary occupation in addition to primary occupation. Fish farming was a significant secondary occupation of active group household heads (18%) after rice (41%) and relatively more important among this group in rural (24%) than peri-urban (11%) locations, but envisaged as a similar priority secondary occupation to both better-off (11%) and worse-off households (10%). Poorer, non-pond households had ex-farm orientated livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Farming systems","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Fish culture and vegetable cultivation A higher percentage of active households used organic and inorganic fertilizers, rice bran, wheat bran, oil cake and insecticide as pond inputs compared to passive households. Most (86%) of the farming households had access to organic fertilizers from their own farm, but some purchased from the market (14%) or obtained from neighbours (11%). There was no significant association (p < .05) between organic fertilizer source, group and well-being level. Rural households were more likely to use organic fertilizers produced onfarm than peri-urban who were more likely to purchase it. Active households also stocked fish seed more frequently (p < .05) (2.6 AE 2.3 times/year) compared to passive groups (1.5 AE 0.7 times/ year). Fish seed stocking frequency was also affected (p < .05) by location and well-being (Table 4). Only 7% households pumped water to their ponds from a deep (DTW) or shallow (STW) tube well, 6). Worse-off households applied water to their vegetable crops more frequently than better-off households. A large percentage (76%) of passive integrated households also depended on pond water and some non-pond households (25%) had access to their neighbour's pond water."}]},{"head":"Percentage of households","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Livelihood outcomes","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Income and expenses","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The majority of the households (98%) depended on farm income streams (derived from sales of rice, fish, vegetable, poultry, etc.) and 59% on non-farm (service, business, labour, etc.; Table 7). All active and passive households were dependent on on-farm activity for their livelihood, whereas 87% of non-pond households were engaged with 60) 3 ( 9) 1 (3) 3 ( 9) 5 ( 14) 2 ( 6) 35 (100)"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Passive 24 ( 69) 5 ( 14) 3 ( 9) 1 (3) 0 (0) 2 ( 6) 35 (100)"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Non-pond 12 (52) 3 ( 13) 6 ( 26) 2 ( 9) 0 (0) 0 (0) 23 (100)"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Peri-urban total 57 (61) 11 ( 12) 10 ( 11) 6 ( 6) 5 ( 5) 4 ( 4) 93 (100)"},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Better off Active 29 (71) 5 ( 12) 4 ( 10) 3 ( 7) 41 (100)"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Passive 24 (80) 4 ( 13) 2 ( 7) 0 (0) 30 ( 100)"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"Non-pond 15 (63) 4 ( 17) 5 ( 21) 0 (0) 24 (100)"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"Better off total 68 ( 72) 13 ( 14) 11 ( 12) 3 ( 3) 95 ( 100)"},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"Worse off Active 29 (69) 2 ( 5) 2 ( 5) 1 ( 2) 6 ( 14) 2 ( 5) 42 (100)"},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"Passive 27 ( 73) 3 ( 8) 5 ( 14)"},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"Non-pond 16 ( 52) 0 (0) 12 ( 39) 0 (0) 3 ( 10) 0 (0) 31 (100)"},{"index":12,"size":43,"text":"Worse off total 72 (65) 5 ( 5) 19 ( 17) 2 ( 2) 10 ( 9) 2 ( 2) 110 (100) Total Active 58 (70) 7 ( 8) 2 ( 2) 5 ( 6) 6 ( 7) 5 ( 6) 83 (100)"},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"Passive 51 ( 76) 7 ( 10) 5 ( 7) 3 ( 4) 1 (1) 0 (0) 67 ( 100)"},{"index":14,"size":210,"text":"Non-pond 31 ( 56) 4 ( 7) 12 ( 22) 5 ( 9) 3 ( 5) 0 (0) 55 (100) Total 140 ( 68) 18 ( 9) 19 ( 9) 13 ( 6) 10 ( 5) 5 ( 2 on-farm enterprises. All better-off households earned income mainly from on-farm activities, which contributed 77% of their total income, while 95% of worse-off households were involved in on-farm activities; it only contributed 67% to their total income (Table 7). Fish and vegetable culture contributed 17% and 8% to overall on-farm income sources respectively. Total income (US$ per hh and US$ per capita) varied among groups (p < .05) and between well-being (p < .05) categories. The higher non-farm income of non-pond households did not substitute for the much greater farm incomes on farms with ponds; mean household incomes of households without ponds were around one-third lower (US$1,007 per hh compared to 1,379 and 1,508 for active and passive pond households respectively; Table 7). The majority (27%) of the households' monthly expenses ranged between US$ 8.5 and 17.0. There was no significant association, v 2 (2) = 11.21, p = .06, between expenses and group. Peri-urban and better-off households' expenses tended to be higher (p < .05) than rural and worse-off households respectively."}]},{"head":"Fish and vegetable consumption","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"On average active households consumed fish at least once a day, whereas passive (4.9 times per week) and non-pond (4.05 times per week) households' consumption frequency was significantly (p < .05) lower. Fish consumption frequency also varied significantly (p < .05) between the well-being groups but not between locations. A higher proportion of better-off households consumed fish from their ponds than worse off. A higher proportion (37%) of active households tended to consume more wild fish than passive and non-pond groups (Table 8). Better-off households also consumed more fish from ponds (culture) than worse off. More peri-urban people (63%) depended on fish purchased at the market compared to rural (42%; Table 8)."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The average consumption frequency of leafy and non-leafy vegetables was 3.6 (AE2.1) and 4.2 (AE2.4) times weekly respectively."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Among the better-off, active households consumed leafy vegetables more frequently (p < .05) than passive and non-pond groups, while worse-off households consumed at a similar frequency. Among the groups, active groups harvested more leafy (29%) and non-leafy vegetables (43%) from pond-dikes than passive groups, while a higher proportion of passive households grew both leafy and nonleafy vegetables on plots adjacent to their house than others."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"3.2 | Year round monitoring"}]},{"head":"| Income","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Weekly average income (US$ capita À1 week À1 and US $ hh À1 week À1 ) of the better-off was significantly (p < .05) higher than worse-off households. (Figure 3). Peri-urban households were found to be more dependent on fish sales (27% of total income) than rural households (11% to total income). Peri-urban household income was likely to be higher (p < .05) than rural in most of the months, except February, April, May and be independent of wellbeing level. The contribution of rice sales to the overall farm income (US$ hh À1 week À1 ) was highest followed by fish, livestock, poultry and vegetable. Fish sales were relatively higher in the months of July, August, October and December irrespective of well-being level, while households sold relatively less vegetables in the months of July, August and October. Winter season (October, November and December) were the peak months for vegetable sales for the betteroff households in peri-urban locations (Figure 4). "}]},{"head":"| Household expenses","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Among all the expenses it was revealed that food accounted for 20% of total expenses, followed by agricultural labour (19%), rice cultivation cost (13%), house maintenance (9%), pond input (8%), health (5%), education (3%), vegetable input (2%), etc., irrespective of location and well-being level. Expenses for purchasing food were similar throughout the year though expenses on food surged in November (Figure 5). Better-off households' had higher labour expenses (per households and per capita) than worse off."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Better-off households' (per household and per capita) also spent more (p < .05) for pond inputs than worse off. Such costs were highest in the main growing season especially between April and July, and lowest during the coldest period (November to January)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Expenses (US$ capita À1 week À1 ) for pond input varied by well-being level (p < .05) and month (p < .05). In August and November, expenses for vegetable inputs was higher than other months for both better-off and worse-off households. There was no significant difference for vegetable input cost by location, well-being category or month. There was a positive correlation between overall income and expenditure (r = .352) on food purchases (r = .287), agriculture wages (r = .466) and pond inputs (r = .264)."}]},{"head":"| Consumption of fish and vegetables","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Rice was the major food item accounting for 48% of the total food consumption followed by non-leafy (23%) and leafy (10%) vegetables and fish (8%) to the total food consumed irrespective of well-being categories across the locations. The average amount of fish consumption (g/capita) tended to peak in the month of April"},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"(1,037 AE 1,185 g capita À1 week À1 , 1,342 AE 1,510 g AE À1 week À1 ) 1 at peri-urban locations and then decline over subsequent months. In contrast, consumption was more consistent in rural areas; consumption (g capita À1 week À1 ) was highest in the months of October and November and lowest in the month of April (369 AE 326 g capita À1 week À1 and g AE À1 week À1 ). The least fish was consumed between November and April. Overall, February, March and April were the months when least fish was consumed irrespective of location and well-being. Of the total fish consumed (g/capita and g/AE), 62% and 52% were produced on-farm by better-off and worse-off households respectively. The second important source was markets, followed by wild stocks and gifts received from neighbours and relatives. Worse-off households depended more on wild stock (21%) than better off (16% The number of adult equivalent (AE) units of a household is determined by assigning different values to the household members (adult male = 1). The weights are standard and depend on the age and sex of individuals (Ahmed, 1993)."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"greater amounts of fish from their own farm in most of the months of the year, except May (Figure 6). locations during the trial period (Karim, 2006). Due to the great seasonality in precipitation, agricultural diversification depends heavily on the availability of irrigation water in both rural and peri-urban areas (Table 6). It was noted that, in half of the communities investigated (one rural, two peri-urban), off-farm irrigation was either unavailable or too inconsistent, and vulnerability levels were comparatively higher."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Seasonal calendars helped understanding of the complexity of vulnerability of the households in different locations. Food deficit months were perceived differently by households of different wellbeing levels and also between locations. Better-off men and women were found to suffer less from food shortages than worse-off households. Rural households were more vulnerable to food shortages than peri-urban households prior to harvesting the \"monsoon rice\" crop, while worse-off households suffered more prior to the \"irrigated rice\" harvest. There was no major difference between locations (peri-urban/rural) for food shortage-related vulnerability during this period."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"Households irrespective of location and well-being level suffered from different health problems mainly from mid-October to mid-March and also during the period from April to June. There were no important differences between location and gender, while worse-off households irrespective of gender and location appeared to be affected more by health problems in terms of duration and types of diseases than better-off households."}]},{"head":"| DISCUSSION","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The capacity of stand-alone aquaculture to provide direct benefits to the poor in terms of income or consumption has long been questioned, at least in Bangladesh (Lewis, 1997;Toufique & Belton, 2014;Toufique & Gregory, 2008). But the concept of aquaculture only occurring on mono-commodity \"fish farms\" misinterprets their role in many low-income, food-deficit countries (LIFDC), where the practice has become widely established within farming communities."},{"index":2,"size":279,"text":"Prior to the recent take off of entrepreneurial, commercially orientated pond aquaculture (Belton et al., 2016), there had been a long period of organic spread of low-intensity carp farming linked to the increasingly ready availability of hatchery-produced juveniles in Bangladesh. Using the raised, flood-protected pond-dikes to produce vegetables has become a de facto opportunity and the relationship between the two activities has long deserved greater scrutiny. This widely practiced, but little researched use of pond-dikes to produce vegetables was hypothesized as being a key incentive for sustained adoption of the overall system. The documented rapid expansion of the commercial aquaculture sector in recent years (Belton & Azad, 2012) and the share of production from larger farmers (0.4 ha or more of ponds) stood at 53% of the total volume of fish in 2014 which was similar to 2004, while the share from other categories (35% and 11% for medium and small respectively) of farmers (<0.2 ha) who were the focus of this study remained stable (Hernandez et al., 2017). The current study, although undertaken more than decade ago, remains relevant in the current supply context, although aspects of demand may have changed; Bogard et al. (2017) found that nationally more than 70% of fish were now purchased in rural areas. The study used a livelihood framework to assess relationships to production to which we first turn before considering the characteristics of adoption. We assess the importance of location and household socioeconomic status on the level to which integration occurred and the benefits thus derived. The interrelationship of seasonality and vulnerability is then dissected before attention is drawn to discussion of the impacts of pond-dikes on income and consumption smoothing."}]},{"head":"| Livelihoods of adopting households","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"A lack of assets among poorer households, in particular land and a pond, has been identified as a key constraint to them gaining direct benefits from aquaculture (Belton et al., 2012;Toufique & Belton, 2014). Ownership of, or access to, resources is a critical factor determining the adoption of a technology (Savadogo, Reardon & Pietola, 1998). This study showed that active and better-off households were more likely to own their own ponds, and indeed other tangible assets such as livestock, than the passive and/or worse-off households. However, it was clear that the opportunity to lease ponds was widening access to poorer people. Worse-off households leased in relatively more land compared to better off, which perhaps suggests that encouraging a land rental markets would be a pro-poor"},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"policy. An analysis of an aquaculture nursery cluster area in West Bengal found a dynamic market in pond leasing had both opened up opportunities for poorer households and stimulated intensification and productivity gains (Barman & Little, 2006). It is likely that the sample failed to capture the \"extreme poor\" (BBS, 2011;Toufique & Belton, 2014) within the non-pond group that were more likely to be landless and absent from their home communities seeking wage labour (Shonchoya, 2011;Zug, 2006). In the current study, 72% of the \"worse-off\" households actively or passively used their own pond water, indicating a comparatively higher resource status. However, around 25% of the non-pond households growing vegetables used water from their neighbours' pond which reflected the role of ponds in social capital and how such integrated systems can directly, though partially, benefit the broader community."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Fish culture was clearly a secondary activity for both better-and worse-off active households, reflecting a similar level of importance of aquaculture to these groups (Bestari, Ahmed, Edwards & Pullin, 2005). Similar scenarios still prevail in the villages close to the study area where aquaculture was perceived as the secondary occupation (Belton et al., 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Although in general ownership of a pond and active management correlated with a higher level of wealth, active management of ponds occurred across the socioeconomic spectrum suggesting that size of land holding or level of poverty was not a major constraint. A recent study of marginalized adivashi farming communities in Bangladesh found even ditches and extremely small ponds were managed successfully following appropriate interventions (Pant et al., 2014)."},{"index":5,"size":134,"text":"Active and rural households' had greater access to \"credit\" and \"interest-free credit\" than other groups reflecting their interest and capacity to pay back, while the indebtedness of a relatively larger proportion of poorer households' probably indicated the greater need than better-off households. Although relatively few producers relied on credit to finance their pond-dike system this might reflect their relatively low productivity and a reluctance to risk more resources (Karim et al., 2011). Active pond operators tended to have greater access to information and access more credit, likely linked to their greater literacy and greater social connectedness. The poor in Bangladesh, irrespective of gender and education, depend on rural money lenders who charge high interest rates on unfavourable terms and conditions (Hossain, Wahid, Mahmud, Hossain & Taslim, 2013;Mahmud, 2010). Households showed higher dependency on \"credit\""},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"and \"interest-free credit\" for carrying out agricultural activities. However, we speculate that financial support is crucial for poorer households to adopt improved management practices. Although \"money cannot solve all problems, it can solve many of them\"; credit is therefore very useful (Hallman et al., 2003)."},{"index":7,"size":187,"text":"In previous studies in Khulna, southwest Bangladesh where production is orientated around freshwater prawn production, it has been suggested that farmers underutilized the potential for dike cropping around the ghers, partly because they lacked know-how, especially how to innovate and continually adapt systems and transfer knowledge among one another (Anik & Khan, 2011;Chapman, 1997;Smit & Wandel, 2006). Recent studies (e.g. Howson, 2014;Taskov, 2014) in the same area, however, point to more dynamic and adaptable farming communities in which increased dike cropping is related to changes in salinization and market opportunities, reflecting a growing shared capacity for innovation. The importance of relatives and neighbours in information transformation, rather than formal institutions, was shown in the current study and how location impacted on it. Overall, more rural households accessed information than peri-urban while peri-urban households had more affiliations (as participants) with formal institutions than rural. Sources of information might be expected to influence farmers' decision-making ability in relation to farming practices, resource management and development (Vadacchino et al., 2011). However, it is evident from this study that knowledge is available but not equally accessible and distributed across study locations."}]},{"head":"| Differentiated farming systems","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":265,"text":"The higher fish production achieved by active, better-off and periurban households than by passive, poorer and rural households reflected the greater level of nutrients used. In turn, this reflected better integration into markets and greater investment. Better-off households produced around double the amount of fish than poorer households, reflecting larger pond size as well as higher yields. Overall yields were comparable to control farms in an on-farm trial in the same area but were a fraction of the yields achieved by households (+200% to >5MT per ha) that increased their levels of nutrient inputs (Karim et al., 2014). This reflects the underperformance of most farms compared to their potential, although large variation between farms was clearly evident. The influx of many new producers to the sector over the last decade following relatively intensive practices contributed significantly, while the smaller homestead pond farmers generally continued to follow less intensive practices and contribute a smaller share of overall national production (Hernandez et al., 2017). The recent studies conducted by Jahan, Belton, Ali, Dhar and Ara (2015), Karim et al., (2016) and Karim et al., (2017) also support the above evidence as they noticed that fish production from homestead ponds were 1,759 kg/ha, 1,841 kg/ha and 1,764.67 kg/ha respectively which are very similar to the level of fish production (2,069.88 kg/ha reported in this study conducted more than a decade before. This suggest that the potential of homestead based small scale aquaculture over years remains unfulfilled while consumption and household use still remain important motivations for households to manage homestead ponds (Belton et al., 2011;Jahan et al., 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Homestead ponds, which is often referred to as a \"low-input activity for household consumption\" in Bangladesh (Dey, Bose & Alam, 2008), have relatively less impact on consumption outside of the producer household, given that they now make up an estimated 11% of supply farmers (Hernandez et al., 2017). A recent analysis based on a BHIS data set shows that the top 2.4% of the fish farming households accounted for 50% of the total production, and farms larger than the homestead ponds in the current study are now by far the main source of pond-fish outputs in Bangladesh (Hernandez et al., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Training in IAA techniques focused on homestead fish production has been demonstrated to be effective at enhancing productivity, encouraging greater use of recycling on-farm and reduced levels of inorganic fertilizer use in favour of organic (Karim et al., 2016;Murshed-E-Jahan & Pemsl, 2011). The more frequent stocking of seed by rural households reflects both their higher consumption frequency and dependency on fish from their own ponds than periurban households. Poorer households, mostly in rural areas, probably limited purchased inputs because of their actual or opportunity cost."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"In contrast to fish, vegetable productivity was more similar between better-off and poorer, and peri-urban and rural groups, indicating lower investment costs. Taskov (2014) found that there had been a move towards greater emphasis on dike-based vegetable production by poorer prawn farmers in greater Khulna for this reason."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"Access to urban markets appears to have impacts on the utilization of on-farm inputs. In spite of rural and peri-urban households' having similar numbers of chicken and cattle, the frequencies of organic fertilizer application in ponds was higher in rural communities, whereas households in peri-urban areas relied more heavily on the use of other purchased inputs. Seed is another critical input of both fish and vegetable cultivation, but this input is used by people irrespective of location probably without understanding the quality."},{"index":6,"size":165,"text":"Fish culture in Bangladesh in early 2000, that is, during the study period was dominated by small-scale, low-intensity carp production, which has recently been expanded to entrepreneurial pellet-fed culture of Pangasius catfish also known as pangas (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) and tilapia (Ali, Haque & Belton, 2013), and pangas is now by far the most important intensively cultured species in Bangladesh in volume terms (Belton et al., 2011). Pangas was introduced in the early 1990s in Mymensingh district, north of the capital city Dhaka, which spread to other districts of the country and rapidly evolved as one of the economically important activity with long backward and forward linkages providing diverse livelihood opportunities for a wide range of value chain actors (Haque, 2009). However, the emergence such commercial fish farms has occurred especially in the main fish farming area of Bangladesh and elsewhere in Asia where there are abundant water resources, communicated well to market, better access to inputs existed (Belton et al., 2016;Karim, 2006;Karim et al., 2016)."},{"index":7,"size":145,"text":"Mean fish production (2.06 t/ha) of the homestead ponds studied was similar to a nationwide estimate (2.4 t/ha; Bestari et al., 2005), but lower than that observed in Greater Mymensingh district (3.3 t/ha; DANIDA, 2004). Fish contributed substantially (17%) to the mean on-farm income of households compared to 10% of total income in the DANIDA study. Murshed-E- Jahan and Pemsl (2011) found that the contribution to farm and total household incomes ranged from 16.8% to 11.2%, respectively, for households receiving training and 12.6% and 7.8% for control households. The variation between studies could be related to differences in sample size (HH) and methodologies used in selecting target groups (Belton & Azad, 2012). On the other hand, the average production (kg/ha) of vegetables of all households was slightly lower compared to that measured/estimated by another study carried out in Bangladesh by AVRDC (Weinberger & Genova, 2005)."},{"index":8,"size":132,"text":"The key role of on-farm ponds for securing nutritional security under rain-fed conditions is suggested by these results. In most cases pond water was by far the most important source for irrigation of vegetables. Households without ponds were not only unable to produce fish but were much less likely to produce nutritious vegetables. The smaller areas of ponds of worse-off households' suggests their increased vulnerability and dependence on pond water compared to better-off households with larger ponds. In other contexts, ponds managed by poorer households tend to be more seasonal, multi-purpose and to have lower water-holding capacity (Little et al., 2007;Pant, Demaine & Edwards, 2005). The multiple use of pond water may explain famers' reluctance to intensify production through use of more fertilizers and feeds, especially during periods of greatest water scarcity."}]},{"head":"| Differential impacts among active, passive and non-pond households","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"In rural Bangladesh, households mainly depend on on-farm income sources (BBS, 2013;DANIDA, 2004;Thompson, Sultana & Khan, 2005). In the present study, dependency on rice was similar between active and passive, while fish (>2.23%) and vegetable (>5.53%) contributed more to the total farm income (US$/hh) of active households than passive. Worse-off households benefited relatively more than better-off from selling fish. Active and passive households were more dependent on on-farm income than non-pond households."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"However, the differences in income observed for active, passive and non-pond households was not matched by any differences in household expenditure, which were comparable. A similar finding was observed where expenditures did not differ significantly between adopter and likely adopter of agriculture technology households in spite of different income levels (Hallman et al., 2003). This could be because expenditure of households tends to relate to their specific demands and preferences."},{"index":3,"size":235,"text":"The study presents evidence for ponds being a key component of sustainable intensification (SI) of smallholder farms in Bangladesh, allowing them to remain the core of livelihoods that enjoy enhanced incomes and improved nutrition. Garnett et al. (2013) identify several key tenets of SI that are characterized by small integrated ponds; productivity is enhanced without expansion in land area used or being dependent on high levels of external resources (water, nutrients); animal welfare remains high since fish densities and mortalities are relatively low, and enhanced food security is enhanced through production of a range of nutrient-dense foods for consumption and sale. The role of ponds in supporting the rural economy and broader sustainable development is suggested by several key findings of the current study. Moreover, the scope for further intensification through more or less active management of the pond to produce both fish and vegetable suggests how pond construction, through the elevation of earthen dikes, creates additional functional biodiversity-farms with no pond may lack such flood-free areas to produce vegetables (Karim et al., 2014). Households with ponds were less dependent on non-farm income and enjoyed higher overall incomes than households without ponds. Actively managed ponds tended to achieve higher income through fish sales than passive, which related to their higher production, in turn was related to higher inputs. Active households were supported by better access to credit and technical support. Belton et al. (2012) 2000)."},{"index":4,"size":173,"text":"Active households benefited more in the peri-urban area from selling more fish than passive and, despite the dissimilarity in production (kg/ha and kg/hh), active households consumed fish from their own ponds at a similar level to passive. This supports the findings of previous studies, suggesting that increased production does not necessarily tend to increase consumption in the producer household (Karim et al., 2011;Torlesse et al., 2004). However, an increased supply of fish to the local market, produced by the active households, contributes to overall food security of the population as a whole; rapid expansion of aquaculture increases the fish consumption by the extreme poor and moderately poor consumers and those in rural areas by pegging down fish prices (Dey, Kambewa, Paraguas & Pemsl, 2010;Toufique & Belton, 2014). It also demonstrates how SI of pond-dike systems supports broader sustainable development (Garnett et al., 2013) and how even modest further intensification as demonstrated by Karim et al. (2011) could have major impacts at the population level without any drastic increase in reliance on external resources."},{"index":5,"size":130,"text":"Although subsistence fish consumption in terms of quantity and frequency was similar between active and passive households, active households also consumed more wild fish and fish purchased from the market than passive households. Thompson et al. (2005) observed higher dependence of fish pond owners on capture fisheries than aquaculture for meeting subsistence requirements. However, overall better-off households' consumption (amount and frequency) was found to be higher than worse off in this study. Fish were more likely to be purchased by peri-urban households than rural, probably because access to markets was easier. However, in general, households with ponds were less dependent on the market for fish supplies than households without ponds. A recent nationwide study by Bogard et al. (2015) found most households sourced fish almost entirely by purchasing from markets."},{"index":6,"size":117,"text":"The per capita vegetable consumption across all HHs was 16.6 kg capita À1 year À1 , which was much higher than the amount reported in another study in two other districts (around 12 kg capita À1 year À1 ; Weinberger & Genova, 2005). Consumption of farm vegetables in terms of frequency (times/week) was different only between well-being categories. Vegetable production (kg/ha) was higher in active households than passive and non-pond, but production (kg/hh) was similar, even though the cultivated area was less than in passive and non-pond households, reflecting the greater productivity (kg/ha) of active vegetable growers. The role of ponds in terms of how their integrated management might have an important seasonal attributes is now considered."}]},{"head":"| Relationship between seasonality and vulnerability","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Bangladesh has a wet:dry climate characterized by several months of limited or no precipitation (David & Joacim Rockl€ ov, 2012;Shamsuddoha & Janssen, 2003). This seasonality greatly affects the availability of surface water, and although the country as a whole has witnessed a groundwater revolution in the last three decades based on exploiting both deep and shallow ground water, availability of water during the driest months remains uneven (Shahid, 2010). It was noted that, in three of the communities studied (one rural, two peri-urban), off-farm irrigation was not available consistently."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Traditionally Bangladesh has suffered periods of vulnerability related to water scarcity, especially regarding availability of food."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The best understood periods are the \"hungry gaps\" that occur prior to rice harvests both the traditional amon wet season rice crop and, with the emergence of groundwater irrigation water, the irrigated boro crop (Hossain, Bose & Mustafi, 2006). Households, irrespective of location and well-being level, suffered from different health problems mainly during periods of seasonal change (onset of rains, summer and winter) (cf. Lindenberg, 2002). Financial vulnerability increases when a family member suffer from illnesses, during lowincome months and during the pre-harvesting period of rice crops."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"During these periods, households sought to borrow more money to support consumption expenditure. Households actively managing diversified, pond-based farming systems were able to access credit more easily than non-diversified, non-pond households. Higher numbers of worse-off households tended to borrow money than the better off reflecting their greater need and vulnerability than better-off households (Little & Edwards, 2003)."},{"index":5,"size":157,"text":"Household monitoring results showed that households became most indebted in March (pre-boro harvest), and June to September (pre-amon harvest) related to relatively low incomes in June and higher expenses (March to June) required for purchasing agricultural inputs. It was clear that the intensity and duration of the food-deficit period was higher prior to the boro harvest followed by \"monsoon rice,\" which is reverse situation to that previously reported and reflected a clear trend for a shift in the cropping pattern, that is, more focus towards \"irrigated rice\" resulting from the increased availability of irrigation sources and development of new technologies (ADB, 2001;Alderman & Sahn, 1989;Tetens, Hels, Khan, Thilsted & Hassan, 2003). Rural households were relatively more vulnerable than peri-urban immediately after the \"monsoon rice\" season. This may be explained by lower earnings, at this time, whereas peri-urban households had greater access to other employment in the industrial sector that has grown up in urban areas (UNDP, 2005)."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"A high dependency on agriculture might be viewed as a key component of household vulnerability. In addition, lack of education, skill, knowledge and information are the major factors associated with vulnerability, especially for poorer and non-pond households."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"Poor access to auction and large markets was a disadvantage for rural households as it reduced the options for disposing of their farm product (fish and vegetable)."},{"index":8,"size":171,"text":"In general, inadequate consumption of food items such as rice, fish and vegetables often results in malnutrition and illness of the households irrespective of well-being, location and groups. Health status was similar between genders in all locations, while worse-off households were found to suffer more than better-off households during the change over in seasons perhaps due to their lower immunity to disease as a result of poorer nutrition than richer people; this supports the findings of \"Helen Keller International\" in Bangladesh (HKI, 2002). In Bangladesh, food, nutrition and health factors are greatly influenced by the seasonal productivity (Abdullah, 1989;Abdullah & Wheeler, 1985;Chaudhury, 1980;Khander, Khalily & Samad, 2010), which are also indicative of the extent of vulnerability as well as poverty especially in rural areas (Chaudhury, 1980;Messer, 1989;Tetens & Thilsted, 2004;Tetens et al., 2003). However, year-round cropping on pond-dikes could reduce seasonal-induced vulnerability for households from varied socioeconomic status and irrespective of location partly through smoothing of cash income, and makes it a highly acceptable food production system (Dercon & Krishnan, 1996)."}]},{"head":"| Impacts of pond-dike systems through smoothing income and consumption","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"Better-off and worse-off households' overall level of fish consumption was similar, although the better off consumed relatively more from their own production than other sources. The sale of higher value farmed fish by poorer households and purchase of cheaper small wild fish for their own consumption has been described before for Bangladesh (Thompson et al., 2006). In this study, the average amount of fish consumed (83.1 g capita À1 day À1 ) was almost double the national consumption figure (38.3 g capita À1 day À1 ) regardless of well-being level (BBS, 2004;Bestari et al., 2005). It is noteworthy that this study was carried out only with the active integrated households, and that they are perhaps likely to produce and consume more fish than general pond owners. A study carried out in Kapasia sub-district of Bangladesh, however, reported very similar results (88 g capita À1 day À1 ; mean of fish consumption of all socioeconomic level of households; Thompson et al., 2005). The similar amount of fish purchased from the market by both groups seems surprising; however, poorer households probably bought cheaper, low-quality fish. However, fish consumption increased significantly from 2000 to 2010 (Fisheries Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, 2012), and seemingly beyond, among rural and urban households, while even extreme and moderate poor households had a small, but insignificant increase in consumption. (Bogard et al., 2017). Increased fish production over this period and an overall sociogeographic trend to more households moving out of poverty and increasing their purchase power probably explain these improvements."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The seasonality of consumption of pond fish can be explained by a number of factors. The lower consumption of fish in general between February and March (dry season) was possibly related to a lower availability of fish in ponds, wild stocks and/or due to lack of income to purchase fish. Lower consumption of pond fish by households at all locations between June and July was explained by greater availability and abundance of wild stocks at this time. This demonstrated how households change their fish consumption strategy depending on the situation. Income flows were also lower in these 2 months (Ahmed et al., 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Similarly, in the months of September to November (winter and prior to the \"monsoon rice\" harvest), consumption of non-leafy vegetables and pulses in the current study were relatively low perhaps due to constrained income during this period; the lower levels of consumption of key foods during this period point to this being a critical hungry gap (Abdullah & Wheeler, 1985;Ahmed et al., 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Consumption of leafy and non-leafy vegetables, fish, milk, eggs and pulses were positively correlated with income which was also observed in another study carried out in Bamako, Mali (Camara, 2004), and also for fish consumption in Bangladesh (Dey et al., 2005)."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"The study indicated that households earned more from selling rice and vegetables between April and May, and also from business which ultimately increased overall income. This supported the observations of Tetens et al. (2003) and Weinberger and Genova (2005)."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"The on-farm supply of fish supported households' fish consumption better during the lowest income months (September to November), and were especially important to the worse-off households during these months. This study showed that the household's own fish made up a large share of fish consumed irrespective of well-being and location. This contrasts with a study (carried out in Kapasia, Bangladesh) that households with fish ponds still bought more than half of the fish they consumed from the market (Thompson et al., 2005)."},{"index":7,"size":230,"text":"The mean income and expenses of the households' monitored in this study were 32.37 and 23.22 (US$ household À1 week À1 ), respectively, which was very close to the mean national income of 24.34 and expenses of 20.33 (US$ household À1 week À1 ; BBS, 2004). It was clear that poorer households spent a larger share (30%) of their income on purchasing food compared to better off (20%), which is a common scenario in most less developed Asian countries (Dey et al., 2005). This suggests that poorer households were more vulnerable than the better off in terms of dependency on food purchases. The period of lower income and higher expenditures occurred at the same time, probably forcing them to borrow money. Household's borrowed relatively high amounts of money in March (prior to the \"irrigated rice\" harvest), June (low-income month) and September (prior to the \"monsoon rice\" harvest) compared to other months of the year. During these periods, households' lower incomes probably forced them to survive by reliance on credit. Expenditure was also relatively high in the months of March to June related to a need to invest in fish and rice inputs and higher labour expenses at the same time. In this period, households spent more on fish culture (stocking, feeding and fertilizing ponds). However, this reflected households' higher dependency on \"credit\" and \"interest-free credit\" for carrying out agricultural activities."},{"index":8,"size":353,"text":"Finally, it could be concluded that pond-dike systems supported the households through smoothing income and food consumption flows throughout the year. The contribution of both fish and vegetable (around 40% of all food consumed) to the overall diet was substantially irrespective of location and well-being level. Furthermore, active pond-dike integration contributed significantly to household income. A similar contribution of fish (20%) and vegetable (5%) sales to both better-off and worse-off household income suggests equal importance of pond-dike system to households of different socioeconomic level. A higher proportion of total income obtained from fish sales by peri-urban households (27%) compared to rural households (11%) reflected greater opportunity for commercialization through better marketing access. The contribution of farm-raised fish in smoothing income and consumption was also confirmed by another study by Belton et al. (2012), where fish raised in homestead ponds represent a liquid asset to reduce or avoid high interest debt burdens associated with \"irrigated rice\" cultivation and purchase of rice for home consumption. These strategies may therefore function as a buffer against the threat of transient poverty. Most pond-dike farmers in the present study did produce a surplus consuming much less than they sold of both fish and vegetables in both rural and peri-urban sites. This suggests that even small homestead ponds can contribute to the wider food supply through such surpluses while supporting producer household subsistence. Thus, \"quasi-peasant\" forms of aquaculture (Belton et al., 2012) do contribute to reduced poverty and enhance food security in this part of Bangladesh. It is evident that the recent and rapid evolution of commercial aquaculture has focused on non-integrated intensive monoculture pangas and tilapia rather than improving yields of mixed carp polyculture integrated with other components of food production, based on locally available inputs. Jahan et al., (2015) demonstrated that these latter systems are characterized by the highest benefit:cost ratios compared to more intensive systems and, because they remain the domain of poorer households, ensure the benefits of aquaculture remain widely distributed. Innovation is required for delivering interventions that support the use of higher nutrient inputs at scale to this very large group of potential beneficiaries."}]},{"head":"| CONCLUSION","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"The study presents evidence that there is further potential for homestead pond-dike systems to contribute towards improved livelihoods of households irrespective of their well-being level. The contribution of both fish and vegetables to the overall diet was substantial irrespective of location and well-being level. Furthermore, active pond-dike integration contributed significantly to household income. The empirical analysis showed that as active households' income per capita increased, per capita expenditure on food purchases, agricultural labour and pond inputs also increased. On the other hand, consumption of various food items was linked to both income and availability. Households with homestead ponds met more than half of their fish consumption needs and the monitoring of active households suggested that these contributions to fish and vegetable consumption were most crucial during the lower income and least productive months. A higher proportion of total income from fish sales by peri-urban households compared to rural households reflected greater opportunity for commercialization through better market access. Finally, it could be concluded that pond-dike systems supported producer households through smoothing income and food consumption flows throughout the year. The similar level of contribution of fish and vegetable to the income of both betteroff and worse-off households suggests that pond-dike systems have relevance to households across the community. However, the level of productivity from homestead pond-dike systems has remained relatively stagnant, a situation which could be further improved through relatively modest and available technological and capital intensification principally through enhanced quality and quantity of nutrient inputs. (Karim et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Our study supports the findings of Karim et al., (2016) and Lewis (1997) who reported that a lack of knowledge rather than credit constrained poor households managing small ponds and ditches profitably for aquaculture in Bangladesh. The issue is often contradictory, however, as both money and information has been valued similarly by the participants of this study. So, it might be concluded that finance is one of the critical issues for the success of active integrated farming households, but that the current mix of institutions providing credit are, at least to some extent, delivering credit where required."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"However, the study suggests that policies that aim to increase household income through intensifying existing low-input-low-output systems and off-farm activities would potentially be an effective mechanism to invest more on farming and eventually improve food security of the households, especially for the worse-off households."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figures in the parentheses are percentage of households. "},{"text":" Non-leafy vegetables were least consumed in the months of April, May and June, and intake peaked between December and March. Households consumed more non-leafy vegetables produced on-farm in the months of July, August, December and March compared to other months (p < .05). On average, peri-urban households purchased 34% more non-leafy vegetables from the market than rural households. The latter tended to depend more on their own production, especially in the months from May to August. Households depended more on their own production than the market for leafy vegetable consumption, while a higher proportion of non-leafy vegetables were purchased from the market compared to produced on-farm.F I G U R E 3 Income (US$ capita À1 week À1 ) from selling fish by location and well-being [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] F I G U R E 4 Income (US$ capita À1 week À1 ) from vegetable selling by location and well-being [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] 3.2.4 | The vulnerability context of active integrated households Seasonal calendars produced by focus groups during the PCA helped understanding of the household vulnerability context for different well-being groups (Table 9). In addition, seasonal changes in natural conditions included water scarcity during the dry season which has been reported during the PCA. In contrast, an outcome of the Farmer Participatory Research (FPR) monitoring workshops was the impact of flood destruction of some fish ponds in the research F I G U R E 5 Food purchase expenses (US$ capita À1 week À1 ) by location and well-being [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] F I G U R E 6 Fish consumption (g capita À1 week À1 ) from farm source by well-being [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" T A B L E 1 Level of education, land ownership pattern, access to credit by group, well-being level and location Location Peri-urban LocationPeri-urban Well-being Better off Worse off Well-beingBetter offWorse off Disaggregated Pond-dike Pond-dike Pond-dike Pond-dike DisaggregatedPond-dikePond-dikePond-dikePond-dike Variables by (active) (passive) Non-pond Subtotal (active) (passive) Non-pond Subtotal Variablesby(active)(passive)Non-pond Subtotal(active)(passive)Non-pond Subtotal % distribution of Illiterate 11 (2) 7 (1) 11 (1) 10 (4) 35 (6) 40 (8) 73 (11) 48 (25) % distribution ofIlliterate11 (2)7 (1)11 (1)10 (4)35 (6)40 (8)73 (11)48 (25) educational level educational level of households of households Head a Head a Land ownership Own 1.25 (0.71) 1.70 (2.26) 1.09 (0.62) 1.36 (1.41) 0.58 (0.40) 0.46 (0.39) 0.16 (0.36) 0.43 (0.41) Land ownershipOwn1.25 (0.71) 1.70 (2.26) 1.09 (0.62) 1.36 (1.41) 0.58 (0.40) 0.46 (0.39) 0.16 (0.36) 0.43 (0.41) (ha/HH) b Leased in 0.03 (0.12) 0.30 (1.01) 0.20 (0.43) 0.15 (0.61) 0.22 (0.49) 0.11 (0.28) 0.54 (0.58) 0.25 (0.47) (ha/HH) bLeased in0.03 (0.12) 0.30 (1.01) 0.20 (0.43) 0.15 (0.61) 0.22 (0.49) 0.11 (0.28) 0.54 (0.58) 0.25 (0.47) Leased out 0.36 (0.80) 0.28 (1.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.26 (0.79) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) Leased out0.36 (0.80) 0.28 (1.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.26 (0.79) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) Mortgaged in 0.05 (0.15) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.02 (0.10) 0.00 (0.00) 0.02 (0.11) 0.01 (0.03) 0.01 (0.07) Mortgaged in0.05 (0.15) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.02 (0.10) 0.00 (0.00) 0.02 (0.11) 0.01 (0.03) 0.01 (0.07) Sharing 0.02 (0.08) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.01 (0.05) 0.05 (0.14) 0.07 (0.12) 0.00 (0.00) 0.04 (0.11) Sharing0.02 (0.08) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.00) 0.01 (0.05) 0.05 (0.14) 0.07 (0.12) 0.00 (0.00) 0.04 (0.11) % of households No Loan 45 (9) 40 (6) 78 (7) 50 (22) 0 26 (6) 31 (5) 18 (11) % of householdsNo Loan45 (9)40 (6)78 (7)50 (22)026 (6)31 (5)18 (11) loan taken Loan WI c 25 (5) 47 (7) 22 (2) 32 (14) 52 (11) 48 (11) 50 (8) 50 (30) loan takenLoan WI c25 (5)47 (7)22 (2)32 (14)52 (11)48 (11)50 (8)50 (30) Loan WoI d 30 (6) 13 (2) 0 18 (8) 48 (10) 26 (6) 19 (3) 32 (19) Loan WoI d30 (6)13 (2)018 (8)48 (10)26 (6)19 (3)32 (19) Amount of loan Loan WI c 84 (75) 247 (290) 89 (-) 166 (218) 163 (109) 157 (263) 117 (135) 148 (181) Amount of loanLoan WI c84 (75)247 (290)89 (-)166 (218)163 (109)157 (263)117 (135)148 (181) taken (US$/HH) b Loan WoI d 103 (129) 13 (13) 80 (117) 67 (60) 131 (252) 60 (57) 86 (144) taken (US$/HH) bLoan WoI d103 (129)13 (13)80 (117)67 (60)131 (252)60 (57)86 (144) Loan total 94 (103) 195 (272) 89 (-) 135 (189) 117 (100) 148 (251) 101 (119) 124 (169) Loan total94 (103)195 (272)89 (-)135 (189)117 (100)148 (251)101 (119)124 (169) % sources Bank 20 (2) 57 (5) 64 (1) 41 (8) 29 (7) 12 (2) 19 (2) 23 (11) % sourcesBank20 (2)57 (5)64 (1)41 (8)29 (7)12 (2)19 (2)23 (11) of loan a NGO 15 (1) 13 (1) 12 (2) 17 (5) 1 (1) 9 (2) 12 (8) of loan aNGO15 (1)13 (1)12 (2)17 (5)1 (1)9 (2)12 (8) Family 3 (2) 1 (1) 0 2 (3) Family3 (2)1 (1)02 (3) Neighbours 34 (6) 31 (3) 36 (1) 33 (10) 50 (14) 86 (15) 72 (9) 62 (38) Neighbours34 (6)31 (3)36 (1)33 (10)50 (14)86 (15)72 (9)62 (38) Relatives 31 (2) 14 (2) Relatives31 (2)14 (2) a Figures in the parentheses are number of respondents. a Figures in the parentheses are number of respondents. Without interest. Without interest. *No diff./non-sig. p > .05. *No diff./non-sig. p > .05. 3 | RESULTS 3 | RESULTS 3.1 | Baseline survey 3.1 | Baseline survey 3.1.1 | Livelihood assets portfolios 3.1.1 | Livelihood assets portfolios "},{"text":" found that smallholder ponds both supported producer household food security and income and produced marketable excess that befitted non-producing consumers. Per capita fish consumption observed in his study (11.99 kg capita À1 year À1 ) was lower than that found in other studies, both in the same area (MAEP;14.03 kg capita À1 year À1 ; DANIDA, 2004) and nationally (13.86 kg capita À1 year À1 ; BBS, "}],"sieverID":"33460bd5-5f14-4164-af4f-0bfc20c8a2b6","abstract":"The roles of homestead ponds and surrounding dike production of vegetables on farms in peri-urban and rural communities in central north Bangladesh were assessed.A baseline survey sought to characterize actively managed (\"active\") pond-dike systems, producing fish and vegetables, in terms of productivity and impact compared to less intensively integrated (\"passive\") and control, no-pond households. A longitudinal survey was carried out over 12 months to explore the relationship between seasonality and livelihood outcomes in relation to location and well-being status. Active homestead pond operators tended to have greater access to information and credit compared to passive and non-pond households; this was likely linked to their greater literacy and greater social connectedness. They enjoyed higher incomes through fish sales and consumed more fish than passive households, which was related to their higher production, in turn explained mainly by the use of more inputs. All active, 50% passive and 38% non-pond households were involved in vegetable cultivation; however, significantly more vegetables were produced by active households than others.The impacts of pond-dike production were more critical for food-vulnerable, rural households than peri-urban households prior to monsoon rice harvest; worse-off households suffered more prior to the \"irrigated rice\" harvest. Fish and vegetables raised on farm were most important during lower income months. The study supports the view that small homestead ponds can contribute to the wider food supply, and that such \"quasi-peasant\" forms of aquaculture contribute to reduced poverty and enhanced dietary diversity and food security in the broader population."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"05ad907e41cde5a1515d802b6df6f5ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/223/3791_AAS-2014-33.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Engaging women and men in community-based resource management processes in Solomon Islands OVERVIEW OVERVIEW","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Gender equity refers to the process of being fair to women and men, in order that women and men can equally access opportunities and life choices regardless of their sex. It has been proposed that local and national management policies and practices can be more effective if they are more gender equitable and better consider the differences in how men and women participate in natural resource use and in the community, taking into account their potentially different goals. 3 The CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS), led by WorldFish, aims to deliver increased food security and income for the millions of people living in and depending on aquatic agricultural systems, and intends to take a gender-transformative approach to integrating gender into research in development. With respect to community-based resource management, this approach aims to foster change in the social environment to maximize the ability of men and women to participate in and benefit from natural resource management. The AAS program approach is participatory and provides opportunities for stakeholders to regularly reflect on social and environmental change, to share lessons, and to plan together."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"To further explore what gender-equitable approaches to resource management mean in practice, WorldFish and The Nature Conservancy have documented emerging lessons, gaps and opportunities to better understand how gender-equitable approaches can be taken into account in community-based resource management."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"• Assumptions. Understanding the roles of men and women in a community requires questioning assumptions. For example, a common assumption is that all fishers are men. However, women's roles in fisheries are numerous and diverse, and include collecting, processing, preparing and marketing fish and other marine resources that contribute directly to the well-being of their families and communities. 7 Yet because fishing is perceived to be a maledominated sector and \"fishing\" is taken to mean line or spear fishing and not gleaning for shells and seaweed-and also because the term \"fishing\" does not capture associated activities such as processing, preparation and marketing-the role of women in fisheries can be overlooked."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"• Differing motivations. Community consultations often reveal that men and women may have different motivations for getting involved in managing resources and hold different objectives for management. Due to the dominant gender roles and norms in some communities, men can tend to look more at the land and sea for ways to generate income while women may place greater emphasis on how the land and sea can provide adequate food for their families; men's priorities are often more strongly reflected in management strategies."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"• Cultural norms. Known as kastom in Solomon Islands, cultural norms-can play an important role in safeguarding the morality, behavior and attitudes of people, but may not necessarily align with democratic processes and equality. For example, where men are regarded as heads of households and have the role of leading and determining household decisions, they may also directly or indirectly control how women spend their time, including their involvement in activities outside the household. Where ideas such as promoting equal participation in household or community decisions and promoting equal opportunities to access and benefit from resources are considered important to households and communities, there can be some challenges in reaching a balance with cultural norms."}]},{"head":"Communities Driving NGO Learning about Gender-Equitable Approaches to Community-Based Resource Management","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Since 2006, WorldFish has worked closely with communities in Isabel, Western and Malaita provinces to develop community-based management plans for coastal marine resources. Funded primarily by the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research, the facilitation of community-led processes has evolved over the years into clear stages:"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"1. a scoping stage involving facilitators becoming informed about a community and building a relationship with that community 2. a participatory diagnosis stage where resource owners and community members identify issues and set a goal for management 3. a management planning phase that involves determining the steps to achieve the management goal."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"We have seen that men, women and youth are all well represented in the scoping and participatory diagnosis phases, which tend to utilize full community meetings and facilitated age-and genderseparate focus group discussions. In the management planning phase, however, responsibility to make decisions and consult with the community is typically concentrated into the hands of a limited number of people who make up a resource management committee. It appears that unless they are targeted specifically, women-and in some cases, young men-can become progressively less prominent in discussions and can eventually become relatively invisible in the process."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"In 2008, the marine resource management committee in Kia Village, Isabel Province-composed of seven men (all district chiefs) and one woman-decided to have an official launch for their marine resource management plan. On the day of the launch, men and women were heavily involved; however, the role of women was largely confined to preparing food for the more than 100 guests from the community and visiting partner organizations."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Photo Credit: Delvene Boso/WorldFish"},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"Women's workshop in Malaita."},{"index":7,"size":148,"text":"Speeches at the launch sparked the interest of some of the women present, who although active in women's groups, had not had the time or opportunity to engage with the management planning process. Subsequently, representatives from the Mothers Union of Kia approached WorldFish to request targeted activities that would enable women to be better informed and able to engage more fully in the marine resource management plan. The Mothers Union is a locally based Anglican Church organization working to improve the well-being of Solomon Island communities, particularly women and children. In Kia, the Mothers Union had an annual program of activities to raise awareness through targeting other women in the district about different topics relating to family and community life. We gained new ideas and knowledge from other women and facilitators, and we felt free to talk and share; a separate workshop for men and women is good."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"-Anonymous evaluation response from a participant in training-of-trainers sessions"}]},{"head":"Ridges to Reefs Planning: Women Leading the Way in Isabel Province","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"For nearly 20 years, The Nature Conservancy has worked with local and national partners on community-based resource management in Solomon Islands. In 2012, at the request of landowners and the Isabel Provincial Government, The Nature Conservancy worked with stakeholders to develop a \"Ridges to Reefs\" conservation plan for Isabel Province. Participants combined scientific and local knowledge to identify features within customarily owned lands and seas of high conservation value to communities. These features represent important biological and cultural resources that would benefit from protection or management, such as freshwater sources, cultural heritage sites, turtle nesting beaches and fish spawning aggregation areas. Combined with scientific data sets and other information such as proposed mining tenement sites, it also highlights the current and urgent threats in Isabel Province from mining."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The planning process was part of the six-country regional Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security. 8 The need for the process to be driven by local stakeholders and to involve women was especially critical in Isabel Province, which has matrilineal land tenure. Matrilineal land tenure means that land ownership is passed through the female line. However, while women are recognized culturally as the land owners, in reality they have often been excluded from decision-making and the benefits arising from development, such as logging, and more recently, mining."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"In order to increase the participation of women in conservation and development planning, The Nature Conservancy is building a strong partnership with the Anglican women's network the Mothers Union in Isabel Province. As more than 97 percent of people in Isabel Province are Anglican, the Mothers Union is a strong local partner with connections in every community in Isabel. For the Ridges to Reefs initiative, representatives of the Mothers Union were supported by The Nature Conservancy with funds and information materials to communicate the planning process, assist women in attending the planning meetings and help women contribute. In August 2012, the Isabel Ridges to Reefs Conservation Plan was finalized."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Photo Credit: Robyn James/WorldFish Moira Dasipio, President of the Mothers Union (Diocese of Ysabel), undertaking community awareness."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"The Nature Conservancy, in partnership with the Mothers Union, then facilitated the Isabel Ridges to Reefs Train the Trainers workshop. Around 40 participants gathered in Buala, the capital of Isabel Province, to acquire the skills to raise awareness about the issues raised in the plan with the communities across Isabel Province."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"After the workshop, a group of community facilitators (men and women) began rolling out the Isabel Ridges to Reefs plan. The Mothers Union focused on key messages about the importance of a well-managed environment for a healthy community (Figure 1). This raised awareness and created interest in communitybased conservation and sustainable natural resource management."},{"index":7,"size":153,"text":"By mid-2014, following the Mothers Union awareness campaign, The Nature Conservancy had received more than 30 written requests from communities for assistance in establishing conservation areas on their customary lands. These requests can only be made when all chiefs declare that the land is free from disputes. The Nature Conservancy, with the Mothers Union and the Isabel Provincial Government, is now assisting these communities to develop management plans for these areas so that the protected areas can be legally registered and recognized under national legislation. Mothers Union President Moira Dasipio's efforts in supporting the women of Isabel to build this enthusiasm and confidence have been recognized at the regional level through a Women's Leadership Award as part of the Coral Triangle Initiative. She notes, \"We are no longer merely women in the kitchen. We are stepping up to speak for our nation as a whole and our own future generations to come. \""}]},{"head":"SOLUTIONS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Experience from development work around the world shows that by using inclusive approaches, development partners can help people to achieve their long-term goals, as well as reduce the disparities between men and women in opportunities and life choices. If underlying gender roles and norms are better understood, then community initiatives can be tailored to the needs and goals of both women and men."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The work of the Mothers Union in Solomon Islands, in partnership with The Nature Conservancy, successfully utilized gender-sensitive approaches and particular local strengths to gain wider involvement and participation among women. These included the following:"},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"• Support by strong male champions. The Archbishop of Isabel, the Premier of Isabel Provincial Government and the Paramount Chief of Isabel, for example, have all been very supportive of the Mothers Union. They have encouraged women to get involved in planning and decision-making to promote better management of Isabel's natural resources."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"• Strong female champions. The president of the Mothers Union in Isabel is also a strong leader and worked very hard to ensure that women have participated in all stages of the natural resource management planning processes."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• Involvement of both men and women. Each group conducting awareness on the Ridges to Reefs plan deliberately contained a mix of both men and women."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"• Utilization of a well-respected, existing local network. Not only is the Mothers Union already established across the province, but it is also supported by a widespread local organizationthe Anglican Church."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"• Building the capacity of women. The Ridges to Reefs awareness process has resulted in women gaining confidence to speak up about issues that will affect them and their family's future."},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"• Public, global recognition of women and their work. Moira Dasipio's work, for example, was recognized with a Coral Triangle leadership award and has increased the credibility of the Mothers Union's work with the government and the community."},{"index":9,"size":43,"text":"Based on experience in communities and consultations with partners such as environmental education NGO Live and Learn 9 , WorldFish and The Nature Conservancy have identified other locally appropriate solutions to guide organizations working with Solomon Islands communities in community-based natural resource management."},{"index":10,"size":35,"text":"Provide targeted communications materials. Communities have a range of effective communication channels, but these may differ for men and women. Experience has shown that useful strategies to reach both men and women include the following:"},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"• Work directly with local community men's and women's groups to develop communication materials that suit the context."},{"index":12,"size":26,"text":"• Design awareness materials differently for women and men depending on their information requests (e.g. use pictures instead of words in areas with high female illiteracy)."},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"• Utilize and empower strong, educated women in the community to be the trainers for other women in the community."},{"index":14,"size":79,"text":"Support access to information. Men and women have different opportunities to access information. Men who have more freedom and time to travel or to attend workshops and meetings don't always effectively share information with other men when they return to the community. However, when women and men have the opportunity to access information directly, they can share through their channels of communication with others and with children in the household. Useful strategies to address these issues include the following:"},{"index":15,"size":35,"text":"• Arrange specific activities at times and locations that are suitable so that both men and women have improved access to information. • Provide opportunities for men and women to learn together and share experiences."},{"index":16,"size":69,"text":"• If representing an organization from outside of the community, talk with leaders of both men's and women's groups early and come to a clear understanding of agreed communication channels. • Provide opportunities for different groups within the community to share experiences with each other. • Carry out activities for men and women within the community simultaneously, but if necessary, separately. Ensure the processes are transparent between the groups."},{"index":17,"size":35,"text":"Provide opportunities for leadership. Women are often excluded from decision-making processes, even when the decisions being made aim to address their needs. 10 To avoid exclusion of women in decision making, use the following strategies:"},{"index":18,"size":80,"text":"• Conduct a participatory gender analysis to help guide facilitators and to increase community selfawareness about impacts of different management interventions on men, women and youth in the community. • Establish partnerships with women's groups and church groups to develop programs that women can lead and that are aligned with their existing programs so as not to add an extra burden. • Seek out male champions who are supportive of the involvement of women and youth in marine resource management."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Solomon Islands government agencies, NGOs and community groups are seeking to understand what a \"gender-equitable approach to resource management\" means in practice. These practical experiences of how partners can work with communities to effect more equitable participation of men and women in ways that are developed through a participatory process provide lessons on which we can build."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"In the communities where WorldFish and The Nature Conservancy work, we have seen that by taking the time to understand the perspectives of both women and men at the start of engagement, we can better tailor our programs and see better outcomes for both women and men. The need to design activities for men and women, separately and together, has been reinforced through participatory planning with communities."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"The learning from experiences described in the first story has been influential in determining the approach of the WorldFish-led AAS program in Solomon Islands. This is reflected in the emerging research plan on gender-transformative approaches in Solomon Islands, in the short-term plans to"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"• build an understanding of how social and gender norms influence development outcomes in aquatic agricultural systems to provide the basis for designing gender-transformative approaches in research in development;"},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• strengthen the capacity of AAS staff and research and development partners to effectively adopt and integrate gender-transformative approaches;"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• strengthen gender coalitions working at the national level to facilitate learning and scaling out of successful approaches."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"The early success stories from Kia also illustrate the value of sharing learning. Knowledge sharing and learning build capacity both in partner staff and in the communities with whom we work."},{"index":8,"size":49,"text":"During the past six years, facilitators' guides have been produced for Solomon Islands that address gender-inclusive natural resource management. 11 Such guides acknowledge the importance of men and women participating in community management to promote improved sharing of benefits, better compliance with rules, and locally accepted, more consistent management."},{"index":9,"size":69,"text":"By sharing these preliminary lessons from experience, WorldFish aims to stimulate discussion about innovative gender-equitable approaches in natural resource management in Solomon Islands. This is consistent with the 2009 Solomon Islands Government Policy on Gender Equality and Women's Development, which aims to improve the economic status of women through access to and sharing of productive resources, and to promote equal participation of women and men in decision-making and leadership."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"As organizations like WorldFish and The Nature Conservancy build on their learning, community initiatives and planning processes can be increasingly tailored to help both women and men unlock their potential to contribute to and benefit from development."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Information sheets and a \"training of trainers\" were co-designed and tested by the women of the Mothers Union and WorldFish staff in Kia Village. In March 2009, a group of 12 literate and educated women in the Mothers Union were trained as community-based trainers, who then disseminated key messages about marine resource management to other women in the community.Since this initiative, women in other provinces have also benefited. Training-of-trainers workshops have been held for rural women in Western and Malaita provinces (Hilly et al., 2012), a publically available DVD has been made to support that training, and in 2013, a workshop in Honiara supported by the New Zealand Aid-funded Mekem Strong Solomon Islands Fisheries Program brought together 21 women from four different provinces to a training of trainers and informationsharing forum coordinated by the Solomon Islands Locally Managed Marine Area Network. The Mothers Union went on to receive short-term funding from a Global Environment Fundfunded Community Small Grants Project to conduct awareness training regarding marine resource management issues in the wider Kia District, alongside men who received funding for monitoring of sea cucumbers. The Mothers Union has progressed to have a strong voice in the resource management agenda for the larger Isabel Province, as shown by their growing work on community awareness with The Nature Conservancy. (See next story.) "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Awareness poster. Facilitators highlighted the importance of the \"healthy environment for healthy community\" message. ©Glenn Althor, Robyn James and Nate Peterson. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"49404a6a-f1d2-4f96-87a2-e064d08beb25","abstract":"In Solomon Islands, 80 percent of the population lives in rural areas where the use and management of natural resources is central to people's livelihoods. In addition, approximately 90 percent of terrestrial resources and inshore coastal areas, islands and islets in Solomon Islands are under customary tenure, where particular families, clans or tribes have primary rights to decide how resources are used and managed. Given this context, the government has taken a communitybased approach to resource management as its primary strategy.Community-based resource management describes the management that communities carry out themselves over land, sea or freshwater resources. Sometimes communities are supported by external partners like nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), research agencies or the government. Community-based resource management recognizes that community members are the owners and custodians of their resources, and so empowers them as stewards, using local governance structures and institutions. Evidence suggests that basing resource management on local arrangements that are already in place, and on local and traditional knowledge, leads to management that is more likely to be respected and complied with, and that better fits a community's particular context. 1 By definition, community-based resource management approaches aim to benefit all members of the community now and in the future. 2 In practice, however, management can have different benefits and costs for different groups of people-including men and women. Research across the Pacific, including in Solomon Islands, demonstrates that there is often disparity in access rights, roles, responsibilities and benefits between and among women and men. Achieving equitable participation by women and men in local resource management is challenging in practice, and most decision-making about resource use and management still tends to be dominated by men. However, in some places there are signs that this is changing with the support of both men and women community champions."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"05ddd226460949bfac68d54b106551e1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/15b730b4-ca48-4a61-8f96-e3a79216b002/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Tabla de conTenido","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"• Objetivos del taller 3"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• Desarrollo del taller 4"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"PRIMER DÍA 4"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Definición de factores de cambio 4"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• Calificación y selección de los factores de cambio 4"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• Definición de estados de factores 4"},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• Compatibilidad de factores 5 SEGUNDO DÍA. 5"},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"• La estructura de los escenarios y el programa OLDFAR de MatLab 5"},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"• Selección de Escenarios 5"},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"• Desarrollo de escenarios socioeconómicos 6"},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"• Calificación de indicadores semi-cuantitativos 6"},{"index":12,"size":3,"text":"TERCER DÍA 6"},{"index":13,"size":7,"text":"• Escenarios socioeconómicos para América Central 6"},{"index":14,"size":10,"text":"• Propuestas de seguimiento por país y región Centroamericana 12"},{"index":15,"size":14,"text":"• Reflexión sobre la capacidad de adaptación al cambio climático de los escenarios 13"},{"index":16,"size":2,"text":"ANEXOS 15"},{"index":17,"size":3,"text":"• Abreviaciones 15"},{"index":18,"size":5,"text":"• Lista de participantes 15"}]},{"head":"PReSenTaciÓn","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"El Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS por sus siglas en inglés) inició sus actividades en América Latina con apoyo de socios regionales, nacionales y multilaterales. En el contexto de los escenarios socioeconómicos, CCAFS lidera dos procesos simultáneamente en Centroamérica (Belice, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua y Panamá) y en los países andinos de Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú. La construcción de los escenarios socioeconómicos para los de Centroamérica se está desarrollando en conjunto con la Universidad para la Cooperación Internacional (UCI)."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"CCAFS ha venido organizando procesos de construcción de escenarios socioeconómicos en todas las regiones en las que tiene presencia (Sur y Sureste de Asia, África Oriental y Occidental y América Latina), con el fin de explorar incertidumbres claves en el contexto institucional y socioeconómico, en el cual las variadas actividades llevadas a cabo por CCAFS entran en juego."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"En el modelo actual, estos escenarios socioeconómicos son combinados con los escenarios climáticos, para explorar las interacciones de estos factores de estrés."}]},{"head":"CCAFS AMÉRICA LATINA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"• Ana María Loboguerrero, Líder Regional Los escenarios socioeconómicos se enfocan específicamente en analizar y luego mejorar las condiciones institucionales, que permiten o restringen la adaptación e implementación de medidas de mitigación por parte de CCAFS y sus socios. Por lo tanto, los escenarios ofrecen una actividad altamente complementaria para otras iniciativas de CCAFS y demás programas que se encuentran trabajando en cambio climático. En consecuencia, los escenarios regionales socioeconómicos liderados por CCAFS son útiles como herramienta para la participación de los tomadores de decisión, así como para enmarcar las preguntas de investigación y poner a prueba la viabilidad de las actividades realizadas por CCAFS y sus socios regionales y nacionales."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Estos escenarios socioeconómicos, se desarrollan basados en un horizonte de tiempo al 2050. Para su elaboración se requiere la participación de una gama de partes interesadas y actores de los gobiernos, sociedad civil, organizaciones no gubernamentales, academia, sector privado y los medios de comunicación nacional, así como organizaciones regionales y, cuando proceda, organizaciones globales."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Los escenarios tratan de integrar los desafíos a la seguridad alimentaria con los entornos y medios de subsistencia, explorando contextos socio-económicos más amplios."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"En lugar de intentar pronosticar un solo futuro, los escenarios representan múltiples direcciones posibles que pueden tomar los futuros conductores del cambio."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"El proceso de escenarios CCAFS se centra en impulsores contextuales de cambio, es decir, factores en el entorno que influyen en los cambios, en la agricultura y la seguridad alimentaria -el cambio climático y los cambios socio-económicos. Ejemplos de estos factores de cambio son los mercados, la gobernanza, el desarrollo económico en general, o la infraestructura."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"En ese marco, la UCI por medio de su Centro Bioclimático, actúa como socio regional de la iniciativa global impulsada y liderada por CCAFS, con socios como el World Conservation Monitoring Centre del Programa de las Naciones Unidas Medio Ambiente (PNUMA-WCMC), el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), entre otros, que consiste en la elaboración de escenarios socioeconómicos, para tomadores de decisiones, como herramientas prospectivas para el diseño de políticas, inversiones e investigación y otros instrumentos estratégicos del sector público y privado, en donde la participación de actores relevantes regionales y nacionales es clave para orientar políticas e intervenciones territoriales que permitan explorar soluciones a los problemas y retos antes señalados."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"El inicio de este proceso en Centroamérica empezó con un taller de construcción de escenarios en San José, Costa Rica, junto con los actores clave de la región; expertos en agricultura (seguridad alimentaria), ambiente, medios de vida y cambio climático de los gobiernos, sociedad civil, organizaciones no gubernamentales, organizaciones regionales, academia, y el sector privado que a la vez son tomadores de decisión o cercanos a ellos."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"Este informe recopila el proceso del taller y muestra el desarrollo del mismo, resaltando aspectos claves, metodológicos y de contenido, que ayuden a comprender mejor el trabajo desarrollado y los productos obtenidos."}]},{"head":"objeTivoS del TalleR","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Explorar los factores de cambio claves e incertidumbres para la agricultura y seguridad alimentaria, el ambiente y los medios de vida en Centroamérica."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Desarrollar escenarios socioeconómicos para la región Centroamericana."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• Definición de propuestas de uso de los escenarios en Centroamérica y otros pasos a seguir"},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• Fomentar el intercambio y las conexiones entre tomadores de decisión y otros actores clave de Centroamérica en agricultura, seguridad alimentaria, medios de vida, ambiente y cambio climático."}]},{"head":"deSaRRollo del TalleR","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Definición de factores de cambio"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Definición de los estados de factores de cambio"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Definición de compatibilidad entre los estados de factores de cambio"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Uso del programa Matlab para la creación de la estructura de escenarios socioeconómicos a desarrollar en el taller"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• Elección de cuatro escenarios a desarrollar en el taller"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Construcción de la narrativa de cada escenario"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"• Definición del nombre de cada escenario"},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"• Calificación de indicadores semi-cuantitativas de los escenarios"},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"• Descripción escrita de los escenarios"},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"• Presentación de los escenarios"},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"• Reflexión sobre la capacidad de adaptación al cambio climático de los escenarios"},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"• Definición de propuestas de uso de los escenarios en Centroamérica y otros pasos a seguir"}]},{"head":"PRiMeR dÍa","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Se inicia la tarea del taller, con el primer ejercicio, centrado en la identificación de futuros factores de cambio, como aquello que se consideran 'causantes de evolución o de transformación' para la agricultura y seguridad alimentaria, medios de vida y ambiente en el año 2050. La meta es definir factores de cambio que se consideran relevantes e incertidumbres en el futuro."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Factores de cambio: Aquellos elementos que pueden condicionar una situación, volviéndose los causantes de la evolución o transformación de los hechos"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• Relevancia: ¿Qué tan importante podría ser este factor en armar el futuro de seguridad alimentaria (agricultura), medios de vida y el ambiente en el año 2050?"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• incertidumbre Cuando no se conoce la dirección que tomará el factor en el futuro."}]},{"head":"deFiniciÓn de FacToReS de caMbio","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Se forman parejas para trabajar los temas eje. Para la primera ronda, cada pareja conversa durante diez minutos sobre factores de cambio relacionados con agricultura y seguridad alimentaria, anotando cada factor en tarjetas separadas. En la segunda ronda se cambia de parejas, y durante otros diez minutos las parejas definan los factores de cambio relacionados con ambiente. Finalmente se cambia por última vez de pareja para definir los factores de cambio relacionados con medios de vida."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Una vez que todos los participantes hicieron la tarea en parejas para los tres temas eje, se colocan todas las tarjetas en forma indiscriminada, aleatoria, en un gran mural preparado de antemano."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Ya colocadas todas las tarjetas de todas las parejas, el grupo en forma colectiva, agrupa las tarjetas por familiaridad o afinidad temática, organizándolas en diferentes categorías (ya no distinguiendo entre los tres ejes), a las cuales se les asigna un nombre que caracterice el tema o abordaje común."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Los factores de cambio identificados para la seguridad alimentaria, ambiente y los medios de vida de la región Centroamericana en el año 2050:"},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Figura 0: Factores de cambio de la región Centroamericana identificados en el año 2050 (Elaboración propia)"}]},{"head":"caliFicaciÓn y SelecciÓn de loS FacToReS de caMbio","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"El grupo procede a calificar los factores de cambio más relevantes e inciertos. Cada participante hace la calificación mediante 10 pegatinas de un color (que representa la relevancia de esa categoría) y 10 pegatinas de otro color que representa la incertidumbre de esa categoría. Deben elegir en cual o cuales categorías serán ubicadas Se procede entonces a contar las elecciones de cada categoría y a seleccionar aquellas que combinado relevancia e incertidumbre, tienen más valor, quedando con mayor puntaje los siguientes factores de cambio:"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• Recurso Hídrico."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Capacidad Institucional del Estado."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"• Mercado"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"• Distribución de la Riqueza."}]},{"head":"deFiniciÓn de eSTadoS de FacToReS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Para esta tarea, se integraron cuatro grupos de trabajo con una representación equilibrada de actores de los diferentes países, tipo de instituciones, género y área de experticia. A cada grupo se les asignó uno de los cuatro factores de cambio seleccionados. Cada grupo trabajó, primero en describir y definir cada factor de cambio. Una vez que lo clarificaron y tienen conciencia de lo que implica, procedieron a identificar, dos o tres estados extremos (es decir, mutuamente excluyentes) para el factor."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Como resultado de este paso, se identificaron los siguientes estados. "}]},{"head":"coMPaTibilidad de FacToReS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Una vez que los grupos identificaron los estados de los factores de cambio, se procedió a que cada grupo revisara una matriz que cruza combinaciones de estados de factores, y se procede a valorar si cada combinación de estados entre factores, asignando un valor de 2 si es posible, un valor de 0 si no lo es y un valor de 1 si se puede imaginar la compatibilidad pero no es muy evidente."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Las combinaciones de estados de factores que reciban un 2 formarán escenarios más plausibles que las combinaciones de estados de factores que reciban una valoración de 1, cuyos escenarios serán más distintos a la realidad actual. Las combinaciones de estados de factores que no son posibles (que reciban una valoración de 0) no formarán parte de los escenarios y por consecuencia no serán incluidos en el programa Matlab."}]},{"head":"SeGUndo dÍa.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"El segundo día del taller estuvo centrado en:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• La escogencia de la estructura para los cuatro escenarios a desarrollar en el taller"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• El desarrollo de cuatro escenarios futuros para seguridad alimentaria (agricultura), ambiente y medios de vida al año 2050 para la región centroamericana"},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"• La valoración de indicadores semi-cuantitativos para cada escenario la eSTRUcTURa de loS eScenaRioS y el PRoGRaMa oldFaR de MaTlab La estructura de los escenarios es formada mediante combinaciones de estados de factores y es la base del escenario. La narrativa, es decir la historia, se formará con el contexto creado por esa combinación de estos estados."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"Se puede ver un escenario socioeconómico como una carrera de obstáculos. La idea es crear el entorno o el contexto con el más diverso conjunto de posibles condiciones para probar la resiliencia de políticas y para identificar donde están las necesidades de inversión e investigación."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Cuando se combinan múltiples estados de factores es difícil determinar cuál es el conjunto más diverso, sobre todo cuando algunos de los escenarios son inviables porque ciertas combinaciones de estados no se consideraron posibles."},{"index":7,"size":153,"text":"Utilizando la herramienta de software MatLab, CCAFS desarrolló un programa llamado OLDFAR, que combina varias formas de determinar el más diverso conjunto de escenarios de todas las posibilidades disponibles, basadas directamente en la información acerca de la compatibilidad de los estados de factores de cambio: 2 si es posible y 1 si la combinación de estados es imaginable pero no evidente. Estas últimas combinaciones (con valoración 1) crean los escenarios más diversos. Las combinaciones de estados de factores no compatibles no son incorporadas en los escenarios. Con el fin de poder imaginarse mejor el conjunto de estados de factores que forman la estructura de un escenario, se trabajó con una ilustradora que diseñó un dibujo de cada estado de factor. Los seis conjuntos fueron presentados mediante estas ilustraciones. Se resalta que no se trata de pensar un futuro deseable, sino en el escenario creado mediante la combinación de estados de factores de cambio."}]},{"head":"SelecciÓn de eScenaRioS","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"caliFicaciÓn de indicadoReS SeMi-cUanTiTaTivoS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Los escenarios socioeconómicos desarrollados en este taller serán cuantificados posteriormente modelos desarrollados por el International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) e IFPRI. El modelo GLOBIOM de IIASA evalúa la competencia por el uso de la tierra entre la agricultura, la bioenergía y la silvicultura, mientras el modelo IMPACT de IFPRI está diseñado para examinar futuros alternativos para el suministro mundial de alimentos, la demanda, el comercio, los precios y la seguridad alimentaria. A su vez, los escenarios cuantificados mediante estos dos modelos serán cruzados con escenarios de cambio climático."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Además de la descripción de cada escenario (narrativa), la simulación mediante estos modelos requiere insumos semi-cuantitativos, llamados indicadores, que son derivados de los factores de cambio para la región Centroamérica. Otros indicadores pueden ser agregados por el interés particular de los socios del proyecto CCAFS pensando en el uso de los escenarios."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Para la valoración de los indicadores cada grupo que desarrolla un escenario discute y define:"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• ¿Cuál es la dirección de cambio para cada indicador?"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• ¿Por qué está sucediendo este cambio?"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• ¿Cuál es la variabilidad? (Cambia mucho la dirección del indicador en el transcurso del tiempo o es bastante estable?)"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• ¿Están los integrantes del grupo de acuerdo sobre la valoración?"},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• ¿Están los integrantes del grupo seguros de que pueden describir este indicador? (¿Cuentan con la experticia para hacerlo?)"},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"• ¿Que otras fuentes de información relacionadas con cada indicador recomiendan?"},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"TeRceR dÍa el tercer y último día del taller se concentra en:"},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"• Terminar la narrativa y definición de un nombre para cada escenario"},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"• Terminar de calificar los indicadores"},{"index":13,"size":4,"text":"• Presentación de escenarios"},{"index":14,"size":10,"text":"• Ejercicio: reflexión sobre la vulnerabilidad climático de los escenarios"},{"index":15,"size":13,"text":"• Definición de próximos pasos : propuestas para el uso de los escenarios."},{"index":16,"size":49,"text":"Los productos finales del ejercicio, se corresponden a las narrativas de los cuatro escenarios construidos, las propuestas de seguimiento para el uso de los escenarios por países y para la región Centroamérica y las reflexiones de cada grupo sobre la vulnerabilidad climática del escenario que construyeron. (ver tabla 3)"}]},{"head":"eScenaRioS SocioeconÓMicoS PaRa aMéRica cenTRal 'apiñados'","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Un periodista de un canal de televisión, entrevista a un nieto de una persona, que vivió el proceso de cambios que condujeron a la situación presente en el 2050, a cuyas preguntas responde: Este arreglo político, económico e institucional, fue gestionado con antelación y de forma inteligente; para su materialización se requería del concurso de las grandes corporaciones y transnacionales, principalmente chinas, que fueron capaces de incidir, de manera oportuna, en la firma de un Tratado de Libre Comercio (TLC); desregulación del manejo ambiental y apoyo a la aprobación de leyes para la privatización del agua, los recursos mineros y los bosques, además de adueñarse las tierras en los valles más fértiles de la región."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Las consecuencias de este modelo, de distribución inequitativa de la riqueza, de mercado abierto y sin regulación, y con un Estado desigual; expresa claramente un rostro dual y un carácter extractivo en el año 2050: las economías campesinas han desaparecido, y la gente del campo emigró a los centros urbanos."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Por una lado de la moneda, vemos riqueza concentrada, los ricos del 2020, son los mismos ricos del 2050, con la diferencia que ahora multiplicaron sus capitales, y del otro; una inmensa mayoría suplidora de servicios y mano de obra de maquilas, instruidos técnicamente para producir productos de mejor calidad, que han mejorado los ingresos como parte de una estrategia que permite mayor consumo y patrones de dependencia tecnológica."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Sin embargo, es una economía de cuentagotas, que permite la reproducción del consumo, pero no la acumulación de riqueza entre las mayorías y las clases medias."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Todas las cosas que compramos tienen una vida útil determinada: si se daña una parte, tenemos que sustituir todo el artículo. Es parte de la estrategia de consumo, a la que nos han condenado."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Si bien hay agua abundante, producto de un ordenamiento dirigido y que especializó la gestión ambiental, esos recursos no están accesibles, y ahora privatizados se está exportando agua líquida y vegetales; tenemos que pagar más, por todo."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"La sociedad esta domesticada, manejada por los medios de comunicación, los controles financieros, y los grupos religiosos. El Estado controla a la sociedad mediante refinados métodos que ocultan su verdadero carácter autoritario y desigual."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"No obstante, hay un replanteamiento de la espiritualidad desde la perspectiva de construir un ser humano menos egocentrista y menos apegado a los bienes materiales, por parte de grupos sociales que estan profundizando el conocimiento y la sabiduria social, para un individuo mas libre y feliz."},{"index":9,"size":38,"text":"Las esperanzas de una mejor sociedad, que sale de las sombras y de una realidad aparente y subordinada, por una visión más profunda y objetiva, que está revolucionando las consciencias. '14 baktún, el inicio de la profecía Maya'"},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"Figura 3: Ilustración del escenario '14 Baktún, El inicio de la profecía Maya'. (Dibujo: Laura Astorga)"},{"index":11,"size":41,"text":"Es el año 2050. Está en curso una nueva era que se caracteriza por: 1) Alta capacidad institucional del Estado, 2) Mercado participativo regulado, 3) Distribución de la riqueza equitativa, impulsada por el Estado, y 4) Alta disponibilidad de recursos hídricos."},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"En el aspecto de educación, Centroamérica ocupa un lugar alto a nivel mundial. El sistema de educación es participativo e inclusivo, apoyado por el gobierno, el sector privado, las comunidades, y la familia."},{"index":13,"size":38,"text":"El modelo educativo incluye los conocimientos y saberes ancestrales. Los valores principales son el trabajo y la cooperación, como generadores de bienestar humano, a partir de la sostenibilidad económica, social y ambiental y el desarrollo de capacidades adaptativas."},{"index":14,"size":37,"text":"Existe libre movilidad de gente y productos entre los países de la región, puesto que se ha logrado un nivel alto de integración. Los emigrantes centroamericanos regresan y la región es atractiva para migrantes de otros países."},{"index":15,"size":42,"text":"La economía se ha diversificado en función del bienestar común; se basa en la agricultura, la industria, los servicios, el turismo y el comercio. Hay una inclusión fuerte de pequeños productores. El presupuesto para gestión está libre de fuentes extranjeras de financiamiento."},{"index":16,"size":47,"text":"Esas condiciones han ayudado a que se consolide una Agencia de Cooperación Centroamericana. El gobierno tiene presencia en el nivel local, con lo que la descentralización es fuerte y se complementa con una participación alta de distintos actores de la sociedad, con agendas propias y bien sustentadas."},{"index":17,"size":30,"text":"Aunque el nivel de vida alcanzado representó nuevos retos, como cambios en los patrones de consumo y los desechos resultantes, se ha logrado manejar las cuencas hidrológicas de manera integral."},{"index":18,"size":43,"text":"Se han adoptado tecnologías alternativas y renovables en los sectores energéticos, transporte e industria. La sociedad valora y resguarda los servicios ecosistémicos, por lo que se cuentan con sistemas de manejo adecuado de los recursos naturales y protección de áreas de alta biodiversidad."},{"index":19,"size":73,"text":"Aunque el crimen cambió radicalmente, aún es existente y toma formas diferentes (narcotráfico, trata de personas), por lo que continúa siendo un desafío. Dado el avance que ha alcanzado la región, apoyado por la disponibilidad alta de recursos hídricos, y la baja disponibilidad en otras regiones, se presenta una presión externa por los recursos. El tamaño de la población ha aumentado, lo cual provoca, entre otros problemas, altos niveles de contaminación del agua."}]},{"head":"año 2035","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Muchos de los cambios acaecidos en la década del 20 trajeron modificaciones profundas en el esquema educativo, caracterizado por una reforma que se alinea a nivel regional y la consolidación de una articulación de la educación pública, privada y comunitaria, enfocada en atender las necesidades y aspiraciones de la sociedad."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Los países centroamericanos materializan sus reformas estructurales (educación, salud, hacienda, energía y trabajo) además el marco regulatorio, que sustenta una buena gobernabilidad, está en su etapa final de implementación."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Se ha superado la visión de planificación de corto plazo, de planes de gobierno, a verdaderos planes de desarrollo a mediano y largo plazo."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Los gobiernos locales tienen ahora un rol protagónico más activo y las organizaciones locales tienen un papel fundamental e incidencia política en la toma de decisiones a diferentes niveles."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Las condiciones de integración regional, fortalecimiento de la institucionalidad nacional y local ha generado las condiciones óptimas para que se implementen articuladamente acciones y procesos estatales y privados para mejorar las condiciones de vida."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"Se fortalecen mecanismos regionales de resiliencia (elasticidad), ante choques socio-económicos y legislación migratoria. Los avances en esta década, han llevado a un nivel de insatisfacción de menos de un 10% de los ciudadanos y ciudadanas, con respecto a la satisfacción sus necesidades materiales y espirituales."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"Mejoras en la situación económica, mayor poder adquisitivo y mejores índices de salud, han llevado a un aumento en el consumo y por consiguiente en la generación de desechos. La educación se ha anticipado a esto sin embargo, aún se requieren esfuerzos."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"La cobertura forestal de la región presenta una alta recuperación y su impacto se empieza a sentir en la disponibilidad de recurso hídrico. Se inician reducciones menores en los niveles de degradación de suelos asociada a la implementación de prácticas de manejo."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Mayor recuperación de suelos, el crecimiento urbano se hace más estructurado."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"En algunos territorios líderes (regiones piloto), se han establecido exitosamente mecanismos de compensación social y ambiental."},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":"Los mercados en este periodo presentan alta diversidad, con una participación ordenada dirigida a la soberanía alimentaria y se reconoce, por parte de la sociedad, la importancia del trabajo y de esa diversidad. Mediante un pacto regional estos mercados están siendo regulados."},{"index":12,"size":39,"text":"El Estado ha dirigido grandes esfuerzos para fortalecer las capacidades organizativas, técnicas y financieras para la promoción de emprendimientos. En esta misma línea algunos sectores líderes de la economía solidaria impulsan avances en su aporte para construir mercados participativos."},{"index":13,"size":19,"text":"La política de diversidad económica genera inseguridad e inestabilidad en algunos sectores socioeconómicos que aún se resisten al cambio."},{"index":14,"size":47,"text":"Muchos de los conflictos de la década anterior se han superado, sin embargo, empiezan a surgir algunos problemas, vinculados principalmente al acceso al agua. Atendiendo esta situación, se ha generado procesos integrados de manejo de cuencas, cuyo alcance al 2035 se podría estimar con un alcance intermedio."},{"index":15,"size":22,"text":"Nuevas políticas para manejo sostenible de recursos naturales, han sido establecidas y se da un seguimiento adecuado a sus indicadores de implementación."},{"index":16,"size":25,"text":"Del mismo modo, los índices de violencia, inseguridad y narcotráfico han disminuido considerablemente, aunque empiezan a aparecer algunos nuevos problemas vinculados principalmente con delincuencia tecnológica."},{"index":17,"size":30,"text":"En el año 2020, se empiezan a implementar políticas y estrategias nacionales y regionales. Un elemento esencial fue controlar la corrupción, estableciendo mayores controles y mecanismos de rendición de cuentas."},{"index":18,"size":57,"text":"Entre los factores que favorecieron el cambio, están el surgimiento de nuevos esquemas y liderazgos políticos, la recuperación y uso de sistemas de conocimientos ancestrales, la superación de los rezagos de los conflictos armados, se trabaja para superar los esquemas de cooperación internacional asistencialista y se establecieron alianzas y coaliciones y esquemas de asociatividad con agendas compartidas."},{"index":19,"size":25,"text":"Se establecen y consolidan programas de educación integral, que incluyen políticas públicas, privadas y comunitarias. Las organizaciones locales inician las auditorías sociales de funcionarios públicos."},{"index":20,"size":54,"text":"Los entes regionales como el Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (SICA), retoman la Estrategia Regional Agroambiental y de Salud (ERAS) de los Ministerios de Agricultura, Ambiente y Salud, con mayor incidencia en materia de política económica y ambiental. Se da un aumento en la inversión de planes a largo plazo, pero es insuficiente aún."},{"index":21,"size":32,"text":"Los esquemas de inversión extranjera, han evolucionado hacia una mayor asociatividad económica debido a una fuerte negociación y acuerdos en los términos de intercambio de bienes y servicios en los mercados extranjeros."},{"index":22,"size":103,"text":"Se evidencia resistencia de algunos grupos y actores ante los cambios. Dadas las medidas y cambios alcanzados, se genera un clima de confianza y la región empieza a ser atractiva para una mayor inversión interna y externa. La economía de la región se basa principalmente en servicios y maquila, y el capital chino es el motor económico de la región. El mercado no está regulado, actuando múltiples actores de distinto tamaños. Se observa una reducción del gobierno y existe el riesgo que las democracias de la región, colapsen por el crecimiento de grupos de poder y por el descontento de los grupos marginados."}]},{"head":"'libertarios sin libertad'","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"La brecha entre ricos y pobres se incrementa, afianzando el poder político de la clase económica dominante. Hay nuevos ricos, debido a la expansión de ciertos productos agrícolas, resultantes de la demanda mundial."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Las comunidades están organizadas alrededor de procesos productivos y su enfoque pasa de ser propositivo a confrontativo. Los grupos indígenas, especialmente de Guatemala, son proveedores importantes de mercados alimenticios de la región. Se observa una redistribución de la población de la región norte de Centroamérica hacia el sur. La población vive principalmente en ciudades poco planificadas y con fuertes limitantes de agua potable, lo que incrementa las enfermedades en la población y también se observa un incremento de la migración hacia afuera de las regiones secas."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"El acceso a la tecnología, continúa limitado para grupos vulnerables que sufren de escasez de alimentos y mantienen altos niveles de desnutrición. La escasez de agua para uso agrícola se agudiza, afectando principalmente a los agricultores pobres y aumentando las disputas por este recurso. Las áreas protegidas de la región, contienen las últimas reservas de agua limpia y de biodiversidad y se observa la extinción de especies claves en otras regiones."}]},{"head":"año 2030","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Los esfuerzos de integración política llegan a su fin, aunque prevalece una integración por factores comerciales. El comercio con China crece rápidamente. Los productores de subsistencia se ven cada vez más marginados. Los pueblos indígenas pierden el acceso y control de sus tierras y recursos, especialmente en las tierras bajas del Atlántico."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Las organizaciones sociales, se debilitan en sus demandas por participación en las políticas. La corrupción agobia a los gobiernos y ocurre una compactación y debilitamiento de las instituciones estatales. Se legalizan las drogas."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"El avance de la frontera agrícola, termina con las últimas áreas naturales no protegidas. A pesar de que hay mejores tecnologías para el uso del agua, el acceso a las mismas es limitado."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Se observa un incremento de consumo de agua, especialmente en el sector agrícola. La contaminación por el uso de agroquímicos, también reduce la disponibilidad de agua, lo que se agudiza particularmente en el Corredor Seco. Se incrementa el uso de variedades genéticamente modificadas resistentes a la sequía."}]},{"head":"año 2020","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Los Tratados de Libre Comercio abren el comercio de la región a las potencias mundiales, pero se profundiza la reducción de los recursos de cooperación internacional."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Continúan los esfuerzos de integración política a nivel de la región. Los mercados demandan productos de mayor valor agregado. La educación pública continúa influenciada por los grupos de poder económico."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Los conflictos sociales continúan por el incremento de actividades extractivas. La limitada capacidad de producir alimentos, favorece el consumo de productos importados, debilitando la soberanía alimentaria."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Continúa el crecimiento poblacional, especialmente en edad activa, agudizando el desempleo y la concentración de población en las ciudades. La migración hacia los Estados Unidos, España, y otros destinos, se repunta."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Se observa un incremento del uso de aguas subterráneas y de agroquímicos por la agroindustria y se agudiza la disputa por el uso de los recursos naturales, prevaleciendo el concepto del interés de la mayoría sobre las minorías desprotegidas y el desarrollo económico, sobre la protección de la naturaleza."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Continúa el avance de la frontera agrícola, afectando la Biodiversidad."}]},{"head":"Situación actual","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"En la región centroamericana, se observa un crecimiento de la inversión extranjera por las empresas transnacionales. La riqueza está concentrada y deja amplios sectores de población en la pobreza. La privatización afecta, tanto a las empresas, como a las fuentes de financiamiento estatales. La población crece a una tasa significativa y hay procesos de migración externa e interna, por situaciones de violencia y necesidades económicas, entre otras."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"La incidencia política de las organizaciones sociales, se ve limitada por la dinámica de inversión y mercado prevalente en la sociedad. Hay una creciente ingobernabilidad, resultante de la presencia del narcotráfico y delincuencia organizada."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"La seguridad alimentaria se mantiene débil y se observa un incremento de tierras destinadas a la producción de biocombustibles. A pesar de que hay buenas disponibilidades de recursos hídricos, se observa un uso poco racional del mismo. En algunas regiones, como el llamado Corredor Seco, se observa baja disponibilidad de agua en época seca. Esta disponibilidad se ve reducida por la contaminación y la deforestación resultante del avance de la frontera agrícola, lo que también resulta en una pérdida de biodiversidad."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"el nuevo colapso Maya Los monopolios son la norma. La economía es dominada por intereses grandes. Las multinacionales capturan el poder. China ha invertido fuertemente en la región y tiene mucha influencia. La corrupción domina y la economía es caracterizada por muchas acciones ilegales como la piratería. Los ecosistemas han colapsado, debido a la falta de capacidad del Estado de planear a largo plazo y la incapacidad de enfrentar los grandes intereses, que se beneficiaban del uso no sostenible de los recursos naturales. El acceso al recurso hídrico es ineficiente e injusto y es caracterizado por la escasez de agua, y la alta contaminación del agua disponible."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Esto significa que hay menos agua potable. Hay conflictos por acceso y uso de recursos y servicios. Estos conflictos llevaron a la fragmentación a nivel nacional y regional. Desaparece el SICA. El acceso a servicios y recursos es altamente limitado y segregado debido a la desigualdad en la sociedad."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"Los ricos tienen supermercados con todos los productos; los demás sufren de inseguridad alimentaria. La educación es caracterizada por una brecha entre la educación pública y privada, con enfoque de la privada a los ricos y la pública de menor calidad al resto del pueblo. El bajo nivel de educación en 2050 llevó a un bajo nivel de productividad en la región."}]},{"head":"año 2035","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"El Estado sigue funcionando, pero ya se ve que ha sido capturado más por poderes económicos. El conflicto en la sociedad aumenta, y la polarización de la sociedad está muy marcada."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"La corrupción y colusión ha aumentado fuertemente. La influencia de China es muy fuerte en el lugar, y se enseña el mandarín en Managua. El mal manejo de las economías por el Estado, lleva a un aumento de la calificación de riesgo del país y disminuye el acceso a recursos financieros internacionales (S&P y Moody's)."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"El mal manejo de los recursos hídricos se ve plenamente y el conflicto sobre el agua aumenta fuertemente. La productividad de agricultura disminuye, debido a la escasez de agua, y la región necesita importar más sus alimentos."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Esto ya se encamina a un proceso en que los ecosistemas comienzan a colapsar, y esto impulsa aún más movimiento de personas dentro de la región. Hay aún más conflictos sobre acceso a agua y tierra. Los países en la región cierran sus fronteras, y comienza a ver estados más militarizados para controlar el movimiento de personas. Consulados cerrados y las organizaciones sociales son más belicosas."}]},{"head":"año 2020","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Se evidencia una situación parecida a la actual, donde se ve algo de crecimiento económico, y mejoras en lo social gracias a inversiones que ya se han hecho en los últimos años. Sin embargo, se caracteriza por gobiernos e instituciones con visión de corto plazo, y no se llevan a cabo inversiones necesarias en investigaciones científicas, educación, y tecnología para preparar las sociedades para el futuro."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"La población es creciente y esto comienza a crear conflicto para acceso a recursos y tierras. Organizaciones locales se forman alrededor de temas de recursos, pero con tendencias a buscar la colaboración. China está invirtiendo bastante en la región y su influencia está creciendo."}]},{"head":"PRoPUeSTaS de SeGUiMienTo PoR PaÍS y ReGiÓn cenTRoaMeRicana","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"En las distintas regiones en que CCAFS ha implementado este proceso los escenarios han sido usados para la revisión y adaptación de políticas de cambio climático; planes estratégicos de instituciones públicas y privadas; la definición de necesidades de investigación e inversión, entre otros."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"A continuación se detallan las propuestas identificadas por los participantes del taller para el uso de los escenarios socioeconómicos en la región y a nivel de país."}]},{"head":"Honduras","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"1. Adaptar escenario regional a Honduras 2. Formación en metodología para poder replicarlo con diferentes sectores."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"3. Usar escenario para probar resiliencia del Plan de Acción y Visión de País (hasta 2038) y la Estrategia de Cambio Climático."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"4. Estos escenarios pueden servir como insumo y orientador de los escenarios que se generan en el informe de Estado de Ambiente (GEO) de PNUMA. En Honduras liderado por la Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente (SERNA) (Ing Pablo Flores UPEG/SERNA) 5. Sistematizar la experiencia del café dentro de la pequeña producción."}]},{"head":"contactos:","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Irene Ortega. Direccion Nacional de Cambio Climatico (DNCC/SERNA) 2. Integración y coordinación del proceso de construcción de escenarios con otros organismos presentes en la región."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"3. Realizar el ejercicio a escala local (Costa Rica) para mejor capacitación en el manejo de la metodología."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"4. Para la formulación de políticas públicas y para el diseño de instrumentos para la aplicación de esas políticas."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"5. Es necesario la creación de un sistema de información, que sustente la base datos, que alimentan objetivamente la formulación de políticas."}]},{"head":"contactos:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"• Roberto Flores. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería • Yerania Sanchez. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) centroamerica 1. CCAD: Usar los escenarios para elaborar planes de acción para estrategias regionales como la Estrategia Regional Agro-ambientral y de Salud (ERAS), la Estrategia Regional de Cambio Climático (ERCC) y el Programa Estratégico Regional para el Manejo de los Ecosistemas Forestales (Perfor)."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"2. CCAD: Usar los escenarios para el desarrollo del nuevo Plan Regional Ambiental Centroamericano en 2014."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"3. Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN): Usar la herramienta para planificación en zonas transfronterizas para la gestión integral de cuencas binacionales 4. UICN: Resultados sistematizados de los escenarios pueden ser una herramienta de incidencia para mejorar gestión de agua en Centroamérica."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"5. Política para la pequeña producción agropecuaria que incluya diversificación economía de patio y micro riego. Fortalecer la producción rápida para responder en situaciones de emergencia en eventos rápidos."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"6. En el caso de la Asociación Coordinadora Indígena y Campesina de Agroforestería Comunitaria de Centroamérica (Acicafoc), capacitar y actualizar a líderes de cambio, dirigentes en hacia la dinámica de escenarios futuros de la región."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"7. Intercambio de conocimientos donde se han desarrollado escenarios socioeconómicos por territorio. Hacer ejercicios por territorio."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"8. Elaborar planes de incidencia política territorial a partir de la dinámica de territorios 9. Abordar los desafíos de los escenarios socioeconómicos con enfoque de seguridad alimentaria y seguridad nutricional o sea calidad de comida."}]},{"head":"contactos:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Marta Perez. Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (IUCN)"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Nelson Trejo. Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo (CCAD)"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Alberto Chinchilla. Asociación Coordinadora Indígena y Campesina de Agroforestería Comunitaria (Acicafoc)"}]},{"head":"ReFlexiÓn SobRe la caPacidad de adaPTaciÓn al caMbio cliMáTico de loS eScenaRioS","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"El ejercicio de construcción de escenarios de este taller se enfoca estrictamente a elementos socioeconómicos y no a factores climáticos. Esto justamente porque permite crear un escenario en la cual se puede probar la resiliencia de políticas dirigidas a la mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático. El cruce de los escenarios socioeconómicos cuantificados con escenarios de cambio climático se lleva a cabo de manera posterior al taller. Sin embargo, para poder imaginarse la combinación de estos factores (climáticos y socioeconómicos) cada grupo hizo un pequeño ejercicio en que debatieron sobre el posible impacto de cambios en el clima y la capacidad de respuesta y adaptación en cada escenario. También analizaron la cantidad de emisiones de dióxido de carbono durante el transcurso de cada escenario."}]},{"head":"'apiñados'","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"En este escenario, la capacidad de la sociedad para adaptarse al cambio climático es muy crítica. Sobre todo porque hay riesgos y amenazas extremadamente altos. La economía es muy vulnerable por ser tan especializada. Los efectos de cambio climatico serían catastróficos, desesperantes y detonantes. Durante el escenario la vulnerabilidad es creciente. En relación a su capacidad de respuesta, se recomienda trabajar en el desarrollo de tecnología resiliente y trabajar con territorios que se adaptan. La seguridad alimentaria es un tema vulnerable porque la agricultura se concentra en la exportación."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"'14 baktun: el inicio de la profecía Maya'"},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Inicialmente, se verá una disminución de la capacidad adaptativa, debido a la crisis económica prevista en el escenario. Después, observamos una alta vulnerabilidad debido a los impactos geográficamente diversos de cambio climático y los variados niveles de capacidad adaptativa en la sociedad, particularmente durante el periodo menos equitativo entre 2014 y 2030."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Se busca aumentar la capacidad adaptativa durante este periodo. Debido a la gran cantidad y disponibilidad de agua el mayor riesgo será de inundaciones y eventos extremos, no tanto en sequías. La diversificación de la economía (en que vemos menos manos de obra en el sector agrícola, por ejemplo) también ayudará en aumentar la capacidad adaptativa. El énfasis en educación en el escenario, también contribuirá a la capacidad adaptativa en términos generales."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"En relación a las emisiones durante este escenario; inicialmente se verá un aumento en emisiones debido a la crisis económica y el asociado uso de tecnologías de altas emisiones. Se verá un cambio en los patrones de consumo positivo en la región. Sera un aumento en el desarrollo amigable. Aunque se prevén altos niveles de inmigración eso no va a afectar las emisiones negativamente, dado a la 'cultura' de bajas emisiones que caracteriza esta última fase del escenario."}]},{"head":"'el nuevo colapso maya'","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"En este escenario, la region puede hacer intentos de adaptación, pero los cambios son demasiados para que respondan a la sociedad en este escenario. Hay algo más de capacidad de adaptación de la sociedad al comienzo, y los cambios no serán tan bruscos, pero posteriormente la combinación empeora y las condiciones climáticas y sociales son peores."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Las emisiones están subiendo durante todo el escenario. Las emisiones de la región son diminutas en comparación a las emisiones globales. Ya que las emisiones se quedan en la atmósfera por muchos años (ciclo de carbono), no se puede esperar que se reduzca la concentración de carbono en la atmósfera. La sociedad en este escenario, no está enfocada en una visión de largo plazo, que permitiría adaptarse a las políticas de mitigación o adaptación."}]},{"head":"'libertarios sin libertad'","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"La vulnerabilidad de la sociedad en este escenario se evidencia en la capacidad de ahorro, el consumo local, el ejercicio de poder desmedido; el conflicto entre grupos de poder locales y la falta de alianzas con otros bloques de poder. También se prevé la desestructuración de las alianzas regionales por presión de alimentos para los estados. De ocurrir situaciones extremas, el escenario propuesto es inviable. Por otro lado, la sociedad tendrá una difícil capacidad de reacción ante crisis alimentarias globales por la baja capacidad económica de los estados."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Se observa una oportunidad en la adaptación de nuevos cultivos de alto valor y estratégicos para la seguridad alimentaria."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" • Deissy Martínez Barón, Oficial Científico Universidad de Cooperación Internacional (UCI) • Eduard Müller, Marieke Veeger, Lenin Corrales, Danilo Saravia COLABORADORES • Carlos Brenes (Consultor), Marieke Veeger (UCI), Danilo Saravia (UCI) • Fotografías: Elizabeth van de Grift, Neil Palmer (CIAT) • Diseño y Diagramación: José L. Urrea (CCAFS) Programa ccaFS américa latina Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Km. 17 Recta Cali-Palmira -Palmira, Colombia www.ccafs.cgiar.org/es Socio estratégico CCAFS es liderado por inTRodUcciÓn "},{"text":"Figura 1 . Figura 1. Ejemplo de un conjunto de estados de factores: Mercados participativos, no regulados. Capacidad institucional del estado desigual. Alta disponibilidad de recursos hídricos. Distribucion de la riqueza inequitativa, impulsado por el estado. (Dibujo: Laura Astorga)deSaRRollo de eScenaRioS SocioeconÓMicoSCada grupo inicia con el desarrollo del escenario con una descripción de la región en el año 2050. Una vez configurado el escenario 2050, proceden retrospectivamente a caracterizar e identificar los escenarios en 2035 y 2020, para describir qué cambios o situaciones se produjeron en cada período, que dieron como resultado la situación para que se configurara el escenario 2050. El grupo escoge un nombre atractivo y sugestivo para el escenario. "},{"text":"Figura 2 : Figura 2: Ilustración del escenario 'Apiñados'. (Dibujo: Laura Astorga) "},{"text":"Figura 4 : Figura 4: Ilustración del escenario 'Libertarios sin libertad' (Dibujo: Laura Astorga) año 2050 "},{"text":"Figura 5 : Figura 5: Ilustración del escenario 'El nuevo colapso Maya' (Dibujo: Laura Astorga) año 2050 "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"fbf8d319-69e1-4340-b5de-58dcb8db2f4b","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0623d205967abe26fe98eacfe4deb8fd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2db52ea2-fe61-4ffb-beac-024ac16320e9/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Gone, fishing We really should be going fishing no more. Not unless there are political and economic changes as deep as any ocean","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"W","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"e had done well to heed the advice of Mamadou, to wrap up against the chilly Mauritanian night and the bumps of his boat. \"You'll be sore long before dawn,\" he had winked, \"stay alert by counting my catch, on the fingers of one hand if it's like it was last week.\""},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"In the distance, west-north-west, under the fleeting light of a moon, lights jerk and bob and swing like dancers grouped above the waves. The whish of the wind is broken by an occasional barked comment in the dark, or a fisherman chatting into a mobile phone. Mamadou's solemn face is almost golden from his lantern, except when he turns on his hand-held computer. Then it beams the image, a ghost-like grey, of a satellite-guided map -as if he didn't know his exact position anyway, some 10 km offshore, above sandbanks washed by the high tide."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"We peer to the west, deep into the dark. See them or not, hear them or not, there lie the fleets of factory boats, busy vacu-uming the ocean deep -sucking out every atom of life from the sea, as if it was dust, and as if there is no tomorrow."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"There is, to be sure, no tomorrow in a world which treats its open seas, and all that lives there, as rapaciously as a horde of looters raiding a shopping centre after a fire. The results of this 'overfishing' are clear."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"For a local fishing community, such as the Mauritanian fisherfolk, it is the loss of catches today that will affect their tomorrow, since the intricate ecosystem of the ocean that allows many species to spawn will have been severely disturbed. That sets off an ugly spiral of sagging incomes, no investment, erosion of local livelihoods, impact on culture and worse. For fisherfolk 7,000 km away, off the white sands of the Tanzanian and Mozambican coasts, the impact of foreign trawlers at sea is compounded by the development of coastal tourist facilities which impede access to inshore fishing grounds. Continue south-east another 1,000 km or so, to Website: spore.cta.int"}]},{"head":"Information for agricultural development in ACP countries","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Number 106 AUGUST 2003","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"In this issue Is it just our imagination, or are the challenges we all face indeed getting bigger? There's much to digest, and to act upon, in this issue. Our main article is clear: it's time for overfishing to be over. The feature on HIV/AIDS shows that immeasurable change is in store for those of us who will survive The Pandemic. And we return to genetic modification to reflect upon the dilemmas of fear and promise, and their incompatibility. Smaller challenges people our pages too: forests, fair trade, food standards, and innovations and awards in gender, agriculture and the Information Society. A good bag of books, and a feisty call to quality in a reader's Viewpoint, plus the low-down on CTA's advisory body and new gender strategy. And our new satellite broadcast schedule. With Spore now available in so many ways, there's no escaping the obvious any more. That, as Spore people, we are up to even the greatest challenges."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"the coasts of Madagascar -there industrial-scale prawn farms have dislodged both local fisherfolk and the mangroves so cherished as the breeding ground of aquatic biodiversity."}]},{"head":"Catch your customer","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Why are the coastal waters off Namibia, Mauritania and Senegal -some of the most fertile fishing grounds in the world -so full of foreign fishing boats: from China, Japan, the ex-Soviet Union and, in great numbers, the European Union? Why do EU boats negotiate fishing rights around the vulnerable island of Kiribati, literally on the other side of the world (see Spore 101)?"},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"The answer lies in part in the marine flesh piled high in the worlds' fish markets, such as the raw and raucous fish halls of Tokyo in Japan, or Madrid in Spain. As any fish trader there will tell you with myopic passion, there is a demand to be met, even if fish prices in the shops are soaring as fast as nets being hauled to the surface. The answer lies too in the chained-up trawlers on Canada's northeastern coast, or on the almost deserted fish quay of North Shields in north-eastern England. Once, North Shields was home to 122 fishing boats, which played their part in depleting the North Sea of the cod and herring so much a part of European culture. No more. In mid-June 2003, a local skipper told Spore that the quay was \"on the brink of decimation\", with the three remaining boats having too few permits to chase too few fish. The hunt for more fish is getting harder."}]},{"head":"Less for locals","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"To fish is to hunt, and there is not much wrong with that. Man is a hunter, after all. Professor Stella Williams of Obafemi Awolowo University in Nigeria calls fishing \"an ancient human tradition, involving the hunting and gathering of aquatic products for food\", though she forcefully emphasises the role of women in inshore fishing, and in processing and marketing. \"The tradition of fishing has been transformed over several decades to become a resource extraction industry spanning the entire globe. Nature's limits of aquatic life have been breached by too many fishing craft catching too many fish.\""},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"One simple sum brings her point home: more than 60% of fish products consumed in the EU come from outside EU waters, and yet 70% of fish stocks worldwide, said the FAO in 2000, can be considered as fully or over-exploited. The result: less for locals, themselves prone to overfishing. According to FAO, over the past 30 years the availability of fish per capita in Africa as a whole has declined, and in countries such as Ghana and Liberia the average diet contained less fish protein in the 1990s than it did during the 1970s, when it accounted for about 20% of the animalprotein intake. For nine African countries, fishing contributed more than 5% of Gross Domestic Product in 2000. In the Caribbean and Pacific, similar levels existbut all countries are vulnerable. Yet look at the development plans of most of the 63 ACP States with coastal fisheries, from trade to livelihood to nutrition, and there is always an assumption of increased and improved fisheries."}]},{"head":"It's a management problem","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Just as men and women on land soon caught on to the benefits of stewarding the resources they would hunt and gatheragriculture, in a word -then so it must be when they visit the sea. An EU fisheries spokesman recently defended its fishing policies: \"Fishing in third countries is not unethical, the point is to make sure it is done in a proper way.\" One attempt is contained in the Fisheries Partnership Agreements which transform bilateral deals from the earlier 'pay, fish and go' access agreements that allowed about 500 EU boats to fish in ACP waters into joint investment in sustainable fisheries. This is a sea change indeed; no wonder that the talk at the April 2003 co-seminar of the Commonwealth Secretariat and CTA in Brussels, Belgium on ACP-EU fisheries relations was full of words like \"challenges\" and \"broadening mutual interests\". When the cake has to shrink, who wants to slice it?"},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"What shines through the mists of mistrust are two, irreconcilable attitudes. One is the dogma of EU fishery interests: accepting a repackaging, but not a restructuring, of their apparent right to fish anyone's fish. At play here are consumer interests, electoral concerns about job losses in European ports and some very wellplaced, and somewhat cavalier, vested interests. Against them stands the more reasonable approach, often spawned in civil society, to re-engineer a sector that has over-extended itself."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"For the former, it is the blunt negotiation of 'how much can we get?'. For the latter, the issues are more subtle. How to redirect the massive EU subsidies from EU fleets and their low quayside prices, to the overriding need for proper management -not so much of marine resources, but of the way people deal with them: methods, measurements, catch periods, monitoring and policing, capacity building, local processing, quotas for local markets, regulatory mechanisms, and even fair fishing? How to mesh redirected subsidies with the World Trade Organization's intolerance of any at all? Management, too, of the process of including small fishing communities in the development of coastal aquaculture and marine farming, as opposed to simply more responsible marine hunting."}]},{"head":"Give fish a chance","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"At the macro-level, in Europe, North America and North-east Asia, there is frantic but focused lobbying of the donor communities to redirect their resources to empower local communities in the management of their fisheries in Africa, the Caribbean and Asia and the Pacific. And at the micro-level, there are heartening examples of exchanges between fisherfolk of the Caribbean and West Africa, or the Indian state of Kerala and East Africa, swapping experiences in catch management, cooperative organisation and processing. Many solutions lie in such local initiatives, but the real problem -fishing fleets from afar -lurks out on the horizon. It is on that horizon that change has to come."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Every culture has its fishing songs. From the quay of North Shields in England, comes this one, but it could be from anywhere: \"Dance to your daddy, my little laddie; dance to your daddy, my little man; you shall have a fishy on a little dishy; you shall have a fishy when the boat come in.\" In terms of ACP-EU fisheries relations, the question is not only whose boat it will be that comes in or if there will be a fishy aboard, but also if there are any little laddies (and lasses) still there when it does."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Up to one hundred million people in sub-Saharan Africa will have died before The Pandemic is over\" is how Stephen Lewis, Special Envoy of the UN Secretary-General for HIV/AIDS in Africa, put it at a special meeting on 'Diseases without Borders', during the annual Conference of Montreal (Canada) early in May 2003. Talking to Spore before his speech, rehearsing awhile, he promised to pay at least \"a nod to agriculture\". It was to be more of a knock than a nod: he put agriculture at the top of the list of sectors most affected by HIV/AIDS -above education, above health."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"An epidemic has become 'The Pandemic' -meaning a disease affecting all (Greek: pan) people (demos) in large region(s). In 2 short years, the language of those who normally err on the side of caution -diplomats and doctors -has become dramatic, almost desperate."}]},{"head":"Life ends at 40, again","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In just a dozen years, the time it takes for a fortunate child to complete school, from 1998 to 2010, the average life expectancy of a person in Botswana will have fallen from the once-predicted 66 years to 35 years, according to UNAIDS, the UN's joint agency programme. In Haiti, by 2005 it will have fallen by 6 years; in Burkina Faso by 8, Mozambique 11."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Between 1985 and 2001, FAO estimates that in the 27 most affected African countries, 7 million agricultural workers died from AIDS."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"The impact is well known and already scary enough: remote fields abandoned, nearby fields over-used and under-maintained; switches to crops requiring less labour, with the loss of variety in diets and of income; neglect, or selling off, of livestock; breakdown of extension and support services; diversion of scarce funds and credit to medical care, funerals and food, with subsequent defaults on loans and sales of assets -though rarely sales of land."}]},{"head":"Impact assessed: hurt","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"In a detailed study by FAO of the Bondo and Busia districts of Kenya, the number of married households fell from the already AIDS-scarred level of 80% of all households in 1992 to 60% in 2002. Female-headed households (FHHs) rose from 17% to 30%, and orphan-headed households (OHHs), learning parenting with no parents, from 3% to 10%. Most FHHs had access, through hire and loans, to draught animals; while 90% of grandparentheaded and 100% of OHHs had only hand-power. Half of them had a hoe, but did any have a future?"},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"That was yesterday, and yesterday has gone. Today is tougher. Take this report, mid-May 2003, from the Southern African Development Community: \"Even where the maize harvest is quite good, the fact that we have such high HIV infection rates requires more livelihood support interventions. Good cereal production may not be enough to sustain people as it would 10 years ago.\""},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Tomorrow will be different. The FAO predicts 16 million more deaths of agricultural workers by 2020. One in 4 workers in Namibia; 1 in 5 in South Africa; 1 in 6 in Kenya; 1 in 7 in Malawi; 1 in 8 in the Central African Republic. A different tomorrow indeed."}]},{"head":"Mitigate we must","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The response of families, villages and regional structures is, and shall no doubt remain, massive, with millions of cases of solidarity and coping. The single example of the Livingstone Widows Association in Zambia is moving enough, where a group of widows set up a micro-savings and credit scheme to help their home gardens flourish and to generate more income. Such innovative spirit, and changes to the rules, are sorely needed in institutional approaches, as in the case of CARE-Zambia which, itself affected by personnel losses, has restructured its medical and agricultural extension work, in effect providing an AIDS response to its farming operations."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Elsewhere, typical of the openness now present in donor bodies, Germany's technical cooperation agency GTZ encourages all projects to build AIDS-response components into their budgets. The key areas for attention are: to reorganise extension and credit; to re-design agricultural equipment; to empower affected communities to diversify production; and to ensure that local knowledge is recorded and passed from generation to fast-changing generation. All with more focus on women, youth and the elderly."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"It requires inspiration -perhaps more than can come from simply facing adversity -and resources. Much of both is coming, from the 'impact mitigation' to which the Member States at a special session of the UN General Assembly committed themselves in 2001 alongside prevention, care and treatment. The resources are on their way, enhanced by the decisions in May and early June 2003 of the United States and the European Union to drastically increase the funds -and medicinesavailable for developing countries."}]},{"head":"Adjustment to The Pandemic","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"While it is on the farm that much direct impact is being felt, and while it is the poor who are most vulnerable to infection and lack of care, and while it is their coping strategies that have to be replicated, we are all directly affected -we all have a new task. We have to learn to manage our societies where, in the course of three decades, we shall have lost, day by tragic day, up to one in five of our farmers, millers, marketers, teachers, scholars, doctors, planners, ministers, editors, bankers, poets, friends and neighbours. Interdependency has never been more visible."},{"index":2,"size":196,"text":"It took a while, in the 1990s, for governments to realise the complexity of the issue, but they did so. Anna Abdallah, Minister for Health of Tanzania, told Spore. \"It's not just an issue for Healthevery Ministry has to be involved and have its approach.\" And now, already badly bruised, and much further along this hurting road, we must create a new form of structural adjustment, adjustment to The Pandemic. The debate still rumbles on, as does science, and the need for cool clarity on GM is ever greater. The quality of the debate has, with a few notable exceptions, not improved over the past 3 years. Activists still rip up GM crops planted in trial plots. The plant sciences industry still make radical analyses of the world food situation, and Northern lobby NGOs still respond half-heartedly to industry's invitations to dialogue. Some producer NGOs plough themselves deeper into a corner with their obsessive faith that GMfree, organic agriculture can feed the world. Governments, once the last bastion of steadfastness, allow themselves to get blown this way and that by the lobby of the day or by 'the international community', depending on which country they head."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Meanwhile, the questions of many farmers and researchers in ACP and other developing countries pile up, unanswered, as to when they can take a sane decision themselves about the issue."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"To modify is to change Genetic modification is, for starters, the preferred term for the process of improving an organism -such as increasing the drought tolerance of a plant or improving its protection against predator insects -by adding a gene from within the same species, or between species (transgenic engineering). Terms best avoided are 'genetic manipulation' with its connotations of evil scientists up to no good, and 'genetic enhancement', surely the creation of a public relations company. And GM is but one part of modern biotechnology (see Spore 105), with other thrusts including tissue culture, commercial plant breeding through micro-propagation and cloning."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"The potential benefits of GM for farmers in developing countries include improved yields through greater insect and disease resistance and weed control, improved quality of soil nutrients and increased productivity and profitability. In South Africa, one of the few ACP countries to have advanced in the GM field, smallholder and emerging farmers have quickly taken up GM cotton, although environmentalists have questioned the economic viability, and environmental impact, of their enthusiasm. In the Makhatini flats of northern Kwazulu Natal province, these cotton farmers have increased yields by one-third, and have saved six sprays on their plants a year. Part of the extra income and saved capital has been used to increase their cultivated area from an average of 4 hectares in 1996 to 20 hectares in 2002. It is also claimed that the use of fewer inputs and the reduction of risk associated with weeds and pests will contribute to improved biodiversity"}]},{"head":"Risks yes, but poisons?","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The perceived risks are, in the field, the transfer of allergens, the introduction of new toxins, and cross-fertilisation through pollen passing from one plant to another of the same species (gene flow) or from one"}]},{"head":"Genetic modification","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Who's splitting whom?"},{"index":2,"size":291,"text":"Genetic modification (GM) is a scientific technique about which society has a right to express an opinion, in an informed way. And one which ACP farmers -and those who support and need them -have a right to know more about, on their terms, without the wrong of being told by others. • Genetic modification species to another. There is only one way to evaluate these risks: trials. First in controlled circumstances, and then in field trials to measure how much, if any, contamination there actually is. This issue unleashes an almost metaphysical debate, since any proof would come too late to halt or reverse any contamination and may have -this is the fear -consequences decades later. Some purists, passionately opposed to 'contamination', therefore wish to stop field trials, and their logic is surely crisp. In reality, trials are going ahead, as much in Africa as in Europe or Asia: in South Africa, there have been extensive field trials of drought-tolerant cotton and maize; in Kenya, the GM sweet potato is being tested in several, publicly known locations this year. On the farm, there is a strongly felt fear that the use of GM seeds will lead, ultimately, to the farmer losing control of seed production to the commercial seed producers. The latter, such as the Monsanto corporation, deservedly attracted much attention some 5 years ago for their proposed Terminator seeds, which were genetically programmed not to regenerate, thereby forcing farmers to purchase new seed stocks from the company in every planting season. This was, many scientists and farmers' organisations pointed out, anathema to the cultural practices and the cash flow of the African farmer, and the company has backtracked a long way on that approach, removing the Terminator from their discourse."}]},{"head":"The risk of nations","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"On the plate of the consumer, many health concerns have been expressed, all projecting anxieties onto the future. Are GM food really 'poisons', as Zambia's President was led to believe by foreign NGOsand stated loudly at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in August 2002? Do they carry long-term hazards? With considerable scientific caution, the International Council for Science (ICSU) has concluded that currently available GM foods are safe to eat. Their June 2003 report on 'New Genetics', evaluating 50 other reviews, states that there is no evidence of harm from consuming GM foods, and considerable direct and indirect benefits could result from growing GM foods. They stress the need, though, to review new foods on a case-by-case basis."}]},{"head":"Guidelines looking for capacity","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"The principle risk, then, on which the jury is still out is in the vexed issue of contamination. The government of Mexico, under pressure from scientists of the action group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration (ETC -formerly RAFI), conceded in May 2003 what many scientists in international agricultural research centres had concluded: that traditional strains of maize had been contaminated by GM maize during field trials. ICSU tends to lean the other way: \"Currently available evidence suggests that genes can move from GM crops into landraces and related wild species, generally at low frequency and in areas where compatible wild relatives are found. However, there is no evidence of any deleterious environmental effects having occurred from the trait/ species combinations currently available.\" Which, in turn, is challenged by other scientists who point to the emergence of herbicide-resistant weeds and the consequent need to apply more herbicides."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Already some steps have been taken to address contamination in research and field trials. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) has drawn up guidelines for GM tests, and CropLife International, the socially aware association representing the plant science industry, made public its own operating guidelines in May 2003."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Guidelines are one thing, but the greater challenge now is for ACP bodies such as farmers' organisations, the research community and the regulatory legislators to apply guidelines and draft regulations which put the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (see In Brief ) into practice. As with the technology, the instruments for wise application are also available and ready to use -the capacity to do so, however, is not yet there."}]},{"head":"Our terms, not EUrs","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"And therein lies the source of frustration which some progressive farmers, bio-technologists and GM researchers in ACP countries are starting to give voice to in no uncertain way. In research for this article, the depth of their resentment at being thwarted in experimenting widely with GM was palpable. The reason? The de facto moratorium on research and trade in GM imposed by the EU almost 5 years ago and part-lifted in July 2003 after being seriously challenged by the United States of America. By being by-and-large closed to GM products, and publicly hostile to any GM research, the EU in effect has been dictating the terms on how other countries, including ACP States, should trade with, and relate to, Europe. Seeming to dictate terms, an accusation made of most parties with strong opinions in this debate, is never warmly appreciated."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"This latest injustice results from EU steps taken under pressure from some civil society groups, whose representativity of society as a whole is increasingly questioned. It hurts all the more in the light of a Europewide public opinion survey of consumers by the MORI company in 2002, which reported that 18% would never eat GM food, 33% would prefer not to, 40% do not mind and 3% opt for it. Not exactly a clear-cut case. When Spore asked Jennifer Thompson, a South African micro-biologist conducting GM research (see Publications), how she would categorise the impact of European decisions about GM on developing countries, she had but one word for it: \"immoral\"."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Perhaps it is even more fundamental. Perhaps the fears and anxieties which the Europeans are, like it or not, projecting onto much of the rest of the world are not about scientific choices, but about the way they want to organise their society. Fine, Europe, enjoy your independent spirit, and now please let us have ours!"}]},{"head":"More research is needed","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In his Travels in the Genetically Modified Zone, Mark Winston stresses \"the need to increase research on the extent to which genes jump from GM crops to wild plants, and on how often cultivated GM crops become weeds. Both phenomena occur, but without further research, the impact of gene-jumping incidents and weedy crops on ecosystems cannot be established, and the appropriate management responses cannot be formulated.\" "}]},{"head":"Genetically organic","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The idea of blending responsible genetic modification with organic agricultural principles is gaining ground. At a conference of all stakeholders, including farmer groups, on 'Agricultural technologies and innovations: meeting needs in a globalised world' organised in Brussels in early June 2003 by CropLife International, the issue went public. Per Pinstrup-Andersen of Cornell University, and former director of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), advanced the argument that since there is nothing more organic than a gene, the two approaches -GM and organic -are thoroughly natural partners. He showed a photo of a genetically modified organic tomato, requiring no artificial or inorganic inputs."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"See also Links."}]},{"head":"Adding the gene of a shrimp to a rice plant can make it more cold-tolerant. But whose rice, whose right, whose wrong, who's right, who's wrong?","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Photo B. Favre © Louma productions"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"In brief "}]},{"head":"New heights for agroforestry","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"With its potential demonstrated, and many farmers benefiting, agroforestry is now set to expand further. The problem with fonio in the past has been the difficulty of the long and fastidious task of hulling, a real bottleneck in its processing. The new export thrust has become possible after 15 years of research by NGOs and scientific institutions to streamline the hulling process."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Fonio is a very hardy plant, often relegated to marginal soils, and with interesting culinary and nutritional values (high in methionine and cystine, and low in lipids). A hotel school in Toulouse, France, is working on some 150 recipes for French consumers."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Until now, it has been hard to track down fonio in European outlets, except for the occasional shop specialising in African products. The new programme aims to bring this promising cereal out of the shadows, first by placing points-of-sale in the organic food shops and supermarkets, and then in mainstream outlets. "}]},{"head":"Greater focus on poverty urged","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The need for a greater focus on poverty in sector-wide approaches, the conflict between bottom-up and topdown planning, difficulties in implementing what has been planned, and growing complexities in development financing were among the issues discussed at the 7th African Forum on 'The struggle for pro-poor growth: Linking national policies to local priorities and overcoming process overload'. Local government structures, budgeting processes, international trade agreements, NEPAD, emergency relief and impact monitoring were all discussed. Held in Pretoria in June, the Forum was organised by CTA and the Sector Network Rural Development unit of GTZ, the German agency for technical cooperation."}]},{"head":"Organic and fair","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Life will soon be simpler for producers and consumers looking for labels of products which are both organic and produced under fair trade definitions. Until now, a company wanting to qualify for both labels had to apply to two organisations. Now in France a combined labelling scheme has been launched by five companies, themselves veterans of promoting organic agriculture in the South, and now keen to promote decent and fair trade. The products to which this combined label applies are chocolate, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), cereals and some aromatic plants."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"The certifying organisation will guarantee both the organic nature of the products, as well as check the 'fairness' of the trade. ■ It has no electricity or telephone but Phon Kham, a remote village in Laos in South-East Asia, is now online. Village farmers can check prices for their produce, find markets to peddle their woven goods, widen educational horizons for their children or, like people everywhere, just 'surf ' and chat."}]},{"head":"Shea business, sure","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The secret is an innovative bicycle-powered computer, designed by computer specialist, Lee Felsenstein, for the Jhai Foundation, a Laotian NGO."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"An adapted bicycle is hooked to a car battery which supplies power to the computer. The bicycle charges the battery, and when charged, the cyclist can stop pedalling and start using the network. The battery can be recharged at any time before it runs down -either by the computer user or by someone else. One minute of cycling allows one minute of computer work. The user does not have to pedal and use the computer at the same time! With the aid of wireless antennae mounted on tree tops, water towers and roofs, the computer transmits signals at 28 to 50 kilobytes per second (this is fast enough for many uses) to a larger village where the phone lines connect to an Internet service provider. Developed with the support of Cana-da's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the technology can be replicated in other countries."}]},{"head":"Lee Thorn","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Jhai Foundation Email: [email protected]"}]},{"head":"On your bike to the Internet!","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"■ The first harvest of seeds from the moringa (Moringa oleifera) tree is in Senegal, where 8 t have been delivered to the Moringa Energie Développement (MED) company by several hundred farmers and women producer groups. This modest beginning, from the 500,000 moringa trees already planted in the groundnut area of Senegal, between Kaolack and Mbour, is planned to gradually grow to an annual yield of 30,000 t from 10 million trees."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"The MED company provides improved seeds to local farmers, and guarantees to purchase their production. Registered in Senegal, MED operates under license from the Swiss Optima company which has been producing moringa in Tanzania since 1996. There several hundred tonnes are produced annually, and processed in a moringa oil plant newly opened in Dar es Salaam. The oil is exported far and wide, being used both in cosmetics and as food additives."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"At present, Optima is researching how to best use the pressed seeds residue which is known to be rich in proteins and to be useful as a coagulant in industrial processes and in water purification. Research is also underway on whether moringa's recognised anti-bacterial properties could be used in the pharmaceuticals industry. The onward march of the moringa miracle ■ The unassuming yam seems to be erring in its ways. Grown for edible roots, it is multiplied by farmers by vegetative reproduction: each female plant is identical to its mother plant."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Why then are there so many varieties amongst cultivated yams? An answer to the puzzle has been put forward by a team from the French development research institute IRD, together with the genetic laboratory of the University of Abomey-Calavi in Benin: farmers have been planting wild yams amongst the reproduced varieties. This practice of 'domestication' has caused a surge in gene flow between species. It is time that these practices were taken into account, say the scientists, in the development of strategies for in situ conservation of yam genetic resources."}]},{"head":"Royalties for the San","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"Elephant grass at risk","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"Independent assessment of Codex Alimentarius","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The These market trends go back to 1982 when the intensive pig raising areas in the south of Cameroon were ravaged by swine fever, giving a boost to supplies from the Logone basin. In that part of Chad, pigs are raised in virtual freedom and are fed on household waste and the left-over slurry of sorghum beer. Their meat is much cheaper than that from the intensive farms of Cameroon."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"This transborder pork trade was illegal at first, side-stepping a health barrier, but in 1992 it was legalised. Not that it is without difficulties, since it relies on finding non-Muslim transporters, who are quite a rareity in these parts."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"The advent of pork from Chad has ushered in a new form of cooking, at least for Yaoundé's street vendors: braising. The meat is chopped into pieces, and then slowly cooked in a pan with water in an oven. Then it is served up in small cubes in bars to be washed down with beer. The braising cooks are happier to use the Chadian import because its leanness is preferred by customers."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"This trade is still not recorded in official statistics, but it is estimated that some 40,000 pigs find their way from Chad to the Cameroon market. "}]},{"head":"African bananas under threat","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The winning ways of GenARDIS","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"■ The use of awards to demonstrate a need, and to encourage innovation, is now commonplace in many agricultural strategies, and no area is more award-full than in the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs)."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The By the closing date in April 2003, more than 360 submissions were received. This overwhelming response clearly indicates, the organisers commented, that there is a real need for support in the field of Gender and Agriculture in the Information Society. The fund provides an opportunity for organisations in ACP countries to strengthen gender-related work on ICTs in agriculture and rural development."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The 9 winners, each receiving a one-off grant of t 5,000, work in Benin, Chad, Ghana, Jamaica, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe in rural radio, ICTs and organic farming, health and agricultural community radio, women training, access to information, farm management, community planning, technology dissemination and mainstreaming gender in ICTs."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Another 9 entrants were given honourable mentions, and they too will be invited to the 2004 GenARDIS seminar."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"✍Full details, winners and entrants with mentions at www.cta.int/about/genardis.htm Email: [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Not a pretty picture","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"This lean pig goes to market","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"No photo credit available"}]},{"head":"• In brief","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Taro's third encounter","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"More than 60 taro specialists converged on Fiji's second city of Nadi at the end of May to discuss how to improve the quality and production of the world's 14th most important staple crop. This Third Taro Symposium, organised by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, reviewed progress in research since the second meeting, held in Indonesia in 1994."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Participants came from virtually all the major taro producing areas of the world, including the Pacific nations, India, Vietnam, Cuba and Ghanasome with CTA support. As well as the threat of taro leaf blight, the plant faces the challenges of changing demand and developing new products. That time is short for renewing taro's fortunes was recognised by all participants, including one wag from Fiji, where taro is known as 'dalo'. Referring to the article in Spore 103. \"Tarry not, taro\", he quipped \"Dally not, dalo\". That much we got right. The photo accompanying the article was not 'taro tru', as we thought. The red fruit shown is the edible fruit 'marita', a cultivated Pandanus species in Papua New Guinea. We are sorry, tru."}]},{"head":"Biosafety rules come into play","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"When Palau, an ACP Member State, signed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (see article pages 4-5) on 13 June 2003, this new piece of international legislation reached the 50 national ratifications it required. It will come into force 90 days later, on 11 September 2003."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The Protocol sets out the first comprehensive regulatory system for ensuring the safe trade, transfer, handling and use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), with a specific focus on cross-border movements. It aims at making these more transparent while introducing important safety measures."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"A fund of US$ 38.4 (t 32.7) million will help countries develop the scientific and legal skills needed for evaluating the health and environmental issues surrounding imports of living modified organisms (LMOs). One problem area increasingly cited by developing countries with regard to food exports to rich countries is that of disease and contamination. The STDF can help exporting countries to meet the requirements of the sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures of the WTO. The Bank made a start-up grant of US$ 300,000 (t 260,000) for the fund, where a steering committee will supervise affairs and recommend future paths. This committee will be composed of high-level representatives of the World Bank, the FAO, the World Organisation for Animal Health (the former International Office of Epizootics), the World Health Organization and the WTO."}]},{"head":"✍ John Wilson","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Development Economics Department World Bank Email: [email protected] Orphans' helping hands ■ In the south of Cameroon, the Ntumu people are known for their semi-itinerant slashand-burn methods. When they clear plots of land, usually an area of one hectare, they leave about 15 trees standing, even though they have chain-saws to fell them. They call these trees the 'orphans of the forest', assigning them quite a few roles."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"They are used directly as a source of food (fruits and grains), for medical needs, as firewood and construction lumber, and for hunting purposes. Some species are also used as fertilising material. On a longer time scale, they also play an important role in the regeneration of the forest when the land is put into fallow. They help to create a micro-climate which helps seedlings to grow, and they encourage the presence of fauna which in turn disperse the trees' seeds, with much more impact than in an area bereft of trees. All of which leads to the conclusion that the Ntumu indeed have a longterm strategy of environmental management."}]},{"head":"✍ Stéphanie Carrière","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Email: [email protected]"}]},{"head":"When the norm becomes standard","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"You never stand alone, when there is work to be done","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Worming your way to healthy soils","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"■ \"It may be surprising, but some of the least studied species in the world are right under our feet,\" said Klaus Töpfer, Executive Director of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), recently. The role of worms, termites, fungi and bacteria in soil fertility indeed deserves more recognition."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Take the soils of some Indian tea plantations. A professor at the University of Sambalpur and a researcher from the French development research institute IRD have rehabilitated the plantations with the help of earthworms. The plantation soils had been worn out after decades of intensive use, and had lost much of their humus. No matter how much fertiliser, pesticides or growth hormones were used, nothing could be done to stop stagnating yields. The two scientists developed a process of digging small ditches in the soil, and filling them with prunings from the tea bushes, covered by a layer of soil full of earthworms -80 kg of them per hectare. In the first year of application, yields doubled and the increased production level has been maintained with lowered inputs."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"His rediscovery of worm power in the ground has clearly given Töpfer itchy feet, and a great idea. UNEP has allocated US$ 26 million (t 22.5 million) to preserving the biodiversity of tropical soils in Brazil, Côte d'Ivoire, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico and Uganda. "}]},{"head":"S","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"tarting off with those who do the fishing, the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers (ICSF) looks at the issues involved in change from the perspective of established fishing communities, and provides these communities with information resources. As well as a lively Website of information, dialogue and databases, the ICSF quarterly newsletter Samudra is available in electronic and print versions. The ICSF has extensive links to other resources and is multilingual (French, Spanish, English)."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Fishing sustainably is on everyone's lips, and is open to different interpretations. The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) has emerged as an organisation now independent of its founders: the multinational Unilever company and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). Its Standards for Sustainability in Marine Fishing, expressed in a labelling scheme, are so far the only internationally accepted ones, focusing somewhat narrowly on guarantees about the condition of fish stocks; the impact of fishing on the marine environment; and fishery management systems. The debates about fair trade and eco-labelling have yet to get underway."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Teach a man to catch a fish, then teach him how to sell it. Foreign markets are demanding more in terms not only of sustainability, but also health and hygiene measures. The World Trade Organization (WTO) and the European Union (EU) give details of phytosanitary regulations and trading requirements, and the FAO describes capacity-building programmes to help small fishing enterprises to meet them."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"Not surprisingly, the World-Fish Center, formerly known as ICLARM, is a rich source of information and contacts for both inland and marine fisheries. It provides an extensive range of publications and a regular newsletter, Naga, as well as training and project possibilities. The proceedings of the Center's gender-oriented Sixth Asian Fisheries Forum, held in November 2001 in Taiwan, constitute a sturdy collection of perspectives worldwide, principally from Africa, Latin America, Asia and Oceania. They feature many sound arguments for the shift, as one paper puts it, from 'Women in fisheries to gender and fisheries'. "}]},{"head":"Fishing for information","index":42,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"W","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"anting to build up your own set of objective facts on the genetic modification (GM) of (plant) living organisms? There is a huge choice, both electronic and in print. Here are some which the editors of Spore use regularly for a broad, up-todate perspective."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"A safe place to start is the AgBioTechnet (www.agbiotechnet.com) which focuses on applications in developing countries, with a balanced presentation of the pros and cons."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"If you want to understand both believers and disbelievers, check out the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA) which makes available some clearly written partisan documents, ranging from 2-page briefings on, for example, field trials to longer Brief papers describing the 'Global Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops'. The Briefs are published electronically on the AgBioTechnet site. They are both opinionated and technical, and visibly persuaded of the righteousness of their 'cause', just as their opponents such as the Greenpeace campaign group are of theirs."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"Calmer in approach, but still highly concerned and cautious, is the Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration (ETC), formerly known as Rural Advancement Foundation International (RAFI). It deserves attention because of its willingness to engage in dialogue with proponents. And if its publications and recent presentations in public are anything to go by, the Monsanto seed company (www.monsanto.com) is much more open to such dialogue than it seemed to be even 3 years ago."},{"index":5,"size":111,"text":"Are GM crops poisonous? Check out the free June 2003 report by the International Council for Science (ICSU) on 'New Genetics, Food and Agriculture: Scientific Discoveries, Societal Dilemmas' which evaluates more than 50 sciencebased reviews and concludes that currently available GM foods are safe to eat. Calling a spade a spade is not a bad idea in a technical publication on soil and water conservation and sustainable agriculture, and Professor Taffa Tulu does it well here, explaining complex issues in a simple manner. He has merged seven editions of teaching material on soil and water conservation, which he prepared during his work at uni-versities and agricultural colleges in Ethiopia and Germany."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"It's a concise study book with conveniently arranged references for experts working in this field. It put things in order by defining different types of agriculture, natural resources and soils before moving to more technical, scientific chapters on water movements in the hydrologic cycle, designing channels, assessing crop water requirements and quantifying erosion or irrigation efficiencies."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"A well-thought through piece of work, both complete and concise. ■ In 20 years' time you will still be working hard to be able to enjoy your daily bowl of rice, sadza, ugali, fufu or ensete, but how the face of agriculture will have changed by then is another thing."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"Among the countless forecasting studies with 'outlook', 'future' or 'perspectives' in their titles, World agriculture: Towards 2015/2030 deserves a good deal more attention. It is FAO's latest assessment of the long-term outlook for the world's food supplies, nutrition and agriculture, covering supply and demand for the major agricultural commodities and sectors, including fisheries and forestry."},{"index":9,"size":36,"text":"The impressive quantitative data sets have been moulded with great care, but the variables in human interventions underlying these data seem to have been under-analysed. They emerge indirectly, through the future scenarios presented in the book."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"So, how much rice, maize, millet, sorghum or ensete you produced in 1999 will have been accurately assessed but how you produced it, and how you will produce in 2035, remains rather misty in the extrapolated data."},{"index":11,"size":35,"text":"Then again, one should not demand too much of a book that is already a massive undertaking. If we could forecast everything, including the impact of human variables, then it wouldn't be human, would it?"},{"index":12,"size":34,"text":"A good resource book, rich in quantitative data and qualitative analyses, but for critical users only. To judge the reliability and validity of the data, start by reading the appendix on the methodology used."},{"index":13,"size":4,"text":"World agriculture: Towards 2015/2030."},{"index":14,"size":11,"text":"An FAO perspective Edited by J Bruinsma, FAO -Earthscan, 2003. 444 "}]},{"head":"Paradise exists","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"■ This thorough study of agriculture in the Gedeo country of Ethiopia argues that its food security is safeguarded largely by an intriguingly complex rotational system, high in biodiversity. The staple crop ensete (see Spore 105) plays a key role, paving the way for successor crops, storing water and preventing soil erosion. A relevant approach for other mountainous tropical areas."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Five thousand years of sustainability? A case study on Gedeo land use."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"T Kippie Kanshie, Treemail, 2002. 296 "}]},{"head":"Toolbox for trials","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Publications •"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"■ At last, a clear, factual and reliable introduction to the genetic modification (GM) of plants, and the differences and similarities between GM and conventional plant breeding and natural processes such as cross-pollination and mutations."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"There are balanced discussions of GM in the field, trials, contamination, food safety (of both GM and organically grown food), consumer interests, patents, labelling and regulatory issues. With the focus on African agriculture -where \"GM technology on its own isn't enough. It's just part of a wider solution\" -the tables on current research are fascinating. The topics covered include resistance to pests and fungi in papaya and sweet potato, and to black sigatoka disease in bananas; reduced cyanide content in cassava; improved amino acids in forage; and increased iron content in maize and rice."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"These shifts in 'second-generation' GM technologies towards improved crop output are crucial to winning consumer acceptance and calming current controversies. The 'first-generation' technologies focused mainly on inputs, plant resistance and controlling the seed supply chain; they were clumsily managed by now-remorseful seed companies and set the technology off on the wrong foot."},{"index":5,"size":157,"text":"That the author regrets that bad start testifies to the maturity of the book. As Professor of Microbiology at the University of Cape Town, Jennifer Thomson conducts GM research on streak virus resistance and drought tolerance in maize. As one reviewer put it, she writes in \"an enthusiastic but always scientifically controlled way\". Almost always: in the extensive question-andanswer section, she cannot resist answering some questions with rhetorical questions! With a crisp prose, fine summary pages and good references, this is an excellent example of popular science writing for the layperson, a lesson to other aspiring writers, and above all a lesson about a technology that needs to be understood and mastered, not dismissed. Rural planning in developing countries provides a good overview of the subject. It discusses several methods of conventional technical planning, uses bountiful case material as illustration, incorporates natural resources management and introduces stakeholder participation as a way to anchor planning processes in society."},{"index":6,"size":162,"text":"The major virtue of this book is perhaps that whoever thought planning was easy will, after reading it, never dare to think so again. But it is necessary, and this is a good framework. With new threads in CTA's mandate and 18 newcomers to the Committee's 30 seats, there was a need for familiarisation -indeed, a pre-meeting briefing was held on the meeting's protocols and procedures. With this newness came a certain timidity and a desire for the comfort of consensus, even about how their advisory comments could be heeded. New they were to each other, but not to giving advice. Dealing with newness is refresh-ing, in both human and political terms, but it does not mean leaving behind all that has gone before, they reminded themselves. Nor is history a brake to hold back progress, but a source of standards and experience, of successes to bring forward and failures to learn from, for the futurethat perception was clear in several interventions."},{"index":7,"size":78,"text":"While on the EU 'side', just 4 of the 15 Member States' representatives were new, for the ACP Group it was almost 'all change'. The Committee of ACP Ambassadors to the EU, which nominates the 15 ACP representatives, had made 14 new nominations. Of the 30 members in all, only 3 women -1 from ACP -were nominated; even CTA's own Gender Strategy (see opposite article) and its 'Look beyond the numbers' statement would encourage a different tally here."},{"index":8,"size":113,"text":"Committee members, who serve in a private capacity, are professionally involved in agriculture and rural development, mainly in the public sector in policy, research and extension management. From such positions, they are well placed to comment -from the perspective of users -on CTA's given role in information and communication. Being broadly knowledgeable of their national systems, members are also expected, with one or two other members, to be representative of their region. Thus the current Committee has members from Central Africa (Congo, Gabon), Eastern Africa (Eritrea, Kenya and Rwanda), West Africa (Benin, Guinea and Niger), Southern Africa (Angola, Namibia and Zambia), the Caribbean (Dominican Republic and Grenada), and the Pacific (Tonga and Vanuatu)."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"In four packed days, which included an in-depth discussion on social capital and a "}]},{"head":"Between","index":46,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sparks to share","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The opening article in Spore 101 on 'Energising agriculture' sparked off one reader. \"Sure, we are not going to sit still, but it is much better to act together,\" writes Adan Daher Roble from Djibouti: \"Let's energise agriculture, stop the rural exodus, together with teachers, extension workers and investigative writers.\" However, Mr Roble feels that documented examples of energising agriculture from countries including Senegal, Jamaica and Tanzania would be very helpful. As well as \"on European farmers' organisations in the 19 th century -we hardly know anything about them or about the role they played\"."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"In fact, dear sir, our editor is preparing an article on the role of farmers' organisations throughout the centuries and through the continents -it's good to know it's wanted! All ideas welcome."}]},{"head":"Wired women","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"\"In your article in Spore 101 'And if the women did the wiring?', I was very happy to find once more your keen interest in the position of women. Women are very committed to embrace ICTs, but they lack the financial means to actually do so,\" argues Jeannine Ngituka Kutonda, of the Centre for the Integral Development of Women. The Centre is looking for partners who can support the improvement of connectivity and Internet access for women. "}]},{"head":"Grant or grief","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Michael Biru has just completed a research project at Addis Ababa University on the impact of pesticides on farm workers on Ethiopian State farms. He visited the factory that formulates pesticides, including endosulfan, \"which is banned in many countries due to accidental poisonings, resulting in many deaths. I don't think that there has been any study on the impact of this particular pesticide in Ethiopia. Also DDT is banned in many countries but still widely used in Ethiopia for the control of malaria. The use of this pesticide is justified by health experts who say that there is no better alternative. As stated by a worker in the pesticide formulation factory at that time, there is a plan to formulate this pesticide too.\""}]},{"head":"Keep shifting","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"\"I enjoyed the article on 'Shifting cultivation' (Spore 96),\" writes Godfrey Eneas from Nassau, capital of The Bahamas: \"It has always been my contention that the slash-and-burn system of farming was unfairly treated by agricultural scientists and had been relegated to the level of being unscientific. In The Bahamas, the slash-and-burn technique is applied to a system of cultivation referred to as pot-hole farming, perhaps the oldest system of farming in the country. It began with the Arawak Bahamians and has been passed on and perfected by the 20 th century Bahamian farmer.\" It starts with the cultivation of annual crops such as tomatoes and cabbage, which mature in 90 days. The crop is then followed by bananas on an intercropping basis, and 2 to 3 years after the bananas, fruit trees are planted. When the fruit trees reach their mature height, sheep are introduced. The cycle continues, resulting in a substantial acreage of mixed farms. \"This system has grown from a subsistence level to small and medium-sized farmers producing for a highly urbanized domestic market.\" A new interactive feature of Spore 'n More allows readers to request broadcasts of CTA electronic publications which they have selected and requested 'on demand'. These are changed on a monthly basis."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Each daily broadcast includes the current issue of Spore and Esporo in French, English and Portuguese, plus news (extra news items, readers' mail and programme details), plus content that changes from day to day."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Spore 'n More is available on WorldSpace Foundation Multimedia broadcasts on the Worldspace AfriStar satellite broadcasting to more than 70 countries in Africa, as well as to Europe south of 57°N, the eastern Atlantic, the western Indian Ocean and West Asia. Studies are underway to launch broadcasts on the AsiaStar satellite to Asia and the Pacific, and later to the Americas. Broadcasts contain data files of publications in PDF and/or HTML format, which can be downloaded from a WorldSpace radio receiver, via a data adaptor, to any computer for study and reprint. Reprints should always credit the source in full. The texts of Spore articles may also be broadcast as sound programmes on WorldSpace Foundation audio broadcasts, for listener interest and re-broadcast by local radio stations."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"How will I know? I t's the same with any strategy. You dream, you collude, you strategise and then, one day (exactly when depends on your collusions and the stars), you get on and implement it. But how do you know if you are performing as you wished, that things are unfolding as they should? Within CTA a gender strategy has been slowly developing, and it has now broken out of its shell. Compressed into one sentence, its goal reads: \"to ensure that women in ACP agriculture and rural development have adequate and equitable access to relevant information products and services, and to strengthen their capacities to produce, acquire, exchange and utilise information in this area.\" Not that it is just a question of positive discrimination in favour of women -the men need to change too, and that is quite an effort!"},{"index":5,"size":113,"text":"The strategy prescribes 27 specific areas of action, and 84 indicators to measure just how successfully they are being implemented -two point to Spore explicitly. Many indicators express themselves in numbers: for example, how many women use the Publications Distribution Service; how many apply to attend seminars and how many are selected; how many mailings are there about the gender strategy; how many articles in Spore and Esporo feature women's success stories in agriculture? But, as CTA's strategy paper on gender exhorts: \"Look behind the numbers!\" It is important to measure the change in the perceptions of policy-makers, women leaders or project managers, for example, and how these changed perceptions affect their actions."},{"index":6,"size":138,"text":"All this requires constant and alert monitoring. And participation. Tell us: how do you think CTA is performing in terms of gender equity? How could Spore do more? Let us know at the Mailbox address in the green box. presentation on extension and technology, they reviewed the implementation of the 2003 Work Plan and approved draft plans for 2004. They were pleased with the way that CTA is keeping up, sometimes at the leading edge, with trends in agriculture and communication. A sample: enlivening its Website and Annual Report; using satellite broadcasts to disseminate Spore 'n More; introducing a customer service approach to trainee follow-up; targeting Spore at more producer organisations and NGOs; involving the private sector in information dissemination; embracing socalled cross-cutting issues (such as social capital, gender and youth) and sector-wide approaches such as poverty reduction."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Advice is more than praise alone, of course, and wary of dispersed efforts and diffused impact, the Committee urged CTA to carve out and play a distinct role in its chosen areas of activity -and to make a coherent whole of them all, instead of isolated thrusts into separate areas. At such comments, you could see the management (some new faces -and new waves -there too, with three female and one male appointment in the past year) take special note. This was well-placed advice, and they knew it."},{"index":8,"size":49,"text":"The Committee is currently chaired by the member from Greece; the vice-chairperson is from Tonga. The chairperson, together with the members from Austria and the Dominican Republic, form a restricted group which, with meetings next September and in April 2004, will monitor progress and prepare for the 2004 meeting. "}]},{"head":"D","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"oes everyone have access to good quality food today? Not really, since the markets of poor countries can only afford low-price products and consumers in developing countries are forced to buy poor quality products, whether local or imported, in unattractive packaging, with price the only criterion governing their purchase. Playing around with quality is unacceptable -we all catch the same illnesses and have a right to healthy eating. Everybody, even poor people, likes good products. The issue of quality applies to risk-free health, or 'food safety', as well as to straightforward satisfaction and decent service, or 'quality products'."}]},{"head":"Daisy chain or dairy chain","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"This could just remain a nice theory, but there are some experiences which show it can be turned into practice. Our own experience has been in setting up a dairy chain in Mauritania, a very poor country in general, but rich in animal resources. More than one-third of the population lives in towns and when we set up our business in 1989, townspeople by and large consumed imported milk -even though Mauritanians much prefer fresh milk! And there we hit reality. To bring milk from pastoral areas into the towns, one had to package it, and to do that, to pasteurise it. To have milk which would keep well, it had to be clean and pure, requiring rigorous hygiene measures at every step in production. The 800 herdsmen supplying us with milk had no idea of hygiene, our staff had rather basic education and dairy technology was hard to come by. We soon came to appreciate that when you go from a situation where milk is produced and consumed on the spot to one where it is consumed several hundred kilometres and several days away, innovation is the key word! Put another way, you have to persuade, cajole, train, organise, check quality … The human factor is essential for guaranteeing quality, as much in the South as in the North."}]},{"head":"Lick it, don't lab it","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Everyone, along the production chain, has to take quality requirements properly on board, and to heart. This can demand a fair measure of imagination and pragmatism."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"For example, we receive almost 1,000 churns of milk twice a day, but we do not have any laboratory facilities to test it with instruments or reactives. So we trained our staff at the reception points to taste the milk on arrival, to check that it had not been diluted with water and to watch out for acidity."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"The milk containers are small, so we have no qualms about throwing any bad milk away. The containers are cleaned and disinfected by the dairy staff, who also dole out lashings of advice on hygiene to the herdsmen. Straight after testing, the milk is chilled and this helps us maintain excellent levels of quality for our range of 15 dairy products. Quality is checked meticulously. All this has required sound organisation, delicate tasting by our staff, refrigeration technology and bacteriological control checks. Attaining bacteriological quality is not just a financial advantage in that it reduces losses -it also gives you a commercial advantage. Quite simply, we have noticed that the consumer prefers our products because they are better than imported UHT (ultra-high temperature) milk or other products from local factories."}]},{"head":"Camel cheese is off, for Europe","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"We have also had to be pragmatic and inventive in dealing with another problem. Milk production and consumption fluctuate seasonally: there is either too much milk, or too little! So we have had to develop products with a longer life, such as cheese, so as not to lose customers and yet still be able to absorb the producers' output."},{"index":2,"size":280,"text":"The FAO helped us to make a cheese from camel milk, but neither the Mauritanians nor people in neighbouring countries will eat it. The only nearby market, then, is Europe. Unfortunately, European rules have effectively dashed any plans we had here. It is not that camel milk cheese is not allowed, it is simply that it is not allowed for. According to the rules, the only animals whose milk can be used for making cheese are cows, ewes, goats and buffaloes. Maybe this can be changed, but even then we shall need to have an officially approved laboratory locally to give quality guarantees for our cheese -and there isn't one. These trade and hygiene rules are an even greater obstacle to trade than customs duties! Things are brighter in the case of cow's milk. We have adopted UHT technology to help us keep milk for long periods, maintaining its excellent taste. We have signed a franchise agreement with a leading European firm, Candia; they are sharing their know-how with us and providing support on an advanced technology which is new to us. But we want to raise our quality standards even higher, and we have done this through some simple measures: washing hands prior to milking, holding down the cow's tail, filtering milk through a cloth and scheduling milking times to shorten the time before chilling. Again, this is a matter of training, motivation and control. Today, milk from nomads' zebus, milked 400 km from the factory, has a total flora count of 200,000 germs/ml -a remarkably low level, given the conditions of production -and it makes a superb UHT milk which can be kept for well over 6 months."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Quality is thus not just for the rich countries. Everyone can master it if they want to, by being pragmatic and creative."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"The opinions expressed in Viewpoint are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of CTA."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Nancy Abeiderrahmane, a British engineer who has adopted the nationality of Mauritania, set up the country's first fresh milk processing plant in Tiviski in 1989."}]},{"head":"Innovation in food quality","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Quality for all?"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"There is no need for the countries of the South to be condemned to poor quality, second-rate food. High quality is attainable. And that makes good business."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"\" Quality gives you a commercial advantage \""}]}],"figures":[{"text":"✍ Photo R. Anthony © Holt Studios "},{"text":" Banana is the staple food in Uganda and in other parts of eastern Africa, with over 90% grown by smallholders for domestic consumption or local markets. Uganda's Ministry of Agriculture has responded by destroying infected plantations and putting affected areas under quarantine to prevent the movement of bananas. \"Other countries, such as Burundi, Rwanda, Kenya and Tanzania, would also be vulnerable if the disease spreads,\" said David Jones, former scientific research co-ordinator for INIBAP.■ Sometimes extensive agricultural production can compete successfully with intensive production, as in the case of extensive pig-rearing in the Logone basin area in southern Chad. It has won a sound market niche in the Cameroonian capital, Yaoundé, over the intensivelyraised pork from southern Cameroon and frozen imports. "},{"text":"✍ M.O. Koussou PRASAC/ Laboratoire de Farcha BP 433, N'Djamena, Chad Email: [email protected] "},{"text":" Photo C.T. Pirozzi © Panos Pictures "},{"text":" Rural planning in developing countries Supporting natural resource management and sustainable livelihoods O Dubois, B Dalal-Clayton & D Dent, Earthscan in association with International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 2003. 240 pp. ISBN 1853839396 GBP 25 • t 40 For Earthscan's address see elsewhere in this section Any plans? I t wasn't just the new faces that made the difference. It was the waves of new ideas, sharpened interest and spot-on advice that made the 18th annual meeting of the CTA Advisory Committee, held at the Centre's headquarters from 3 to 6 June 2003, stand out as a new chapter in the CTA story. "},{"text":" us • Mailbox You hatch and sow, you raise and grow… until it's time to reap the fruits of your labour. This Mailbox is a place for fertile inputs too. Increasingly so. You write and send in suggestions, questions and pictures. Like this one from Onginga Ongalo from Mumias, Kenya. Do you get your vegetables to grow this big? Tell us how! "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"\" SPORE 106 • PAGE 3 Photo J. Schytten © Still Pictures HIV/AIDS and agriculture Prepare for the worst The HIV/AIDS tragedy has another name: The Pandemic Photo N. Robinson © Panos Pictures Life in the farming world is now a jigsaw puzzle with many pieces missing. Fathers. Sisters. Mothers. Brothers. Buyers. Sellers. Hand tool designers. More than B eing an editor of Spore demands the the devil's work, by trying to explain the eing an editor of Spore demands thethe devil's work, by trying to explain the patience of a near-saint on occasion. what-who-why-when of GM, the editor had patience of a near-saint on occasion.what-who-why-when of GM, the editor had At times you want to shout out loud apparently crossed the line. At times you want to shout out loudapparently crossed the line. at those locked in the battle of words about at those locked in the battle of words about genetic modification (GM): \"It has been a genetic modification (GM): \"It has been a tragedy of the absurd, an original comedy tragedy of the absurd, an original comedy of errors, and, my of errors, and, my dear poor friends, it dear poor friends, it is time to stop!\" But is time to stop!\" But you know that you know that shouting serves no shouting serves no purpose and will purpose and will only encourage the only encourage the protagonists. protagonists. Every article in Every article in Spore provokes com- Spore provokes com- ments from readers, ments from readers, sometimes critical, sometimes critical, always constructive always constructive -the sign of a mag- -the sign of a mag- azine living healthi- azine living healthi- ly. Only one has ever ly. Only one has ever led to hate mail. led to hate mail. Which one? On Which one? On GM, in Spore 88, GM, in Spore 88, some 3 years ago. By some 3 years ago. By not denouncing notdenouncing outright what the outright what the (ex-) reader saw as (ex-) reader saw as "},{"text":"Some fears are inventions, but are some inventions fears? Protests in front of South Africa's parliament and the British Press and police. In the US, In the US, products are products are safe until safe until proven risky proven risky In France, In France, products are products are risky until risky until proven safe proven safe In the UK, In the UK, products are products are risky even risky even when proven when proven safe safe In India, In India, products are products are safe even safe even when proven when proven risky risky In Canada, In Canada, products are products are neither safe neither safe nor risky nor risky In Japan, In Japan, products are products are either safe or either safe or risky risky In Brazil, In Brazil, products are products are both safe and both safe and risky risky In an ACP In an ACP country, country, products are products are ??? ??? Adapted from Adapted from Biosafety Biosafety through the through the ages, a ages, a presentation by presentation by Professor Professor Calestous Juma, Calestous Juma, Kennedy School Kennedy School of Government, of Government, Harvard Harvard University University "},{"text":"• Coarse grain imports shoot up Africa's imports of coarse grains Africa's imports of coarse grains such as barley, maize, rye, oats, such as barley, maize, rye, oats, millet, sorghum and buckwheat millet, sorghum and buckwheat are likely to rise to around are likely to rise to around 18 million t in 2002/03, a 20% 18 million t in 2002/03, a 20% increase on the previous increase on the previous season. This is due mainly to season. This is due mainly to significant drops in production significant drops in production in several countries. Imports are in several countries. Imports are forecast to rise by 1.6 million t forecast to rise by 1.6 million t in Zimbabwe, by 400,000 t in in Zimbabwe, by 400,000 t in Ethiopia and in Kenya, and by Ethiopia and in Kenya, and by 255,000 t in Zambia. 255,000 t in Zambia. "},{"text":"results from pouring Organic fonio to woo Europe ing synthetic pyrethroid insecti- ing synthetic pyrethroid insecti- cides, cypermethrin and cides,cypermethrinand deltamethrin, to the backs of cat- deltamethrin, to the backs of cat- Scientists at the International Scientists at the International Livestock Research Institute Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) helped to develop the (ILRI) helped to develop the technique which involves apply- technique which involves apply- Plant breeding forum Plant breeding forum underway underway Scientists, development Scientists, development workers, plant breeders and workers, plant breeders and others are invited to join an others are invited to join an electronic forum on 'Public- electronic forum on 'Public- good plant breeding: what are good plant breeding: what are the international priorities?', the international priorities?', launched in May by the UK launched in May by the UK NGO Sense about Science. To NGO Sense about Science. To join, email: join, email: [email protected] [email protected] by 30 September 2003. In by 30 September 2003. In October, a report of the forum October, a report of the forum will be sent to funding agencies will be sent to funding agencies and policy-making and policy-making organisations. organisations. "},{"text":"fertilising GM information For further information: ICSF ICSF 27 College Road 27 College Road Chennai 600 006,India Chennai 600 006,India Fax: +91 44 825 4457 Fax: +91 44 825 4457 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.icsf.net Website: www.icsf.net MSC MSC Marine Stewardship Council Marine Stewardship Council Unit 4, Bakery Place Unit 4, Bakery Place 119 Altenburg Gardens 119 Altenburg Gardens London SW11 1JQ London SW11 1JQ United Kingdom United Kingdom Fax: +44 20 7350 1231 Fax: +44 20 7350 1231 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.msc.org Website: www.msc.org WTO WTO World Trade Organization World Trade Organization Centre William Rappard Centre William Rappard Rue de Lausanne 154 Rue de Lausanne 154 CH-1211 Geneva 21 CH-1211 Geneva 21 Switzerland Switzerland Fax: +41 22 731 42 06 Fax: +41 22 731 42 06 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.wto.org Website: www.wto.org EU EU European Union European Union European Commission European Commission Directorate-General for Directorate-General for FisheriesCommunication and FisheriesCommunication and Information Unit Information Unit BE-1049 Brussels, Belgium BE-1049 Brussels, Belgium Fax. +32 2 299 30 40 Fax. +32 2 299 30 40 Website: Website: europa.eu.int/comm/fisheries europa.eu.int/comm/fisheries FAO FAO FAO Fisheries Department FAO Fisheries Department Viale delle Terme di Caracalla Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy 00100 Rome, Italy Fax: +39 06 5705 2476 Fax: +39 06 5705 2476 Website: www.fao.org/fi Website: www.fao.org/fi WorldFish Center WorldFish Center Communications Unit Communications Unit PO Box 500, GPO 10670 PO Box 500, GPO 10670 Penang, Malaysia Penang, Malaysia Fax: +60 4 626 5530 Fax: +60 4 626 5530 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] ISAAA AfriCenter ISAAA AfriCenter c/o CIP c/o CIP PO Box 25171 PO Box 25171 Nairobi, Kenya Nairobi, Kenya ISAAA SEAsia Center ISAAA SEAsia Center c/o IRRI c/o IRRI DAPO Box 7777 DAPO Box 7777 Metro Manila, Philippines Metro Manila, Philippines Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.isaaa.org Website: www.isaaa.org Greenpeace International Greenpeace International Keizersgracht 176 Keizersgracht 176 NL-1016 DW Amsterdam NL-1016 DW Amsterdam The Netherlands The Netherlands Fax: +31 20 523 6200 Fax: +31 20 523 6200 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.greenpeace.org Website: www.greenpeace.org ETC ETC 478 River Avenue, Suite 200, 478 River Avenue, Suite 200, Winnipeg, MB, R3L 0C8, Canada Winnipeg, MB, R3L 0C8, Canada Fax: +1 204 284 7871 Fax: +1 204 284 7871 Website: www.etcgroup.org Website: www.etcgroup.org ICSU ICSU 51 Boulevard de Montmorency 51 Boulevard de Montmorency ISAAA AmeriCenter FR-75016 Paris, France ISAAA AmeriCenterFR-75016 Paris, France 417 Bradfield Hall Fax: +33 1 42 88 94 31 417 Bradfield HallFax: +33 1 42 88 94 31 Cornell University Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853, USA Ithaca, NY 14853, USA "},{"text":"Waiting for the hour that the ship comes in, in Funafuti, Tuvalu "},{"text":"Publications The basics of growth Wait and see? pp. pp. ISBN 90 804443 6 7 ISBN 90 804443 6 7 t 40 t 40 Related documents (book, article Related documents (book, article and poster) downloadable from: and poster) downloadable from: www.treemail.nl/download/ www.treemail.nl/download/ Treemail Treemail Prins Bernhardlaan 37 Prins Bernhardlaan 37 6866 BW Heelsum 6866 BW Heelsum The Netherlands The Netherlands Fax: +31 317 35 01 19 Fax: +31 317 35 01 19 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Real added value Real added value html html CPHP CPHP PO Box 2855 PO Box 2855 Key components are authorisa- Causeway Harare, Zimbabwe Key components are authorisa-Causeway Harare, Zimbabwe tion procedures for intentional Fax: +263 4 70 03 39 tion procedures for intentionalFax: +263 4 70 03 39 releases into the environment, Email: [email protected] releases into the environment,Email: [email protected] including application and risk assessment; institutional arrange- Two of a kind including application and risk assessment; institutional arrange-Two of a kind ments; import/export terms; pro- ■ A hefty volume on legal and ments; import/export terms; pro-■ A hefty volume on legal and visions for handling, transport, packaging and identification; provisions for unintentional release; and national/internation- economic perspectives of trade and sustainability. It includes debates on failing markets, environmental perspectives, fisheries and intellectual visions for handling, transport, packaging and identification; provisions for unintentional release; and national/internation-economic perspectives of trade and sustainability. It includes debates on failing markets, environmental perspectives, fisheries and intellectual al reporting obligations. property as a tool to protect al reporting obligations.property as a tool to protect Reference guide for biosafety traditional knowledge. Reference guide for biosafetytraditional knowledge. frameworks addressing the release The Earthscan reader on frameworks addressing the releaseThe Earthscan reader on of plant living modified organisms international trade and of plant living modified organismsinternational trade and (LMOs) sustainable development (LMOs)sustainable development CropLife International, Edited by K P Gallagher & CropLife International,Edited by K P Gallagher & Brussels, Belgium, J Werksman, Earthscan, Brussels, Belgium,J Werksman, Earthscan, 2003. 38 pp. 2002. 424 pp. 2003. 38 pp.2002. 424 pp. Also: online PDF edition: 560 kb ISBN 185383887X Also: online PDF edition: 560 kbISBN 185383887X Free GBP 22.95 • t 32.90 FreeGBP 22.95 • t 32.90 CropLife International Earthscan Publications Ltd CropLife InternationalEarthscan Publications Ltd Avenue Louise 134 120 Pentonville Road Avenue Louise 134120 Pentonville Road BE-1050 Brussels, Belgium London N1 9JN, UK BE-1050 Brussels, BelgiumLondon N1 9JN, UK Fax: +32 2 542 0419 Fax: +44 207 278 1142 Fax: +32 2 542 0419Fax: +44 207 278 1142 "},{"text":"Spore is a bi-monthly publication providing information on agricultural development for ACP countries. Spore is available free-of-charge to relevant organisations and individuals in ACP and EU countries. Subscriptions may also be purchased from ITDG (see page 13). Publisher: Technical Centre for Agricultural Publisher: Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) -ACP-EC and Rural Cooperation (CTA) -ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement Cotonou Agreement CTA: Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, CTA: Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands The Netherlands Tel: +31 317 467100 Tel: +31 317 467100 Fax: +31 317 460067 Fax: +31 317 460067 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.cta.int Website: www.cta.int Email for readers' letters: [email protected] Email for readers' letters: [email protected] Compiler: Spore is compiled by a Compiler: Spore is compiled by a consortium formed by Louma productions consortium formed by Louma productions and Médiateurs and Médiateurs Louma productions, 3 rue Neuve, Louma productions, 3 rue Neuve, 34150 Aniane, France 34150 Aniane, France Fax: +33 467 570 180 Fax: +33 467 570 180 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Médiateurs, W-Alexanderpoort 46, Médiateurs, W-Alexanderpoort 46, 1421 CH Uithoorn, The Netherlands 1421 CH Uithoorn, The Netherlands Fax: +31 297 540 514 Fax: +31 297 540 514 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] This issue was compiled by This issue was compiled by Marcel Chimwala, Didier Chabrol, Marcel Chimwala, Didier Chabrol, Bernard Favre, Erik Heijmans, Louise Bernard Favre, Erik Heijmans, Louise Kibuuka, John Madeley, Eyoum Ngangue, Kibuuka, John Madeley, Eyoum Ngangue, Paul Osborn, Jacques Sultan. Paul Osborn, Jacques Sultan. Layout: Louma productions Layout: Louma productions Printer: Imprimerie Publicep, France Printer: Imprimerie Publicep, France © CTA 2003 -ISSN 1011-0054 © CTA 2003 -ISSN 1011-0054 "},{"text":"Material published in Spore can be freely reproduced. Please always credit it as coming from Spore. • Between us Spore 'n More: New broadcasts schedule Viewpoint • Viewpoint • Monday current issue, news Mondaycurrent issue, news + last 3 issues in French + last 3 issues in French Tuesday current issue, news Tuesdaycurrent issue, news + last 3 issues in English + last 3 issues in English Wednesday current issue, news Wednesdaycurrent issue, news + last 3 issues in Portuguese + last 3 issues in Portuguese Thursday current issue, news Thursdaycurrent issue, news + ICTUpdate + Agritrade + ICTUpdate + Agritrade plus, even weeks: plus, even weeks: CTA Publications Catalogue CTA Publications Catalogue + Working Documents + Working Documents plus, odd weeks: CTA Annual Report plus, odd weeks: CTA Annual Report (English and French) (English and French) Friday current issue, news Fridaycurrent issue, news + on demand + on demand (default = Spore User Survey) (default = Spore User Survey) Saturday as Monday Saturdayas Monday Sunday as Tuesday Sundayas Tuesday "}],"sieverID":"f525a7b7-548f-43e6-8c3c-b8cc19e970d6","abstract":"\"Waiter! Send the bill to the people in that wee boat yonder.\" 'Pay, fish and go' in practice."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"06bee875b13febc0d3b6f4b0abb78e94","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Factsheet/MSP-Infosheet06.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Designing meaningful, inclusive spaces for transformative change To boost women's participation in MSPs, there are a number of steps that organizers can take (see Evans et al., 2014 andEvans et al., 2021), such as:"},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"• Identify and invite women leaders who represent a constituency and are considered legitimate by other women in the landscape • Meet with these representatives to strategize about how the MSP can better serve their interests and needs • Invite a critical mass of women to form a constituency in the MSP • Provide separate spaces for that constituency to meet, discuss and identify collective needs, including capacity building needs to participate more effectively in the platform • Facilitate networking between the constituencies and other participants in the platform who can serve as strategic allies"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"• Provide resources for women representatives to report back to their constituencies • Consider holding meetings closer to the residences of these actors, such as rotating the location to facilitate participation • Choose times for meeting that are suitable to women's schedules During meetings, the following measures may be helpful (Evans et al., 2021):"},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"• Provide childcare. Making provisions for childcare -in a culturally acceptable way -is one of the most effective ways to improve women's participation. Not only does childcare free up women to participate, but it also sends the message that their participation is important • Use experienced, gender-sensitive facilitators • Ensure dialogue is carefully mediated to allow women to speak and influence decisions Beyond explicit efforts to include women in MSP processes, broader measures such as capacity development can also help to build the foundations for women's effective participation (CIFOR and ONAMIAP, 2020;Ratner et al., 2022), but those capacities needed should be defined with the women themselves. Investing long-term in the development of women leaders can be particularly significant -even with just one or two dynamic women leaders, the environment can change."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Working with men to encourage them to become allies is equally important (Evans et al., 2021)."},{"index":6,"size":58,"text":"It's also crucial to monitor how well your attempts to promote gender inclusivity are working -see 'How are we doing?' (Sarmiento Barletti et al., 2020) for more ideas. Another useful tool is the Gender Avenger Tally app -it's an interactive way to monitor in real time how much speaking time women, men, and other groups get in meetings."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"A member of the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve MSP (Madre de Dios, Peru) prepares for the implementation of How are we doing? Photo by Pavel Martiarena/CIFOR"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" How to: Design to include women "},{"text":" Members of the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve MSP (Madre de Dios, Peru) during the implementation of How are we doing? Photo by Pavel Martiarena/CIFOR "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"05e5ba9a-2c33-4d49-8481-af56f1076879","abstract":"Designing meaningful, inclusive spaces for transformative change How to: Design to include women Multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs) aim to field and include a broad range of perspectives in decisionmaking processes on land and resources. But women and particularly Indigenous and local community women often lose out on meaningful representation in these platforms.This happens for several reasons, including: Social norms: Embedded social structures discourage or even prohibit women from speaking in groups, especially in front of men.Gender roles: Women are often over-burdened with household duties, childcare and resource collection, leaving little time for meetings.Restrictions on mobility: Women either cannot travel because of household demands or lack of resources, or men will not let them.Lack of access to technology: This prohibits online engagement.Low literacy and education levels: Lack of information and capacity keep women from engaging in the issues and undermine their confidence.Low confidence: Many women stay silent through fear, even though they have important knowledge and opinions (Evans et al., 2021)."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"06e877bbd51e1e1286741fa9524c7858","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f01fe56e-4051-4b91-8bc0-1653e79c3075/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Challenges to securing rangelands and good management Crisis in terms of access to pastoral resources and land"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• Increasing conflicts between different land users particularly at local level (often politicized and manipulated by more powerful actors) e.g. Ethiopia and Kenya."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Crisis in terms of access to pastoral resources and land • Background paper for development of national land use policy."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• Undertaking of baselines in pastoral areas (x 4 -6500 HHs)with GoE -rich data source."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• Working with WRI on review of PRM (use of satellite imagery, plus local-level research)."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• Strengthening of PRM up-scaling e.g. WB-RPLRP."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• Studies on pastoral women and land (as part of a cross-CGIAR land governance flagship)."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• Definition of a pastoral household and relationship with social and ecological landscape -implications for aid and development delivery."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Complexity of pastoral land tenure • Difficult to define boundaries (porous), size, appropriate entry-point. • Multiple users & uses -primary, secondary, tertiary • Non-equilibrium ecosystem dynamics • Need landscape level, adaptive & nested management • Bad decisions eroding productivity • Bush encroachment and invasive species • Excising of key 'high productivity' resources, converting or over-using them • Lack of secure access rights or tenure • Little incentive to invest • \"Land grabbing\" CRISIS in terms of access to pastoral resources and land • Lack of attention at global levels (unlike forests for example)livestock production being challenged e.g. in terms of emissions and impact on climate change. • Still a general lack of support of pastoralism as a land use system at national levels. Decisions about land use made by non-local land users (models, pre-conceived ideas, carrying capacities) -lack of truly participatory approaches. • Continental and regional bodies failing to pressure national governments to abide by commitments to e.g. AU Framework on Pastoralism, Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure (VGGT), ECOWAS, EAC, IGAD -closed borders (Tanzania), blocked mobility, fractured communities. • Blockages in approval and lack of application of Pastoral Codes e.g. Cameroon. "},{"text":"• ILRI working with the International Land Coalition as a member -coordination of ILC's Rangelands Initiative global. A core partnership of ILRI, IFAD, FAO-PKH, UNEP and USbased Rangelands Partnership. • Connecting ILC members and partners -To strengthen community of practice on rangelands-land issues at global level. • Mobilising -To build the capacity of ILC members to mobilise and engage with decision-makers at global levels. • Influencing -To influencing changes in policy, legislation and global strategic frameworks. R4D at global level-ILC Rangelands Initiative and CRPs (Livestock and PIM) • Increasing attention to rangelands in global forum such as Committee for Food Security; WB Conference on Land and Poverty; VGGTs; • Development of indictors and matrix for measuring land tenure reform at national (global) levels (with ICARDA); • Campaign for IYR&P; • Developing global statement on land tenure in rangelandsincluding feeding information to LANDMARK (platform for mapping community lands), and Land Portal Foundation (Rangelands Tenure page). Documentation and mapping of land tenure in rangelands. • Working with UNEP on a gap analysis on rangelands (building on success of Resolution on sustainable pastoralism and rangelands at UNEA 2016). • Influencing international partners to pay more attention to rangelands & land; and supporting ILC RI Africa, Asia and LACs. • Improving understanding and appreciation of livestock as a food production and land use system. R4D on land governance and land use planning in Kenya • Working with National Land Commission -development of annex to County Spatial Planning on rangelands & technical toolkit. • Mapping of livestock routes and grazing areas -aim to assist counties to test the development of cross-county agreements. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"c5994dd0-7cd1-4bf7-8a36-001bb3fb426a","abstract":"Working with large conservation-driven organisations or NGOs, and projects to better understand pastoral and rangeland issues.• Proving technical support to \"participatory rangeland management\" (PRM) as an approach taking lessons from Ethiopia to Kenya and Tanzania working with national and county/local governments. • Learning Route of IFAD-Nigeria to Kenya and Tanzania."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0738cf2213b86093b04c9af76d15474f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ba1366de-ed11-43d8-a5ec-bdd521357f7a/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"This paper investigates the impact that climate change will have on countries' interdependence on genetic resources for food and agriculture. The extent of countries' interdependence on categories or sectors of genetic resources is an important consideration when evaluating and/or developing policies and norms oriented to the conservation, management, access to and use of such resources."}]},{"head":"Climate change","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"With respect to climate change, the most relevant prediction for this study is that, on average, global temperatures will likely increase worldwide by 0.2 degrees per decade. There will be both increases and decreases in precipitation. Droughts and floods will increase (IPCC 2007). The areas with climates that are now suited to a particular suite of crops, forages, livestock, trees, microbes, and aquaculture will shift in ways that are more favourable to a minority of countries and less favourable to the majority."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Climate modelling indicates that growing season temperatures in the tropics and subtropics by 2099 will be greater than the extremes recorded from 1900 to 2006. The hottest season to be recorded in the temperate regions will become the norm in many places. Extreme seasonal heat will severely lower the output of production systems (Battisti and Naylor 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":299,"text":"Looking ahead to 2050, the effects of global warming for maize, millet, and sorghum in Africa, for example, will be disastrous and will require concerted responses in crop breeding and the conservation of crop genetic resources: \"The majority of African countries will have novel climates over at least half of their current crop area by 2050. Of these countries, 75 percent will have novel climates with analogs in the current climate of at least five other countries, suggesting that international movement of germplasm will be necessary for adaptation. A more troubling set of countries -largely the hotter Sahelian countries -will have climates with few analogs for any crop (…) countries, such as Sudan, Cameroon, and Nigeria, whose current crop areas are analogs to many future climates but that are poorly represented in major gene banks - [provide] promising locations in which to focus future genetic resource conservation efforts (Burke et al. 2009).\" Climate change will be highly variable around the world. According to current models some countries/ regions will actually benefit as a result of having more, longer growing days as well as increased rainfall. These countries are in the minority. Most countries will experience climate change that work to their disadvantage, with temperature increases, longer droughts, and increasingly frequent, violent storms exacerbating stresses that have already been challenging their agricultural production systems. Based on existing models, it is reasonable to predict that as all countries' climates change, most countries' climates will become more similar to one another, with only a few countries' climates becoming, relative to the situation today, more different from most other countries' climates. As such, many countries may be headed towards common future conditions, leaving relatively fewer countries that can provide the genetic resources for needed food system adaptation to climate change in the future. "}]},{"head":"Countries' interdependence on genetic resources for food and agriculture","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Interdependence on genetic resources for food and agriculture (GRFA) refers to the extent to which individual countries rely upon GRFA originally collected from other countries in support of their food and agriculture-related research, conservation and production 1 ."},{"index":2,"size":296,"text":"The idea that countries are interdependent on GRFA is not new and has been documented in numerous studies (Frison & Halewood 2006). Countries' interdependence on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA) is evident in the international pedigrees of most modern crops and forages, which include 'parents' from numerous different countries and continents (Zeven and De Wet 1982, Gollin 1998, Cassaday et al. 2001). Countries' interdependence on PGRFA is also evident in the international movements of germplasm facilitated by international genebanks and research stations. In the course of just 12 months, the Centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) facilitate the international movement of approximately 450,000 samples of PGRFA, 80% of which is sent to developing countries, mostly to public agricultural research programmes (SGRP 2009). Interdependence on PGRFA is also evident in the fact that many major crop staples are now grown around the world, far from their centres of origin. Crops were domesticated over thousands of years in areas of the world that are now \"developing\" countries or regions. Interestingly, however, the adaptations of diets of people around the world has taken place to such an extent that most countries and regions -including those in centres of diversity -are heavily reliant on non-indigenous, imported germplasm of staple crops from other parts of the world. For example, southern Africa is more than 90 percent dependent on \"outside\" crops (Palacios 1998). Cassava is a major food source in Africa today (FAO 1997), while African millets and sorghums are major food crops in south Asia and Latin America (Kloppenburg and Kleinman 1987). The extensive cattle pastures of Latin America depend largely on African grasses (Miles et al. 1996;Boonman 1993). Alfalfa from south western Asia is now cultivated around the globe (Putnam et al. 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Forestry has also long benefited from the international movement of tree germplasm (Koskela et al. 2009)."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"The case is similar for livestock, with the private sector heavily involved in the international movement of farm animal genetic resources. Livestock producers have relied on the international exchange of genetic resources throughout human history. Analyses of animal genetic resources trade flows from 1990 to 2005 for 150 countries show that Europe and North America were the primary exporters of genetic resources for the species evaluated. North-South trade had the largest magnitude, followed by South-South, and, finally, South-North. Southern genetic resources are not currently used on a large scale in the North (Gibson and Pullin 2005;FAO 2007)."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"The management of aquatic resources has always reflected some degree of international collaboration simply because fish are free living and highly mobile, and the water bodies and aquatic ecosystems in which they live do not follow national boundaries. The limited number of major aquaculture species has been associated with considerable movement of genetic resources to areas having suitable ecological conditions around the globe. Over the past 100 centuries, agriculture has been characterized by an increasingly wider movement of crops, forages, farm animals, and, more recently, trees and fish."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"This study does not attempt to quantify baseline levels of interdependence and use this data to calculate quantified increases in that interdependence, but simply to assess whether climate change will result in countries requiring GRFA from outside their borders as part of their strategies to adapt (and, in some cases, to mitigate) climate change. Assuming all other demands remain equal, an increase in demand for resources from outside countries would result in an overall increase in interdependence. A decrease in demand would lead to a decrease in interdependence."}]},{"head":"Hypothesis and method","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Experts working in the conservation and use of crop, forage, tree, animal, microbial and aquatic genetic resources were asked to (1) describe and evaluate existing evidence (positive or negative) that climate change has increased or will increase countries' interdependence on the genetic resources concerned; (2) identify whatever gaps may exist in the literature that limit our ability to fully assess the impact of climate change in this way; and (3) summarize their final conclusions. The sector-specific studies were then compared for illuminating differences or similarities."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"A significant constraint faced in this research derives from the fact that numerous interrelated factors affect the way in which GRFA needs to be managed and used. It is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to isolate climate changerelated influences from those of other variables. The influence of climate change on countries' interdependence on GRFA is embedded in a broader, very complex range of variables. As a result it was often not possible to isolate simple cause and effect relationships between climate change and interdependence."}]},{"head":"Main findings","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"By and large, the balance of evidence supports the hypothesis that climate change will indeed lead to an overall increase in countries' levels of interdependence on genetic resources."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Crops and forages. Germplasm interdependence will perhaps be the greatest for crops, augmenting the already high (and well-documented) international movement of PGRFA that has been taking place for a long time. Interdependence on PGRFA will likely increase in association with adaptive crop improvement achieved through both conventional plant breeding and biotechnological methods. Interdependence will also increase as climate change creates the need to adopt new crops in particularly stressed areasmillets and sorghum in the place of maize, for example."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Trees. Countries' interdependence on tree germplasm will likely increase as a result of the future demands for genetic resources in support of both tree plantation and agroforestry use, both of which will require the adoption of new species and improved, better adapted varieties. Small-scale agroforesters will be especially reliant on externally facilitated access to introduced materials because their own abilities to find, test, and adopt new trees will likely be inadequate relative to the pace of climate change."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Livestock. As is the case for crops, forages, and trees, research to identify or develop livestock breeds that are better adapted to abiotic stresses will continue to be important. Germplasm movement in modern times has been facilitated largely through the private sector, and such movements will likely increase as climate change forces redistribution of breeds to match future conditions."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"Microbes. Microbial genetic resourceswhich are discovered, identified, isolated, sometimes genetically modified, and reproduced rather than bred -will play an extremely important role in future climate-changed scenario. On the one hand, crop diseases and disease vectors will likely redistribute and intensify as climate changes and as crops, crop cycles and crop distributions also change. On the other hand, researchers will need to respond with microbial-based solutions to ongoing and new problems in the form of, for example, specific pathogens or parasites to counter insect pests and vectors of plant diseases. The success of such research efforts will depend upon continued global public access to microbial resources."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Aquatic resources. Aquatic germplasm resources interdependence is discussed in a somewhat unique fashion because the transboundary nature of aquatic ecosystems means that aquatic resource management is necessarily interdependent. Germplasm exchange of the few aquacultural species discussed will continue largely through commercial channels. The implications for climate change-related interdependence are unclear because it does not appear that breeding for new climate-related conditions will be a major part of future strategies."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"The fact that the rate of climate change will likely exceed many organisms' adaptive capacity is a common denominator for all of the sectors studied. The case is most strongly made with respect to crops and forage varieties, animal breeds, and tree populations. The evidence is less conclusive for beneficial microbes and aquaculture species, but there are anecdotal accounts that point in this direction, and it is logical to expect that it should be so, although the greater mobility of organisms in these sectors could be a mitigating factor."},{"index":8,"size":64,"text":"The gap between the rate of climate change and the organisms' adaptive capacities will require significant adjustments in national agricultural production systems and planning. As some countries' climates gradually become more like other countries' present climates, they will be able to turn to portfolios of crop and forage species, varieties, livestock breeds, trees, microbes, and fish that are currently used in the latter countries."},{"index":9,"size":61,"text":"As most countries -particularly poor countries in areas already suffering drought, high temperatures, and devastating storms -move into having climates without precedent in the history of agriculture, they will be pushed together to seek common, internationally coordinated solutions. Such solutions will include reliance on \"outside\" sources of diversity, either of the same species currently in production or of new species entirely."},{"index":10,"size":84,"text":"The impact of climate change vis-à-vis pathogenic microbes is, in some respects, the corollary of its impact on crops, forages, livestock, and trees. Climate change will provide opportunities for pathogenic microbes (and their insect vectors) to thrive in parts of the world where previously they have had no, or only limited, impact. The effect will be to augment countries' dependence upon genetic resources from beyond their borders -in this case, as sources of genetic resistance to novel pests and diseases or as bio-control agents."},{"index":11,"size":27,"text":"Internationally coordinated efforts involving international movements of germplasm and associated information will be critical for countries' to be able to meet the challenges associated with climate change."},{"index":12,"size":43,"text":"It is critically important for policy makers to keep increasing interdependence on GRFA in mind when developing policies concerning the conditions under which genetic resources are conserved, managed, accessed and used, and the ways in which benefits derived from their use are shared."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Background Study Paper entitled 'The Impact of Climate Change on Countries' Interdependence on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture' for the Twelfth Session of the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. The purpose of the paper was to contribute to the Commission's consideration of policies and arrangements for access and benefit-sharing for genetic resources for food and agriculture. This document is an executive summary of that paper. The table of contents and authors are reproduced in Box 1. The Impact of Climate Change on Countries' Interdependence on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture An Executive Summary The System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) of the CGIAR coordinated the development of a November 2010 The Impact of Climate Change on Countries' Interdependence on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture An Executive Summary The System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) of the CGIAR coordinated the development of a November 2010 System-wide Genetic Resources System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) Programme (SGRP) of the Consultative Group on of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (CGIAR) c/o Bioversity International c/o Bioversity International Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a 00057 Maccarese 00057 Maccarese Rome, Italy Rome, Italy Tel: (39) 0661181 Tel: (39) 0661181 Fax: (39) 0661979661 Fax: (39) 0661979661 "}],"sieverID":"3971bb58-ce59-4c9c-b9ce-05849bd22670","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"080a80f2028dfcef7010b5c470c1124c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0b1cac73-dcdc-4058-9a26-beea10255fd8/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"WHEREAS, this PIA is intended to build on the relationship of teamwork, trust and mutual respect that exists among the participants in the CGIAR system, and this PIA will be implemented and interpreted in light of, and in furtherance of, such teamwork, trust and mutual respect; WHEREAS, this PIA will be implemented and interpreted in light of, and in furtherance of, the six reform principles of the CGIAR, which are: (1) pursuit of a clear vision with focused priorities that respond to global development challenges; (2) Center collaboration; (3) streamlined and effective system-level governance with clear accountability; (4) strong and innovative partnerships with National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), the private sector and civil society that enable impact; (5) strengthened and coordinated funding mechanisms that are linked to the systems agenda and priorities; (6) stabilization and growth of resources; WHEREAS, the Fund Council of the CGIAR Fund (\"Fund Council\"), represented by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (\"World Bank\"), and the Consortium have entered into a Consortium Performance Agreement (\"CPA\"), dated ______, for the CGIAR Research Program (\"CRP\") entitled __________[name of CRP] (\"this CRP\") to be financed in whole or in part by the CGIAR Fund (TF No. 069018) (\"CGIAR Fund\"); WHEREAS, on [•] 2011 the World Bank, on behalf of the Fund Council, and the Consortium entered into a Joint Agreement setting out certain terms and conditions governing the submission and approval of CRP proposals, the implementation and use of funds in resulting CRPs, including, with respect to the Consortium and Centers, the treatment of System Costs (the \"Joint Agreement\"); WHEREAS, the Consortium, made up of the 15 International Agricultural Research Centers supported by the CGIAR, was established as an independent international organization on 2 March 2012 with its headquarters in Montpellier, France; WHEREAS, until it is ready to carry out its business in its own name (\"Interim Period\"), the Consortium shall draw on the legal personality of Bioversity, a Center which has its international headquarters in Maccarese, Italy and an office in Montpellier, France, and which is authorized to enter into agreements and contract obligations on behalf of the Consortium under a Memorandum of Understanding between Bioversity and the Consortium Board on behalf of the Consortium dated February 23, 2011 (\"Bioversity MOU\")","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"WHEREAS, the Consortium and the Centers, including the Lead Center, will work collaboratively to advance the objectives of the CGIAR; WHEREAS, the Consortium submitted to the Fund Council a proposal for use of funds from Windows 1 and/or 2 of the CGIAR Fund for the implementation of this CRP (copy attached hereto as Exhibit [_]). The Fund Council approved the proposed CRP on _______, and the Fund Council and the Consortium entered into a CPA, upon which basis the Consortium is hereby entering into this Program Implementation Agreement with the Lead Center; and WHEREAS, this PIA governs the funding and implementation of this CRP; NOW THEREFORE, in consideration of the premises and the representations, warranties, covenants and agreements contained herein, and for other good and valuable consideration, the receipt and sufficiency of which are hereby acknowledged, and intending to be legally bound hereby, the Parties hereby agree as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"AMOUNT AND PURPOSE OF GRANT","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"1.1 Grant Amount. Based on the Fund Council approval of the Fund Council-Approved Component of the Total Budget for [__] years (a copy of the Total Budget is attached as Exhibit [ ]) set forth in this CRP's proposal, the amount of funds from Windows 1 and 2 of the CGIAR Fund that shall be disbursed from the CGIAR Fund to the Lead Center as part of this CRP is US$ _____________ (or the equivalent thereof) subject to revision by the Fund Council (\"Windows 1 and 2 Funds\"). Such disbursements shall be made according to the budgeted (yearly) amounts provided in the Consortium Performance Agreement applicable to this CRP and this CRP's proposal approved by the Fund Council, as may be amended from time to time, and at all times subject to the availability of funds in the CGIAR Fund."}]},{"head":"1.2","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Use of Windows 1 and 2 Funds."}]},{"head":"(a)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"As set forth in the Glossary, \"Window 1 Funds\" means funds disbursed from Window 1 of the CGIAR Fund. \"Window 2 Funds\" means funds disbursed from Window 2 of the CGIAR Fund."}]},{"head":"(i)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Funds deposited into Window 1 shall consist of (a) any funds designated to Window 1 by Fund Donors, (b) refunds from recipients, including the Trustee and Fund Office, regardless of the Window from which the funds were originally received, (c) any investment income generated by funds held in the CGIAR Fund, (d) the CSP amounts from Windows 2 and 3 and the Provisional Account, and (e) the Bilateral Portion of System Costs. Window 1 funds may be allocated by the Fund Council to CRPs, in consultation with the Consortium, and to System Costs."}]},{"head":"(ii)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Funds deposited into Window 2 shall consist of funds directed by Fund Donors to specific CRPs proposed by the Consortium and approved by the Fund Council as eligible to receive Window 2 subaccount funding."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The Windows 1 and 2 Funds, and any investment income earned thereon, shall be used only for the purposes described in this CRP's proposal."}]},{"head":"(c)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The Lead Center may use, and may allow the Program Participants to use, Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP to retroactively pay for expenditures incurred as part of this CRP as of the start date of this CRP which is set to be on [_________] (\"Start Date of this CRP\") 1 . For the avoidance of doubt, this PIA does not impose on the Lead Center any obligation to carry out activities under this CRP if the corresponding Window 1 or 2 Funds are not disbursed to the Lead Center under this PIA. (For purposes of this PIA, \"Program Participants\" shall be limited to Program Participants in this CRP.)"}]},{"head":"1.3","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Investment of Windows 1 and 2 Funds. The Lead Center agrees, and shall require all Program Participants to agree, that all yet-to-be spent or committed Windows 1 and 2 Funds, which have been disbursed to the Lead Center or any such Program Participant, must be invested in highly liquid investments (such as an interest-bearing bank account) with the primary objective of preserving principal so that they remain available for funding of this CRP in the manner described in this PIA. Any interest or other income generated by such Windows 1 and 2 Funds, including currency conversion gains, shall be (i) used only for the purposes described in this CRP's proposal or (ii) if not needed for such purposes, returned to the Trustee for deposit as Window 1 Funds. The Lead Center and any Program Participants may freely exchange Windows 1 and 2 Funds into other currencies as may facilitate their use and disbursement. Any currency conversion losses that are incurred in implementing this CRP shall be taken into account as a reasonable, allocable and allowable expense of this CRP. 2"}]},{"head":"CRP MANAGEMENT","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Management Structure. This CRP shall be managed as set forth in this CRP's proposal approved by the Fund Council."}]},{"head":"PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"3.1 Partners/Subcontractors. The Lead Center may use Windows 1 and 2 Funds to partner or subcontract with Program Participants for the implementation and completion of this CRP. The Lead Center shall require any Program Participants in this CRP to operate this CRP in accordance with this PIA and all applicable Fund Use Agreements to which the Consortium is a party (copy [copies] attached as Exhibit [ ]), which consist of the Joint Agreement and the Consortium Performance Agreement applicable to this CRP). (For purposes of this PIA, \"Consortium Performance Agreement\" or \"CPA\" will refer to the CPA applicable to this CRP.) If a Program Participant informs the Lead Center that such Program Participant has other third party contractual obligations, internal policies or statutory or regulatory requirements that differ from this PIA, the Joint Agreement or the CPA, the Lead Center may take such issues into consideration in formulating the governing Subagreement; provided, however, that the Lead Center first consults with the Consortium and, to the extent that any failure to flow down provisions from this PIA, the Joint Agreement or the CPA to such Subagreement adversely affects the Consortium's ability to fulfill its contractual obligations to the Fund Council or Fund Donors, receives the Consortium's advance, written approval."}]},{"head":"3.2","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Oversight by Lead Center. The Lead Center shall be responsible for overseeing the implementation of this CRP by Program Participants and for all payments to and reporting from Program Participants."}]},{"head":"3.3","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Procurement. The Lead Center shall, and shall require all Centers participating in this CRP to, use Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP in accordance with the existing CGIAR Procurement of Goods, Works and Services Guidelines (No. 6), which apply as part of this PIA, unless and until replaced by the relevant section expected to form part of a chapter of the Common Operational Framework upon approvals by the Fund Council and Consortium, which shall be consistent with the CGIAR reform principle of streamlined and effective system-level governance with clear accountability. (Any such replacement by the relevant section of the Common Operational Framework shall provide for a period of transition to such new guidelines to limit to an absolute minimum any additional costs to by incurred by the Lead Center or other Centers participating in this CRP.)"}]},{"head":"3.4","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Due Diligence by Lead Center."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(a)"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"The Lead Center, either directly or through other Centers participating in this CRP, shall conduct due diligence and review of Program Participants to the extent deemed necessary or appropriate by the Lead Center. "}]},{"head":"3.5","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Material Changes. Except as specified in this CRP, or as otherwise approved by the Consortium, the Lead Center agrees, and shall require the Program Participants to agree, to seek approval from the Consortium to make material revisions to this CRP, including for the following reasons: (i) to change the scope or the objectives of this CRP or to add any new material activity ; (ii) to change any budget line item of this CRP's Total Budget by more than (y) 10 percent or (z) $500,000, whichever is lower; and (iii) to request an increase in the Fund Council-Allocated Component or in the Total Budget. 4"}]},{"head":"CSP AND OTHER COSTS","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"4.1 Cost Allocations. The Lead Center shall, and shall require Program Participants to, use Windows 1 and 2 Funds for costs incurred in carrying out this CRP only to the extent that such costs are reasonable, allocable and allowable, as defined in the Financial Guidelines No. 5 CGIAR Cost Allocation Guidelines."}]},{"head":"4.2","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Reimbursements. The Consortium shall not be obligated to reimburse the Lead Center or any Program Participants for costs incurred in excess of the total Windows 1 and 2 Funds committed in this PIA. The Lead Center shall not be obligated to continue performance under this PIA, or otherwise to incur costs in excess of the amounts committed and/or actually transferred under this PIA, unless and until further funds from the CGIAR Fund have been allocated and distributed through amendments specifying the new committed amounts."}]},{"head":"4.3","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Bilateral Funds. The Lead Center shall, and shall require each Center participating in this CRP to, accept Bilateral Funding for the implementation of the SRF under agreements or arrangements entered into after the effective date of the Joint Agreement or additional funding after the effective date of the Joint Agreement under existing agreements or arrangements only when the CSP for such funding is provided for in such Bilateral Funding agreements or arrangements or is otherwise to be paid by the Lead Center, or such Centers, from operating or unrestricted funds. In addition, the Lead Center shall also cause each Center to require, through appropriate Subagreements, any other Center to accept Bilateral Funding for the implementation of the SRF only under such conditions. In exceptional circumstances, the Consortium and the Fund Council may waive this requirement for collecting the CSP from all Bilateral Funding received directly by a Center."}]},{"head":"4.4","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Windows 1, 2 and 3 Funds. Neither the Lead Centers, nor any Centers participating in this CRP, shall have any obligation to collect or otherwise pay the CSP on funds disbursed through Windows 1, 2 or 3. The Parties understand that the Trustee of the CGIAR Fund shall collect the CSP before such funds are disbursed from the CGIAR Fund."}]},{"head":"REPORTING","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"5.1 General."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(a)"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"The Lead Center shall submit to the Consortium all reports described in the harmonized reporting requirements (reporting templates) approved as part of the Common Operational Framework."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Notwithstanding any provision in this Section 5, the Lead Center shall provide reports to the Consortium as may be reasonably necessary for the Consortium to comply with its reporting obligations provided in the Joint Agreement or the Consortium Performance Agreement (as noted previously, copies attached as Exhibits [ ] and [ ])."}]},{"head":"5.2","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Financial Reporting."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(a)"},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"The Lead Center shall maintain, and shall require that any Program Participants maintain, books, records, documents, and other evidence in accordance with their respective usual accounting procedures to sufficiently substantiate, in a manner reasonably satisfactory to the Consortium, financial data relating to this CRP. The Lead Center may, in exceptional circumstances, accept Bilateral Funding from a donor that refuses to allow its name to be disclosed. In such circumstances, the Lead Center shall identify the donor as \"anonymous,\" but shall disclose the funds received from such donor in all relevant reports and shall explain to the Consortium the justifications for keeping such donor's identity anonymous."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"The Lead Center agrees, and shall require Program Participants to agree, that the Fund Council and any Fund Donor reserves the right to request separate audited financial statements or reports for portions of this CRP financed by Windows 1 or 2 Funds; provided that any such requesting Fund Donor(s) have a statutory, regulatory or policy environment requiring such Fund Donor(s)' ability to make a request unilaterally and have negotiated such rights through its respective Contribution Agreement or Contribution Arrangement. The cost of any such separate audited financial statements or reports, including the internal costs of the Lead Center, Centers and other Program Participants with respect to such statements or reports, shall be paid by the requesting Fund Council (through the Fund Office budget) or Fund Donor(s), as the case may be. The Lead Center shall, and shall require any Program Participants, to: (i) retain all records evidencing expenditures of Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed pursuant to this PIA for at least three years after the termination of this CRP as part of which such Windows 1 and 2 Funds were provided; (ii) permit designated representatives of the Consortium or the Fund Council to examine such records; (iii) provide to the Consortium and the Fund Council all such information concerning such records as they may from time to time reasonably request."}]},{"head":"5.3","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Activity, Output, Outcome and Impact Reporting."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"(a) Within six months of the completion of this CRP, the Lead Center shall provide a final report, in a format agreed to in advance with the Consortium, regarding this CRP."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The Lead Center shall promptly inform the Consortium of any conditions that interfere or threaten to interfere with this CRP or with the Lead Center's obligations under this PIA."}]},{"head":"5.4","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Annual Reports. The Lead Center shall provide to the Consortium upon request, and shall require any other Center participating in this CRP to provide to the Consortium upon request, a copy of any annual report that the Lead Center or such Center, as the case may be, prepares on a project funded with Bilateral Funds."}]},{"head":"MONITORING AND EVALUATION","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"6.1 General."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"(a) Notwithstanding any provision in this Section 6, the Lead Center agrees, and shall require the Program Participants with respect to this CRP to agree, that the Consortium has the right to commission evaluations of the Lead Center and the Program Participants in connection with activities undertaken by the Lead Center and Program Participants with respect to this CRP as may be reasonably necessary to comply with the Consortium's obligations provided in the Joint Agreement or any Fund Use Agreement to which it is a party (as noted previously, copies attached as Exhibits [ ] and [ ]). If the costs of such evaluations have not be approved as part of this CRP, the Consortium shall pay the fees and expenses relating to such evaluations out of its share of the Systems Costs, or otherwise arrange for such payment. For the and uphold the highest standards of integrity in the administration of such Windows 1 and 2 Funds, including the prevention of fraud and corruption."}]},{"head":"(d)","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The Lead Center shall, and shall require Program Participants to, agree that Windows 1 and 2 Funds received as part of this CRP shall not be used for payments for which corrupt, fraudulent, collusive, obstructive, or coercive practices were engaged in by representatives of the Lead Center or Program Participants."}]},{"head":"(e)","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The Lead Center shall, and shall require Program Participants to, promptly report to the Consortium any occurrence of which the Lead Center or Program Participants, respectively, becomes aware of any Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP being used for purposes other than as provided in this PIA."}]},{"head":"(f)","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The Lead Center shall confirm, and shall require the Program Participants to confirm, that, given the activities funded by Windows 1 and 2 Funds, such recipient does not believe that Windows 1 and 2 Funds would be diverted in support of drug trafficking."}]},{"head":"(g)","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The Lead Center agrees, and shall require the Program Participants to agree, to use their best efforts, to the extent allowed by applicable agreements, such as those signed by host governments, and other applicable laws, to ensure that their use of any funds disbursed from the Fund (including Window 3 Funds) will be free from any taxation or fees imposed under local laws."}]},{"head":"(h)","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"The Lead Center is not aware, and shall obtain assurance from each Program Participant that it is not aware, of information that indicates the need for further scrutiny of the use of the Windows 1 and 2 Funds (including non-frivolous allegations that corrupt, fraudulent, collusive or coercive practices were undertaken in relation to such use). In the event that the Lead Center becomes aware of information that indicates the need for further scrutiny of use of the Windows 1 and 2 Funds in violation of this section of this PIA (including nonfrivolous allegations that corrupt, fraudulent, collusive or coercive practices were undertaken in relation to the use of the Windows 1 and 2 Funds), the Lead Center shall promptly notify the Consortium thereof. The Lead Center agrees to include corresponding provisions with respect to Program Participants in any Subagreement."}]},{"head":"(i)","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The Lead Center agrees, and shall require the Program Participants to agree, to provide appropriate attribution for all Fund Donors for this CRP that is funded with Windows 1 and 2 Funds. The Consortium shall provide the Lead Center with clear guidelines regarding such attribution as soon as such guidelines are received from the Fund Council."}]},{"head":"(j)","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The Lead Center agrees, and shall require the Program Participants to agree, to carry out all regulated research activities under high standards (set with reference to internationally accepted practices and to be described in the Common Operational Framework) and in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. The Lead Center agrees to indemnify the Consortium for any damages arising from such this CRP-related activities financed by Windows 1 and 2 Funds, except to the extent that such damages are the result of the Consortium's actions. In the event any amounts are received by the Consortium under such indemnification, the Consortium shall determine the allocation or distribution of such amounts."}]},{"head":"(k)","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The Lead Center acknowledges and supports the CGIAR policy of full cost recovery from all sources of financing for implementation of the SRF. The Lead Center shall require Program Participants in this CRP to accept bilateral funds for implementation of this CRP only at full cost recovery. In exceptional circumstances, the Consortium and the Fund Council may waive this requirement for full cost recovery."}]},{"head":"8.2","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Liabilities. None of the Fund Donors, the Trustee, the Fund Office or the Consortium shall be responsible for the activities of any person or third party engaged by the Lead Center, any Center or any Program Participants with use of Windows 1 and 2 Funds or as a result of this PIA, or any Window 3 Transfer Agreement or Subagreement; nor will the Fund Donors, the Trustee, Fund Office or Consortium be liable for any costs incurred by such recipients in terminating the engagement of any such person."}]},{"head":"PROHIBITED USE OF WINDOWS 1 AND 2 FUNDS","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"9.1 Prohibited Use of Windows 1 and 2 Funds."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(a)"},{"index":3,"size":262,"text":"Recognizing the obligations of countries that are members of the United Nations under various United Nations Security Council resolutions to take measures to prevent financing of terrorists, the Lead Center agrees, and shall require the Program Participants to agree, to undertake to use reasonable efforts, consistent with their governing arrangements and policies, including those pertaining to combating financing for terrorists, to ensure that the Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP are used for their intended purposes and are not diverted to individuals or entities associated with terrorism, as identified in accordance with relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions. The Lead Center shall, and shall require Program Participants, (i) not use such Windows 1 and 2 Funds for the purpose of any payment to persons or entities, or for the import of goods, if such payment or import, to the recipient's knowledge or belief, is prohibited by a decision of the United Nations Security Council taken under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, including under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 and related resolutions, and (ii) include a corresponding provision in any Subagreements that the recipient enters into with entities to which the recipient makes such Windows 1 and 2 Funds available. While the Lead Center and all Program Participants must comply with the prohibition set forth in this Section 9.1(a), for the avoidance of doubt, this Section 9.1(a) does not prevent the Lead Center and/or Program Participants from operating or partnering in territories where threats of terrorism may be present."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The Lead Center shall not partner with any other organization or subcontractor in implementing this CRP that (a) appears on the List of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons maintained by the U.S. Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control or any similar list maintained by the European Union, or (b) within the past five years, has been found guilty or liable under any anti-money laundering, trading with the enemy, antibribery or similar statutes of any country, or is under investigation with respect to any of the foregoing and such investigation has been publicly announced by the investigating entity or body."}]},{"head":"(c)","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"The Lead Center agrees, and shall require the Program Participants to agree, not to discriminate against persons with disabilities in the implementation of this CRPrelated activities financed by Windows 1 and 2 Funds, and to make every effort to respect the principles of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in performing such activities. To that end, and to the extent this goal can be accomplished within the scope of the objectives of this CRP, each of the Lead Center and any Program Participants involved in an activity financed by Windows 1 and 2 Funds should demonstrate a comprehensive and consistent approach for including men, women and children with disabilities consistent with such principles: (1) respect for inherent dignity, individual autonomy including the freedom to make one's own choices, and independence of persons; (2) non-discrimination; (3) full and effective participation and inclusion in society; (4) respect for difference and acceptance of persons with disabilities as part of human diversity and humanity; (5) equality of opportunity; (6) accessibility; (7) equality between men and women; and (8) respect for the evolving capacities of children with disabilities. The full text of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities can be found at the following website: http://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/convoptprot-e.pdf."}]},{"head":"9.2","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Lobbying. The Lead Center agrees that no portion of Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP is earmarked for lobbying activity, defined as attempting to influence legislation (1) through affecting the opinion of the general public or any segment thereof (i.e. grassroots lobbying), or (2) through communications with any member or employee of a legislative body."}]},{"head":"9.3","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Electioneering. The Lead Center confirms that Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP shall not be used to influence the outcome of any specific public election or to directly or indirectly carry on any voter registration drive."}]},{"head":"9.4","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Return of Windows 1 and 2 Funds."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(a)"},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The Lead Center shall promptly return to the Consortium without request any portion of Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP that is unexpended or uncommitted at the termination of this CRP (including approved extensions), or used for purposes or in a manner other than as provided in this CRP or the terms and conditions of this PIA."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The Lead Center shall require the Program Participants to promptly return to the Lead Center without request any portion of Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP that is unexpended or uncommitted at the termination of this CRP (including approved extensions), or used for purposes or in a manner other than as provided in this CRP or the terms and conditions of the governing Subagreement."}]},{"head":"TERM","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Upon the last duly authorized signature of this PIA as provided below, this PIA shall be effective as of the Start Date of this CRP as set forth in Section 1.2 (c) above (\"Effective Date\"), and until this CRP is completed and all obligations of the Consortium and the Lead Center relating to this CRP, as provided in this PIA and this CRP's proposal, are completed. The Parties agree to conduct a formal review of this PIA by May 31, 2013 and make any necessary amendments."}]},{"head":"TERMINATION/SUSPENSION","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"11.1 Termination/Suspension."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"(a)"},{"index":3,"size":195,"text":"The Consortium has the right to suspend or terminate this PIA, and/or discontinue making payments under this CRP if the Fund Council terminates the governing CPA with the Consortium or the Fund Council or the Trustee suspends or terminates disbursements from the CGIAR Fund to the Lead Center as part of this CRP. If the Consortium, in consultation with the Fund Council, determines that the Lead Center is not complying with any material terms or conditions of this PIA or any material activities implementing this CRP are not progressing efficiently or effectively, or that such activities are failing to reach planned indicators or results, in a manner that merits corrective action, the Consortium may notify the Lead Center of its view with recommendations for improvement with regard to this CRP or with a request that the Lead Center propose corrective measures designed to address such shortcomings. If the Lead Center does not address any such material shortcomings, the Consortium shall have the right, in consultation with the Fund Council, to suspend or terminate this PIA and notify the Trustee to discontinue making further disbursements from the CGIAR Fund to the Lead Center for this CRP."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The Lead Center has the right to suspend performance under this PIA if the Consortium fails to submit Payment Requests to the Fund Council as required in the CPA for this CRP and /or if the Trustee fails to distribute the requested funds from Window 1 or Window 2."}]},{"head":"(c)","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Upon termination, the Lead Center shall (i) promptly return to the Consortium (or the CGIAR Fund, if directed to do so by the Consortium), any unspent or uncommitted Windows 1 and 2 Funds disbursed from the CGIAR Fund for use in this CRP and held by the Lead Center (as of the date of termination), (ii) proceed with terminating its Subagreements with Program Participants and (iii) promptly collect such unspent or uncommitted Windows 1 and 2 Funds from such Program Participants and return such funds to the Consortium (or the CGIAR Fund, if directed to do so by the Consortium)."}]},{"head":"(d)","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The Parties may suspend or terminate this PIA by mutual agreement."}]},{"head":"MISCELLANEOUS","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"12.1 Successors and Assigns. This PIA shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of the Parties and their respective successors and assigns; provided that no Party may assign its rights or delegate its obligations under this PIA without the express prior written consent of the other Party. As noted in section 12.10 below, this requirement for prior written consent shall not apply to the anticipated assignment and transfer of this PIA by Bioversity to the Consortium after the Consortium obtains its international organization status. 12.2 Notices."}]},{"head":"(a)","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"All notices, requests and other communications hereunder shall be deemed to have been duly delivered, given or made to or upon any party hereto if in writing and delivered personally, sent by documented overnight delivery service or, to the extent receipt is confirmed, telecopy, telefax or other electronic transmission service to the appropriate address or number as set forth below."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"If to the Consortium: ____________________ or at such other address and to the attention of such other person as the Consortium may designate by written notice to the Lead Center."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"If to the Lead Center: ____________________ or at such other address and to the attention of such other person as the Lead Center may designate by written notice to the Consortium."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The date of delivery of any such notice, request or other communication shall be the earlier of (i) the date of actual receipt or (ii) three business days after such notice, request or other communication is sent, if sent by certified or registered mail, (iii) if sent by courier who guarantees next business day delivery, the business day next following the day such notice, request or other communication is actually delivered to the courier or (iv) the day actually telecopied, telefaxed or electronically transmitted."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"12.3 English Language. All documents to be furnished or any communications made under this PIA shall be in English or, if another language, accompanied by a certified translation into English, which translation shall govern between the Consortium and the Lead Center."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"12.4 Amendments and Waivers."}]},{"head":"(a)","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Any provision of this PIA may be amended or waived if, but only if, such amendment or waiver is in writing and is signed, in the case of an amendment, by each Party, or in the case of a waiver, by each Party against whom the waiver is to be effective."}]},{"head":"(b)","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"No failure or delay by any Party in exercising any right, power or privilege hereunder shall operate as waiver thereof nor shall any single or partial exercise thereof preclude any other or further exercise thereof or the exercise of any other right, power or privilege. The rights and remedies herein provided shall be cumulative and not exclusive of any rights or remedies provided by law."}]},{"head":"(c)","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"No provision of this PIA is intended to be, or should be construed as, a waiver of any privileges and immunities of any Party, or the officers or employees or any Party, which privileges and immunities are expressly reserved. No delay in exercising, or omission to exercise, any right or remedy under this PIA shall impair any such right or remedy or be construed to be a waiver thereof."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"12.5 Governing Law; Severability. This PIA is governed by and shall be construed in accordance with the law of the State of New York without regard to its conflict or choice of law provisions. This choice of law provision is not an agreement by the Parties to be subjected to the jurisdiction of the courts, administrative agencies or other governmental bodies of the State of New York. Any provision or the application of such provision hereof that is invalid, illegal or unenforceable in any jurisdiction shall be ineffective only to the extent of such invalidity or unenforceability, without affecting in any way the remaining provisions hereof or the validity or enforceability of such provision in any other jurisdiction and shall not affect any other provision hereof. The Parties shall negotiate in good faith to replace any provision so held to be invalid or"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" possible, the Lead Center shall, and shall require Program Participants to, carry reasonable liability insurance in connection with the activities of this CRP in light of the insurance available, the activities being undertaken by the Lead Center or Program Participants, and the Windows 1 and 2 Funds involved. 3 Such liability insurance carried by the Center or any Program Participant shall be an expense reimbursable from Window 1 and Window 2 Funds to the extent included in the Fund Council-Allocated Component for this CRP and approved by the Fund Council. (c) CRP Implementation. The Lead Center shall work collaboratively with the Centers and Program Participants to ensure that this CRP is implemented in compliance with this PIA. "}],"sieverID":"f3b339f4-eadf-4e01-8dbb-d2592c6d4717","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0892f6eac3b8da2f60af0fffc1c54437","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bb7843c7-b697-4994-9111-c52c9c548da6/retrieve"},"pageCount":63,"title":"Descri ptors for","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION TO SHEA TREE","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"The shea-nut tree, Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn, is a major component of the woody flora of the Sudan and Guinea savannah vegetation zones of sub-Saharan Africa. (Lovett and Haq, 2000). V. paradoxa is indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa, and generally only found in semi-arid to arid areas north of the humid forest zone (CABI, 2003). The species' range forms an almost unbroken belt approximately 5,000 km long by 500 km wide from Senegal to Uganda (Bonkoungou, 1987). The most important product of V. paradoxa is shea butter (francophone: le beurre de Karité), which is extracted from the dried kernels. This oil is widely utilized locally for domestic purposes such as cooking, as a skin moisturizer and as an illuminant (Lovett and Haq, 2000). Shea butter is also utilized commercially as an ingredient in cosmetic, pharmaceutical and edible products (Abbiw, 1990)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Different names used for Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. F. C. F. Gaertn., Fruct. 3: 131, t. 205. 1807 Lucuma paradoxa (C. F. Gaertn.) A. DC., Prodr. 8: 173. 1844 Butyrospermum paradoxum (C. F. Gaertn.) Hepper in Taxon 11: 227. 1962. -Holotype: Single seed of unknown origin (P). -Epitype: \"Interior of Africa, Mungo Park (BM)."}]},{"head":"Vitellaria paradoxa","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"subsp. paradoxa","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Bassia parkii G. Don, Gard. Dict. 4: 36, 1838. Butyrospermum parkii (G. Don) Kotschy, Sitzungsber. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss., Abt. 1,50(1): 359, t. 2. 1865. B. paradoxum (C. F. Gaertn.) Hepper, Taxon 11: 227. 1962. B. paradoxum subsp. parkii (G. Don) Hepper, Taxon 11: 227. 1962. subsp. nilotica (Kotschy) Henry, Chithra et Nair, comb. nov. 1983 Butyrospermum niloticum Kotschy, Sitzungsber. Kaiserl. Akad. Wiss., Abt. 1,50(1): 358. 1865. B. parkii subsp. niloticum (Kotschy) Hemsley, Kew Bull. 15: 290. 1961. B. paradoxum subsp. niloticum (Kotschy) Hepper, Taxon 11: 227. 1962. (Henry et al., 1983;Hall & Hindle, 1995) The subsp. nilotica (from east Africa) is distinguished from the subsp. paradoxa (from West Africa) by dense ferruginous indumentum on pedicels and outer sepals, the constituent hairs being long and spreading and imparting a woolly appearance to these parts, especially in the bud stages. In addition, the flowers tend to be larger, with style lengths from 12-15 cm in paradoxa (Hemsley, 1968)."}]},{"head":"Other names","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Shea-butter tree (English), se (Bambara) Ka'danya (Hausa), kareje (Fulani), lulu (Arabic), karité (French). Bambara = chii, sarakolé = karté, malinké = sié."}]},{"head":"Origin","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Shea-butter tree is found in areas with 400-1800 mm rainfall per year. The species is of African origin. Its distribution area spreads from Senegal to Uganda (West-East Africa) and up to the Adamaoua Province in Cameroon (North-South Africa). The locations from which Shea germplasm was introduced to other countries in Africa is not well known due to vegetation changes. The species has probably spread out from refugia. Secondly, there have been aspects of human management that suggest semi-domestication is ongoing."}]},{"head":"Uses","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"The fruit when very ripe is either eaten as a snack, but it is also a famine food. It can be eaten raw or lightly cooked. The pulp can be processed into juice. According to McAllan et al. 1996 the pulp could be also removed by fermentation. The nuts are laid out to dry in the sun. The kernels are extracted usually before the butter making starts, by cracking open the nuts with stones or gently pounding in a mortar and the powder is made into butter. Shea-butter, or shea-oil, is used in factories to produce baking fat, margarine, cocoa butter substitutes and various moisturing beauty and pharmaceutical products. Well made, the butter can be stored for many months if wrapped in leaves and kept cool."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The unsaponifiable components are used to cure third degree burned victims while the butter is widely used for cooking African foods, traditional medicines and is more and more incorporated in chocolate. The leaves constitute a good forage for animal feeding. They are also used to improve soil fertility. The wood is termite-resistant and is used as building poles."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"An edible caterpillar (McAllan et al., 1996) which feeds only Vitellaria paradoxa is dried and sold in the markets of some countries. It is rich in protein."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"The oldest known botanical specimen of Vitellaria was apparently collected by Mungo Park, and is currently held in the Natural History Museum in London (Hall et al, 1996)."},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"Early commercial interest in the shea butter resource among European manufacturers is evident from many reports written during the first quarter of the 20 th century. The monograph by Vuillet (1911), underlines French awareness of the importance and future potential of the shea butter tree. Vuillet's book, illustrated with early photographs, and apparently the first monographic account of any wild tropical African tree, gives detailed chemical analyses of the nut, butter, oil, cake and latex. It also contains much information on trade within West Africa and with Europe."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"IPGRI uses the following definitions in genetic resources documentation:"},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"Passport descriptors: These provide the basic information used for the general management of the accession (including registration at the genebank and other identification information) and describe parameters that should be observed when the accession is originally collected."}]},{"head":"Management descriptors:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"These provide the basis for the management of accessions in the genebank and assist with their multiplication and regeneration."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Environment and site descriptors: These describe the environmental and site-specific parameters that are important when characterization and evaluation trials are held. They can be important for the interpretation of the results of those trials. Site descriptors for germplasm collecting are also included here."}]},{"head":"Characterization descriptors:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"These enable an easy and quick discrimination between phenotypes. They are generally highly heritable, can be easily seen by the eye and are equally expressed in all environments. In addition, these may include a limited number of additional traits thought desirable by a consensus of users of the particular crop."}]},{"head":"Evaluation descriptors:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The expression of many of the descriptors in this category will depend on the environment and, consequently, special experimental designs and techniques are needed to assess them. Their assessment may also require complex biochemical or molecular characterization methods. These types of descriptors include characters such as yield, agronomic performance, stress susceptibilities and biochemical and cytological traits. They are generally the most interesting traits in crop improvement."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Characterisation will normally be the responsibility of genebank curators, while evaluation will typically be carried out elsewhere (possibly by a multidisciplinary team of scientists). The evaluation data should be fed back to the genebank, which will maintain a data file."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Highly discriminating descriptors are indicated as highlighted text and listed in Annex I."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"The following internationally accepted norms for the scoring, coding and recording of descriptor states should be followed:"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"(a) the Système International d'Unités (SI) is used;"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"(b) the units to be applied are given in square brackets following the descriptor name;"},{"index":7,"size":75,"text":"(c) standard colour charts, e.g. is the expression of a character. The authors of this list have sometimes described only a selection of the states, e.g. 3, 5 and 7 for such descriptors. Where this has occurred, the full range of codes is available for use by extension of the codes given or by interpolation between them, e.g. in Section 10 (Biotic stress susceptibility), 1 = very low susceptibility and 9 = very high susceptibility;"},{"index":8,"size":118,"text":"(f) when a descriptor is scored using a 1-9 scale, such as in (e), '0' would be scored when (i) the character is not expressed; (ii) a descriptor is inapplicable. In the following example, '0' will be recorded if an accession does not have a central leaf lobe: (i) for accessions which are not generally uniform for a descriptor (e.g. mixed collection, genetic segregation), the mean and standard deviation could be reported where the descriptor is continuous. Where the descriptor is discontinuous, several codes in the order of frequency could be recorded; or other publicized methods can be utilized, such as Rana et al. (1991) or van Hintum (1993), that clearly state a method for scoring heterogeneous accessions;"},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"(j) dates should be expressed numerically in the format YYYYMMDD, where YYYY -4 digits to represent the year MM -2 digits to represent the month DD -2 digits to represent the day."}]},{"head":"Accession descriptors 1.1 Institute code","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"[MCPD] Code of the institute where the accession is maintained. The codes consist of the 3-letter ISO 3166 country code of the country where the institute is located plus a number. The current set of Institute Codes is available from FAO website (http://apps3.fao.org/views). If new Institute Codes are required, they can be generated online by national WIEWS administrators."}]},{"head":"Accession number","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"[MCPD] This number serves as a unique identifier for accessions within a genebank collection, and is assigned when a sample is entered into the genebank collection. Once assigned, this number should never be reassigned to another accession in the collection. Even if an accession is lost, its assigned number should never be re-used. Letters should be used before the number to identify the genebank or national system (e.g. IDG indicates an accession that comes from the genebank in Bari, Italy; CGN indicates an accession from the genebank in Wageningen, The Netherlands; PI indicates an accession within the USA system)."}]},{"head":"Local plant number","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This identifies a single plant within a population of plants having the same accession number. It may be any combination of plot identity, row number, or tree position within the row "}]},{"head":"1.8","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Scientific name"}]},{"head":"Genus","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"[MCPD] Genus name for taxon. Initial uppercase letter required."}]},{"head":"Species","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"[MCPD] Specific epithet portion of the scientific name in lowercase letters. The abbreviation \"sp.\" is allowed."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Species authority"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"[MCPD] Provide the authority for the species name"}]},{"head":"Subtaxa","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"[MCPD] Subtaxa can be used to store any additional taxonomic identifier."}]},{"head":"Rank name","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The rank of the subtaxon name. The following abbreviations are allowed: 'subsp.' (for subspecies); convar.' (for convariety); 'var.' (for variety); 'f' (for form)."}]},{"head":"Subtaxon name","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The infraspecific epithet, i.e. the epithet following the indication of the infraspecific rank in the name string (trinomial)."}]},{"head":"Subtaxon authority","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Provide the subtaxon authority at the most detailed taxonomic level"}]},{"head":"Ancestral data","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"[MCPD] Information about either pedigree or other description of ancestral information (i.e. parent variety in case of mutant or selection). For example, a pedigree 'Hanna/7*Atlas// Turk/8*Atlas' or a description 'mutation found in Hanna', 'selection from Irene' or 'cross involving, amongst others, Hanna and Irene'. [MCPD] Either a registered or other formal designation given to the accession. First letter uppercase. Multiple names separated with semicolon without space. For example: Rheinische Vorgebirgstrauben; Emma; Avlon"}]},{"head":"Synonyms","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Include here any previous identification other than the current name. Collecting number or newly assigned station names are frequently used as identifiers."}]},{"head":"Common tree name","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"[MCPD] Name of the tree in colloquial language, preferably English (i.e. 'malting barley', 'cauliflower' or 'white cabbage')."}]},{"head":"Acquisition date [YYYYMMDD]","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"[MCPD] Date on which the accession entered the collection where YYYY is the year, MM is the month and DD is the day. Missing data (MM or DD) should be indicated with hyphens. Leading zeros are required."}]},{"head":"Accession size","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Number or weight of seeds, seedlings, bud sticks, in vitro plants, etc. of an accession in the genebank."}]},{"head":"Type of material received","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"1 Seed/seeding 2 Vegetative 3 Pollen 4 In vitro culture 99 Other (e.g. more than one type, specify in descriptor 1.16 Remarks)"}]},{"head":"Remarks","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The Remarks field is used to add notes or to elaborate on descriptors with value \"99\" (= Other) "}]},{"head":"Collecting descriptors","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.2","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Site number Number assigned to the physical site by the collector."}]},{"head":"2.3","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Collecting number"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"[MCPD] Original number assigned by the collector(s) of the sample, normally composed of the name or initials of the collector(s) followed by a number. This number is essential for identifying duplicates held in different collections."}]},{"head":"Collecting date of sample [YYYYMMDD]","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"[MCPD] Collecting date of the sample where YYYY is the year MM is the month and DD is the day. Missing data (MM or DD) should be indicated with hyphens. Leading zeros are required."}]},{"head":"Country of origin","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"[MCPD] Code of the country in which the sample was originally collected. Use the three-letter abbreviations from the International Standard (ISO) Codes for the representation of names of countries. The ISO 3166-1: Code List can be obtained from IPGRI [[email protected]]."}]},{"head":"2.6","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Province/State Name of the primary administrative subdivision of the country in which the sample was collected."}]},{"head":"2.7","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Department/County Name of the secondary administrative subdivision (within a Province/State) of the county in which the sample was collected."}]},{"head":"2.8","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Location of collecting site [MCPD] Location information below the country level that describes where the accession was collected. This might include the distance in kilometers and direction from the nearest town, village or map grid reference point (e.g. 7 km south of Curitiba in the state of Parana)."}]},{"head":"2.9","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Latitude of collecting site¹ [MCPD] Degree (2 digits), minutes (2 digits) and seconds (2 digits) followed by N (North) or S (South) (e.g. 103020S). Every missing digit (minutes or seconds) should be indicated with a hyphen. Leading zeros are required (e.g. 10----S; 011530N; 4531--S). 1 To convert longitude and latitude in degrees (°), minutes ('), seconds (''), and a hemisphere (North or South and East or West) to decimal degrees, the following formula should be used: d° m' s'' = h * (d + m / 60 + s / 3600) where h=1 for the Northern and Eastern hemispheres and h = -1 for the Southern and Western hemispheres, i.e. 30°30'0'' S = -30.5 and 30o15'55'' N = 30.265."}]},{"head":"Longitude of collecting site¹","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"[MCPD] Degree (3 digits), minutes (2 digits) and seconds (2 digits) followed by E (East) or W (West) (e.g. 0762510W). Every missing digit (minutes or seconds) should be indicated with a hyphen. Leading zeros are required (e.g. 076----W)"}]},{"head":"Elevation of collecting site [m asl]","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"[MCPD] Elevation of collecting site expressed in meters above sea level. Negative values are allowed."}]},{"head":"Collecting /acquisition source","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"[MCPD] The coding scheme proposed can be used at 2 different levels of detail: either by using the general codes (in boldface) such as 10, 20, 30, 40 or by using the more specific codes, such as 11, 12 "}]},{"head":"Breeding institute code","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"[MCPD] Institute code of the institute that has bred the material. If the holding institute has bred the material, the breeding institute code should be the same as the holding institute code. It follows the Institute code standard."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"2.17 Ethnobotanical data 2.17.1"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Ethnic group"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Name of the ethnic group/community of the farmer of the sample or of the people living in the area of collecting."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"2.17.2"}]},{"head":"Local vernacular name","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Name given by farmer to Vitellaria paradoxa. State local language and/or dialect if the ethnic group is not provided. This identifies a single plant within a population of plants having the same accession number. It may be any combination of plot identity, row number, or tree position within the row."}]},{"head":"3.2","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Population identification (Passport 2.3) Collecting number, pedigree, cultivar name, etc., depending on the population type"}]},{"head":"3.3","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Accession location in orchard Enter separate block designations, row numbers and tree numbers within the row for each duplicate tree of each accession if each tree is not identified with a unique local plant number (see descriptor 3.1.1) [MCPD] Code of the institute where a safety duplicate of the accession is maintained. It follows the Institute Code standard. See instructions under 1.1 Institute Code."}]},{"head":"3.9","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"In vitro conservation 3.10 Notes Any additional information may be specified here. The landform refers to the shape of the land surface in the area in which the collecting site is located (adapted from FAO 1990) As detailed a classification as possible should be given. This may be taken from a soil survey map. State class (e.g., Alfisols, Spodosols, Vertisols, etc.) Provide either the monthly or the annual mean From ground level to the top of the tree (if grafted, record also height of graft union and rootstock name). Evaluate only unpruned trees Recorded at 50 cm above ground level for trees raised through seedlings and above the grafted union for trees raised through grafting The melting point varies between 32 to 40°C according to chemical components of the shea butter 1 Weak (32°C -36°C) 2 Intermediate (>36°C -38°C) 3 Strong (>38 -40°C)"}]},{"head":"Multiplication/regeneration descriptors","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"7.6 Notes Any additional information may be specified here Characterization 41 9.6."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Reaction to drought (I.e. leaves, etc, turn red when water stressed)"}]},{"head":"9.7","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Reaction to constant winds 9.8 Notes Specify any additional information here"}]},{"head":"Biotic stress susceptibility","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"In each case, it is important to state the origin of the infestation or infection, i.e. natural, field inoculation, and laboratory. Also, specify the causal organism and the corresponding symptoms. Record such information in descriptor 10. 4 Notes. These are coded on a susceptibility scale from 1 to 9, viz.:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"1 Very low or no visible sign of susceptibility "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" for the donor institute. (See instructions under Institute Code, 1.1) 1.6 Curator's name Name of the officer responsible for maintaining the genetic resources material held at the institute specified in descriptor 1.1 Institute Code Passport 7 1.7 Other identification (numbers) associated with the accession [MCPD] Any other identification (numbers) known to exist in other collections for this accession. Use the following system: INSTCODE: ACCENUMB; INSTCODE: ACCENUMB; … INSTCODE and ACCENUMB follow the standard described above and are separated by a colon. Pairs of INSTCODE and ACCENUMB are separated by a semicolon without space. When the institute is not known, the number should be preceded by a colon. "},{"text":"2. 1 Collecting institute(s) Name and address of the institute(s) and individual(s) collecting/sponsoring the collection of the sample(s). institute collecting the sample. If the holding institute has collected the material, the collecting institute code should be the same as the holding institute code. It follows the Institute Code standard. (See instructions under Institute code, 1.1). "},{"text":" Should be assessed as close to the site as possible (state number of recorded years) 6.1.20.1 Temperature [ºC] "},{"text":" Recorded from the base of the tree to the point of emergence of first branch 7.1.5 Trunk circumference[cm] "},{"text":" The coding scheme proposed can be used at 3 different levels of detail: either by using the general codes (in boldface) such as 100, 200, 300, 400 or by using the more specific codes such as 110, 120 etc. Passport 11 Passport 11 2.14 Type of sample 2.14 Type of sample Type of plant material collected. If different types of material were collected from the Type of plant material collected. If different types of material were collected from the same source, each sample (type) should be designated with a unique collecting number same source, each sample (type) should be designated with a unique collecting number and a corresponding unique accession number and a corresponding unique accession number 1 Vegetative 1 Vegetative 2 Seed/seedling 2 Seed/seedling 3 Pollen 3 Pollen 4 In vitro culture (specify which part of the plant is used in descriptor 2.22 4 In vitro culture (specify which part of the plant is used in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Remarks) 99 Others (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 99 Others (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) etc. 2.15 Biological status of accession [MCPD] etc. 2.15 Biological status of accession[MCPD] 10) Wild habitat 10) Wild habitat 11 Forest/woodland 11 Forest/woodland 12 Shrubland 12 Shrubland 13 Grassland/rangeland 100) Wild 13 Grassland/rangeland 100) Wild 14 Desert/tundra 110) Natural 14 Desert/tundra 110) Natural 15 Aquatic habitat 120) Semi-natural/wild 15 Aquatic habitat 120) Semi-natural/wild 20) Farm or cultivated habitat 200) Weedy 20) Farm or cultivated habitat 200) Weedy 21 Field 300) Traditional cultivar/landrace 21 Field 300) Traditional cultivar/landrace 22 Orchard 400) Breeding/research material 22 Orchard 400) Breeding/research material 23 Backyard, kitchen or home garden (urban, peri-urban or rural) 410 Breeder's line 23 Backyard, kitchen or home garden (urban, peri-urban or rural) 410 Breeder's line 24 Fallow land 411) Synthetic population 24 Fallow land 411) Synthetic population 25 Pasture 412) Hybrid 25 Pasture 412) Hybrid 26 Farm store 413) Founder stock/base population 26 Farm store 413) Founder stock/base population 27 Threshing floor 414) Inbred line (parent of hybrid cultivar) 27 Threshing floor 414) Inbred line (parent of hybrid cultivar) 28 Park 415) Segregating population 28 Park 415) Segregating population 29 Agroforestry parklands 420 Mutant/genetic stock 29 Agroforestry parklands 420 Mutant/genetic stock 30) Market or shop 500) Advanced/improved cultivar 30) Market or shop 500) Advanced/improved cultivar 31) Town 999) Other (Elaborate in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 31) Town 999) Other (Elaborate in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 32) Village 32) Village 33) Urban area (around city) 33) Urban area (around city) 34) Other exchange system 34) Other exchange system 40) Institute, Experimental station, Research organization, Genebank 40) Institute, Experimental station, Research organization, Genebank 50) Seed company 50) Seed company 60) Weedy, disturbed or ruderal habitat 60) Weedy, disturbed or ruderal habitat 61 Roadside 61 Roadside 62 Field margin 62 Field margin 99) Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 99) Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 2.13 Collecting source environment 2.13 Collecting source environment Use descriptors 6.1.1 to 6.2 in section 6 Use descriptors 6.1.1 to 6.2 in section 6 "},{"text":" .17.15.1.1 Monoculture [specify spacing, i.e. in Sahelian zone, for tree plantation (monoculture), the spacing advised is 4 x 4 m (625 trees per ha) to end (adult plantation) after thinning with 150 trees per ha] Passport 13 Passport 15 Passport 13 Passport 15 2.17.8 2.17.19 MANAGEMENT Frequency of use of the plant Market information 2.17.8 2.17.19 MANAGEMENT Frequency of use of the plant Market information 1 Daily Specify if any premium price was assigned to the shea tree nuts, butter or other 1 Daily Specify if any premium price was assigned to the shea tree nuts, butter or other 2 Weekly products according to quality 2 Weekly products according to quality 3 Seasonal 0 No 3. Management descriptors 3 Seasonal 0 No 3. Management descriptors 3.1 2.17.3 Provide translation of the local name into English, if possible Translation 3 Occasional 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 1 Yes 2.17.15.1.2 Multi-species (specify species) Accession number (Passport 1.2) 3.12.17.3 Provide translation of the local name into English, if possible Translation 3 Occasional 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 1 Yes 2.17.15.1.2 Multi-species (specify species) Accession number(Passport 1.2) 2.17.4 Does the shea-butter tree name have a meaning? If yes, describe it briefly in Shea tree varietal name meaning descriptor 2.22 Remarks 1 Yes 2.17.5 History of plant use 1 Seed 2.18.1 Number of trees sampled 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Method used to propagate trees 5 Processing (to produce butter) 2.17.15.2 Propagation method 2.18 Collecting site population structure 4 Preserving 0 No 2.17.9 Cooking methods 2 Baking 3 Frying cultivar/self sown trees retained in homesteads) 3 International 2.17.15.1.4 Natural stands (i.e. wild types topworked with 2 National 1 Boiling 2.17.19.1 Type of market 2.17.15.1.3 Agropastoralism (specify type of animals) 1 Local 3.1.1 Local plant number 2.17.4 Does the shea-butter tree name have a meaning? If yes, describe it briefly in Shea tree varietal name meaning descriptor 2.22 Remarks 1 Yes 2.17.5 History of plant use 1 Seed 2.18.1 Number of trees sampled 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Method used to propagate trees 5 Processing (to produce butter) 2.17.15.2 Propagation method 2.18 Collecting site population structure 4 Preserving 0 No 2.17.9 Cooking methods 2 Baking 3 Frying cultivar/self sown trees retained in homesteads) 3 International 2.17.15.1.4 Natural stands (i.e. wild types topworked with 2 National 1 Boiling 2.17.19.1 Type of market 2.17.15.1.3 Agropastoralism (specify type of animals) 1 Local 3.1.1 Local plant number 2.17.10 1 Ancestral/indigenous (always associated with the place and Special uses 2 Grafting (specify type of grafting and the species, hybrid 2.17.101 Ancestral/indigenous (always associated with the place and Special uses 2 Grafting (specify type of grafting and the species, hybrid 2.18.2 community) 1 Children and/or clone used as rootstock, in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Frequency of plants at collecting site 2.18.2community) 1 Children and/or clone used as rootstock, in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Frequency of plants at collecting site 2 Introduced (but in unknown distant past) 2 Older persons 3 Cutting 3 Low 2 Introduced (but in unknown distant past) 2 Older persons 3 Cutting 3 Low 3 Introduced (time and introduction known) 3 Feasts 4 Budding 5 Intermediate 3 Introduced (time and introduction known) 3 Feasts 4 Budding 5 Intermediate 4 Chiefs 7 High 5 Layering 4 Chiefs 7 High5 Layering 2.17.6 Parts of the plant used 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 6 Tissue culture (specify which part of plant used, in 2.17.6Parts of the plant used 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 6 Tissue culture (specify which part of plant used, in 1 Seed 2 Root 3 Trunk 2.19 Plant population density 2.17.11 Cultural characteristics descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Is there folklore associated with the collected shea tree type? (e.g. taboos, stories 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Number of trees per unit area (specify orchard, homestead or parkland) 1 Seed 2 Root 3 Trunk 2.19 Plant population density 2.17.11 Cultural characteristics descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Is there folklore associated with the collected shea tree type? (e.g. taboos, stories 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) Number of trees per unit area (specify orchard, homestead or parkland) 4 Bark (medicinal properties) and/or superstitions). If so, describe it briefly in descriptor 2.22 Remarks 2.17.15.3 Irrigation 2.20 Herbarium specimen 4 Bark (medicinal properties) and/or superstitions). If so, describe it briefly in descriptor 2.22 Remarks 2.17.15.3 Irrigation 2.20 Herbarium specimen 5 Leaf 0 No Was a herbarium specimen collected? If so, provide an identification number and indicate 1 Rain-fed 5 Leaf 0 No Was a herbarium specimen collected? If so, provide an identification number and indicate 1 Rain-fed 6 Flower/inflorescence 1 Yes 2 Irrigated (specify average annual amount of water in which place (Herbarium) the specimen was deposited, in descriptor 2.22 Remarks. 6 Flower/inflorescence 1 Yes 2 Irrigated (specify average annual amount of water in which place (Herbarium) the specimen was deposited, in descriptor 2.22 Remarks. 7 Fruit 99 Other (i.e. latex, specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) supplied per hectare) Shea tree popularity Is the variety popular and widely grown? If yes, describe briefly the reasons in 2.17.12 0 No 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 1 Yes 7 Fruit 99 Other (i.e. latex, specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) supplied per hectare) Shea tree popularity Is the variety popular and widely grown? If yes, describe briefly the reasons in 2.17.12 0 No 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 1 Yes 2.17.7 descriptor 2.22 Remarks Plant uses 1 Food 2 Forage 0 No 1 Yes 2.17.16 Associated flora 2.21 Photograph Other dominant crop/plant species, including other Vitellaria species, found in Was photograph(s) taken of the accession or habitat at the time of collecting? If so, provide and around the collecting site. an identification number(s) in descriptor 2.22 Remarks. 2.17.7 descriptor 2.22 Remarks Plant uses 1 Food 2 Forage 0 No 1 Yes 2.17.16 Associated flora 2.21 Photograph Other dominant crop/plant species, including other Vitellaria species, found in Was photograph(s) taken of the accession or habitat at the time of collecting? If so, provide and around the collecting site. an identification number(s) in descriptor 2.22 Remarks. 3 Fuel 4 Medicine Preferred growing conditions If yes, describe farmer's perceptions on hardiness of the variety in relation to main 2.17.13 2.17.17 0 No Seasonality 1 Yes 1 Available only in season/at particular period 5 Wood/timber 6 Dye stresses in descriptor 2.22 Remarks 0 No 2 Available throughout the year 2.22 Remarks 3 Fuel 4 Medicine Preferred growing conditions If yes, describe farmer's perceptions on hardiness of the variety in relation to main 2.17.13 2.17.17 0 No Seasonality 1 Yes 1 Available only in season/at particular period 5 Wood/timber 6 Dye stresses in descriptor 2.22 Remarks 0 No 2 Available throughout the year 2.22 Remarks 7 Pesticide 1 Yes Nutritional value Specify here any additional information recorded by the collector or any specific information 2.17.18 7 Pesticide 1 Yes Nutritional value Specify here any additional information recorded by the collector or any specific information 2.17.18 8 Cosmetic, moisturiser, soap 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 1 Protein Prevailing stresses on descriptors with value \"99\" (= Other) 2.17.14 (Source) 8 Cosmetic, moisturiser, soap 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 1 Protein Prevailing stresses on descriptors with value \"99\" (= Other) 2.17.14 (Source) 2 Carbohydrates 2 Carbohydrates 3 Minerals 3 Minerals 4 Vitamins 4 Vitamins 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) 99 Other (specify in descriptor 2.22 Remarks) "},{"text":" Specify number of days over which the success is recorded. Indicate the rootstock 20 Shea tree Management 19 Environment and site 21 20 Shea treeManagement 19 Environment and site 21 4.7 ENVIRONMENT AND SITE Propagation method 5.9 Number of days to planting after budding/layering [d] 6.1.2 Higher level landform (general physiographic features) 4.7 ENVIRONMENT AND SITE Propagation method 5.9 Number of days to planting after budding/layering [d] 6.1.2 Higher level landform (general physiographic features) Method used to produce trees Method used to produce trees 1 Seed 2 Budding 5.10 Field establishment [%] 5. Characterization and/or evaluation site descriptors Specify number of days over which establishment is measured 1 Seed 2 Budding 5.10 Field establishment [%] 5. Characterization and/or evaluation site descriptors Specify number of days over which establishment is measured 3 Grafting 4 Layering 5 Tissue culture Country of characterization and/or evaluation 5.11 Sowing/planting site in the field 5.1 (See instructions in descriptor 2.5 Country of origin) Give block, strip and/or row/plot numbers as applicable, plants/plot, replication 3 Grafting 4 Layering 5 Tissue culture Country of characterization and/or evaluation 5.11 Sowing/planting site in the field 5.1 (See instructions in descriptor 2.5 Country of origin) Give block, strip and/or row/plot numbers as applicable, plants/plot, replication 99 Other (specify in descriptor 4.12 Notes) Site (Research Institute) 5.12 Field spacing 5.2 99 Other (specify in descriptor 4.12 Notes) Site (Research Institute) 5.12 Field spacing 5.2 4.8 4.9 Sowing/planting date [YYYYMMDD] Cultural practices 5.2.1 Latitude (See instructions under 2.9) 5.12.1 Distance between trees in a row [m] 4.8 4.9Sowing/planting date [YYYYMMDD] Cultural practices 5.2.1 Latitude (See instructions under 2.9) 5.12.1 Distance between trees in a row [m] 4.9.1 5.2.2 5.12.2 Number of trees established per hectare Distance between rows [m] Longitude Planting density (See instructions under 2.10) 5.13 Fertilizer 4.9.1 5.2.2 5.12.2 Number of trees established per hectare Distance between rows [m] Longitude Planting density (See instructions under 2.10) 5.13 Fertilizer 4.9.2 5.2.3 Specify types used, doses, frequency of each and method of application Fertilizer application Elevation [m asl] 4.9.2 5.2.3 Specify types used, doses, frequency of each and method of application Fertilizer application Elevation [m asl] Specify type, doses, frequency of each and method of application 5.2.4 5.14 Plant protection Name and address of farm or institute Specify pesticides used, doses, frequency of each and method of application Specify type, doses, frequency of each and method of application 5.2.4 5.14 Plant protection Name and address of farm or institute Specify pesticides used, doses, frequency of each and method of application 4.9.3 Specify frequency Irrigation Evaluator's name and address 5.15 Environmental characteristics of site 5.3 4.9.3 Specify frequency Irrigation Evaluator's name and address 5.15 Environmental characteristics of site 5.3 4.10 Previous multiplication and/or regeneration 5.4 Sowing/grafting/budding/layering date [YYYYMMDD] Use descriptors 6.1.1 to 6.2 in section 6 4.10 Previous multiplication and/or regeneration 5.4 Sowing/grafting/budding/layering date [YYYYMMDD] Use descriptors 6.1.1 to 6.2 in section 6 4.1 5.5 5.16 Notes Accession number 4.10.1 Location Evaluation environment Any other site-specific information Environment in which characterization/evaluation was carried out 4.2 Population identification Collecting numbers, pedigree, cultivar name, etc., depending on the population type (Passport 1.2) (Passport 2.3) 4.3 Field plot number 4.10.2 1 Field Plot number 4.10.3 2 Screenhouse 6. Collecting and/or characterization/evaluation site environment descriptors 3 Greenhouse Sowing/planting date [YYYYMMDD] 4.11 Number of times accession regenerated 4 Laboratory 99 Other (specify in descriptor 5.16 Notes) 6.1 Site environment 4.1 5.5 5.16 Notes Accession number 4.10.1 Location Evaluation environment Any other site-specific information Environment in which characterization/evaluation was carried out 4.2 Population identification Collecting numbers, pedigree, cultivar name, etc., depending on the population type (Passport 1.2) (Passport 2.3) 4.3 Field plot number 4.10.2 1 Field Plot number 4.10.3 2 Screenhouse 6. Collecting and/or characterization/evaluation site environment descriptors 3 Greenhouse Sowing/planting date [YYYYMMDD] 4.11 Number of times accession regenerated 4 Laboratory 99 Other (specify in descriptor 5.16 Notes) 6.1 Site environment 4.4 4.5 4.6 Year (estimated) when tree should be propagated for regeneration Multiplication/regeneration site locations Collaborator Regeneration year [YYYY] Since the date of acquisition 4.12 Notes Any additional information may be specified here 5.6 6.1.1 Topography Condition of tree This refers to the profile in elevation of the land surface on a broad scale. The Record the condition of the tree at the time of characterization/evaluation 1 Dying reference is FAO (1990) 5 Mature -vigorous 2 Old -declining 1 Flat 0 -0.5% 6 Young (not yet bearing) 3 Mature -diseased 2 Almost flat 0.6 -2.9% 7 Healthy -cropping poorly 4 Mature -non-vigorous 3 Gently undulating 3 -5.9% 8 Healthy -cropping well 4 Undulating 6.0 -10.9% 4.4 4.5 4.6 Year (estimated) when tree should be propagated for regeneration Multiplication/regeneration site locations Collaborator Regeneration year [YYYY] Since the date of acquisition 4.12 Notes Any additional information may be specified here 5.6 6.1.1 Topography Condition of tree This refers to the profile in elevation of the land surface on a broad scale. The Record the condition of the tree at the time of characterization/evaluation 1 Dying reference is FAO (1990) 5 Mature -vigorous 2 Old -declining 1 Flat 0 -0.5% 6 Young (not yet bearing) 3 Mature -diseased 2 Almost flat 0.6 -2.9% 7 Healthy -cropping poorly 4 Mature -non-vigorous 3 Gently undulating 3 -5.9% 8 Healthy -cropping well 4 Undulating 6.0 -10.9% 5.7 Specify number of days over which germination is measured 5 Rolling 11.0 -15.9% Seed germination [%] 6 Hilly 16.0 -30.0% 7 Steeply dissected > 30%, moderate elevation range 5.7 Specify number of days over which germination is measured 5 Rolling 11.0 -15.9% Seed germination [%] 6 Hilly 16.0 -30.0% 7 Steeply dissected > 30%, moderate elevation range 5.8 8 Mountainous Grafting/budding/layering success [%] > 30%, great elevation range (> 300m) 99 Other (specify i n the appropriate section's Notes) 5.88 Mountainous Grafting/budding/layering success [%] > 30%, great elevation range (> 300m) 99 Other (specify i n the appropriate section's Notes) "},{"text":" Average of 20 fully expanded representative leaves, collected from different trees when shoots are lignified. Do not select leaves that are abnormal due to disease, nutritional imbalances and excessive vigour. For qualitative characteristics, indicate the predominant one.Specify the quality according to the utilisation type(edible oil, cosmetic, confectionary, margarine, pharmaceutical, etc.) 38 Shea tree 40 Shea tree Characterization 29 Characterization 31 Characterization 33 Characterization 37 Characterization 39 38 Shea tree 40 Shea treeCharacterization 29 Characterization 31 Characterization 33 Characterization 37 Characterization 39 7.5 7.1.9 When no fire influences Trunk/bark colour 1 White 2 Ash-grey 3 Dark grey 7.1.12 Tree growth habit 1 Erect 2 Semi-erect 3 Spreading 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7.1.15 Apical dominance 7.2.5 Leaf apex shape 7.3.6 Secondary flowering 7.4.4.1 Start of fruiting season [YYYYMMDD] 7.4.10 Fruit pubescence 7.5.6 Seed surface pattern 7.5.13 Latex exudation of the nut Seed descriptors Estimated as number of lateral branches on one-and two-year-old twig (See Fig. 5) 0 Absent 3 Sparse 1 Uniform 3 Low 3 Weak 1 Acute 1 Present 7.4.4.2 End of fruiting season [YYYYMMDD] 5 Intermediate 7.5.1 Seed length [cm] 2 Regular striations 5 Medium 5 Intermediate 3 Retuse 7.3.7 Inflorescence density 7.4.5 Fruit bearing habit 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7 Strong 2 Acuminate 7 Dense Average of 20 seeds selected from 20 mature fruits 3 Patches 7 High 7.57.1.9 When no fire influences Trunk/bark colour 1 White 2 Ash-grey 3 Dark grey 7.1.12 Tree growth habit 1 Erect 2 Semi-erect 3 Spreading 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7.1.15 Apical dominance 7.2.5 Leaf apex shape 7.3.6 Secondary flowering 7.4.4.1 Start of fruiting season [YYYYMMDD] 7.4.10 Fruit pubescence 7.5.6 Seed surface pattern 7.5.13 Latex exudation of the nut Seed descriptors Estimated as number of lateral branches on one-and two-year-old twig (See Fig. 5) 0 Absent 3 Sparse 1 Uniform 3 Low 3 Weak 1 Acute 1 Present 7.4.4.2 End of fruiting season [YYYYMMDD] 5 Intermediate 7.5.1 Seed length [cm] 2 Regular striations 5 Medium 5 Intermediate 3 Retuse 7.3.7 Inflorescence density 7.4.5 Fruit bearing habit 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7 Strong 2 Acuminate 7 Dense Average of 20 seeds selected from 20 mature fruits 3 Patches 7 High 4 Dark brown 5 Black 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) Crown diameter [m] Branching density 4 Obtuse 3 Sparse Fruit length [cm] Seed width [cm] Oil yield from mature seeds [% DW] 1 Regular (annual) 7.2 Leaf descriptors 7.1.10 7.1.13 7.4.11 7.5.2 7.5.14 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 5 Intermediate 2 Alternate years (specify the number of years) Average of ten fruits Average of 20 seeds recorded at the widest point 7.5.7 Seed coat colour As percentage of kernel. Specify the method for determination 3 Sparse 7 Dense 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) As colour and patchiness vary with time, it is suggested to ensure that seed is ripe 5 Medium 7.3.8 Number of inflorescence ramifications 7.4.6 Fruit clustering habit Measured at the widest point. Average of ten fruits 1 One seed 2 Dull brown 7 Dense 7.4.12 Fruit diameter [cm] 7.5.3 Number of seeds per fruit 1 Creamish 7.5.15 Quality of oil produced 4 Dark brown 5 Black 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) Crown diameter [m] Branching density 4 Obtuse 3 Sparse Fruit length [cm] Seed width [cm] Oil yield from mature seeds [% DW] 1 Regular (annual) 7.2 Leaf descriptors 7.1.10 7.1.13 7.4.11 7.5.2 7.5.14 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 5 Intermediate 2 Alternate years (specify the number of years) Average of ten fruits Average of 20 seeds recorded at the widest point 7.5.7 Seed coat colour As percentage of kernel. Specify the method for determination 3 Sparse 7 Dense 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) As colour and patchiness vary with time, it is suggested to ensure that seed is ripe 5 Medium 7.3.8 Number of inflorescence ramifications 7.4.6 Fruit clustering habit Measured at the widest point. Average of ten fruits 1 One seed 2 Dull brown 7 Dense 7.4.12 Fruit diameter [cm] 7.5.3 Number of seeds per fruit 1 Creamish 7.5.15 Quality of oil produced Measured as the mean diameter using two directions (North-South and East-West) 7.1.14 Branching pattern Specify number of trees evaluated per accession 2 More than one seed 3 Brown Measured as the mean diameter using two directions (North-South and East-West) 7.1.14 Branching pattern Specify number of trees evaluated per accession 2 More than one seed 3 Brown (See Fig. 3) 7.2.1 Leaf arrangement 7.3.9 Length of inflorescence main axis [mm] 1 Solitary 7.4.13 Fruit weight [kg] 4 Pale brown (See Fig. 3) 7.2.1 Leaf arrangement 7.3.9 Length of inflorescence main axis [mm] 1 Solitary 7.4.13 Fruit weight [kg] 4 Pale brown 7.1.11 7.5.4 Crown shape 1 Erect 1 Distal end of branches 2 Clusters 100-Seed weight [g DW] 5 Dark brown 7.5.15.1 Oil utilization type 7.1.11 7.5.4Crown shape 1 Erect 1 Distal end of branches 2 Clusters 100-Seed weight [g DW] 5 Dark brown 7.5.15.1 Oil utilization type (See Fig. 2) 7.3.10 7.4.14 2 Opposite 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6, Notes) Number of primary lateral inflorescence branches 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) Colour of pericarp 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 1 Edible oil (See Fig. 2) 7.3.10 7.4.142 Opposite 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6, Notes) Number of primary lateral inflorescence branches 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) Colour of pericarp 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 1 Edible oil 1 Pyramidal 3 Verticillate Average of 20 inflorescences at peak bloom period 1 Green 7.5.5 Seed shape 2 Cosmetics 1 Pyramidal 3 Verticillate Average of 20 inflorescences at peak bloom period 1 Green 7.5.5 Seed shape 2 Cosmetics 2 Broadly pyramidal 3 Spherical 4 Oblong 5 Semicircular 4 Horizontal Leaf blade length [cm] 2 Fruit shape 2 Yellowish green (See Fig. 8) 7.2.2 1 7.4.7 7.5.8 Adherence of seed coat to kernel 3 3 Confectionary 5 Irregular Measured from the base to the tip of the leaf blade 7.3.11 Alternate bearing Specify number of fruits evaluated. (See Fig. 7) 3 Yellow 1 Spheroid Specify the method used in the descriptor 7.6 Notes, i.e. after boiling, oven roasting 4 4 Margarine 6 Plagiotropic Fig. 5. Leaf apex shape Estimated as percentage of inflorescence bud drop in on-years 1 Oblate 4 Reddish yellow 2 Ellipsoid or sun-drying, etc. 5 Pharmaceutical 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7.2.3 Leaf blade width [cm] 3 Slight <25% 2 Spheroid 5 Brown 3 Oval 3 Easily separable 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 2 Broadly pyramidal 3 Spherical 4 Oblong 5 Semicircular 4 Horizontal Leaf blade length [cm] 2 Fruit shape 2 Yellowish green (See Fig. 8) 7.2.2 1 7.4.7 7.5.8 Adherence of seed coat to kernel 3 3 Confectionary 5 Irregular Measured from the base to the tip of the leaf blade 7.3.11 Alternate bearing Specify number of fruits evaluated. (See Fig. 7) 3 Yellow 1 Spheroid Specify the method used in the descriptor 7.6 Notes, i.e. after boiling, oven roasting 4 4 Margarine 6 Plagiotropic Fig. 5. Leaf apex shape Estimated as percentage of inflorescence bud drop in on-years 1 Oblate 4 Reddish yellow 2 Ellipsoid or sun-drying, etc. 5 Pharmaceutical 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7.2.3 Leaf blade width [cm] 3 Slight <25% 2 Spheroid 5 Brown 3 Oval 3 Easily separable 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 6 Elliptical Measured at the widest point 5 Moderate 26 -50% 3 Ellipsoid 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 4 Ovoid 5 Intermediate 6 Elliptical Measured at the widest point 5 Moderate 26 -50% 3 Ellipsoid 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 4 Ovoid 5 Intermediate 99 Other (i.e. 'irregular', specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7 High 51 -75% 4 Oblong 99 Other (i.e. specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7 Difficult to separate 7.5.15.2 Quality of oil 99 Other (i.e. 'irregular', specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7 High 51 -75% 4 Oblong 99 Other (i.e. specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7 Difficult to separate 7.5.15.2 Quality of oil 7.2.4 7.4.15 Leaf blade shape 9 Very high >75% 5 Ovoid Colour of mesocarp 3 Low 7.2.4 7.4.15Leaf blade shape 9 Very high >75% 5 Ovoid Colour of mesocarp 3 Low (See Fig. 4) 7.2.6 7.5.9 Leaf apex angle [°] 99 Other (i.e. 'irregular' specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 1 Green Ratio of kernel dry weight to nut volume 5 Intermediate (See Fig. 4) 7.2.6 7.5.9Leaf apex angle [°] 99 Other (i.e. 'irregular' specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 1 Green Ratio of kernel dry weight to nut volume 5 Intermediate 7.3.12 1 Obovate Size of floral parts 2 Yellow 1 Almost nil 7 high 7.3.121 Obovate Size of floral parts 2 Yellow 1 Almost nil 7 high 7.2.7 2 Elliptic Leaf base shape 7.3.12.1 Length of sepals [mm] 2 Intermediate 7.2.72 Elliptic Leaf base shape 7.3.12.1 Length of sepals [mm] 2 Intermediate 3 Broadly elliptic (See Fig. 6) 7.4.16 Thickness of mesocarp 3 Almost equal to one 7.5.16 Melting point for oil produced [°C] 3 Broadly elliptic (See Fig. 6) 7.4.16 Thickness of mesocarp 3 Almost equal to one 7.5.16 Melting point for oil produced [°C] 4 Narrowly elliptic 1 Oblique 7.3.12.2 Length of filaments [mm] 3 Thin 4 Narrowly elliptic 1 Oblique 7.3.12.2 Length of filaments [mm] 3 Thin 7.1.6 7.5.10 Trunk surface 5 Oblong 2 Rounded 7 Thick Colour of cotyledons 7.1.6 7.5.10Trunk surface 5 Oblong 2 Rounded 7 Thick Colour of cotyledons 7.4 3 Smooth 6 Obovate-oblong 3 Cuneate Fruit descriptors Recorded on dry kernel 7.43 Smooth 6 Obovate-oblong 3 Cuneate Fruit descriptors Recorded on dry kernel 7 Rough 9 Very rough 1 7 Ovate-oblong 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 2 4 Shortly attenuate 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 3 Average of 20 well-developed fruits at harvest time (or when they fall down), unless otherwise specified 1 2 3 4 7.4.17 Fruit taste 1 2 3 4 1 Yellowish brown 5 1 Sweet Fig. 8. Seed shape 2 Dull brown 7 Rough 9 Very rough 1 7 Ovate-oblong 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 2 4 Shortly attenuate 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 3 Average of 20 well-developed fruits at harvest time (or when they fall down), unless otherwise specified 1 2 3 4 7.4.17 Fruit taste 1 2 3 4 1 Yellowish brown 5 1 Sweet Fig. 8. Seed shape 2 Dull brown 1 2 Insipid 3 Brown 2 Fig. 7. Fruit shape 3 1 2 Insipid 3 Brown2 Fig. 7. Fruit shape3 7.1.7 7.4.1 Bark thickness [mm] Number of years to first fruiting after sowing/planting [y] 4 Dark brown 7.1.7 7.4.1Bark thickness [mm] Number of years to first fruiting after sowing/planting [y] 4 Dark brown 7.4.8 7.4.18 Fruit surface Fruit latex exudation 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7.4.8 7.4.18Fruit surface Fruit latex exudation 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 7.1.8 7.4.2 Determined at the time of detaching mature fruits Shape of fissures Number of days from flowering to fruit maturity [d] 1 Smooth 7.1.8 7.4.2 Determined at the time of detaching mature fruits Shape of fissures Number of days from flowering to fruit maturity [d] 1 Smooth 7.5.11 1 Square 2 Rough 3 Low Cotyledon attachment 7.5.111 Square 2 Rough 3 Low Cotyledon attachment 7.4.3 2 Rectangular Fruiting season type 5 Medium 1 Fused 7.4.32 Rectangular Fruiting season type 5 Medium 1 Fused 7.4.9 3 Diamond 1 Early Fruit apex shape 7 High 2 Free 7.4.93 Diamond 1 Early Fruit apex shape 7 High 2 Free 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 2 Mid-season 1 Deeply depressed 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 2 Mid-season 1 Deeply depressed 99 Other (specify in descriptor 7.6 Notes) 1 1 7.5.12 2 4 3 Late 2 Slightly depressed 5 3 4 2 3 Flattened Seed germination 5 3 5 6 6 6 4 7 11 7.5.1224 3 Late 2 Slightly depressed 5 3 4 2 3 Flattened Seed germination5356 6647 Fig. 2. Crown shape Fig. 3. Branching pattern Fig. 6. Leaf base shape Fruiting season date 4 Rounded Observations should be made on 'cryptogeal' germination mode and the first 7.4.4 Fig. 4. Leaf blade shape 5 Pointed shoots emergence time Fig. 2. Crown shape Fig. 3. Branching pattern Fig. 6. Leaf base shape Fruiting season date 4 Rounded Observations should be made on 'cryptogeal' germination mode and the first 7.4.4 Fig. 4. Leaf blade shape 5 Pointed shoots emergence time "}],"sieverID":"7d2f7133-f654-4e0c-aab2-3ebfee21eef8","abstract":"Mung bean * (E) 1980 Oat * (E) 1985 Oca * (S) 2001 Oil palm (E) 1989 Panicum miliaceum and P. sumatrense (E) 1985 Papaya (E)ii Shea treeThe International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to improve the well-being of present and future generations of people by enhancing conservation and the deployment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests. It is one of 15 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide. The Institute operates through four programmes: Diversity for Livelihoods, Understanding and Managing Biodiversity, Global Partnerships, and Commodities for Livelihoods.The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by January 2006, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria,"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"08f6b1e55c9c2bbf68bdbde56372070f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a27f26d3-87e6-4688-aa06-0f95365dea13/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Hacia una política de crecimiento verde para el sector agropecuario en Colombia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"FEBRERO 2019","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mensajes clave","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":" Colombia desarrolló una política de crecimiento verde, como un nuevo motor para el desarrollo agrícola y de los territorios en el marco de un contexto internacional favorable (Acuerdos de Paris, OCDE)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":" El enfoque de crecimiento verde permite integrar objetivos múltiples en relación a lo productivo, lo ambiental, y lo social en una visión renovada del sector agropecuario y del mundo rural."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":" Las políticas de crecimiento verde integran los retos del cambio climático, en una visión proactiva que busca transcender las tensiones entre desarrollo agrícola y objetivos ambientales."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":" El crecimiento verde integra 5 pilares que son la productividad, la eficiencia en el uso de los recursos naturales, el balance y flujo de nutrientes, la incidencia en el capital natural y las oportunidades sectoriales."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":" La implementación de una metodología que alterna recopilación y análisis de datos con retroalimentación y validación de los resultados permitió producir información relevante y de interés para la toma de decisiones de los actores."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":" El contexto político institucional y acuerdos internacionales facilitaron la formulación y la adopción de una política de crecimiento verde en Colombia."}]},{"head":"Contexto de formulación de la Política","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"El Departamento Nacional de Planeación (DNP), a través de un proceso técnico denominado \"Misión de Crecimiento Verde\" (MCV) lideró la formulación del CONPES 3934 Política de Crecimiento Verde de Colombia, el cual fue aprobado el 10 de julio de 2018 (DNP, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"La formulación de esta política constituye un compromiso del DNP dentro del Plan Nacional de Desarrollo (PND) 2014-2018 (Capitulo X \"Crecimiento Verde\") cuyos objetivos eran \"avanzar hacia un crecimiento sostenible y bajo en carbono\", \"proteger y asegurar el uso sostenible del capital natural y mejorar la calidad y la gobernanza ambiental\" y \"lograr un crecimiento resiliente y reducir la vulnerabilidad frente a los riesgos de desastres y al cambio climático\". La formulación de la Política de Crecimiento Verde se enmarca también en el proceso del ingreso de Colombia a la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE)."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"La dirección de la MCV definió cinco ejes de análisis para formular la política: 1) Uso eficiente de recursos (agua, suelo, energía, materiales y residuos); 2) Nuevas oportunidades económicas (bioeconomía, economía forestal y transición energética); 3) Oferta y demanda de fuerza laboral (productividad laboral y capital humano y formalización empresarial); 4) Ciencia tecnología e innovación y; 5) Instrumentos económicos."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"El Programa de Investigación del CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) y el Centro de Estudio Regionales Cafeteros y Empresariales (CRECE) fueron contratados por el Instituto Global de Crecimiento Verde (GGGI), de octubre 2017 a mayo de 2018, para apoyar a DNP en la realización del estudio sobre productividad en el uso del suelo y crecimiento verde como insumo para la formulación de la política de crecimiento verde."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Con base en estos insumos, y los de otros entes contratados para los otros temas, el DNP formuló el CONPES 3934 aprobado el 10 de julio de 2018, el cual definió la Política de Crecimiento Verde de Colombia (DNP, 2018)."}]},{"head":"Objetivos y metodología","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Los objetivos planteados en el estudio sobre productividad del suelo: \"Productividad de la tierra y desarrollo del sector agropecuario medido a través de los indicadores de crecimiento verde\" fueron tres: 1) Identificar los factores que afectan la productividad de la tierra en el sector agrícola de Colombia en 5 sistemas productivos priorizados; 2) Analizar el rendimiento de los 5 sistemas priorizados del sector agrícola en relación con los indicadores de CV; y 3) Definir las recomendaciones de políticas públicas y una ruta crítica para implementarlas."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"En efecto, en este estudio se dan a conocer el estado actual de los indicadores de crecimiento verde (CV) para algunos sistemas productivos agropecuarios priorizados en Colombia y se identifican las opciones tecnológicas que permitirían mejorar dichos indicadores, con el fin de incrementar la productividad de la tierra sin afectar los demás indicadores de CV. Para lograr este objetivo, se implementó una metodología en cinco fases (Ilustración 1) incluyendo la fase de colecta de datos, la fase de análisis y la fase de consulta y validación de resultados. Para las fases de consulta y validación se conformaron comités consultivos de expertos de los sistemas productivos priorizados a nivel nacional y departamental."}]},{"head":"Resultados: Insumos para una política de crecimiento verde colombiana 1-Planeación y preparación","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Cincos sistemas productivos fueron priorizados usando un análisis multi-criterio: café, aguacate Hass, cacao, ganadería y papa. Los criterios considerados contemplaban la representatividad de la producción en el país (área sembrada), la disponibilidad de información, la diversidad de tipos de cultivos (transitorios o permanentes), y su distribución en el territorio (diversidad de pisos térmicos y ubicación geográfica). En el caso de ganadería, se realizó una subdivisión por tres tipos de orientación productiva (carne, lechería y doble propósito)."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Para cada sistema productivo priorizado, se conformaron comités consultivos de expertos nacionales. Estos incluyeron representantes de gremios (Fedecacao, Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia, Fedegan, Fedepapa, Asohofrucol), MinAmbiente y MinAgricultura, ICA, Agrosavia, UPRA, DANE, CRECE, CIAT, CCAFS, y DNP y algunas ONGs."}]},{"head":"-Análisis general","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"El análisis general consistió en la construcción de una línea base a nivel nacional para los 5 sistemas productivos priorizados en términos de productividad del sector (tonelada de producto por hectárea al año), eficiencia ambiental y productividad de los recursos naturales (emisiones de CO2, consumo de energía y uso de sistema de riego), balance y flujo de nutrientes (porcentaje de productores que fertilizan y tipos de fertilización y enmienda), incidencia en el capital natural (conflicto por uso del suelo, y erosión) y oportunidades sectoriales de crecimiento verde (certificación en Buenas Practicas Agricolas -BPA, acceso a asistencia técnica, y créditos). Estas categorías corresponden a los 5 pilares del crecimiento verde."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Adicional a la línea base, se construyó una meta de referencia a lograr con un horizonte 2030. En la Ilustración 2, se presenta el ejemplo para el sistema productivo del café."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"Ilustración 1: Una metodología en 5 fases Ilustración 2: Línea base y meta para el sistema productivo café Este análisis de línea base para los 5 de los sistemas priorizados muestra que, en términos de productividad, Colombia tiene un gran margen para mejorar (bajo nivel de mecanización, poco mejoramiento, manejo de plagas y enfermedades y de pastos/ animales). Sin embargo, en cuanto a los rendimientos de café, Colombia presenta un buen desempeño a nivel mundial comparado con otros países que producen cafés suaves."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Los cultivos como cacao, aguacate y café tienen un balance favorable de captura de carbono y, por lo tanto, podrían contribuir con objetivos de mitigación del cambio climático, mientras que cultivos como papa y ganadería requieren de la adopción de tecnologías que contribuyan a reducir su huella de carbono. Adicionalmente, la cobertura de riego en los cultivos priorizados (café, cacao y papa), con la excepción de aguacate Hass, es baja. Sin embargo, este resultado no necesariamente representa algo negativo ya que estos cultivos no requieren riego en todas las regiones."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Los paperos y cafeteros sobresalen por el uso de fertilización química, mientras que el uso de fertilización orgánica ya es común en todos los cultivos."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"La asistencia técnica es muy baja en general para todos los cultivos, exceptuando el caso del café, que presenta un buen indicador de cubertura en asistencia técnica."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"El acceso a crédito es bajo en general, y puede ser una gran barrera para implementar tecnologías que demanden inversiones."},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"Finalmente, los resultados evidenciaron existencia de conflictos de uso del suelo, lo cual constituye uno de los grandes retos que tendrá que enfrentar la política de crecimiento verde."},{"index":9,"size":73,"text":"Además de la línea base, se elaboró una lista larga de tecnologías para cada sistema productivo las cuales fueron presentadas a los comités, con el fin de evaluarlas y priorizarlas. Estas opciones fueron evaluadas por su potencial contribución a la mejora del desempeño de los indicadores seleccionados para la línea base. De esta manera, se pudo establecer una lista corta de tecnologías y de departamentos relevantes para los sistemas productivos y tecnologías priorizados."}]},{"head":"-Análisis detallado","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"En la fase de análisis detallado se calcularon indicadores (los mismos que los usados para el nivel nacional) a nivel departamental. Se realizó una comparación de los indicadores departamentales de cada sistema para identificar regiones con valores sobresalientes y rezagados. También se calculó el impacto de las tecnologías que apuntan a mejorar los indicadores de crecimiento verde priorizadas por los comités consultivos (ver Ilustración )."}]},{"head":"-Análisis de barreras","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Con base en el análisis de los indicadores de CV a nivel departamental y consultas a los miembros de los comités consultivos de cada sistema productivo, se determinó un departamento estratégico para realizar talleres participativos con el fin de identificar las barreras de adopción de tecnologías y medidas para promover la implementación a escala de una de las tecnologías priorizadas."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"En la primera fase de estos talleres, los participantes (instituciones de gobierno, sector privado, academia, gremios y productores) priorizaron una tecnología con alto potencial para CV (ver Tabla 1). En una segunda fase de los talleres, se identificaron las principales barreras para la adopción de estas tecnologías (ilustración 5). Tres barreras principales fueron mencionadas para todos los sistemas productivos: aquellas relacionadas con aspectos financieros (acceso a crédito, incentivos a una producción más verde), asistencia técnica (calidad y confianza), conocimiento y cultura (\"miedo al cambio\"). Seguidas de barreras como los arreglos institucionales (desarticulación entre instituciones relacionadas con BPA) y el acceso a mercado."}]},{"head":"Tabla 1: Tecnología priorizada para cada sistema productivo","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"Dependiendo de la naturaleza de la tecnología priorizada y también del contexto específico de los sistemas productivos en las regiones, distintas categorías de barreras fueron identificadas. Para ganadería de doble propósito se mencionaron barreras relacionadas con capital social, maquinaría, condiciones agroecológicas y tenencia a la tierra. Para la ganadería de leche, se evidenciaron como barreras prioritarias, aquellas financieras y de asistencia técnica (AT). Para ganadería de carne, se enfatizó la poca consideración de los conocimientos locales en los procesos de AT. Para aguacate Hass, cultivo reciente en Colombia, se subrayó la necesidad de investigar para poder acompañar adecuadamente a los productores. Para cacao, las barreras son aquellas vinculadas con arreglos institucionales (desarticulación entre instituciones relacionadas con BPA), infraestructura de agua, disponibilidad de tiempo (trámites de certificación) y tenencia de la tierra. En el caso del café, las barreras fueron identificadas en relación con la disponibilidad y calidad del servicio de laboratorios de análisis de suelo. Las barreras relacionadas con el sistema productivo de la papa, fueron de carácter financiero (falta de recursos económicos por parte de los productores), de AT (falta de continuidad) e institucional (falta de políticas claras y ajustadas para la promoción de la agricultura de conservación). Para café, ganadería de carne y cacao se mencionaron barreras relacionadas el mercado."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Una vez consideradas las barreras más importantes y más fáciles de superar, los participantes reflexionaron sobre las medidas o acciones necesarias para superar dichas barreras, teniendo en mente alcanzar una implementación a escala de las tecnologías promisorias para el crecimiento verde. Estas medidas fueron priorizadas según su nivel de eficiencia para superar la barrera y su facilidad de implementación (Ilustración 6). Las medidas específicas identificadas para superar las barreras fueron:"}]},{"head":"5-Recomendaciones","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Con base en una síntesis de los insumos de los talleres departamentales y de un análisis del marco institucional colombiano vinculante con los objetivos de CV, se formularon recomendaciones de política que contemplan 5 ejes principales para la productividad del suelo y desarrollo agropecuario: 1) la apuesta al financiamiento verde, 2) la promoción de una agricultura joven, 3) el desarrollo de una nueva era para la ciencia agropecuaria, 4) el apoyo a instituciones facilitadoras del crecimiento verde y 5) la participación activa de los consumidores para el cambio (Ilustración 7). Estos ejes fueron validados por en un taller de síntesis con el DNP y en un taller nacional con los actores de los comités nacionales."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones e implicaciones de política","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"El análisis sobre la productividad de la tierra y desarrollo del sector agropecuario contribuyó a la elaboración de la Política de Crecimiento Verde Colombiana. Este análisis Este análisis fue guiado por una metodología que alternó momentos de colecta y análisis de datos con momentos de validación/ discusión y ajustes a los resultados preliminares. La inclusión y participación en el estudio de actores tales como representantes de gremios, productores, expertos en cambio climático/cultivos/crecimiento verde, y funcionarios públicos permitió obtener retroalimentación a lo largo del estudio, y plantear ajustes para producir resultados legítimos, relevantes y de interés."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Los resultados muestran que Colombia tiene margen para mejorar en los 5 pilares del crecimiento verde para cada uno de los sistemas productivos priorizados (café, aguacate Hass, cacao, ganadería y papa). Se identificaron tecnologías promisorias que permitirían alcanzar esta meta por su potencial de contribución al CV para cada sistema productivo. Las barreras más para implementar estas tecnologías fueron identificadas en talleres a nivel departamental; al igual que medidas concretas y factibles para superar las barreras más críticas. Las barreras más mencionadas fueron relacionadas con extensión agropecuaria, aspectos financieros y conocimiento y cultura. También fueron consideradas importantes barreras a nivel de capacidades institucionales y de mercado."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"El costeo de estas medidas promisorias representó un insumo práctico para el gobierno para poder conocer el costo de escalar prácticas agropecuarias que apoyen el crecimiento verde en el país. Finalmente, las distintas etapas de este estudio permitieron formular recomendaciones de políticas para alcanzar los objetivos propuesto al horizonte 2030, las cuales fueron utilizadas como insumo para la elaboración del documento CONPES 3934 \"política de crecimiento verde\" aprobado en julio del 2018."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"Este proceso permite resaltar unas lecciones aprendidas con respecto a la contribución de la ciencia a la formulación de política. Se pueden resaltar los siguientes factores favorables: i) una demanda clara y formal de insumos científicos por parte del gobierno (DNP) con mandato y potestad de formular una política según un calendario claramente definido por la MCV tomando en cuenta la temporalidad y voluntad política del gobierno de turno; ii) una metodología consensuada basada en síntesis de datos existentes provenientes de trabajos previos y un fuerte componente de consulta a diferentes niveles para enriquecer y legitimar el proceso de investigación y sus resultados; y, iii) un diálogo constante entre los investigadores y los funcionarios públicos a cargo de la formulación de esta política, el cual fue facilitado por relaciones de confianza establecidas previamente en trabajos anteriores."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"Una lección aprendida del proceso es la dificultad de lograr una visión integral del sector agropecuario, a partir del estudio de 5 sistemas productivos, para formular recomendaciones relevantes para la globalidad del sector agropecuario colombiano dado la diversidad de sistemas productivos, de condiciones agro-ecológicas, de actores y de tecnologías que apuntan al crecimiento verde."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"Ilustración 7: Ejes de recomendaciones de políticas para la productividad de la tierra en un contexto de crecimiento verde y su articulación con políticas, planes y programas vigentes"},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"Los resultados de los análisis realizados en este estudio, esperan no sólo contribuir a la implementación de la Política de Crecimiento Verde sino también a los compromisos de Colombia tomados en marco del Acuerdo de París (Contribución Determinada a Nivel Nacional), los cuales incluyen metas de adaptación y mitigación, y hacen necesaria la participación del sector agropecuario, bajo un enfoque de crecimiento verde."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" la segunda fase, los participantes identificaron barreras para la adopción de la tecnología priorizada. Las barreras más mencionadas están resumidas en la Ilustración 5.Ilustración 4: Ejemplo del potencial de adopción del sistema silvopastoril (tecnología promisoria para el crecimiento verde) en ganado doble propósito. En azul, el nivel actual, en rojo el nivel potencial en 2030 "},{"text":"Ilustración 5 : Tipos de barreras más mencionadas para la implementación de prácticas promisorias para el crecimiento verde Ilustración 6: Método de priorización participativa de las medidas para superar las barreras identificadas consideró objetivos múltiples y sinérgicos propios al crecimiento verde (productivos, sociales, y ambientales) como lo han ilustrado los indicadores elaborados y medidos para 5 sistemas productivos representativos de Colombia. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"a3bb7cc1-da9f-4482-b659-c267834e52f8","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"09113ee7086474b299f2a5d4e6a2697e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9288f592-4b2a-4a08-aa3c-02bc37d36b97/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Pig weigh band for use in Uganda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"How accurate is the weight?"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Weigh bands are more accurate than guessing, but less accurate than using a weighing scale."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Weigh bands can be used for weight estimates when a weighing scale is not available."}]},{"head":"Pig weigh scale for small pig Crate for large pig Weigh band","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Knowledge of pig weights is a very important part of pig keeping."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Weigh bands can be used to estimate pig weights to:"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Benefits of using the weigh band "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Monitor pig growth Determine correct drug dose Agree on sale price Weigh band Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Real weight Weigh band Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Weight records Your name Weight records Your nameReal weight 40 kg 31 to 49 kg 40 kg31 to 49 kg 60 kg 48 to 72 kg WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) 60 kg48 to 72 kg WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) WHY WAS THE WEIGHT TAKEN? (tick) Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag 80 kg 100 kg Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight weight who took the Person Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig 65 to 95 kg Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine 81 to 119 kg growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose dose growth correct drug Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale price price price price price price price price price Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -write down write down write down write down write down write down write down write down write down Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date DatePig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag Pig name or ear tag80 kg 100 kg Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg) Weight (kg)Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight Person who took the weight weight who took the PersonMonitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig Monitor pig 65 to 95 kg Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine Determine 81 to 119 kg growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose growth correct drug dose dose growth correct drugAgree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale Agree on sale price price price price price price price price priceOther reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -Other reason -write down write down write down write down write down write down write down write down write down "}],"sieverID":"36703774-3bfd-4bd1-9424-9e70d8e6c270","abstract":"This weigh band can only be used for pigs on small-scale farms in Uganda.It should not be used for other livestock, such as cattle, sheep or goats."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"093ce8ce198f2b64c5bb439b8b4b32ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7c68603-508a-43a6-a099-f0f2a53fcf29/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Identification of bottlenecks and opportunities for the beef value chain of Córdoba, Colombia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Colombian Caribbean region","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• Population: 11,275,000 hab. (22.6% of total)."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Area: 132,288 km2 (11.6% of total)."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• The cattle sector prefigures the most important economic activity at regional level."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• Best infrastructure for accessing international meat markets, compared to the rest of the country."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• Existing bottlenecks reduce competitiveness, hamper efforts to achieve a joint market vision and aggravate quality assurance in and sustainability of the VC."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"• Understanding these complexities and interconnections is a first step towards the definition of an action plan and the development of potential new markets."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"To identify the most relevant bottlenecks and opportunities for the beef value chain (VC) in the Colombian Córdoba Department, in order to provide information on how to increase efficiency, added value and market participation. Advance on key objectives: Identification of the relationships and interconnections between the VC actors, product, service and information flows Improvement in communication between the different actors along the VC. Identification and analysis of bottlenecks that need to be solved in order to improve the VC."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• Compilation of information from secondary sources."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Semi-structured personal interviews (11 direct VC actors)."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• 1 Focus group discussion (11 cattle experts from the department)."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• 1 participatory multi-actor workshop (36 direct and indirect VC actors)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Figure "}]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The identified bottlenecks were grouped into the following three pillars:"}]},{"head":"Next steps","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Design of a competitive sector strategy for the Department of Córdoba:"}]},{"head":"Building a joint vision","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"A vision for improvement for at least 10 years as a result of the participatory and inclusive process among the actors."}]},{"head":"Designing an action plan","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Includes activities, actions, responsibilities and deadlines."}]},{"head":"Identifying possible alliances for inclusive businesses","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Linkages between producers and potential buyers"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"The participatory approach guarantees equitable participation, transparency and the development of associations and networks among VC actors."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"The participatory workshop allowed the different actors to get to know the points of view and difficulties faced by each actor and each VC segment."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"The work carried out promoted the generation of bonds of trust between the actors, who demonstrated their motivation for and commitment with participatory VC development."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"The state of the art of the chain obtained in the first phase of the study represents a key input for the construction of a competitive sector strategy and strategic plans for sustainable sector development."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Reflections on the methodology (2)"},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"The construction of the state of the art of the VC can be a complex process given the lack of information and reliable statistics."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"In this sense, continuous participatory work and collective feedback is key to identifying such shortcomings and making the diagnosis and context of the chain more realistic."},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"It takes time to make progress on the construction of a competitive sector strategy. This requires long-term availability of funds and strong commitment from all involved actors."},{"index":10,"size":29,"text":"After the strategy has been built, it is advisable to create a VC committee that follows up on the established actions, in order to assure compliance and long-term sustainability."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"This committee should also work as a lobbying institution for public policy making."},{"index":12,"size":2,"text":"Thank you!"}]}],"figures":[{"text":". Figure. Map of the bovine meat value chain of the Córdoba Department, Colombia. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Farms Transformation Packaging Marketing Consumption Materials and methods Study area: Córdoba Department, Colombia Value Chain: Bovine meat Methodology: Based on the approaches Methodological steps of a VC improvement program Methodological steps of a VC improvement program • \"Participatory Market Chain Analysis for • \"Participatory Market Chain Analysis for Smallholder Producers\" (Lundy et al, 2007 ) Smallholder Producers\" (Lundy et al, 2007 ) hdl.handle.net/10568/54198 hdl.handle.net/10568/54198 • \"ValueLinks manual: The methodology of value • \"ValueLinks manual: The methodology of value chain promotion\" (Springer-Heinze, 2007). chain promotion\" (Springer-Heinze, 2007). hdl.handle.net/10568/25053 hdl.handle.net/10568/25053 "}],"sieverID":"8a3cd100-7720-41e4-a725-7b345ecc8aae","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"096c40c8c758583e60e59929aa06ff88","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/5040/b31f9744e4504a5a0d43696dfcc22583.pdf"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Introduction and dissemination of productive and resilient Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Transformation of fish agri-food systems towards improved nutritional outcomes for women and children."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"• Empowerment of women through carp polyculture and women self-help groups in village (Gram Panchayat) ponds, a convergence program among the Government of Odisha, Departments of Fisheries, Mission Shakti and Panchayati Raj. Progress made during FISH has built a strong foundation, with growing interest in fisheries and aquaculture supported by a series of prospective investments and shifting policies, especially in the State of Odisha. Aquaculture is expected to play an increasing role in reaching national livelihood and nutrition targets."}]},{"head":"The Way Forward","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Further work by the India Country Program will focus on building sustainable national innovation systems for aquatic food systems, including synthesis and production of robust and coherent performance data, establishing novel and co-producing partnerships that bridge sectors and levels of governance, and accelerating the development of better-performing strains of widely farmed fish and their uptake."}]},{"head":"References","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Innovations","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"•","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Better Management Practices for Carp Intensification adopted by Women Self-Help Groups in India "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"AchievementsA series of innovations have been introduced in India under FISH, the scaling of which have been supported by extensive capacity development activities with significant engagement of women. Innovative and tailored solutions and technologies guided by FISH research activities and implemented through development projects have been fundamental in guiding policy work. Strategic partnerships have also played a key role in scaling innovation and advancing policies, contributing to tremendous outcomes in the State of Odisha for livelihoods and nutrition, particularly for women. "},{"text":"11innovationsØ BMPs for carp intensification by women self-help groups Ø GIFT introduction in the State of Odisha Ø BMPs for climate resilient paddy-cum-fish integrated farming in the State of Assam Over 32 "},{"text":" "},{"text":"• Reservoir and beel fisheries productivity enhancement.• Inclusion of nutritious fish in School Mid-day Meals and Integrated Child Development Schemes (first 1000 days of human life). • Improving efficiencies and opportunities for women in fish value chains. • Promotion of Better Management Practices (BMPs) for sustainable inland fish production, including: • Promotion of Better Management Practices (BMPs) for sustainable inland fish production, including: o quality seed production and early breeding programs, o quality seed production and early breeding programs, o multiplication centres for genetically improved strains, o multiplication centres for genetically improved strains, o improving the productivity of beels, o improving the productivity of beels, o improving fish value chains, o improving fish value chains, o nutrition-sensitive fish culture by promoting carp-mola-small indigenous species polyculture, o nutrition-sensitive fish culture by promoting carp-mola-small indigenous species polyculture, o promoting climate-resilient fish production technologies, o promoting climate-resilient fish production technologies, o gender transformative approaches for sustainable aquaculture and fisheries, and o gender transformative approaches for sustainable aquaculture and fisheries, and o capacity building programs. o capacity building programs. "}],"sieverID":"f5ed4ce2-c778-4e36-a020-2d043d4c95eb","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"097c02fd687847ed663d844ca0b36406","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d89ee28-1a5b-4a70-b953-1af40e47df77/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Locating poor livestock keepers at the global level for research and development targeting","keywords":["Livestock","Poverty","Mapping","System","Classification","Global"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"In 1996, a set of International Development Goals was adopted by the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (Morton, 2001). One is to halve the proportion of people living in extreme poverty between 1990 and 2015. With this focus on poverty reduction, there is a need for research and development agencies to continually re-assess how best to operate in ways that will benefit poor people. Given the importance of livestock to the diets and incomes of the rural poor (LID, 1999), and the predicted increase in demand for livestock products throughout the developing world over the next few decades (Delgado et al., 1999), understanding how livestock fit into these systems, and how these systems may evolve in the future, are issues of critical importance."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"So how can livestock-related research and development activities best be targeted? There are various fundamental questions that first need to be answered, including:"},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"In general, our ability to answer such questions in a satisfactory manner is very patchy, both spatially and temporally. In-depth study of communities in terms of sustainable livelihoods and vulnerability can provide very useful information at the level of the case study (see, for example, Thorne and Tanner, 2001). However, there is an urgent need for poverty assessments at the national, regional and even continental level to assist in targeting research and development activities that can have an impact on large numbers of poor people. Such assessments cannot use case-study methods (although case studies can be used very effectively for validating broader approaches), but have to rely on broader-scale approaches."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"The objectives of the work reported here were to estimate the number of poor livestock keepers in the tropics and subtropics, and to produce sets of maps that locate significant populations of them. This was one step in a process of assessing, in broad terms, how poor livestock-keeping populations are likely to change over the next three to five decades-that work is reported elsewhere (Thornton et al., 2002). In this paper, we outline the poverty mapping work, the sources of data used and the assumptions made, and present some of the maps produced. We briefly discuss their limitations and possible future work that could be done to improve them. We conclude with indications as to how this information might be used to help guide livestock research and development activities."}]},{"head":"Challenges of mapping the location of the poor at global scale","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"There seems to be general agreement that human wellbeing has many dimensions, but poverty can be defined as a pronounced deprivation in well-being. It means lacking food, shelter, and clothing, being sick and having very limited or no access to health services, being illiterate and having few or no educational opportunities, having little security and being very vulnerable to outside events such as natural disasters and economic crises, being excluded from power and political access, and, most of all, not having any hope for the future. No single indicator exists to measure all these dimensions of poverty simultaneously. Efforts to measure human wellbeing have thus concentrated on collecting data separately for some of these dimensions-for example, with the help of income or consumption measurements to capture material deprivation, and health, nutrition, and education indicators to capture low levels of achievement in health and education."},{"index":2,"size":276,"text":"Producing a map that shows the location of the poor has to rely on these national and international data collection efforts (poverty mapping in general is reviewed by Deichmann, 1999;Henninger, 1998;Ghosh and Rao, 1994). However, current investments in data collection and methodology development for statistical estimation and mapping techniques are not sufficient to produce a global map at a resolution that is significantly higher than the national average. International data collection that captures the income-consumption, demographic-health, and nutrition dimensions of human well-being have probably received a larger share of investment and international coordination than other dimensions (see WHO, 2001, for example). Even in these areas, which have received significant attention by international and national agencies in the past two decades, there are severe limitations that have an impact on our ability to show where the poor are located. These limitations are related to the international comparability of country surveys; for example, income poverty measurements need to overcome differences in survey design and questions asked, such as different recall periods to capture food spending or how to make adjustments for household sizes, different poverty lines, and measurement errors. These limitations are also to do with coverage; for example, 15% of the world's population was included in only one household income or expenditure survey over the past decade, and thus no trend analysis is possible (World Bank, 2001). Most importantly, these limitations relate to the resolution of the data. The typical sample size in these surveys is designed to produce statistics representative at a national level, with a breakdown in a handful of units of analysis, such as estimates for urban and rural areas within 3-5 major regions."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"Despite these limitations, however, various efforts are underway to advance the development of poverty maps from both the demand and supply side. This could make a global, high-resolution poverty map a reality within a few years. International and national development agencies have a growing interest in focusing development efforts on the poor. For example, recent fine resolution poverty maps in South Africa are being used to target health and anti-crime interventions towards areas with both deep poverty and high disease/crime outbreaks (StatsSA, 2000). This increasing demand for maps showing the location of the poor could help to shape prioritisation efforts that go beyond country rankings, improve geographic targeting, and illuminate the cause-and-effect relationships between poverty and other dimensions of development, such as environmental and health outcomes. On the supply side, three major developments are driving the process:"},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"* Increased availability of geo-referenced, especially socio-economic, data. More spatial data are becoming available because of lower costs of digital mapping software and remote sensing products, and most importantly, because of the convenience of and power for data integration, once a geographic location has been assigned. Over the past 5 years, international efforts have improved the availability of digital census data by administrative units (CIESIN, 2000) and of map layers that are relevant to delineate malaria risks (MARA, 2001), for example. * Efforts to distribute survey data with assigned geographic locations. An example of this was a regional pilot project that assigned latitudes and longitudes to more than 2000 enumeration areas (''clusters'') for 12 different Demographic and Health Surveys collected in the 1990s that allows the calculation of reliable estimates for new units of analysis such as agroecological zones (Croft et al., 1997 SA, 2000;Elbers and Lanjouw, 2000)."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"While work in these areas is increasing the supply of data, methods, and maps, it is still driven mostly by individual research interests, the entrepreneurial spirit of task managers, and ad hoc data compilation and integration efforts. There is a tremendous opportunity to accelerate these activities and move them beyond their research and pilot status to a mainstream effort. It will require increased financial support and a better coordinated strategy between development agencies, international institutions focused on survey, mapping, and analysis, and institutions responsible for national censuses, statistical services, and mapping."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Mapping human population, livestock production systems, and livestock density at the global level"},{"index":7,"size":108,"text":"The central element of the analysis described below is a global livestock classification based on that of Ser! e and Steinfeld (1996), which we have mapped (Kruska et al., 2003). The mapping of the classification is based primarily in terms of climate and human population density, the latter because of the strong association between people and livestock. For these livestock systems, we attached poverty data from various sources to produce a set of poverty maps by production system by country of somewhat greater resolution than the country poverty figures currently available for all countries of the globe. The data inputs to the process are summarised in Fig. 1."}]},{"head":"Human population","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Human population density layers were developed for Africa, Asia and Latin America for the year 2000. These data were used to assist in defining the livestock systems above. They were compiled from various regional population density data sets: the Africa Population Database, version 3 (Deichmann, 1996a); the Asia Population Database 1996 (Deichmann, 1996b); and the Latin America and Caribbean Population Database 2000 (Hyman et al., 2000). These data originated from national population censuses carried out at various times during the 1990s. Population estimates were standardised to a common base year (2000) using published province or districtspecific inter-census growth rates, typically between 1980 and 1990. The resulting total national population figures were checked against the regularly published population estimates produced by the Population Division of the United Nations. In cases where the estimate was considerably different from the UN estimate, growth rates were adjusted to match the UNestimated population for each country. In generating the original coverages, Deichmann had redistributed the population counts among grid cells within each administrative unit by ''attracting'' population towards high-count areas such as urban centres and road infrastructure, and these were what we used in this analysis."}]},{"head":"ARTICLE IN PRESS","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Livestock production systems","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"Ser! e and Steinfeld (1996) outline what is still, so far as we know, the only existing global livestock production classification system associated with a detailed data set. Their methods were built on the agro-ecological zone concept used by FAO, and they produced detailed country tables with disaggregated data by area, population, livestock numbers, and livestock outputs for each production system category. This classification provides a starting point for defining global livestock production systems. Ser! e and Steinfeld (1996) were limited at the time by the lack of availability of relevant global spatial data sets. The situation has improved greatly since then, and this has allowed us to map their classification, with some modifications to their system definitions to make use of new global data sets. The system breakdown presented is conceptually identical, but has slightly modified descriptors for the four production categories: landless systems (typically found in peri-urban settings), livestock/rangeland-based systems (areas with minimal cropping, often corresponding to pastoral systems), mixed rainfed systems (mostly rainfed cropping combined with livestock, i.e. agro-pastoral systems), and mixed irrigated systems (a significant proportion of cropping uses irrigation and is interspersed with livestock). All but the landless systems were further disaggregated by agro-ecological potential as defined by the length of growing period. Three different agroecological zones were used: highland/temperate, arid/ semi-arid and humid/sub-humid. Details of the steps taken to produce the livestock systems maps are described in Kruska et al. (2003). In summary, the following 10 livestock systems were defined and mapped for the developing regions of the globe:"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"In mapping the classification, we used human population densities (described briefly above), the United States Geological Survey's Land Use/Land Cover System database and legend (Anderson et al., 1976;Loveland et al., 2000), length-of-growing-period surfaces (Fischer et al., 2000;Jones, 1987;Jones and Thornton, 1999;IWMI, 1999), a global coverage of the irrigated areas (D ."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"oll and Siebert, 2000; Siebert and D . oll, 2001), and the Nighttime Lights of the World database (NOAA/NGDC, 1998)."}]},{"head":"Livestock numbers","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"We assembled global data on tropical livestock units (TLUs, a measure of animal biomass calculated using the species values of Jahnke, 1982) to bring together the distributions of cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, mules and pigs. Data on livestock numbers were assembled from various sources. Cattle densities for Africa are from databases held at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), based on a large number of country-level reports; for Central and South America, from databases at ILRI and the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia; and for Asia, from Wint et al. (2000) and from FAO country statistics (FAO, 2001). Sheep and goat densities are from Wint et al. (2000) for much of Asia and from FAO country statistics for Central and South America, Africa and parts of Asia (FAO, 2001). Data for buffalo, horses, mules, donkeys and pigs are from FAO (2001) at the country level."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"Of the 3882 species of domesticated animals (de Haan et al., 1997), only 12 species dominate global livestock production (Blench, 2000). In Africa, livestock keepers' systems rely on cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys and dromedaries; in central Asia, livestock owners keep horses, cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, and, in some parts, Bactrian camels. Yaks dominate production in the highlands of Asia. Llama and alpaca are common in Andean systems of South America. Water buffalo are important in India and Iran. In Africa, most of the cattle are in or near the Sahel, the higher potential areas of East Africa (including the Ethiopian highlands), Zimbabwe and South Africa. Sheep are also concentrated in these areas and also in parts of northern Africa. In Asia, cattle/buffalo are most abundant in far western Asia (Ukraine, Byelorussia, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia), India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Indochina and the eastern Asian island countries. Sheep and goats are much more widely spread across central Asia and in many of the same regions as cattle. In Latin America, cattle are concentrated in south-eastern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and north-eastern Argentina. By contrast, sheep and goats are more common in Peru, Chile, and western Argentina. Cattle are more widespread than sheep and goats in Central America."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"The greatest densities of TLUs are found in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina; the Ethiopian highlands and around Lake Victoria; India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh; north-western China around Beijing; Turkey, Ukraine, Byelorussia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. It is as important to recognise where there are relatively few TLUs: much of the Amazon basin, the Sahara, the humid forests of western and central Africa, northern Zambia, Angola, Mozambique, the western part of Botswana and eastern Namibia, the Arabian peninsula, western Pakistan, northern Indochina, and the desert areas of China and Mongolia."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"To bring these various strands together, Fig. 2 maps the density of TLUs per person (2000 data, as far as possible) overlaid with the livestock production systems map (the areas in the tropics with no shading indicate that these are classified as non-livestock production system areas)."}]},{"head":"Locating the poor at the global level","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Given existing data constraints, any global poverty maps currently have to be based on national-level poverty rates. Case studies and more detailed country data show a higher incidence of poverty in sparsely populated and remote areas (measured by the headcount, the percentage of poor living below a poverty line) and sometimes in low-potential, marginal agricultural areas. These spatial patterns, however, do not appear in other locations; there is not yet enough quantitative data to generalise across regions or to identify other general patterns."},{"index":2,"size":222,"text":"Even with national-level data, and with poverty measures based on household income and expenditure surveys, there is still significant room for variation in the relative and absolute numbers of poor. A major reason for these differences in the number of poor is the choice of poverty line. The poverty line is the threshold in income or consumption below which a household is classified as poor. Internationally comparable lines, such as the widely cited US $1/day (the most recent line is equal to US $1.08/day using 1993 purchasing power parity (PPP) estimates generated by the International Comparison Program), are useful for producing continental and global totals (World Bank, 2001). Data based on an international poverty line thus show the number of people that cannot purchase a roughly similar basket of necessities (World Bank, 2001). National poverty lines are needed to capture intercountry differences in economic and social status and to assess progress at a national scale. Poverty lines differ between countries and even within countries, to reflect differences in the cost of living between urban and rural areas, for example. Other problems that can be associated with nationally defined poverty levels relate to the fact that they may be defined somewhat subjectively. The following maps and tables based on these national poverty lines, therefore, do not have a common reference point, strictly speaking."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"In the study (Thornton et al., 2002) we used four different data sets and poverty lines, two international lines (US$1 and US$2/day) and two national lines-one from the ILRI priority-setting exercise based on data from the technical advisory committee (TAC) of the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (TAC, 1996;Gryseels et al., 1997), and one for the rural population living below the rural poverty line (World Bank, 2001), to compare differences in the number of poor. These are compared for various regions in Table 1, which clearly indicates that an international line of US$1/day underestimates the number of poor in North Africa and Central and South America, which typically have set their national poverty lines closer to the US$2/day figure. US$1/day is closer to the national poverty lines in low-income countries of Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. A value of US$2/ day is closer to national poverty lines in middle-income countries."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"Poverty rates (headcount) are based on the latest household survey, typically (but not always) in the past 5-10 years. No adjustments were made to standardise to a common base year, by applying estimated growth rates of per capita private consumption from national accounts, for example. Survey data did not exist for all countries within each region. For countries where such data were not available, a regional population weighted average was estimated for each of the four regions (Asia, Central and South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and West Asia-North Africa) and then applied to the countries with no data."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"Table 3 shows numbers of total poor by region and by production system (the full spreadsheets are available from the authors upon request), using the rural country-based poverty rates. Abbreviations in that table, and the definition of the various regions, are shown in Table 2."}]},{"head":"Locating poor livestock keepers at the global level","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"The data in Table 3 are based on the assumption that the national poverty rate is equally applicable across all systems or areas within the country. With a breakdown by livestock production system, it is possible to show numbers of poor by livestock production system, but this is only one step towards representing the distribution of poverty among livestock keepers. As noted above, poverty rates will clearly differ within and between production systems. The proportional importance of livestock to household income streams differs from one culture to another and within production systems. For example, mixed crop-livestock farmers have multiple opportunities for income from a variety of sources; thus, income from livestock probably contributes a smaller proportion to their household food basket. By contrast, most pastoralists depend on livestock for a large proportion of their income (although in places this is changing). Thus, any map of poverty among livestock keepers needs to account for the importance of livestock to income at the household level."}]},{"head":"ARTICLE IN PRESS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"At the national (or even regional) level, methods exist to deal with such issues. At the global level, information on the importance of livestock to rural livelihoods is difficult to find. There are several approaches that could be taken to deal with differential poverty rates by production system. One approach would be to use the density of TLUs per person (Fig. 2) as a proxy for the importance of livestock to income at the household level, the assumption being that higher livestock numbers per person indicate that livestock are more important to household incomes, within a particular system. This assumption has some obvious flaws, including the possibility that areas with more livestock per person are areas that have more income opportunities of all kinds. However, an overlay of TLUs per person with the poverty map would give rise to differential poverty rates by system that could give an indication of numbers of poor livestock keepers."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"A second approach would be to estimate the proportional importance of livestock to incomes within the 11 different production systems, and to use this to weight the poverty rate by system. Information on this is very scanty, however; the approach using TLUs per person seems more objective, unless databases can be built up with country-level systems poverty rates from a wide variety of countries, to the point where extrapolation could be done with some confidence."},{"index":3,"size":253,"text":"Another approach would use differential poverty rates associated with particular production systems, defined in some way. As an illustration, and to highlight the need for future work on this element of the analysis, Fig. 3 shows (ostensibly) numbers of ''poor livestock keepers'' by system by country (the numbers are tabulated by region and system in Table 4). These data were derived by assigning differential proportions of poor livestock keepers as a percentage of the total poor by livestock production system. We used estimates of the number of poor livestock keepers globally from Livestock in Development (LID, 1999). These estimates were derived from poverty statistics in UNDP (1997) and other studies on livestock ownership patterns (LID, 1999). Using these data for extensive graziers (which we equated with the three livestock only, rangeland-based systems), poor rainfed mixed farmers (the three mixed rainfed systems), and landless livestock keepers (into which category we lumped all the remaining systems), we derived the proportion of the numbers of poor people in each system who are livestock keepers (76% for the rangeland-based systems, 68% for the mixed rainfed systems, and 26% for the mixed irrigated and all landless systems). These proportions were then applied to the numbers of poor in each system using the nationally defined rural poverty rates. These numbers may be very coarse at the global level, but they illustrate what could be done with more precision at higher resolutions, for example through using household welfare survey results measuring percentages of livestock keepers falling below the poverty line."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Fig. 3 indicates that the density of poor livestock keepers defined in this way is particularly high throughout South Asia (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) and in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa (including Nigeria, Ethiopia, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, Malawi, and some systems in Kenya, South Africa, and Niger, for example). These high densities appear to occur mostly in the mixed systems-these are the irrigated mixed systems in parts of South Asia, and the rainfed mixed systems in parts of India and in most of Sub-Saharan Africa. "}]},{"head":"ARTICLE IN PRESS","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Discussion and conclusions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"In terms of the numbers of poor and our estimates of the numbers of poor livestock keepers, the critical regions are South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Some 62% of the estimated 600 million poor livestock keepers (defined using nationally defined rural poverty rates) live in these two regions. This analysis indicates that while the rangeland systems contain relatively few poor (some 60 million), most of these households are dependent on livestock for their livelihoods. Almost half of the poor in rangeland systems are located in Sub-Saharan Africa. The mixed systems contain large numbers of poor (over 1 billion), and the number of poor people who depend to some extent on livestock is considerable-the mixed irrigated systems may contain 113 million poor livestock keepers, and the mixed rainfed system some 420 million poor livestock keepers."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"These numbers of poor livestock keepers by system and region should clearly be treated with caution, given some of the assumptions made in the analysis outlined above. In addition, there are several weaknesses in the map of global livestock production systems, identified in Kruska et al. (2003). The classification depends on data of land cover/land use that could be improved. For example, the category classified as ''other'' contains ecosystems that range from arctic tundra to tropical rain forest to desert. There is also a great deal of variation within all of the production systems categories, particularly with respect to agricultural production potential. There are also likely to be differences in the level of poverty of livestock keepers within the same production system associated with differences in livestock production potential, but there is much that is unknown."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"There are several areas where improvements could be made in the future. First, there could be further refinement of production systems categories by accounting for different levels of land-use intensity and different levels of productive potential caused by soil fertility."},{"index":4,"size":117,"text":"Second, further studies are needed to quantify rates of poverty between and within different production systems. This would involve substantial improvement in our understanding of the proportion of income that people in different production systems derive from livestock, and thus the importance of livestock to their livelihoods. Third, the time dimension could be incorporated explicitly in these analyses through combining notions of poverty with vulnerability. Some of the poor are bound to be more vulnerable to climatic shocks such as drought or to political shocks such as revolution than others. Global analyses of vulnerability combined with poverty maps could contribute greatly to refining the types of analyses that could be attempted using the data sets described above."},{"index":5,"size":333,"text":"Despite their weaknesses, these poverty maps can still provide information of considerable use. First, this information can be (and is being) used to prioritise and focus livestock research. Different agencies have their own criteria by which to judge the appropriateness of research and development activities within their activity portfolios; these might include a consideration of the absolute numbers of poor, or systems with high rural poverty rates and where environmental issues are important, or systems with large numbers of TLUs and poor livestock keepers, or other similar criteria. Realistic and convincing attempts to prioritise activities will involve trade-offs between the various criteria used. The important thing is to define these various criteria, so that the reasons for priorities can be articulated clearly. An example is the recent priority-setting work at ILRI (Randolph et al., 2001), which involved the development of a framework that could accommodate multiple criteria in evaluating the impacts of the various research themes under consideration, including expected economic impact and the contribution to poverty alleviation. For these, a cost-benefit analysis based on an economic surplus model was used to estimate the economic impact and the numbers of poor likely to benefit. This work was carried out before the poverty and systems maps was completed, but future priority setting will make use of these to help refine resource allocations to livestock research activities at ILRI. A second example is the study of Perry et al. (2002), which was based on the livestock system and poverty maps described above. This study was carried out to identify priority research opportunities that can improve the livelihoods of the poor through better control of animal diseases in Africa and Asia. A major objective was to promote better donor coordination and complementarity and thereby achieve greater impact on poverty alleviation. Currently, there are plans to put these databases into a format that can be readily accessed by those interested in using them in their own prioritysetting activities (e.g. other research institutes, donor agencies, and regional organisations)."}]},{"head":"ARTICLE IN PRESS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"A second use of these livestock system and poverty maps is in identifying ''hotspots'' at the global level that can then be investigated in more detail at higher resolution. These hotspots might be defined in various ways, depending on the purpose: as areas of high population densities of poor livestock keepers, or areas of high densities of poor people coupled with high levels of biodiversity or natural resource degradation, for example. We have started analyses of this type in Kenya, where we are attempting to associate different poverty rates with geographic variables such as market access, natural resource endowment, and climate. The expectation is that this work will ultimately allow us to analyse some of the relationships between land use, natural resource degradation, and poverty. Such information is critical for informing policy decisions from the community up to national levels in many developing countries."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"A third use of these livestock and poverty maps could potentially be in contributing baseline data for monitoring progress towards some of the International Development Goals. Disaggregating country-level data by production system could assist in identifying areas where progress is or is not being made, and could possibly provide some insights as to the reasons why."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"While analyses based on global data sets are useful, they can go only so far. A key activity in future is to forge the links between household survey data and case studies with the broader picture provided by global analyses. As noted above, methods based on small-area estimation to produce poverty maps at much higher resolution, for instance at the level of census enumeration areas, have been and are being applied in various countries and can greatly increase the analytical options available to policy makers for targeting development assistance of whatever type. Such poverty maps could also be used to spot-check global estimates for accuracy. Poverty maps based on small-area estimation have been or are being constructed for at least 20 countries in the tropics and subtropics (Henninger and Snel, 2002)."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"These, together with household survey data from many of these countries, could go a long way towards assessing the reliability of estimates of numbers of poor livestock keepers and their location globally."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Tropical livestock units per person (2000 data). "},{"text":"Table 1 Comparison of absolute and relative numbers of poor based on different poverty lines Region Millions of people living in poverty, 2000 RegionMillions of people living in poverty, 2000 Based on national Rural poor (based on Less than $1/day Less than $2/day Based on nationalRural poor (based onLess than $1/dayLess than $2/day poverty lines from national poverty lines) b (international poverty (international poverty poverty lines fromnational poverty lines) b(international poverty(international poverty ILRI priority setting line) b line) b ILRI priority settingline) bline) b exercise (TAC) a exercise (TAC) a Asia 857 56% 733 56% 889 71% 2169 74% Asia85756%73356%88971%216974% Central and South America 207 14% 194 15% 62 5% 159 5% Central and South America20714%19415%625%1595% Sub-Saharan Africa 350 23% 291 22% 293 23% 495 17% Sub-Saharan Africa35023%29122%29323%49517% West Asia and north Africa 104 7% 94 7% 10 1% 105 4% West Asia and north Africa1047%947%101%1054% Total (four regions) 1520 100% 1312 100% 1254 100% 2928 100% Total (four regions)1520100%1312100%1254100%2928100% a Gryseels et al. (1997). a Gryseels et al. (1997). b World Bank (2001). b World Bank (2001). Table 2 Table 2 Abbreviations used Abbreviations used EA East Asia China, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea EAEast AsiaChina, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea CSA Central and South Argentina, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican CSACentral and SouthArgentina, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican America Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guyana, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, AmericaRepublic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guyana, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, Venezuela CA Central Asia Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, CACentral AsiaArmenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Uzbekistan SA South Asia Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka SASouth AsiaAfghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka SEA South-east Asia Brunei, Indonesia, Kampuchea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, SEASouth-east AsiaBrunei, Indonesia, Kampuchea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam SSA Sub-Saharan Africa Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, SSASub-Saharan AfricaAngola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Chad, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Guinea, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe WANA West Asia-north Africa Algeria, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, WANAWest Asia-north AfricaAlgeria, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Dry range Livestock only, rangeland based, arid-semiarid system Dry rangeLivestock only, rangeland based, arid-semiarid system Wet range Livestock only, rangeland based, humid-subhumid system Wet rangeLivestock only, rangeland based, humid-subhumid system Cold range Livestock only, rangeland based, temperate-tropical highland system Cold rangeLivestock only, rangeland based, temperate-tropical highland system Dry irrigated Mixed irrigated arid-semiarid system Dry irrigatedMixed irrigated arid-semiarid system Wet irrigated Mixed irrigated humid-subhumid system Wet irrigatedMixed irrigated humid-subhumid system Cold irrigated Mixed irrigated temperate-tropical highland system Cold irrigatedMixed irrigated temperate-tropical highland system Dry mixed Mixed rainfed arid-semiarid system Dry mixedMixed rainfed arid-semiarid system Wet mixed Mixed rainfed humid-subhumid system Wet mixedMixed rainfed humid-subhumid system Cold mixed Mixed rainfed temperate-tropical highland system Cold mixedMixed rainfed temperate-tropical highland system Landless Systems in high population density areas, with and without city lights LandlessSystems in high population density areas, with and without city lights ''Other'' Non-livestock systems ''Other''Non-livestock systems "},{"text":"Table 3 Number of poor (millions) by region and livestock production system: nationally defined rural poverty rates(World Bank, 2001) Region Dry Wet Cold Dry Wet Cold Dry Wet Cold Land- ''Other'' Total RegionDryWetColdDryWetColdDryWetColdLand-''Other''Total range range range irrigated irrigated irrigated mixed mixed mixed less rangerangerangeirrigatedirrigatedirrigatedmixedmixedmixedless EA 0.2 50.1 1.4 0.1 4.8 38.9 0.4 4.0 17.9 0.6 7.3 75.5 EA0.250.11.40.14.838.90.44.017.90.67.375.5 CSA 6.8 3.7 3.1 6.0 4.4 7.3 15.2 49.8 39.6 19.6 57.7 213.5 CSA6.83.73.16.04.47.315.249.839.619.657.7213.5 CA 0.2 50.1 2.5 2.1 50.1 5.1 2.3 50.1 5.4 0.1 1.8 19.7 CA0.250.12.52.150.15.12.350.15.40.11.819.7 SA 8.1 0.1 0.1 196.9 78.4 0.6 108.0 74.0 4.9 2.8 28.3 502.1 SA8.10.10.1196.978.40.6108.074.04.92.828.3502.1 SEA 0 0.2 0.1 0.5 64.9 0.6 0.6 61.5 2.0 2.6 28.5 161.5 SEA00.20.10.564.90.60.661.52.02.628.5161.5 SSA 19.7 6.1 1.2 2.1 0.1 1.5 77.2 83.9 44.4 2.8 55.2 294.3 SSA19.76.11.22.10.11.577.283.944.42.855.2294.3 WANA 7.2 50.1 0.1 22.7 0.5 4.2 21.1 1.4 16.1 0.7 20.2 94.5 WANA7.250.10.122.70.54.221.11.416.10.720.294.5 Total 42.3 10.1 8.6 230.4 153.0 58.1 224.9 274.9 130.5 29.2 199.1 1361.1 Total42.310.18.6230.4153.058.1224.9274.9130.529.2199.11361.1 Note: See Table 2 for abbreviations. Note: See Table 2 for abbreviations. "},{"text":"Table 4 Number of ''poor livestock keepers'' (millions) by region and livestock production system: nationally defined rural poverty rates(World Bank, 2001; LID, 1999) Note: See Table2for abbreviations. Region Dry Wet Cold Dry Wet Cold Dry Wet Cold Land- ''Other'' Total RegionDryWetColdDryWetColdDryWetColdLand-''Other''Total range range range irrigated irrigated irrigated mixed mixed mixed less rangerangerangeirrigatedirrigatedirrigatedmixedmixedmixedless EA 0.2 50.1 1.1 50.1 1.2 10.1 0.3 2.7 12.2 0.2 0 28.0 EA0.250.11.150.11.210.10.32.712.20.2028.0 CSA 5.2 2.8 2.4 1.6 1.1 1.9 10.3 33.9 27.0 5.1 0 91.3 CSA5.22.82.41.61.11.910.333.927.05.1091.3 CA 180.4 50.1 1.9 0.6 50.1 1.3 1.5 50.1 3.7 50.1 0 9.2 CA180.450.11.90.650.11.31.550.13.750.109.2 SA 6.1 0.1 0.1 51.2 20.4 0.2 73.4 50.3 3.3 0.7 0 205.9 SA6.10.10.151.220.40.273.450.33.30.70205.9 SEA 0 0.2 0.1 0.1 16.9 0.2 0.4 41.9 1.3 0.7 0 61.7 SEA00.20.10.116.90.20.441.91.30.7061.7 SSA 15.0 4.6 0.9 0.5 50.1 0.4 52.5 57.1 30.2 0.7 0 162.0 SSA15.04.60.90.550.10.452.557.130.20.70162.0 WANA 5.5 50.1 0.1 5.9 0.1 1.1 14.4 1.0 11.0 0.2 0 39.3 WANA5.550.10.15.90.11.114.41.011.00.2039.3 Total 32.1 7.7 6.5 59.9 39.8 15.1 152.9 186.9 88.7 7.6 0 597.3 Total32.17.76.559.939.815.1152.9186.988.77.60597.3 "}],"sieverID":"c78147d5-16fb-4b9b-861d-135d143722a1","abstract":"Many research and development agencies are committed to halving the number of people living in extreme poverty by 2015. Knowledge of where the poor are, and what characterises them, is patchy at best. Here we describe a global livestock and poverty mapping study designed to assist in targeting research and development activities concerning livestock. Estimates of the numbers of poor livestock keepers by production system and region are presented. While these estimates suffer from various problems, improvements in global databases are critical to improve the targeting of interventions that can meet the challenges posed by poverty and to chart progress against international development indicators."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"097fc3ea80204cea78e2635c39485234","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8eefdf73-e8f1-42cc-83f4-a0c914052da5/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Does harvesting Urochloa and Megathyrsus forages at short intervals confer an advantage on cumulative dry matter yields and quality?","keywords":["forage quality","dry matter yield","harvesting interval"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":427,"text":"Forage quality and quantity is key for success in livestock agriculture, especially in dairy production. Forage grasses constitute the bulk of the feeding providing nutrients, especially energy, for milk production. A wide range of forage options exists either as accessions for example from genebanks and, more recently, hybrids developed or bred to support livestock productivity. Ideally, these grasses should accumulate great forage biomass of acceptable quality, within a short growth period possible, thereby increasing forage resource and use efficiency, as in the case of perennials reducing establishment costs and shortening use intervals over time. With livestock intensification, forage technologies akin with the earlier characteristics are desirable to contribute to livestock roughages demand. By 2050, projections show that the demand for animal source foods 1 will double. An increase in demand for roughages matching the increase in milk and meat production is equally inevitable. Largely, and especially where smallholder dairy is practiced, for example under intensified cut-and-carry systems, forage demand is usually unmet. 2 In eastern Africa, the livestock annual feeds demand to the tune of 1.1 million tons to cater for over 173 million heads of cattle, 3 continues to grow as cattle numbers increase. 4 Currently, there are efforts from national and international research organizations on validating and promoting the use of selected and improved forages to bolster forage production for improving livestock productivity. Forage species with realistic potential to increase feed resource base, in humid to semi-arid areas include species of Urochloa (syn. Brachiaria) and Megathyrsus maximus (syn. Panicum maximum). 5,6 While the agronomic and crop husbandry measures for the commonly used Napier grass under intensified production systems are well described, 7 this is not the case for optimal harvesting stage, in view of dry matter (DM) and quality yields, for the improved forages in sub-Saharan Africa. Usually, as forage grows over time, biomass increases as quality declines; yet both quality and quantity are of importance. 7 Optimal harvesting stage, defined by growth period, biomass yield and quality, present the most realistic argument for reaping benefits of cultivated forages. Usually, high fibers depress DM intake and further undesirably associated with low digestibility especially neutral detergent fiber (NDF). 8,9 Most forage research does not take into consideration the three attributes simultaneously. Often DM yields and quality evaluations are without indication of growth-time competitiveness. [10][11][12] Of importance also is the agricultural context whereby most smallholder dairy farmers especially in east Africa practice cut-andcarry, harvesting forage and availing to confined cattle. As such, forages that can fit under such a context are desirable, for adoption and wide-scale use."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Therefore, taking into consideration the harvesting stage, with corresponding yield and quality over time, becomes critical to identify how various forages perform under a given production environment and context. This allows an informed choice by livestock producers. We therefore assessed two grass genus -Urochloa and Megathyrsus. More specifically, we assessed two Urochloa lines, a cultivar and a hybrid, and one Megathyrsus cultivar. We hypothesized that harvesting at short intervals accumulates similar biomass yields as long intervals, but presents better forage quality under a cut-and-carry context."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sites description","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Two sites in central Meru county in Kenya, one linked to an Agricultural Training Center -Kaguru and the other to a farmers' dairy cooperative -Chure, were used for the current study. Kaguru site attains average annual precipitation of 1891 mm according to 15 years of data. Elevation is 1500 m above sea level. The closest weather station to Chure site is Wathine Kithurine located 1829 m above sea level and 1940 mm rainfall from 15 years of records. While both sites lie on the leeward side of mount Kenya, their marked abrupt differences are in altitude, being higher at Chure, and similarly for mean temperatures at 17.6-19.2 °C for Chure lower than 18.2-20.6 °C at Kaguru. Chure is located in coffee-tea zone unlike the main coffee zone for Kaguru. Soils in both sites are largely fertile volcanic, but very erodible. 13 Smallholder dairy is important in the areas and animals are kept in sheds where they are provided with cut-and-carry forages."}]},{"head":"Trial design, treatments, and management","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":338,"text":"At planting in March 2018, land preparation involved manually digging with hoe to depths of about 0.2 m. Because of small seed sizes, shallow furrows of about 0.02 m spaced at 0.03 m row-torow done with wooden pegs applied. Within each plot of 6 m × 5 m, inorganic MEA fertiliser® (NPK fertiliser 23:23:0) was applied at the rate of 50 kg N ha -1 followed by spreading forage seed at 8 kg ha -1 for Urochloa species (described later) and at 3 kg ha -1 for Megathyrsus. Using the already established Urochloa and Megathyrsus demonstration plots planted in the sites described earlier, we marked out plots of 3 m × 5 m for every treatment and every harvesting interval (4, 6, 8, and 12 weeks). Each treatment had three replicates, leading to 72 plots across the two sites, laid out in a randomized complete block design. Forage treatments were Basilisk, Cayman, Mombasa that is, an Urochloa selection, an Urochloa hybrid (Brachiaria ruziziensis × B. decumbens × B. brizantha) and a Megathyrsus selection, respectively. We uniformed all the plots by cutting back to a stubble height of about 10 cm on January 28, 2019 at Kaguru and February 14, 2019 at Chure. We prepared harvesting scheduling for both sites from the standardization dates, for the next 6 months (24 weeks). As such, the number of cuts/harvestings were 6, 4, 3 and 2 for the harvesting intervals of 4, 6, 8 and 12 weeks respectively. Because 24 is a multiple of all the harvesting intervals, the last harvesting date for all harvesting regimes per site converged to the same date, July 15, 2019 for Kaguru and August 1, 2019 for Chure. Throughout the trial period, we kept all the plots weed-free by manually weeding the plots. We top dressed once at the beginning of the 24 weeks with calcium ammonium nitrate fertilizer (26% nitrogen) at a rate of 300 g per plot equivalent to 200 kg ha -1 . At no time did we observe disease or pest challenge."}]},{"head":"Dry matter yield determination","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Harvesting for DM yield determination followed the scheduled dates as per the harvesting treatments of 4, 6, 8 and 12 weeks."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Harvesting was maintained at 10 cm stubble height. All forage biomass was harvested and fresh weight determined with a digital weighing balance (KERN CH 50 K50 with 10 g precision) and recorded. Samples of about 450 g from every plot were put on paper sample bags after recording weight. We later dried the samples to constant weight at 65 °C for 48 h to determine DM content. We then ground the samples to pass 1 mm sieve and kept for quality analysis."}]},{"head":"Forage quality analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) at Crop Nutrition Laboratory Services Ltd, Limuru, Kenya, did quality analysis (https:// cropnuts.com/service/animal-feed-analysis/). Key attributes analyzed include metabolizable energy (ME), crude protein (CP), NDF, acid detergent fiber (ADF), fat (%) and ash (%). From DM yield, ME and CP, we derived two metrics that is metabolizable yield per hectare (MJ ME ha −1 ) and CP yield per hectare (kg CP ha −1 )."}]},{"head":"Data analyses","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"We managed all data in Microsoft Excel and performed one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and general linear regression in Gen-Stat version 18 statistical. Further, we generated where applicable orthogonal contrasts and polynomials for biomass yields. The fixed variable were site, forage type and harvesting regime of which they were at two, three and four levels respectively. Random variable was biomass yield, with repeated measures taken from the plots coinciding with the harvesting intervals. The single factor ANOVA model followed as: y i,j = ⊘ j +ϵ i,j:"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Where y is a key attribute of a forage type measured in site i under harvesting regime j. While ⊘ is the mean of a key attribute for the jth harvesting regime."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Tukey HSD (honestly significant difference) test was applied as a post hoc pairwise comparison test to assess significant differences between harvesting regimes. For all the statistical analyses performed, differences were considered significant at P < 0.05."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":376,"text":"The forage grasses accumulated variable DM over the growth period of 6 months (Fig. 1). At 4 weeks interval (six harvests), the biomass production order was Cayman > Basilisk > Mombasa at Chure site (Fig. 1(a)). The order at Kaguru was slightly different Cayman ≈ Mombasa > Basilisk (Fig. 1(b)). While Basilisk produced similar biomass at both sites at 4 weeks interval, Cayman and Mombasa produced more at Kaguru than Chure. At 6 weeks interval (four harvests), the order at Chure was maintained except Basilisk and Mombasa accumulated similar biomass. The trend reversed at Kaguru with Mombasa producing most biomass while Basilisk and Cayman had similar biomass (Fig. 1(b)). However, Cayman had a drop at 6 weeks compared to accumulation at 4 weeks though not significant. Although we did not measure tillering, senescence and rainfall, this could have coincided with reduced soil moisture affecting Cayman biomass more than the other grasses. Comparing 6 weeks intervals at Chure and Kaguru, Mombasa produced significantly more at Kaguru, while the other two produced similar DM yields. At 8 weeks intervals, the biomass production trend at Chure was similar to that of 6 weeks intervals in same site. Comparing 8 weeks intervals at both sites, Basilisk produced similar biomass, while Cayman and Mombasa at Kaguru produced significantly more DM than at Chure. At 12 weeks intervals, trend at Chure was maintained as Cayman > Basilisk > Mombasa while that at Kaguru was Cayman > Mombasa ≈ Basilisk. Across the four harvesting regimes/intervals, Basilisk produced similar DM at both sites except at week 12 interval that had more DM yields than the rest. For Cayman, similar biomass at Chure was at 6, 8 and 12-weeks intervals, all of which had more biomass than the 4 weeks interval (Fig. 1(a)). At Kaguru, was low for Cayman in the 6 weeks category and similar yields at 4, 8 or 12-weeks categories (Fig. 1(b)). For Mombasa, similar biomass production at Chure was observed for 6, 8 and 12-weeks categories, with the 4-weeks interval producing lower than the three categories. We observed similar trend at Kaguru except for the 8-weeks category that produced lower than either 6 or 8-weeks intervals. (Fig. 1(b)). We did not identify significant interactions between cutting regime, forage types and/or sites."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Quality attributes differed (P < 0.05) amongst the three forage types (Table 1). Cayman performed better than either Basilisk or Mombasa ranging from having low fibers, high ME, protein and fat, and subsequent high yield metrics for energy, protein and fat especially at Kaguru site. However, at Chure site, the same trend as at Kaguru except for similar values between Cayman and Basilisk for energy, protein, fibers and fat contents."},{"index":3,"size":242,"text":"When compared between Chure and Kaguru trial sites and across the four harvesting regimes (Table 2), Cayman had most ME content and yield per hectare at 4 weeks for either of the sites while Basilisk had the least. ME content dropped progressively from 4 weeks to 12 weeks intervals going as low as an average of 6.7 MJ ME kg -1 at Kaguru for Basilisk at the 12 weeks' interval, and a yield of 29 338 MJ ME ha -1 for 4 weeks interval Mombasa at Chure. CP content was largest for Mombasa (243 CP g kg −1 ) at 4 weeks in Chure, and the yield 2237 kg CP ha -1 for 6 weeks intervals for Cayman at Kaguru. For both sites, generally fat content was high in early harvesting intervals of 4 to 6 weeks before dropping by week 12 across the three grasses. We observed most fat content and yield in the order Cayman > Mombasa > Basilisk and higher values at Chure than Kaguru. Desirably, least fibers NDF and ADF were in the order Cayman < Basilisk < Mombasa while at site level Chure < Kaguru. Younger grasses at 4 weeks intervals accumulated least fibers that increased progressively by 12 weeks intervals. However, there was a drop in ADF for Cayman and Basilisk at Chure at week 8 possibly due to leaf ontogeny, and going up again at week 12 as leaves grew accumulating more fiber (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Contrast comparisons for cumulative DM yields against cutting intervals, site, forage grasses and associated polynomials returned significance for forage cultivars/hybrid and 4-week harvest compared to other regimes only at Chure (Table 3). The cultivar/hybrid to a large extent therefore had influence on the DM yields obtained but not the harvesting regime."},{"index":5,"size":158,"text":"Yields of ME and CP had a strong positive correlation at either four (i), six, (ii), eight (iii) or twelve (iv) weeks harvesting intervals (Fig. 2). At any of the cutting intervals, Cayman tended to have greater values than either Basilisk or Mombasa as visible from the symbols in the plots. Values for Basilisk compared to the other grasses tended to cluster at close to the plot origin at 4 weeks and slightly away from the origin under 12 weeks treatment. This was unlike at 6 and 8 weeks treatment for this grass where points were spreadout. For Mombasa, the values spread-out at all cutting time regimes except at 6-weeks treatment. At any of the cutting treatment, there was no clear shift of the value positions from the origin to further away suggesting age had little influence. Across all cutting regimes, the relations returned strong and positive R 2 explaining at least 85.8% at 12-week regime (Fig. 2)."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":403,"text":"The overall objective of comparing cumulative DM yields and quality from the three forage grasses harvested at either 4, 6, 8 or 12-weeks intervals was met. Our hypothesis of shorter cutting intervals producing similar biomass and quality was partially confirmed. There was a mix of responses. In some cases, the biomass was similar for some forage types especially at four, six and eight cutting intervals, similar to quality attributes. The differences among the grasses notwithstanding, cutting at either 4, 6 or 8 weeks produced comparable cumulative DM yields within both sites (Fig. 1(a,b)) and similar observation on contrast comparisons (Table 3). With exception of Mombasa at Chure, cutting Cayman or Basilisk at 4 or 6 weeks interval accumulated similar DM yields. As such, cutting at 6 or 8 weeks intervals did not confer appreciable cumulative yield gain compared to 4 weeks interval. Therefore, harvesting at the shorter 4-weeks interval would pragmatically help ameliorate frequent/daily forage demand at the farm level. Specifically, harvesting at 4 weeks allowed cutting six times, half the figure at 8 weeks. At 8 weeks intervals the average yields increase (%) between the two sites, compared to the 4-weeks interval, were by 22.5, 34 and 8.5 for Basilisk, Cayman and Mombasa respectively (Fig. 1), probably not warranting the lower harvesting frequency of three times, as opposed to six times in the 4-weeks interval, that favors seldom forage demand. Even further, at 12 weeks interval, only two cuttings would be possible in 6 months, exacerbating opportunities the livestock producer has to present forage to the animals. Therefore, harvesting at short intervals helps take advantage of the usually high growth rate in early age before later increasing at a decreasing rate. In intensified smallholder systems where forage cutting is based on daily demand, harvesting as early as possible is beneficial on two folds. First, it contributes to frequent forage supply for production, especially for lactating animals, second, paves the way for a much needed quality regrowth possible with perennial grasses as presented here. Forage quality is key for utilization by livestock especially for the energy and protein that are vital for milk synthesis. 14 The high yields per hectare of ME and CP (Fig. 2) makes Cayman hybrid a better choice amongst the three, boosted further by the high DM yield across the harvesting regimes and sites (Fig. 1), even when Cayman is compared to Basilisk and Mombasa in combination (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Usually, increase in DM is inversely associated with quality, 15 and therefore a forage that simultaneously sustains both quality and quantity without a serious compromise of either, is outstanding as portrayed by Cayman."},{"index":3,"size":272,"text":"Considering forage biomass and quality, it is apparent that harvesting at either 8 or 12 weeks for any of the three grasses is not beneficial leaving harvesting at 4 or 6 weeks more feasible, or any time in between. Although DM yields at 6 or 8 weeks are comparable, the time lag of having to wait for the extra 2 weeks is undesirable in intensive diary production where roughage demand is high. For the hybrid Cayman, the 14.2 t ha −1 DM observed at Kaguru when harvested at 8 weeks intervals is comparable to 15.9 t ha −1 DM reported by Mupenzi et al. 5 for three cuts at similar growth interval for Brachiaria hybrid cv Mulato II. Given that the yields obtained in the current study are for a period of 6 months, doubling these figures could reliably give potential yields for a whole year. Utilizing Cayman at 4 weeks especially if it is under grazing would be appropriate, and when circumstances may not allow, getting up to 6 weeks is not profoundly punitive in quality. Given the agricultural context in the study area where manual cutand-carry is the practice, harvesting at 6 weeks would probably offer better handling due to possible taller plants. Elsewhere under grazing system, foraging at 4-6 weeks for Brachiaria is recommended, 16 falling within what we observe in this study. This is unlike for unimproved cultivars of the same species. For example, Enoh et al. 17 and similar observations have been reported. Wassie et al. 18 recorded an increase in CP yield (44-67%) overtime (8 and 12 weeks of growth) at different highland altitudes in Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"We partially proved our hypothesis where biomass was similar among four, six and eight cutting intervals except in some instances. The 12-weeks cutting produced higher biomass than either 4, 6 or 8-weeks regimes but not always, and depended on the forage type. Equally, cutting at 4, 6 or 8 weeks produced better quality than at 12 weeks. Our results therefore mean harvesting or grazing Basilisk, Cayman or Mombasa at 4 through 6 weeks in the area of study and by extension in other similar areas and ecologies is preferable, specifically due to more cuttings that come with better quality and contribute to addressing frequent forage demand characterized in smallholder dairy settings. Among the three forage types, Cayman presented greater yields and of better quality that would be preferable to Basilisk or Mombasa in the project sites. Further work would be worthwhile on longevity/persistency at the short harvesting interval, including how the grasses perform in other ecologies."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Means (± standard error) for forages (Basilisk, Cayman and Mombasa) cumulative dry matter (DM) yields (t ha −1 ) from Chure (a) and (b) Kaguru trial sites, at 4, 6, 8 and 12 weeks harvesting intervals in 2018. "},{"text":" recommended harvesting Brachiaria ruziziensis ecotype at 8 weeks following low quality at 12 weeks of growth. The increase in ME or CP yields in the current study are plausible "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Regression between metabolizable energy (MJ ME ha −1 ) and crude protein (CP) yields (kg CP ha −1 ) for Basilisk, Mombasa and Cayman forage grasses. Data pooled for Chure and Kaguru trial sites for harvesting at 4 weeks (a), 6 weeks (b) 8 weeks (c) and 12 weeks (d). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Quality attributes for Basilisk, Cayman and Mombasa forage grasses from Chure and Kaguru trials sites from pooled data at 4, 6, 8 and 12 weeks harvesting regimes Parameter Basilisk Cayman Mombasa P Value lsd ParameterBasiliskCaymanMombasaP Valuelsd Chure Chure Energy (MJ kg −1 ) 8.6 ± 0.1 8.5 ± 0.1 8.5 ± 0.1 0.94 0.42 Energy (MJ kg −1 )8.6 ± 0.18.5 ± 0.18.5 ± 0.10.940.42 DM (g kg −1 ) 865 ± 2.0 863 ± 3.0 868 ± 3.0 0.74 11.13 DM (g kg −1 )865 ± 2.0863 ± 3.0868 ± 3.00.7411.13 Protein (g kg −1 ) 204.6 ± 2.5 202.2 ± 4.6 217.3 ± 4.2 0.24 19.28 Protein (g kg −1 )204.6 ± 2.5202.2 ± 4.6217.3 ± 4.20.2419.28 ADF (g kg −1 ) 351 ± 2.0 352 ± 3.0 393 ± 3.0 <0.001 11.66 ADF (g kg −1 )351 ± 2.0352 ± 3.0393 ± 3.0<0.00111.66 NDF (g kg −1 ) 440 ± 7.0 441 ± 12.0 477 ± 7.0 0.16 44 NDF (g kg −1 )440 ± 7.0441 ± 12.0477 ± 7.00.1644 Fat (%) 4.5 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.1 0.52 0.4 Fat (%)4.5 ± 0.14.4 ± 0.14.6 ± 0.10.520.4 Ash (%) 16.1 ± 0.3 15.3 ± 0.5 16.4 ± 0.1 0.38 1.66 Ash (%)16.1 ± 0.315.3 ± 0.516.4 ± 0.10.381.66 ME (MJ ha −1 ) 50 222.4 ± 1729 71 610.1 ± 2162 40 472.9 ± 1691 <0.001 9334.5 ME (MJ ha −1 )50 222.4 ± 172971 610.1 ± 216240 472.9 ± 1691<0.0019334.5 kg CP ha −1 1190.2 ± 37.7 1684.7 ± 49.1 1020.6 ± 39.4 <0.001 211.3 kg CP ha −11190.2 ± 37.71684.7 ± 49.11020.6 ± 39.4<0.001211.3 kg fat ha −1 262.2 ± 10.2 364.4 ± 11.3 217.3 ± 9.0 <0.001 50.9 kg fat ha −1262.2 ± 10.2364.4 ± 11.3217.3 ± 9.0<0.00150.9 Kaguru Kaguru Energy (MJ kg −1 ) 7.2 ± 0.1 7.9 ± 0.1 7.1 ± 0.03 <0.001 0.4 Energy (MJ kg −1 )7.2 ± 0.17.9 ± 0.17.1 ± 0.03<0.0010.4 DM (g kg −1 ) 882 ± 10.0 871 ± 10.0 885 ± 10.0 <0.001 5.59 DM (g kg −1 )882 ± 10.0871 ± 10.0885 ± 10.0<0.0015.59 Protein (g kg −1 ) 151.0 ± 4.0 169.3 ± 3.8 142.7 ± 3.2 0.02 18.34 Protein (g kg −1 )151.0 ± 4.0169.3 ± 3.8142.7 ± 3.20.0218.34 ADF (g kg −1 ) 372 ± 30.0 366 ± 30.0 407 ± 10.0 <0.001 11.61 ADF (g kg −1 )372 ± 30.0366 ± 30.0407 ± 10.0<0.00111.61 NDF (g kg −1 ) 535 ± 50.0 479 ± 80.0 566 ± 30.0 <0.001 29.28 NDF (g kg −1 )535 ± 50.0479 ± 80.0566 ± 30.0<0.00129.28 Fat (%) 3.3 ± 0.1 4.0 ± 0.1 3.3 ± 0.04 0.00 0.39 Fat (%)3.3 ± 0.14.0 ± 0.13.3 ± 0.040.000.39 Ash (%) 13.1 ± 0.2 14.1 ± 0.3 15.0 ± 0.2 0.01 1.14 Ash (%)13.1 ± 0.214.1 ± 0.315.0 ± 0.20.011.14 ME (MJ ha −1 ) 54 467.3 ± 3146 95 969.5 ± 3704 72 175.8 ± 1870 <0.001 14 981.4 ME (MJ ha −1 )54 467.3 ± 314695 969.5 ± 370472 175.8 ± 1870<0.00114 981.4 kg CP ha −1 1134.3 ± 68.1 2057.5 ± 76.5 1460.5 ± 56.5 <0.001 336.5 kg CP ha −11134.3 ± 68.12057.5 ± 76.51460.5 ± 56.5<0.001336.5 kg fat ha −1 250.5 ± 14.6 477.4 ± 15.2 331.7 ± 8.8 <0.001 65.7 kg fat ha −1250.5 ± 14.6477.4 ± 15.2331.7 ± 8.8<0.00165.7 Means followed by ± standard error. Means followed by ± standard error. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Quality attributes including metabolizable energy, crude protein, fat and fibers for Basilisk, Cayman and Mombasa forage grasses grown at Chure and Kaguru trial sites when harvested at 4, 6, 8 and 12 weeks intervals Site Harvesting age (weeks) Basilisk Cayman Mombasa P Value lsd SiteHarvesting age (weeks)BasiliskCaymanMombasaP Valuelsd ME MJ kg −1 (MJ ME ha −1 ) † ME MJ kg −1 (MJ ME ha −1 ) † Chure 4 8.6 (42367) ab 9.3 (59618) a 8.8 (29338) b Chure48.6 (42367) ab9.3 (59618) a8.8 (29338) b 6 8.6 (46454) b 8.9 (75670) a 8.9 (45417) b 68.6 (46454) b8.9 (75670) a8.9 (45417) b 8 8.4 (48944) b 8.9 (77949) a 8.6 (40833) b 88.4 (48944) b8.9 (77949) a8.6 (40833) b 12 7.6 (63124) ab 8.3 (73204) a 7.9 (46304) b 0.022 (0.337) 0.45 (23065) 127.6 (63124) ab8.3 (73204) a7.9 (46304) b0.022 (0.337)0.45 (23065) Kaguru 4 7.6 (41240) b 8.5 (97271) a 7.3 (77485) a Kaguru47.6 (41240) b8.5 (97271) a7.3 (77485) a 6 7.5 (56814) a 8.4 (80302) a 7.1 (79642) a 67.5 (56814) a8.4 (80302) a7.1 (79642) a 8 7.1 (51248) b 7.6 (107830) a 7.0 (56261) ab 87.1 (51248) b7.6 (107830) a7.0 (56261) ab 12 6.7 (68567) a 6.9 (98474) a 7.0 (75315) a 126.7 (68567) a6.9 (98474) a7.0 (75315) a CP g kg −1 (kg CP ha −1 ) † CP g kg ���1 (kg CP ha −1 ) † Chure 4 210 (1040) ab 234 (1503) a 243 (815) b Chure4210 (1040) ab234 (1503) a243 (815) b 6 201 (1091) a 216 (1835) ab 228 (1170) b 6201 (1091) a216 (1835) ab228 (1170) b 8 194 (1200) b 219 (1802) a 215 (1016) b 8194 (1200) b219 (1802) a215 (1016) b 12 165 (1429) a 188 (1599) a 184 (1080) a 0.66 (0.312) 22.3 (543.2) 12165 (1429) a188 (1599) a184 (1080) a0.66 (0.312)22.3 (543.2) Kaguru 4 168 (919) b 183 (2090) a 169 (1804) a Kaguru4168 (919) b183 (2090) a169 (1804) a 6 167 (1272) a 193 (1855) a 149 (1676) a 6167 (1272) a193 (1855) a149 (1676) a 8 145 (1079) a 158 (2237) a 130 (1041) a 8145 (1079) a158 (2237) a130 (1041) a 12 124 (1267) a 143 (2048) a 123 (1321) a 12124 (1267) a143 (2048) a123 (1321) a Fat percentage (kg fat ha −1 ) † Fat percentage (kg fat ha −1 ) † Chure 4 4.2 (208.8) ab 5.0 (320.1) a 4.8 (159.1) b Chure44.2 (208.8) ab5.0 (320.1) a4.8 (159.1) b 6 4.4 (236.5) b 4.8 (404.5) a 4.7 (240.7) b 64.4 (236.5) b4.8 (404.5) a4.7 (240.7) b 8 4.3 (277.4) b 5.0 (402.2) a 4.9 (229.8) b 84.3 (277.4) b5.0 (402.2) a4.9 (229.8) b 12 3.4 (326.0) a 4.3 (330.6) a 4.1 (239.7) a 0.009 (0.44) 0.40 (108.6) 123.4 (326.0) a4.3 (330.6) a4.1 (239.7) a0.009 (0.44)0.40 (108.6) Kaguru 4 3.6 (197.4) c 4.5 (515.0) a 3.2 (337.2) b Kaguru43.6 (197.4) c4.5 (515.0) a3.2 (337.2) b 6 3.6 (276.1) a 4.6 (439.6) a 3.5 (397.7) a 63.6 (276.1) a4.6 (439.6) a3.5 (397.7) a 8 3.1 (228.6) b 3.7 (512.1) a 3.3 (264.5) b 83.1 (228.6) b3.7 (512.1) a3.3 (264.5) b 12 2.9 (300.0) a 3.1 (442.8) a 3.0 (327.3) a 122.9 (300.0) a3.1 (442.8) a3.0 (327.3) a NDF (%) NDF (%) Chure 4 43.0 a 37.1 b 45.2 ac Chure443.0 a37.1 b45.2 ac 6 44.2 ac 38.5 b 45.1 ac 644.2 ac38.5 b45.1 ac 8 46.8 ac 40.6 a 47.8 c 846.8 ac40.6 a47.8 c 12 53.9 de 48.1 c 52.8 de 0.462 3.948 1253.9 de48.1 c52.8 de0.4623.948 Kaguru 4 51.8 d 44.2 ac 54.0 de Kaguru451.8 d44.2 ac54.0 de 6 50.4 d 43.2 a 56.8 e 650.4 d43.2 a56.8 e 8 55.0 e 49.9 d 57.5 e 855.0 e49.9 d57.5 e 12 56.7 e 54.2 d 58.1 e 1256.7 e54.2 d58.1 e ADF (%) ADF (%) Chure 4 35.0 a 33.8 a 38.6 bc Chure435.0 a33.8 a38.6 bc 6 35.4 a 37.0 b 38.9 bc 635.4 a37.0 b38.9 bc 8 34.2 a 34.7 a 39.3 c 834.2 a34.7 a39.3 c 12 36.0 b 35.3 a 40.7 c 0.067 1.887 1236.0 b35.3 a40.7 c0.0671.887 Kaguru 4 36.2 b 35.2 a 40.6 c Kaguru436.2 b35.2 a40.6 c 6 36.6 b 36.2 6 40.7 c 636.6 b36.2 640.7 c 8 37.3 b 36.4 b 40.8 c 837.3 b36.4 b40.8 c 12 38.8 bc 38.8 bc 40.7 c 1238.8 bc38.8 bc40.7 c "},{"text":"Table 3 . Contrast comparisons for cumulative dry matter for test forages and harvesting regime, and polynomials associated with harvesting regime Comparison Contrast Significance ComparisonContrastSignificance Chure Chure Harvesting regime 4 and 6 weeks −1.44 (0.93) NS Harvesting regime4 and 6 weeks−1.44 (0.93)NS 4 and 8 weeks −1.61 (0.93) NS 4 and 8 weeks−1.61 (0.93)NS 4 and (6 and 8 weeks) −3.1 (1.61) NS 4 and (6 and 8 weeks)−3.1 (1.61)NS 4 and (6, 8 and 12 weeks) −5.9 (2.28) ** 4 and (6, 8 and 12 weeks)−5.9 (2.28)** Cultivars/hybrids Cayman versus Mombasa 3.7 (0.612) *** Cultivars/hybridsCayman versus Mombasa3.7 (0.612)*** Cayman versus Basilisk 2.62 (0.612) *** Cayman versus Basilisk2.62 (0.612)*** Cayman versus (Basilisk and Mombasa) 6.3 (1.06) *** Cayman versus (Basilisk and Mombasa)6.3 (1.06)*** Polynomials Linear −0.22 (0.94) NS PolynomialsLinear−0.22 (0.94)NS Quadratic 0.75 (0.329) * Quadratic0.75 (0.329)* Cubic −0.92 (0.49) NS Cubic−0.92 (0.49)NS Kaguru Kaguru Harvesting regime 4 and 6 weeks −0.2 (1.56) NS Harvesting regime4 and 6 weeks−0.2 (1.56)NS 4 and 8 weeks −0.6 (1.56) NS 4 and 8 weeks−0.6 (1.56)NS 4 and (6 and 8 weeks) −0.8 (2.71) NS 4 and (6 and 8 weeks)−0.8 (2.71)NS 4 and (6, 8 and 12 weeks) −3.4 (3.83) NS 4 and (6, 8 and 12 weeks)−3.4 (3.83)NS Cultivars/hybrid Cayman versus Mombasa 2.2 (1.13) * Cultivars/hybridCayman versus Mombasa2.2 (1.13)* Cayman versus Basilisk 4.8 (1.13) *** Cayman versus Basilisk4.8 (1.13)*** Cayman versus (Basilisk and Mombasa) 7.0 (1.96) *** Cayman versus (Basilisk and Mombasa)7.0 (1.96)*** Polymonials Linear −0.56 (0.495) NS PolymonialsLinear−0.56 (0.495)NS Quadratic 0.73 (0.553) NS Quadratic0.73 (0.553)NS Cubic −0.43 (0.825) NS Cubic−0.43 (0.825)NS "}],"sieverID":"bc018a71-3530-4d31-84c7-1c09bc98103a","abstract":"BACKGROUND: Due to increasing demand for livestock products in sub-Saharan Africa, increasing livestock productivity is a priority. The core constraint is limited availability of feed of good quality. We assessed optimal harvesting time of three improved grasses, two Urochloa lines (Basilisk a selection from wild population, Caymana hybrid, a product of breeding) plus Mombasa, a Megathyrsus selection. All are released in Latin America and Kenya or in the registration in other regional countries. We assessed dry matter (DM) yields and quality at 4, 6, 8 and 12 weeks of age in two sites.RESULTS: DM yields (in t ha −1 ) were of the order Cayman (9.6-14.3) > Mombasa (8.0-11.3) > Basilisk (5.5-10.2) in one site, and Cayman (6.4-9.7) > Basilisk (4.9-7.6) > Mombasa (3.3-5.9) at site two. The harvesting regimes produced DM largely similar for weeks 4 and 6, 6 and 8, 8 and 12. Across the sites quality was of the order Cayman > Mombasa > Basilisk for neutral detergent fiber (NDF), metabolizable energy (ME) and crude protein (CP). With increasing harvesting interval, MJ ME ha −1 and kg CP ha −1 were inconsistent across both sites, but significant differences returned for MJ ME ha −1 unlike kg CP ha −1 .CONCLUSIONS: Harvesting at either 8 or 12 weeks is not recommendable as quality drops without an increase in DM yield that can compensate despite doubling and tripling time respectively, compared to 4 weeks. We recommend harvesting at 4 through 6 weeks for any of the three grasses based on yield against time, and demand at the intensified cut-and-carry smallholder systems."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0a405acabd033155431fecb1e9f7f34f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1201/WF_2942.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Small Fish Can Mean Big Nutrition","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Mola for monga","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The northwest is an area with a high incidence of poverty, and with large numbers of people suffering as a result of seasonal food insecurity ('monga') and malnutrition. Small fish ponds are an important source of water for livestock and domestic purposes and most are also used for traditional, low productivity fish culture (<1.0 t/ha). Using recently developed technologies the opportunity exists to increase fish productivity to >3 t/ha and significantly increase household incomes. Equally important is the opportunity to improve household nutrition, particularly for women and children, by adding micronutrient rich small fish to these fish culture systems. This program will culture small, nutrient-dense fish, particularly Mola (Amblypharyngodon mola) in highly efficient low-risk polyculture systems that include a variety of high value fish including carp and freshwater prawn."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Mola is rich in iron, zinc, calcium and preformed vitamin A as retinol. It is readily available for pond stocking, is highly desired by households and commands a good market price. New pond management techniques are being introduced, such as increasing pond depth to conserve broodfish, which will benefit householders and reduce the problems usually encountered due to broodstock transportation."}]},{"head":"Hoars and beels","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"In the northeast (the Sunamganj District), the 'small fish and nutrition project' is working in an area with many hoars and beels (wetland ecosystems). Much of this area, with almost 500,000 ha of seasonally flooded wetlands, is underwater for 4-7 months per year. It is one of the most disaster prone and food insecure parts of the country. Here, 500 households will be involved in the wetland portion of the program which focuses on management practices that will increase small fish production through the stocking of broodfish of mola in ditches, application of best management practices such as sanctuaries, closed fishing seasons, regulation of gear and market linkages. Again the emphasis is on technologies to increase the productivity of the nutrient dense, small fish species."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"A consumption survey will be conducted with the program households. This will include baseline (preintervention), and end line (post project) information on the food consumption of one woman (childbearing age) and one child (preferably under two years of age) per household. This survey, the first of its kind, will seek to capture species level consumption information as well as seasonal trends in fish consumption related to micronutrient nutrition."}]},{"head":"Education starts at home","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"As part of this project, the households members involved in small fish production will be trained on methods to effectively use small fish (processing, cooking and techniques useful to children) . Nutrition education will include the importance of a complete diet comprised of small fish and vegetables produced by the households in homestead areas. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"15e0f155-f6db-4819-9c81-83fc0b0f77cb","abstract":"Malnutrition levels in Bangladesh are amongst the highest in the world. Approximately half of Bangladesh's population lives below the food poverty line and the dietary intake of both adults and children are severely deficient in key vitamins and minerals. It is now understood that women and children are the more food-insecure and micronutrient-deficient in the population. This project, supported by the International Fund for Agricultural Development, aims to increase household income in poor, rural households in Bangladesh, and improve nutrition, especially in women and children, through increased intake of nutrient-rich small fish. This project promotes innovative new technologies designed to increase the production of small nutrient-rich fish species in two separate and environmentally distinct agricultural areas. The project targets approximately 1,500 households with small fish ponds in the northwest districts of Rangpur and Dinajpur, and approximately 500 households in the northeast district of Sunamganj, an area dominated by wetlands and an open water capture fishery."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0af5f6da2536b356f342a2f5126238a5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/981e295f-a26c-4bcb-9c5a-47c99ab4f7f1/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Perspective: What might it cost to reconfigure food systems?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"More than 20 reports have been published in recent years on the need for transforming our food systems in the light of the challenges we face (see Pharo et al. (2019), GCA (2019), HLPE (2020), Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition (2020), and Rockefeller Foundation (2021), among others). Nevertheless, there is very little information on the size of the investments that would be needed, if the recommendations from such reports were to be implemented. In a previous \"perspective\" piece, Loboguerrero et al. (2020) summarised the high-priority actions that were laid out in the report of Steiner et al. (2020) on reconfiguring our food systems."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Steiner set out four key Action Areas necessary for food system reconfiguration:"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"(1) Rerouting farming and rural livelihoods to new trajectories that conserve ecosystems and the natural resource base, reduce social inequality, and provide food and nutrition security for all."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"(2) De-risking livelihoods, farms and value chains, allowing food system actors to anticipate, respond to, and recover from increasingly frequent and extreme weather events. (3) Producing, processing, distributing and consuming food in ways that lower greenhouse gas emissions and reduce food loss and waste."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"(4) Realigning policies, finance, support to social movements, and innovation systems, to make this all happen."},{"index":6,"size":160,"text":"Eleven concrete actions under these four Action Areas were identified (shown in Table 1) through consultations with over 100 partners, individuals and organisations and through a series of background science papers, detailed in Steiner et al. (2020). These actions address various players in the food system: for example, food processors, through helping to reduce food loss and waste; consumers, through moving to healthier, more climate-friendly diets; and national food policy makers, through actions that foster innovation and sustainable finance. Several of the actions target farmers explicitly: adopting climate-smart practices and utilising digital climate services for helping to make better management decisions, for example. Globally, food producers are clearly going to be a large part of the solution to the challenge of food system reconfiguration. At the same time, we recognise that the eleven Steiner actions are not all-encompassing, but they do represent a reasonable, partner-based estimate of what is needed to provide the necessary momentum for systemic reconfiguration to occur."},{"index":7,"size":70,"text":"In the next section, we outline the information sources and the proxies that we used to estimate the annual cost of each action, given that some of the actions are very difficult to cost directly. We stress that what follows is not an economic investment analysis but a simple cost accounting exercise. We present the results of this exercise and then discuss what they may imply in a development context."}]},{"head":"Costs of implementing each action","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"A preliminary review was undertaken of more than 2000 peerreviewed articles, working papers, investment platforms, governmental documents, private sector reports, open data sources, news releases, budget estimations and financial reports. We identified 321 sources that provided potentially relevant cost data in relative to Steiner's four Action Areas: 167 for rerouting, 42 for de-risking, 54 for reducing, 24 for realigning, and 34 global documents. These sources were then categorized by region and/or by country, where this was possible, and by the activities relevant to each action. For Action 1.1, for instance, sources were categorized in relation to REDD+, carbon payments, silvopastoralism, tax mediated responses, wetland protection, value chains, sustainable management of forest, mangrove restoration, responsible demand, and palm oil alternatives."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Each source was then evaluated with respect to identifying consistent unit costs for each action. Where possible, costs were converted into comparable units, such as cost per hectare or per capita, and a comparable time frame, one year. Where this was not possible, the source was discarded from the analysis. Thirty-nine sources were ultimately selected for the cost estimation. These unit costs were then applied to the target areas and populations in Steiner (column 3, Table 1) or to proxy targets (column 4, Table 1), depending on the action."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"For the actions where we found multiple estimates of the unit costs that were directly comparable (all actions except 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3), we calculated the variance of the estimates and the standard deviation of the combined variables, assuming the variables were uncorrelated and the covariances were uniformly zero. The standard error of the summed estimate was then calculated."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The geographical targeting of the eleven actions in Steiner is generally clear: the major deforestation hotspots around the world (for Action 1.1), or the need to reduce food loss and waste everywhere (Action 3.2), for example. Several actions are targeted to different farmer types and their specific trajectories. The eleven actions will thus have different emphases in different places as a result. Steiner et al. (2020) recognises five general types of farmer: (1) large-scale commercial farmers;"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"(2) conventional small-scale farmers who are less likely to be digitally connected;"},{"index":6,"size":72,"text":"(3) conventional small-scale farmers who are more likely to be digitally connected; (4) more extensive farmers in areas of greater climate risk (this category includes pastoralists); and (5) lower-endowment small-scale farmers. Despite the considerable advances made recently, digital connectedness still appears to be a major problem in places and may remain so for some years (FAO and ITU, 2022); large populations in Africa, for example, still lack access to basic digital technologies."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"The number of farmers of these different types were estimated by region based on several variables including field size, market access, agricultural land use, ease of accessing credit, and prevalence of climate hazards. The regional numbers were reaggregated for this analysis (Table 2)."},{"index":8,"size":104,"text":"For Action 1.1, avoid expansion on 250 million ha of tropical forests and 400 million ha of peatlands, costs per ha were estimated in the places where most (80 percent) of the global forest loss by 2030 is expected to take place, along eleven deforestation fronts, many but not all of which are in the tropics (Steiner et al., 2020). These were then rescaled to the targets shown. Peatland extent information was taken from \"The global peatland CO 2 picture: peatland status and emissions in all countries of the world (draft)\" at https://unfccc.int/sites/default/file s/draftpeatlandco2report.pdf. The source of data on the deforestation fronts was https://globil-panda.opendata.arcgis.com/datasets/deforest"}]},{"head":"Table 1","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"Eleven actions to transform the food system (Steiner et al., 2020) and the proxies used to estimate their cost. By 2025, significantly change the approach of public agricultural research for development, with at least 50% of public investment in this research providing end-to-end solutions that support meeting the SDGs related to food Costs of improving innovation systems and of transforming approaches to gender (including improving female literacy) allocated to all countries in proportion to the number of farmers ation-fronts-2020-1/about. Action 1.2 mixes several types of activity to reduce carbon emissions, increase productivity through climate-smart agriculture, improve resilience, and develop markets. A broad spectrum of activities is possible, and here we estimated costs related to a subset of possible climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices: improved seeds for heat and drought tolerance, fertilizers and soil amendments, and micro-irrigation. Costs were estimated for 185 million small-scale farmers who are less likely to be digitally connected (Pathway 2, Table 2) and farmers operating more extensive production systems in riskier environments (Pathway 4, Table 2) in low-and lower-middle-income countries. To convert the unit cost per ha to the unit cost per farm, the number of farms in the two pathways were multiplied by average farm size from Lowder et al. (2016)."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"For Action 1.3, support prosperity through mobility and rural reinvigoration, we assessed the cost in two parts. First, we used estimates from recent infrastructure investment analyses to develop a unit cost per person per year. Then we estimated the cost per person of establishing safety net policies to facilitate migration out of failing farming systems. As a proxy, we used recent analysis of the impact of migrant capital on the structure of rural labour markets in Malawi, in terms of the cost of workers shifting out of agriculture and into manufacturing or services. These unit costs were then upscaled to 400 million rural dwellers in lowand lower-middle-income countries. Rural population data were from the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (Alkire and Kanagaratnam, 2018) for the most recent year reported in the dataset, supplemented where necessary with other data as outlined in Thornton et al. (2022)."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"For Action 2.1, secure resilient livelihoods and value chains through early warning systems and adaptive safety nets, a unit cost per person per year was estimated from two reviews of safety net programs (Table 3), and the average cost was applied to the farmers in Pathway 4 (Table 2) in the climate risk hotspots identified by Jarvis (2021) in the Middle East-North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Caribbean, East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia, scaled to 40 million farmers in total."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"For Action 2.2, taking climate services to scale by connecting 200 million farmers and agribusinesses to ICT-enabled bundled advisory services, the unit costs per farmer per year were averaged from three recent sources (Table 3) and applied to 200 million farmers in low-and lower-middle-income countries. The unit costs include the annual recurring costs and up-front costs including advocacy and extension costs, although not the hard infrastructure costs (Ferdinand et al., 2021)."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"For Action 3.1, incentivising shifts to healthy and sustainable climate-friendly diets, the unit cost per person per year was calculated as the difference in cost of a recommended diet compared with the current diet, averaged across three sources, for the population of the 15 highestincome countries (from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP. PCAP.CD) and all the C40 cities (https://www.c40.org/news/10-years-o f-results-c40-by-the-numbers/), with any overlaps being excluded. C40 is a network of the world's megacities committed to addressing climate change through collaboration, sharing knowledge and driving meaningful, measurable and sustainable action on climate change. Ten percent of the resultant total cost was assumed to be needed for spending on public health promotions, supporting labelling and certification, promoting awareness campaigns and social movements, and exploring possibilities for consumption taxes and subsidies."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"For Action 3.2, reducing food loss and waste, costs were estimated from two sources (Table 3) on reducing post-harvest losses via improving electricity, paved roads and rail and road capacity, and on improving cold and dry storage, rural and wholesale market facilities, and processing facilities. The average costs were then allocated across six major food supply chains and then across countries based on their share of the food supply (kg per person per year). Food supply data were from FAOSTAT food balances for 2019, https://www.fao. org/faostat/en/#home."},{"index":7,"size":132,"text":"Action 4.1 in Steiner et al. (2020), implement policy and institutional changes that enable transformation, includes the realigning of agricultural subsidies. For simplicity and given the difficulty of finding a more direct proxy, we used an \"overhead\" cost of 16% (ADB, 2018) as the additional cost of climate proofing investments and applied this to the total cost of Actions 1.1 through 3.2. In general, subsidies need to be reduced and repurposed, as argued by many authors because of their damaging environmental impacts (see Laborde et al. (2021), for example). Nonetheless some subsidies are crucial to stimulate production and change (as in Africa), but even here they need to be reformed and eventually phased out (Just Rural Transition, 2022). We have assumed the costs of such subsides are largely captured under this Action."},{"index":8,"size":86,"text":"Action 4.2, unlock billions in sustainable finance: For the publicsector, we used a forecast of incremental climate risk debt to 2030. For the private sector, we estimated the decrease in project costs needed to increase the benefit-cost ratio of a portfolio of regional adaptation projects to at least 3.5. This level of BCR appears realistic for adaptation projects (Harris and Orr 2014;Azumah et al., 2020). The regional totals of public plus private de-risking were then allocated across the 154 million farmers in Pathway 5 (Table 2)."},{"index":9,"size":42,"text":"For Action 4.3, driving social change for more sustainable decisions, we estimated the cost of this action using education costs of young people in OECD countries as a proxy, multiplied by the proportion (of education) that is aimed at being climate related."},{"index":10,"size":77,"text":"For Action 4.4, transforming innovation systems to deliver impacts at scale, we averaged costs from several sources (Table 3) on estimated expenditures needed to enhance the efficiency of agricultural research for development. To these we added costs aimed at reducing the gender gap with respect to female literacy and education and access to productive resources. These costs were then allocated to countries Pathways. 1: LS, large-scale commercial. 2: CM, Conventional small-scale, less likely to be digitally connected."},{"index":11,"size":25,"text":"3: CL, Conventional small-scale, more likely to be digitally connected. 4: ER, More extensive farms in riskier environments, including pastoralists. 5: LE, Lower-endowment small-scale farms."},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"Numbers were calculated based on an incomplete factorial classification using these variables from global data sets:"},{"index":13,"size":35,"text":"• Field size (Fritz et al., 2015): very small, <0.5 ha; small, 0.5-2 ha; medium, 2-100 ha; large, >100 ha. • Market access: travel time to nearest city of >50,000 people (Weiss et al., 2018)."},{"index":14,"size":14,"text":"• Agricultural land use (crop, pasture, crop & pasture) from Ramankutty et al. (2008)."},{"index":15,"size":39,"text":"• Number of tractors (by country) per 100 square km of arable land (from https://data. worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TRAC.ZS) as a proxy of mechanisation/technology level. • Ease of accessing credit by country (from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/). • Climate hazards from Thornton et al. (2019)."},{"index":16,"size":71,"text":"The estimated human population data for 2020 in each of the five categories were calculated from CIESIN (2018), excluding urban areas. The total number of farms in each of the nine regions were estimated from Lowder et al. ( 2016) with some updates by Herrero et al. (2017). At the regional level, farm numbers were then allocated across the pathways pro rata according to the rural populations estimated in each pathway."}]},{"head":"Table 3","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Targets, costs and data sources for eleven actions to transform the food system. proportionally to the number of farmers in all the five pathways (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Regional costs of reconfiguration","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"We estimate that USD 1.3 ± 0.1 trillion per year are needed to 2030, the time horizon of Steiner et al. (2020), to implement the eleven actions and achieve systemic food system reconfiguration (Table 4). Action 1.1, avoided conversion of 250 Mha of forests and 400 Mha of peatlands, requires 56 percent of the total. These costs are spread across all areas of the globe, as there are key areas of forest and peatland in both tropical and temperate zones. Action 1.2, enabling markets and public-sector actions to incentivise climate-resilient, low-emission practices, has the next largest cost (USD 181 billion), 15% of the total. Rerouting farming and rural livelihoods to new trajectories is the Action area (#1) with the greatest cost."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"The costs are large for Action 4.1, implementing policy and institutional changes that enable reconfiguration (USD 177 billion) and for Action 1.3, supporting prosperity through mobility and rural reinvigoration (USD 116 billion). Smaller costs in the range USD 15-35 billion apply to each of Action 3.1, shifting to healthy, sustainable, climatefriendly diets; Action 4.2, unlocking billions in sustainable finance; Action 4.3, driving social change for more sustainable decisions; and Action 4.4, transforming innovation systems to deliver impacts at scale. The remaining actions have costs that are smaller still: USD 2-12 billion each. As Steiner et al. (2020) argue, action on all elements simultaneously is required, the actions undertaken together offer better prospects for moving food systems onto sustainable and more equitable trajectories than a piecemeal approach."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"There are wide regional variations in these costs of food system reconfiguration (Table 4 and Fig. 1). Large amounts are needed particularly for sub-Saharan Africa, SE Asia and the Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean. The great majority (more than 70 percent) of the costs in N America, Europe and Central Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean are for avoiding conversion of high-carbon forest and peatland landscapes to agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":213,"text":"To put the total cost into context, it is equivalent to about 15 percent of the estimated USD 9 trillion yearly monetary value of global food consumption (van Nieuwkoop, 2019) and about 1.5 percent of global GDP. It amounts to 15 percent of what was mobilised globally by governments within four months of the start of the Covid-19 pandemic (Herrero and Thornton, 2020) and to less than 7 percent of the hidden negative externalities generated by the current food system each year (Hendriks et al., 2021). Furthermore, food system reconfiguration promises major benefits, and not just through increased food system resilience. Likely improvements in global human health have been valued at more than USD 1 trillion per year (FOLU, 2019). Substantial reductions in the annual USD 7 trillion of environmental cost of current food systems could be achieved, not only in reducing the carbon and biodiversity losses arising from land conversion but also reducing air pollution and blue (fresh) water use (Hendriks et al., 2021). Major savings could also be achieved by reducing food loss and waste, estimated to cost USD 2.6 trillion per year (FAO 2021). The eleven actions outlined above could contribute a substantial portion of these benefits, though achieving all of them would require considerable investment in other sectors too."},{"index":5,"size":128,"text":"Technological and social innovation, and the processes and institutions they modify, show strong synergies and antagonisms (Herrero et al., 2021). This is true both within and between sectors, in the latter case with innovation in other sectors spilling over into the agricultural sector and often being repurposed in the process. How these interactions may play out in the future cannot be known with any certainty. Nevertheless, it seems highly likely that synergistic and overlapping effects between some of the eleven actions will lead to a decline in the annual costs presented here. Many historical precedents suggest that synergies from innovation in the energy, health and ICT sectors, to name just three, will likely spill over to the food sector, further reducing the cost of food-system reconfiguration through time."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"We acknowledge several limitations of this work. First, a major underlying assumption is that changes in behaviour can be brought about 1."},{"index":7,"size":285,"text":"via inducements through policy change, well-targeted financial flows, and education to help drive social change, rather than via the imposition of penalties and restrictions. Whether carrots alone would suffice to induce behavioural changes of the type and scale needed, is a key uncertainty. Second, despite the many sources of information consulted for cost estimation, we found surprisingly few studies with adequately detailed costs data that were directly comparable with each other. Third, the cost of some of the actions could not be estimated directly, and for these we had to use proxy variables. All four actions in Action Area 4 are of this kind: costs of implementing policies and institutional changes, or of driving social change, for example, are challenging to quantify, even indirectly. Fourth, there are likely to be both synergies and some tradeoffs in implementing the eleven actions. We attempted to minimise these by targeting specific actions to specific food system players. Some overlaps remain. For example, costs were estimated for farmers in pathway 4 in lower-income countries in relation to Action 1.2 (CSA implementation), Action 2.1 (early-warning systems) and Action 2.2 (digital climate advisories). The individual costs of these three actions implemented by the same farmer are likely not strictly additive; this might apply, for example, to shared advocacy and extension costs, and possibly to some of the shared infrastructure costs associated with Action 1.3 as well. There may also be some trade-offs: for example, getting CSA implementation going on 185 M farms in lower-and middle-income countries may increase national greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector at least over the short term, in the situations where crop productivity increases partly owing to better soil nutrition and some use of inorganic fertilizers."}]},{"head":"Concluding comments","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Despite the limitations of the study, an estimate of the costs that may be needed to reconfigure food systems could have considerable value in helping to catalyse action at global and national levels. Adaptation cost estimates have grown through time, in part because the full impacts of climate change on food systems are becoming increasingly understood. In 2009, adaptation costs of USD 49-171 billion per year were estimated for agriculture, water, human health, coastal zones and infrastructure (Parry et al., 2009). Recent estimates of adaptation investments for infrastructure are in the range 2-8 percent of GDP, or several trillion dollars each year (Rozenberg and Fay, 2019). Estimates of the cost of reconfiguration at a national level, linked to a specific set of concrete actions, could be a useful input into investment planning to help guide implementation of national adaptation and mitigation actions to meet targets under the Paris Agreement. At the same time, effective climate action in all sectors, particularly mitigation, would help offset some of the food system reconfiguration costs identified here."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Official development assistance in 2019 was USD 168 billion (OECD, 2020b), suggesting a massive financing gap for food system reconfiguration. Several options could potentially contribute to filling the gapincreases in official development assistance, increased climate finance from the public and private sectors, levies and taxes, redirecting existing funding streams (Rozenberg and Fay, 2019;Robinson et al., 2021;Gautam et al., 2022) but all are politically charged. Ultimately, what is lacking is the collective political will and follow-through to put in place the incentives for change, and the financial and policy enablers that will foster such change, to move towards the sustainable and equitable food systems that we urgently need."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Ferrarese innovation systems to deliver impacts at scale By 2025, significantly change the approach of public agricultural research for development, with at least 50% of public investment in this research providing end-to-end solutions that support meeting the SDGs related to food Unit costs allocated to all countries proportionally to the number of farmers Cost of improving innovation: USD 10.1 billion per year Mean of Beintema et al. (2020), CoSAI (2021), FAO, IFAD and WFP (2015), FAO (2020) USD 15 billion Cost of transforming approaches to gender, including improving female literacy: USD 5.2 billion per year FAO (2020), Food and Land Use Commission (2019), World Bank (2018b) "},{"text":"irrigation Action 1.3 Support prosperity through mobility and rural reinvigoration Build attractive rural livelihoods, including exits from agriculture, and create 20 million rural jobs by 2030 by investing in infrastructure and youth Cost of infrastructural development, and cost of safety net policies for facilitating movement out of farming, upscaled to 400 million rural dwellers in low-and lower-middle- income countries Action Area 2: De- Risk Action 2.1 Secure resilient Action Steiner target Proxy used ActionSteiner targetProxy used Action Area Action 1.1 Ensure zero agricultural Globally, avoid conversion of 250 Mha of forests and 400 Cost per ha per year for forests and peatlands, scaled to the Action AreaAction 1.1 Ensure zero agriculturalGlobally, avoid conversion of 250 Mha of forests and 400Cost per ha per year for forests and peatlands, scaled to the 1: land expansion in high-carbon Mha of peatlands Steiner target 1:land expansion in high-carbonMha of peatlandsSteiner target Reroute landscapes Reroutelandscapes Action 1.2 Enable markets and public- Bring 200 million farmers into appropriate markets by 2030 185 million farmers in Pathways 2 and 4 (Table 2) Action 1.2 Enable markets and public-Bring 200 million farmers into appropriate markets by 2030185 million farmers in Pathways 2 and 4 (Table 2) sector actions to incentivise climate- via increased profitability and market development adopting new practices: improved seeds, fertilizers and soil sector actions to incentivise climate-via increased profitability and market developmentadopting new practices: improved seeds, fertilizers and soil resilient, low emission practices amendments, and micro-livelihoods End dependence on humanitarian assistance for 40 million Cost per person per year of providing social safety nets resilient, low emission practices amendments, and micro-livelihoods End dependence on humanitarian assistance for 40 million Cost per person per year of providing social safety nets through early warning systems & rural dwellers by 2030, realigning USD 5 billion per year for scaled to 40 million farmers in climate risk hotspots through early warning systems &rural dwellers by 2030, realigning USD 5 billion per year forscaled to 40 million farmers in climate risk hotspots adaptive safety nets adaptive safety nets (mostly farmers on Pathway 4, Table 2) adaptive safety netsadaptive safety nets(mostly farmers on Pathway 4, Table 2) Action 2.2 Help farmers make better Take climate services to scale by connecting 200 million Cost per person per year of providing digital climate Action 2.2 Help farmers make betterTake climate services to scale by connecting 200 millionCost per person per year of providing digital climate choices farmers and agribusinesses to ICT-enabled bundled advisory services to 200 million farmers in low-and lower-middle- choicesfarmers and agribusinesses to ICT-enabled bundled advisoryservices to 200 million farmers in low-and lower-middle- services by 2030 income countries services by 2030income countries Action Area Action 3.1 Shift to healthy, Incentivise substantial reductions in beef and dairy Cost differential per person per year between current diet Action AreaAction 3.1 Shift to healthy,Incentivise substantial reductions in beef and dairyCost differential per person per year between current diet 3: Reduce sustainable, climate-friendly diets consumption in 15 higher-income countries and all C40 and recommended diet applied in the 15 highest-income 3: Reducesustainable, climate-friendly dietsconsumption in 15 higher-income countries and all C40and recommended diet applied in the 15 highest-income cities by 2030 countries and all the C40 cities, overlaps excluded cities by 2030countries and all the C40 cities, overlaps excluded Action 3.2 Reduce food loss and waste By 2030, target 50% reductions in food loss and waste in Costs per year by supply chain (meat, dairy, roots and Action 3.2 Reduce food loss and wasteBy 2030, target 50% reductions in food loss and waste inCosts per year by supply chain (meat, dairy, roots and five major supply chains where both greenhouse gases and tubers, fruits, vegetables, others) allocated to all countries five major supply chains where both greenhouse gases andtubers, fruits, vegetables, others) allocated to all countries loss or waste are high based on their share of the food supply loss or waste are highbased on their share of the food supply Action Area Action 4.1 Implement policy and By 2025, realign USD 300 billion of agricultural subsidies to Additional percentage cost of climate-proofing regional Action AreaAction 4.1 Implement policy andBy 2025, realign USD 300 billion of agricultural subsidies toAdditional percentage cost of climate-proofing regional 4: institutional changes that enable a climate change agenda in 16 countries, improve the \"ease investments applied to all the actions in Action Areas 1, 2 4:institutional changes that enablea climate change agenda in 16 countries, improve the \"easeinvestments applied to all the actions in Action Areas 1, 2 Realign transformation of doing business\" in 24 sub-Saharan African countries, and and 3 Realigntransformationof doing business\" in 24 sub-Saharan African countries, andand 3 significantly improve the readiness score of the ND-GAIN significantly improve the readiness score of the ND-GAIN Index in 49 countries Index in 49 countries Action 4.2 Unlock billions in Unlock USD 320 billion in public and private capital per Action 4.2 Unlock billions inUnlock USD 320 billion in public and private capital per sustainable finance sustainable finance "},{"text":"Table 2 Indicative number of farms by pathway (millions). Data reaggregated from Table1inSteiner et al. (2020). Region Pathway Total RegionPathwayTotal 1: LS 2: CM 3: CL 4: ER 5: LE 1: LS2: CM3: CL4: ER5: LE South Asia 2 16 43 9 102 172 South Asia216439102172 Sub-Saharan Africa 3 12 <1 24 31 70 Sub-Saharan Africa312<1243170 Europe & Central Asia 32 3 8 <1 2 45 Europe & Central Asia3238<1245 Middle East & North Africa 3 <1 5 1 7 16 Middle East & North Africa3<151716 Latin America & Caribbean 9 5 4 1 3 22 Latin America & Caribbean9541322 Southeast Asia & Pacific 4 33 5 3 14 57 Southeast Asia & Pacific433531457 East Asia 14 84 105 - <1 203 East Asia1484105-<1203 North America 2 <1 <1 - - 2 North America2<1<1--2 TOTAL 68 153 170 38 158 587 TOTAL6815317038158587 "},{"text":"Table 4 Estimated action costs by region, USD billion per year. Actions are listed in Table 1. Estimated relative cost by region by action. Actions are listed in Table Region Reroute De-Risk Reduce Realign Total, Total, All RegionRerouteDe-RiskReduceRealignTotal,Total, All Action 1.1 Action 1.2 Action 1.3 Action 2.1 Action 2.2 Action 3.1 Action 3.2 Action 4.1 Action 4.2 Action 4.3 Action 4.4 Actions 1.2-4.4 Actions Action 1.1Action 1.2Action 1.3Action 2.1Action 2.2Action 3.1Action 3.2Action 4.1Action 4.2Action 4.3Action 4.4Actions 1.2-4.4Actions South Asia 0.4 27.5 52.5 1.5 1.4 - 0.2 13.4 13.2 4.9 5.3 119.9 120.3 South Asia0.427.552.51.51.4-0.213.413.24.95.3119.9120.3 Sub-Saharan 96.4 62.2 50.4 3.4 0.5 2.7 2.8 35.0 3.4 3.0 1.9 165.3 261.7 Sub-Saharan96.462.250.43.40.52.72.835.03.43.01.9165.3261.7 Africa Africa Europe & 177.0 6.4 0.6 - <0.1 7.8 4.8 31.5 - 2.3 1.5 55.0 232.0 Europe &177.06.40.6-<0.17.84.831.5-2.31.555.0232.0 Central Asia Central Asia Middle East- 0.3 3.2 3.7 0.2 0.1 0.1 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.2 0.7 13.0 13.3 Middle East-0.33.23.70.20.10.11.11.41.31.20.713.013.3 North Africa North Africa Latin America 185.6 24.4 0.9 0.1 <0.1 2.3 2.3 34.5 0.4 1.7 0.7 67.5 253.1 Latin America185.624.40.90.1<0.12.32.334.50.41.70.767.5253.1 & Caribbean & Caribbean Southeast Asia 151.6 57.5 8.0 0.4 0.3 2.5 0.8 35.4 1.3 1.8 1.5 109.5 261.1 Southeast Asia151.657.58.00.40.32.50.835.41.31.81.5109.5261.1 & Pacific & Pacific East Asia 8.5 - - - - 6.9 0.4 2.5 - 4.1 3.2 17.1 25.6 East Asia8.5----6.90.42.5-4.13.217.125.6 North America 133.4 - - - - 12.7 0.2 23.4 - 1.0 0.4 37.7 171.1 North America133.4----12.70.223.4-1.00.437.7171.1 Total by action 753.1 181.2 116.2 5.6 2.4 35.0 12.6 177.0 19.7 20.0 15.3 1338.1 Total by action753.1181.2116.25.62.435.012.6177.019.720.015.31338.1 Total by action 1050.4 8.0 47.6 231.9 584.9 1338.1 Total by action1050.48.047.6231.9584.91338.1 areas areas "}],"sieverID":"4e09d7a9-aaaa-4c10-af3c-e7497ff9553d","abstract":"Even an approximate estimate of the amount of investment required globally to reconfigure food systems for resilience and sustainability in the face of climate change could help to catalyse the urgent action that is needed. A report published in 2020 set out eleven actions that were identified as being needed to reconfigure food systems. Here we estimate the annual cost of implementing these eleven actions to be USD 1.3 ± 0.1 trillion. Half of this is needed to halt conversion of forests and peatlands for agriculture, with the remainder used to reduce producer risk, lower emissions and strengthen the policy, finance and innovation enablers of change. This cost, though large, is equivalent to less than 7 percent of the negative externalities generated annually by current food systems. The costs of inaction will far outweigh the benefits."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0ba8d6be742260299d3bbb98f207f72f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/948bd7d2-5754-4409-9edf-02321bc65873/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"\"Networking and making contacts is what helps me to grow my business and I also get to share my knowledge with other entrepreneurs.\""},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"\"The text message service is a tool as much as my rake is. Now I know when to plant, what to plant and the varieties adapted for the weather conditions.\" Mbidde Eria \"It is easier now for farmers to receive fertiliser and credit, not just from us, but also from banks because the information that is recorded can act as collateral.\""}]},{"head":"Onesimus Matsiko","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Igara Tea Factory, supported by CTA to transform cultivation through digital innovation."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Founder of Kati Farms, sponsored by CTA to attend key events to network with policy makers and other entrepreneurs. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Our work CTA focuses on youth entrepreneurship, digitalisation and climate-smart agriculture as key intervention areas for scaling development solutions. The empowerment of women is vital in our work. The revolution in information and communication technologies (ICT) over the last two decades has provided previously unimagined opportunities to boost agricultural productivity and build farmers' resilience to climate shocks. As the impacts of climate change build across ACP countries, the necessity for farmers to adopt climate-smart agricultural techniques to not only ensure food security, but also improve their livelihoods, cannot be overstated. At the heart of agriculture's digitalisation and climate-smart transformation lie opportunities for youth employment. An empowered workforce starts with the engagement of youth and youth organisations. At CTA we have learned how to empower and engage the ambitions of young people, particularly women, in both of these areas. Through our 'Pitch Agrihack' contests we have offered many young entrepreneurs a step-up to becoming the next generation agribusiness leaders driving much-needed change in the sector. By bringing together diverse parties -from policymakers and private sector leaders to early-stage entrepreneurs and farmers' organisations -CTA provides a platform for knowledge sharing and collaboration between actors in Europe and across the ACP. The unique mix of partners that CTA works with has allowed the organisation to support the development of multi-faceted solutions and services, which respond to context-specific needs. Impact of CTA's work includes: over 6,000 attendees from 120 countries have been brought together at CTA's Brussels Briefings on key issues and challenges for rural development in the context of EU-ACP cooperation. Since 2011, 19,000 participants have been sponsored by CTA to attend events for networking and knowledge sharing. "},{"text":" Farmer in CTA's MUIIS project who receives a weekly SMS with climate information. Beyond 2020 CTA plays a crucial role in boosting farm productivity, building climate resilience and creating employment opportunities for rural youth and women through its unique projects and partnerships between individuals and organisations in both Europe and the ACP. With the Cotonou agreement coming to an end in February 2020, the progress that CTA has made to transform rural economies in the ACP is at stake. Now, more than ever, it is essential that CTA's work continues beyond 2020 to enable the organisation to keep scaling its impacts and avoid any relapse in the advances it has made towards achieving the SDGs. "}],"sieverID":"53079bfa-b500-4d0d-a831-fcc6b40867ba","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0cb72bcb05540f027d3fe26a0ea489c3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bd6f518a-a3b9-47b5-ab03-db2106392245/retrieve"},"pageCount":53,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ACRONYMS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Consultation -The process of gathering information or advice from stakeholders and taking these views into account when making project decisions and/or setting targets and defining strategies."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Engagement -A process in which a company builds and maintains constructive and sustainable relationships with stakeholders impacted over the life of a project. This is part of a broader \"stakeholder engagement\" strategy, which also encompasses governments, civil society, employees, suppliers, and others with an interest in the Project."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Grievance Mechanism -a process for receiving, evaluating, and addressing project-related complaints from citizens, stakeholders, and other affected communities."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Stakeholders -Persons or groups who are directly or indirectly affected by a project, as well as those who may have interests in a project and/or the ability to influence its outcome, either positively or negatively; workers, local communities directly affected by the project and other stakeholders not directly affected by the project but that have an interest in it, e.g., local authorities, neighboring projects, and/or nongovernmental organizations, etc."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Stakeholder Engagement Plan -A plan which assists investors with effectively engaging with stakeholders throughout the life of the project and specifying activities that will be implemented to manage or enhance engagement."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Complainant-An individual, group, association, or organization that submits a verbal or written complaint."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Grievance/Complaint -an expression of dissatisfaction that stems from real or perceived issues, typically referring to a specific source of concern and/or seeking a specific solution. For the purpose of this GRM, real and perceived impacts are treated equally and given the same due process. The term grievance and complaint are used interchangeably in this document."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"Sexual Exploitation: any actual or attempted abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential power, or trust for sexual purposes, including, but not limited to, profiting monetarily, socially, or politically from the sexual exploitation of another. In World Bank financed operations, sexual exploitation occurs when access to or benefit from Bank-financed goods, works, nonconsulting services or consulting services is used to extract sexual gain."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"Sexual Abuse -actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions Sexual Harassment-Any unwelcome sexual advances, request for sexual favors, verbal or physical conduct or gesture of a sexual nature, or any other behavior of a sexual nature that might be reasonably expected or perceived to cause offense or humiliation to another when such conduct interferes with work; is made a condition of employment; or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"Survivor -A survivor is a person who has experienced the SEA/SH incident in the context of this GM."},{"index":11,"size":78,"text":"Vulnerable Groups-Individuals and groups, who by virtue of gender, ethnicity, age, physical or mental disability, economic disadvantage, sexual orientation and gender identity, or social status may be more adversely affected by a Project than others and who may be limited in their ability to claim or take advantage of development benefits. This SEP is a living document and might be updated anytime during project implementation to capture issues that could arise due to address changing circumstances and uncertainties."},{"index":12,"size":12,"text":"The overall objectives of SEP as stated in the ESS-10 are to:"},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"• Identify all stakeholders and ensure their participation in all stages of the project cycle."},{"index":14,"size":29,"text":"• Establish a systematic approach to stakeholder and citizen engagements that will help to identify stakeholders and build and maintain a constructive relationship with them, in particular projectaffected parties."},{"index":15,"size":28,"text":"• Assess the level of stakeholder interest and support for the project and to enable stakeholders' views to be considered in project design and environmental and social performance."},{"index":16,"size":24,"text":"• Promote and provide means for effective and inclusive engagement with projectaffected parties throughout the project cycle on issues that could potentially affect them."},{"index":17,"size":53,"text":"• Ensure that appropriate project information on environmental and social risks and impacts is disclosed to stakeholders, especially to the vulnerable individual and groups, in a timely, understandable, accessible, and appropriate manner and format taking special consideration for the disadvantaged or vulnerable groups and address their concerns and feedback during subproject activities implementation."},{"index":18,"size":44,"text":"• Provide project-affected parties, including the vulnerable persons, with accessible and inclusive means to raise issues and grievances and allow the Project Implementing Entity and its Project Implementation Unit to respond to and manage such grievances, especially those coming from vulnerable persons and groups."}]},{"head":"The Project and its Components","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The World Bank-funded project AICCRA supports CGIAR Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) programs and activities that are targeted specifically to Africa and aims to help taking to scale the most strategic and impactful CCAFS-Africa programs, promoting resilience to climate change and improved food security in target countries. and promote the adoption of CSA solutions across sub-regions within Africa that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. The project will also support on-the-ground activities in selected countries where CGIAR science has the greatest chance of success in delivering catalytic results, which can be adopted by other countries in the region."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The Project Development Objective is to strengthen the technical, institutional, and human capacity needed to enhance transfer of climate-relevant information, decision-making tools, and technologies in support of scaling efforts in IDA-eligible countries in Africa. Based on this overall objective the project is structured into four components, which include:"},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Component 1. Knowledge generation and sharing: Supporting generation and sharing of knowledge products and tools designed to address critical gaps in the design and provision of agricultural climate services, enable climate-informed investment planning, and contribute to the design of policies to promote uptake of climate smart agriculture (CSA) practices at the regional, sub-regional and national levels."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Component 2. Strengthen partnership for delivery: Strengthening the capacities of key regional and national institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa along the research-to-development continuum for anticipating climate effects and accelerating identification, prioritization, and uptake of best-bet adaptive measures. Launch event of the AICCRA Zambia Accelerator Grant"}]},{"head":"STAKEHOLDER IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Project stakeholders are defined as individuals, groups, or other entities who:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"(i) are impacted or likely to be impacted directly or indirectly, positively or adversely, by the Project (also known as 'affected parties'); and (ii)"},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"may have an interest in the Project ('interested parties'). They include individuals or groups whose interests may be affected by the Project and who have the potential to influence the Project outcomes in any way."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"For the purposes of effective and tailored engagement, stakeholders of the proposed project can be divided into the following core categories: affected parties, interested parties, and disadvantaged/vulnerable individuals or groups."}]},{"head":"Affected parties","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Affected Parties refers to persons, groups, and other entities within the Project Area of Influence (PAI) that are directly influenced (actually or potentially) by the project and/or have been identified as most susceptible to change associated with the project. Affected parties need to be closely engaged to identify impacts and assess their significance, as well as participate in decision-making on mitigation and management measures. Zambia Cluster activities cluster will involve scaling CSA through SMEs/start-up companies through an Accelerator Grant mechanism. Accelerator activities are not expected to adversely affect any group of people. The proposed CSA innovations to be piloted with SMEs have no known negative impacts."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Besides, project activities are designed in such a way that there will not be any risk of excluding vulnerable or disadvantaged groups from accessing and benefiting from the CSA and CIS innovations. Rather, the project will pay attention to the interest of the vulnerable groups, and aims to strengthen their capacity of adaptation to environmental risks including climate variability and change. Some specific activities are therefore planned to identify the specific constraints of the vulnerable groups and support them in stepping up."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Nearly all partners and collaborators as well as clients and end users will be positively affected in some way."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Partners and collaborators will have opportunities to enhance their knowledge and skills, making them more effective in their respective roles. Institutional capacities will be strengthened. Private firms will have greater opportunities to benefit either from sales of equipment and inputs or from more and higher quality produce reaching the market. End users -farmers -will potentially have higher and more stable production and incomes, while consumers will have a more reliable food supply. Governments will benefit from more rapid and predictable agricultural growth, fewer people facing hunger and destitution because of crop failures, and lower levels of migration and conflict over resource use."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Specifically, the stakeholders that are expected to directly benefit from the project include:"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• ACDI/VOCA; • Commercial farmers;"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Local women in agricultural products marketing, market agents;"},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"• Smallholder farmers and marginalized populations, especially women and youth in fish and livestock farming as well as irrigation farming;"},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"• Agri-businesses and farming cooperatives focusing on aquaculture in the Northern and Luapula province;"},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"• Youth entrepreneurs or start-ups including women;"},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"• Irrigation farmers in Zambia;"},{"index":12,"size":5,"text":"• Livestock farmers in Zambia;"},{"index":13,"size":10,"text":"• Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM);"},{"index":14,"size":16,"text":"• Universities e.g., University of Zambia, Kwame Nkrumah University, Copperbelt University, Chalimbana University, Mulungushi University etc."}]},{"head":"Other interested parties","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Interested Parties include stakeholders who may not experience direct impacts from the project but who consider or perceive their interests as being affected by the project and/or who could affect the project and the process of its implementation in some way. This category will include the following individuals and groups:"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"• Policy makers in Zambia particularly from ministries of 1) Agriculture; 2) Green Economy and Environment; 3) Small and medium Enterprises; 4) Fisheries and Livestock; and 5) Commerce, trade, and industry; as well as those in key government agencies such as WARMA, ZMD, and DMMU;"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Local communities who can benefit indirectly from improved agriculture and food security in Zambia;"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Agricultural Sector Workers Union (e.g., Zambia National Farmers Union (ZNFU));"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Private sector investors in agriculture e.g., commodity marketing companies, solar irrigation firms;"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Financial institutions including lending companies and agricultural banks; • Community Markets for Conservation (COMACO);"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• The African Women's Development and Communication Network (FEMNET), Zambia;"},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• Professionals involved in international development or climate change adaptation initiatives;"},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"• Regional Economic Community organizations (Southern Africa Development Commission (SADC), SADC Ground Water Institute, SADC Climate Service Center, Waternet etc);"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• The Zambia Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ZACCI);"},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"• UN Women in Zambia;"},{"index":12,"size":5,"text":"• Ministry of Gender, Zambia;"},{"index":13,"size":7,"text":"• Ministry of Water and Development, Zambia."}]},{"head":"Disadvantage/Vulnerable individuals or groups","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Disadvantaged or vulnerable individuals or groups refers to those who may experience disproportional adverse impacts or exclusion, who often do not have voice to express their concerns or understand benefit from this project at the same level as others, thus exacerbating social and economic inequality. In the context of AICCRA Zambia, the vulnerable groups that may be at risk of exclusion from consultations and information disclosure include:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Women empowerment groups, networks, and associations (e.g. Zambia Alliance of Women (ZAW), Women for Change Zambia, etc.);"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Local women marketing agricultural products;"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Smallholder farmers especially women, youth, and persons with disability (PWD);"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"• Resource-poor communities in marginalized geographical areas in project districts, such as Lukulu (Western Province), Chavuma (Northwest), Milengi (Luapula), Luangwa (Lusaka Province), Shang'ombo (Western); and"},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• Local fisher folk."},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"Women and youth are typically excluded and have greater challenges accessing markets and finance. In addition, existing gender norms, power structures, and division of labor could constraint them from accessing information services on CSA innovations. IWMI therefore has set a requirement for all collaborating SMEs to include women and youth in CSA demonstrations on fish, livestock farming, and labor-saving mechanized solar irrigation technologies. Women-only sessions will be organized to encourage open discussions, safe spaces for information and experience sharing and learning."},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"High illiteracy rates among smallholder farmers including women could also impede access to marketing information and updates on agricultural produce and price, which will be made available on digital platforms to be created under the project. Zambia AICCRA cluster has activities that focuses on working with local community radio stations to disseminate climate-smart information on livestock and aquaculture advisory services, including early warning systems (flood, fish, and livestock disease outbreak), market information (availability of fingerlings, feed, fish harvesting, livestock etc.)."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"More specific details on vulnerable groups that may be affected by the project activities are not known at this stage. They will be confirmed through screening and consulted through dedicated means as appropriate."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"A baseline study will be conducted in March 2022 to understand vulnerabilities and challenges faced by marginalized groups when it comes to accessing CIS and scaling CSA."},{"index":11,"size":108,"text":"Furthermore, AICCRA-Zambia's approach in the implementation of activities is 1) value chain agnostic, 2) gender transformative and 3) nation-wide. This means, that all flagship activities such as the Accelerator Grant, the Internship Program, the Multi-Stakeholder Dialogue Space, the integrated Ag Data Hub, and the various communication channels used, will all endeavor to reach 40% women participation/inclusion, and actively seek ways to support vulnerable groups. For example, the winning SMEs in the Accelerator Grant mechanism will need to demonstrate in their business case how they are targeting vulnerable groups; in the internship grant, gender and diversity will be encouraged and students from disadvantaged backgrounds will be encouraged to apply."}]},{"head":"Summary of stakeholder needs at the cluster level","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The assessment of stakeholder needs was based on the institutional and stakeholder chain for the implementation of the AICCRA project in Zambia. In essence we distinguished the needs of: 1) direct partners, i.e. CGIAR research institutions that will receive funds directly from the project implementing agency (CIAT); 2) indirect partners, i.e. those institutions that will receive funds through sub-contracts from IWMI 3) collaborating partners, i.e. those institutions receiving technical support, training opportunities, and workshop invitations but not directly funded by AICCRA; 4) clients, i.e. those institutions that will be responsible for making AICCRA solutions and technologies available to 5) end users, i.e. farmers and vulnerable groups. The table below provides the summary of needs for the following categories of operational stakeholders. "}]},{"head":"STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT PROGRAM Proposed strategy for information disclosure","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"All CSA knowledge products and innovations produced by the Zambia Cluster will be in the public domain."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Implementing partners in the Zambia Cluster intend to use a broad range of channels to share information on cluster activities and outputs. This will include Audio-visuals in electronic and hard-copy formats, in person and virtual workshops and symposia, field visits, blogs, radio and television broadcasts, Program Reports, emails, virtual meetings, books, technical reports, technical and policy briefs, websites, electronic newsletters, workshops and training courses, journal articles, multimedia content (videos, infographics), and social media outreach."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"To ensure that project information disclosure is inclusive, the project will collaborate with trusted farmerbased organizations to hold community level meetings to share project information with farmers in their respective local languages. In so doing, AICCRA Zambia will pay particular attention to cultural sensitivities around holding community meetings with both men, women, and youth together. In some instances, separate focus group meetings will be held with women and youth groups to communicate project information. In general, the strategies considered for information disclosure include the following:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Publication of key project documents at IWMI and AICCRA project website;"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Sharing of information through emails to project implementing partners and some external stakeholders;"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Virtual and face to face meetings with project implementing partners and some external stakeholders;"},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"• Disclosure in national newspapers through our media partners e.g., National Agriculture Information Services (NAIS), Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC), Daily Mail, Times of Zambia, The Mast, TechTrends, Rainbow News, New Vision Newspaper, Guardian Weekly;"},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"• Television broadcasting will also be used to communicate key events, and opportunities using the following television and radio media partners: National Agriculture Information Services (NAIS), Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC), Prime TV, Life TV /CBC TV, Oblate Radio Liseli Mongu, Cruze FM, Mozo Tv, QFM/QTV, Camnet TV, Millennium TV/Radio, Chipata TV, Musanza TV, Hot FM, KNC TV/Radio, DC Talk Radio;"},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"• Online journals and blogs;"},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"• Community meetings with farmer groups;"},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":"• Focus group meetings with different farmer groups especially disadvantaged groups including women, and youth;"},{"index":12,"size":41,"text":"• Radio announcement and discussions through community radio e.g., Breeze FM, Radio Chikuni, Hot FM, Radio Icengelo, Kasempa FM, Radio Liseli, Mosi-oa-Tunya FM, Mphangwe FM, Yangeni FM, Yatsani Radio, Radio Chikaya, Iso FM, Itezhi-Tezhi FM, Radio Kabangabanga, Radio Mano, Radio Mpika. "}]},{"head":"Proposed strategy for consultations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The design of AICCRA Zambia cluster activities involves considerable number of planned consultations to facilitate implementations. The table below provides a summary of all planned consultations with stakeholders. This will be regarded as AICCRA Zambia CIS/CSA integration week where AICCRA Zambia partners will conduct our second inperson visit to Zambia as a combined team, this time with the purpose of strengthening partnerships with CIS providers (for the ag data hub and communication channels) and engage with the winners of the Accelerator grant to explore how they will integrate CIS into their business models."}]},{"head":"Proposed strategy to incorporate the view of vulnerable groups","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Given the unique challenges that disadvantaged/vulnerable groups could face during consultations process, IWMI and other implementing partners in the AICCRA Zambia cluster have considered the following measures to ensure the involvement of disadvantaged groups in consultation processes and access to project information."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"• Consultations in local language: Most smallholder farmers in localities targeted for CSA pilot demonstrations speak local languages so the project will hold all meetings with vulnerable groups identified in local languages i.e., with translation. The project team will explain printed disclosure material in local languages for people who are not literate or have challenges reading and understanding English;"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"• Identify and connect with local agencies working with vulnerable groups: When specific project communities are identified IWMI will consult with local NGOs and CSOs supporting vulnerable groups identified to obtain insights into local context and culture and collaborate with them on information dissemination and consultations with the vulnerable groups;"},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"• Diversify means of communication and rely more on community radio, which is highly used by smallholder farmers in Zambia and in communication of CIS. Community radio can be highly effective in conveying relevant information to vulnerable groups and allow them to provide their feedback and suggestions;"},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"• Women focus groups: IWMI and implementing partners will facilitate formation of focus groups for women during consultation and information disclosure. This will particularly ensure that female farmers/entrepreneurs have the opportunities and safe space to participate in and benefit from the project. When necessary, the project team will hire a woman as the facilitator and will keep record of issue of discussions in the meeting of such group. The project and sub-project teams will put maximum efforts to address the genuine concerns of the women group;"},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"• Focus group discussions with women farmers, youth and PWD: IWMI and in-country collaborators will give priority to tailored consultations with vulnerable groups, youth groups, and PWD to ensure that their concerns are factored into the design and selection of farms to benefit from CSA demonstrations;"},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"• In person visits to women traders in markets or women market agents: IWMI and in-country collaborators will visit women traders in markets in project communities. When necessary, the project team will hire experienced community facilitators to visit and introduce the project climate information services to these women;"},{"index":8,"size":69,"text":"• Consultations in appropriate manner: While reaching out to different groups particularly vulnerable groups such as women, and PWD, IWMI and in-country collaborators will make sure that timing and location of consultations are appropriate to their needs and sensitive to local cultural dynamics. In addition, the team will make sure that the vulnerable groups are adequately informed about the consultations at least one week prior to the schedule dates."},{"index":9,"size":48,"text":"IWM Safeguard Focal Person will closely monitor the consultation process to ensure vulnerable groups access and awareness of the equal access to the consultation process and to guarantee that their voices are taken into account in order to find and implement solutions to some specific situations or issues."}]},{"head":"Timelines","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Stakeholder engagements for the Zambia cluster have been a continuous process from the project design and preparatory stage to date. As per table 4, IWMI and other implementing partners will continue to engage all relevant stakeholders throughout the project implementation process until the project closure."}]},{"head":"Review of comments","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"IWMI and other implementing partners recognize feedback from stakeholders as important inputs needed for the successful implementation of the overall project. During engagements, all written and oral comments from stakeholders will be gathered, reviewed, and consolidated to improve content management of documents, design of key project manuals and climate smart models. A summary of how comments were taken into account will be shared with stakeholders when reporting back with final products."}]},{"head":"Future phase of project","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The SEP will be periodically revised and updated as necessary during project implementation to ensure that the information presented herein is consistent and up to date, and that the identified methods of engagement remain appropriate and effective in relation to the project context. Any major changes to the project related activities and to its schedule will be duly reflected in the SEP and communicated to stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Project stakeholders and individuals who may be affected by sites identified and screened for pilot or demonstration of CSA technologies will be informed about the outcome of the screening, key risks identified, and mitigation measures considered to respond to risks identified."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Information on public engagement activities undertaken by the project during a project year will be conveyed to the stakeholders during biannual progress updates sessions with stakeholders. Information that will be shared include type of engagement opportunities given to project stakeholders, nature of participation in terms of gender and involvement of disadvantage groups, the extent to which stakeholders views were considered, and updates on project grievances."}]},{"head":"RESOURCES AND RESPONSIBILITIES","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Resources","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"There will be the need to cater for the cost of meetings, transport, logistics, as well as staff costs related to communication and grievance management. The budget for the SEP is included in the project implementation budget. AICCRA through implementing partners will allocate funds for stakeholder engagement activities."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The table below gives the approximate budget for the AICCRA Zambia SEP activities. "}]},{"head":"Management Functions and Responsibilities","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The summary of key institutions concerned about the implementation of this SEP and responsibilities cast are as follows: "}]},{"head":"Name and Contact Details of Person Responsible","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"For any comment, question of feedback on the stakeholder engagement process, the following persons can be contacted."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Emails to AICCRA Country Leader (Inga Jacobs-Mata, [email protected] ) Phone/WhatsApp: +27-84-674-2470; AICCRA Zambia Coordinator (Munyaradzi Mutenje, [email protected]) WhatsApp: +263-773-509-710)"}]},{"head":"GRIEVANCE REDRESS MECHANISM","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"IWMI will establish and maintain a functional grievance mechanism (GM) to guide the receipt, and mediation of complaints and response to questions from project stakeholders and project affected persons including cases linked to sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) and sexual harassment (SH)."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"The GM is intended to:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Provide avenues for stakeholders to seek information and ask questions on the AICCRA project;"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Provide project affected people with avenues for lodging concerns, complaints and resolving a dispute arising from project activities;"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Ensure that appropriate and mutually acceptable redress actions are identified and implemented to the satisfaction of complainants;"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• Provide avenue for vulnerable groups and victims of SEA/SH to have equal access to grievance redress process and support;"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Avoid project-community conflicts and improve community support for the project activities."},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"Although project affected parties have the right to seek redress in court, the project recognizes that court cases are known to be cumbersome and time consuming. Therefore, the project, through this GRM intends to propose an alternative simple but functional first point procedure for aggrieved project affected persons to amicably seek redress to their complaints. Nonetheless, aggrieved persons would remain free to access the court system without any hindrance or retribution from the project as provided by the laws of Zambia."}]},{"head":"Principles of the GM","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The operationalization of this GM shall be guided by the following principles."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• An accessible, inclusive, and free grievance mechanism (GM), broadly disclosed, which facilitates the resolution of concerns and grievances in a safe, confidential, and timely manner;"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• A grievance mechanism that allows stakeholders to file complaints by various means (face-to-face, mail, email, phone, text, website, and in person) and when necessary, in an anonymous manner;"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• A grievance mechanism that provides a clear, impartial, and objective procedures for handling and responding to complaints, including timelines for acknowledgement, decisions, and appeals;"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• A grievance process free of retaliation, abuse, or discrimination;"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• A grievance mechanism that provides an avenue for lodging SEA/SH cases in a safe, confidential, and non-stigmatizing manner and with a referral pathway for such cases."}]},{"head":"Types of Information Request and Grievances Anticipated","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Drawing from past related projects, the grievances anticipated on this project could fall into the following categories."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"• "}]},{"head":"Grievance Redress Structures","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Complaints received on AICCRA Zambia cluster activities will be managed through the existing project implementation structures. In so doing, a three-tier bottom-up grievance approach will be followed. This will involve an in-country grievance committee, Project Management grievance committee and Independent Steering Committee. "}]},{"head":"AICCRA Zambia Grievance Committee","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The AICCRA Zambia Grievance Committee will comprise of a four-member committee made up of AICCRA Zambia Country Lead (Inga Jacobs-Mata), Safeguard Focal Person (Munyaradzi Mutenje), IITA Project Lead (David Chikoye), and a representative from project collaborative partners (ZMD). In some cases, the committee may also choose to include one or more project staff or reputable and independent third parties on the committee deliberations. The country level grievance committee (GC) is expected to handle all grievance on AICCRA Zambia activities."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"The GC through the Safeguard Focal Person will notify the AICCRA E&S Safeguard Specialists on all cases relating to major incidents and accidents within 48 hours, and SEA/SH cases within 24 hours. Such cases would require the active involvement of AICCRA Safeguard Specialist in the resolution process and reporting to the World Bank. In addition, the country level GC will escalate project related grievances that remain unresolved at the Country level within the stipulated time frame to the Project Management GC for redress."}]},{"head":"Project Management Grievance Committee","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The Project Management GC will be hosted by AICCRA PMU and will comprise of the Project Director, AICCRA E&S Safeguard Specialists, Regional Project Leads and Project Gender and Social Inclusion Specialist. This committee shall mediate all unresolved complaints from the country level as well as complaints from activities of regional partners as well as other complaints that may be received directly at the PMU level through CIAT complaint lodging points. In some cases, the committee may choose to include one or more"}]},{"head":"Independent Steering Committee","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Preject Mananagment Grievance Committee AICCRA Zambia Grievance Committee project staff or reputable and independent third parties on the Panel. Where the Project Management GC determines a complaint to be highly significant, such cases shall be referred to the Independent Steering committee for advice."}]},{"head":"Independent Steering Committee","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"Another high-level grievance redress panel that will assist in the resolution of complaints on AICCRA would be the Independent Steering Committee (ISC). The ISC is the key governance body for the project. It consists of seven members who are all independent of the project. It is responsible for oversight of AICCRA program of work, budget, and evaluations. The ISC takes all grievances seriously and will investigate all cases referred to it. All grievances referred to it will be recorded and discussed in the ISC meetings, bearing in mind requests for confidentiality. The ISC will require the AICCRA project management to prepare a proposed response to each grievance, which after discussion and approval, will be implemented. At subsequent ISC meetings, AICCRA management will report on the progress of implementation. Where ISC deems the grievance as highly significant, the Alliance CIAT Director General and Alliance-CIAT Board of Trustees will also be informed for their discussion and action."}]},{"head":"The Grievance Redress Process","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The general steps of the grievance process comprise:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"• Registration/receipt of complaints;"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• Acknowledging the complaints;"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Investigate and determine solution to the complaint;"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"• Implement the Redress Action;"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• Verifying the Redress Action;"},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"• Recourse or alternatives. Registration/Receipts/Acknowledging of complaints AICCRA Zambia will establish a register of all grievances received through the lodging points at section 6.5 to aid monitoring of complaint resolution status and reporting on GM performance. A grievance lodging template provided at Annex VII will be used to maintain an electronic and manual database of all grievances received. Complaints can be submitted in any language applicable to the project locations either verbally or in writing to the designated lodging points."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"The complainant may ask for confidentiality in the handling of the request, in which case the project shall preserve confidentiality on aspects of the complaint where confidentiality is required. However, there could be situations where it will not be possible to resolve the complaint without revealing identity (for example, when evidence needs to be presented in court). In this case, the Project will discuss with the complainant whether and how best to proceed."},{"index":9,"size":95,"text":"Complaints can also be raised anonymously and in such cases, complainants may be required to provide sufficient facts and data to enable the GC to look into the matter without assistance. The GC will make every effort to evaluate anonymous complaints; however, anonymity may make it more difficult to investigate, protect the position of the complainant, offer, and implement resolution, and give feedback. All complainants who raise complaints outside the grievance lodging points to project implementing staff would be directed and advised to use the lodging points to officially register their complaint to the project."},{"index":10,"size":68,"text":"The Safeguard Focal Persons shall officially register all complaints received using the proposed complaint registration form at Annex II, and further inform the GC at the country level within 24 hours of any complaint lodged. The grievance submission should be dated and signed by the complainant or the representative, except when the complaint was made verbally through phone calls from a distant location or required to be anonymous."},{"index":11,"size":29,"text":"At the project management level, the AICCRA Safeguard Specialist shall also inform the Project Management GC within 24 hours after lodging any unresolved complaint escalated from the Zambia cluster."},{"index":12,"size":60,"text":"The project will acknowledge receipt of the complaint by letter within 3 workings days of receipt. Sample acknowledgement letter is provided at Annex IV. The acknowledgement letter will specify a contact person within the project and a description of what the complainant can expect next including timeline. All SEA/SH cases shall be received with the guideline provided at section 6.9."},{"index":13,"size":13,"text":"For each submission, the complainant is expected to at least include the following:"},{"index":14,"size":27,"text":"• Detail explanation of the complaint or information requested relating to AICCRA; • Location related to the submission; • Whether the complainant lives in the project area;"},{"index":15,"size":47,"text":"• Whether a similar submission has been previously filed to AICCRA; • If known, the operational procedures that have been violated by AICCRA; • Whether the submission concerns an individual submission or on behalf of a community; • Whether the submission is requested to be kept confidential;"},{"index":16,"size":12,"text":"• Contact details of the complainant; • A signature of the complainant."}]},{"head":"Determining and implementing the redress action","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"When a grievance is recorded as per the above-mentioned registration procedures, the Grievance Committee will be called into action to investigate the case and further hold mediation meetings with interested parties to resolve the issue. Minutes of meetings will be recorded."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"The GC will first investigate the foundation of the grievance and then determine the redress action in consultation with the complainant and concerned parties if necessary. This is expected to be completed within 7 working days after receipt/registration of the grievance. Any redress action considered after the mediation process will also be implemented within 10 working days of receipt of complaints. The Project will implement the resolution either directly or through a third party, which will be done in consultation with the complainant."}]},{"head":"Verifying the redress action","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The Project will review complaints regularly to ensure progress is being made towards resolution. The AICCRA Zambia GC will get in touch with the complainant or visit the affected sit to confirm that the redress action is carried out. If the complainant is satisfied with the resolution implemented, the Safeguard Focal Person will close the case and require the complainant to sign a statement to acknowledge satisfaction using the form provided at Annex VI. However, signing the statement does not preclude the complainant from raising the issue again, or seeking other avenues for redress should the resolution not result in a permanent fix, or the issue recurs. The Project may re-open the complaint if the complainant provides new information and may also contact the complainant after closure to ensure no other problems have arisen."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Verification would be completed within 7 days of execution of the redress action. If the complainant is dissatisfied with the outcome of the redress proposal or action, additional steps may be taken to resolve the issues or the AICCRA Zambia GC may decide to escalate the complaint to Project Management GC. The committee may decide to refuse an appeal if they feel the complaint has not been presented in good faith. The decision to refuse an appeal must be reviewed and signed off by the AICCRA E&S Specialist."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Alternatively, if the complainant is not satisfied with the resolution offered, the complainant may choose to appeal the decision through the Safeguard Focal Person or seek other recourse."}]},{"head":"Recourse or Alternatives","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Two alternative or recourse actions are considered, amicable mediation and settlement or appeal to court."}]},{"head":"nd Tier Amicable Mediation and Settlement","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"If the complainant is not satisfied with the decision of the AICCRA-Zambia GC, he/she can bring it to the attention of the Safeguard Focal Person. The AICCRA Zambia GC may remediate on the case or forward it to the Project Management GC for further action. In certain circumstances, the AICCRA Zambia GC may decide to appoint an individual mediator or Independent Appeals Panel that is neutral and wholly independent of the Project. The selection of the mediator or individuals comprising the Independent Appeals Panel will be conducted in consultation with the complainant and other key stakeholders to ensure trustworthiness of the process."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"For cases escalated to the Project Management GC, the GC may also decide to resolve the complaint or set up an appropriate mediation team to resolve the issue in consultation with the Country Lead Person and the complainant. The Project Management GC will be required to resolve the issue within 2 weeks of the date of receipt of such deferred cases. If such a timeline is not possible, the AICCRA E&S Safeguard Specialist would inform the complainant through the in-country Safeguard Focal Person by giving reasons and possible new date. When new resolution measures are considered, the implementation and verification process outlined above shall be followed to close the case or determine the next line of action."}]},{"head":"Appeal to Court","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"If the complainant remains dissatisfied with the mediation effort of the project grievance committee, the complainant has the option to pursue appropriate recourse via judicial process of choice. The AICCRA project will allow any aggrieved person the right of access to Court of law. Courts of law will be a \"last resort\" option, in view of the above mechanism. The AICCRA Zambia Cluster led by IWMI will follow the following procedure in handling SEA/SH related complaints."}]},{"head":"Uptake of SEA/SH cases:","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"All grievance lodging points outlined at section 6.5 will be opened for uptake of SEA/SH complaints. When a survivor comes forward to report a case of SEA/SH, the recipient will record the survivors' account of the incident. This is expected to be conducted in a private setting and ensure that any specific vulnerabilities are taken into consideration. To maintain confidentiality and minimize stigmatization, below is the list of elements that will be recorded on complaint forms of SEA/SH survivors. Sample SEA/SH intake form is provided at Annex III."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Age and sex of survivor; • Type of alleged incident (as reported);"}]},{"head":"Receipt of Grievance","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Grievance received through uptake points and documented in grievance logbook"}]},{"head":"Grievance Committee convened","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Investigate complaint and consider resolution options -within 7 days","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Implementation of resolution action","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Respond to complainant, outline findings, proposed solution and implement actions -within 10 days"}]},{"head":"Complaint successfully resolved","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Complainant signed statement of satisfaction, Case closed."}]},{"head":"Acknowledgment","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Acknowledgement letter issued to complainant including outline of how the complaint will be resolved -within 3 days • Whether the alleged perpetrator relates to the project, as indicated by the survivor;"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Whether the survivor was referred to a service provider."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Where the complainant is not the survivor, the Safeguard Focal person will encourage the complainant to reach out to the survivor and explain the potential benefit of coming forward alone or with the person reporting the case. All SEA/SH cases will be reported to the World Bank within 24hours through the AICCRA E&S Safeguard Specialist and recorded in the grievance logbook at Annex VIII."}]},{"head":"Referral of SEA/SH Survivors:","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The Safeguard focal person will examine the case and seek the consent of the survivor to refer the case to AICCRA Zambia GC or depending on the case, refer to any of the external GBV service providers listed at Annex IX. In the case of children and persons with intellectual disability, this will be done with full consent of the survivor's guardian. Depending on the case reported, the support services may include one or more of the following services."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Health -examination or treatment, collection of forensic evidence, provision of post-exposure prophylaxis/ abortion services;"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• Legal/Justice -Legal advice/support to survivors and witnesses to understand benefits/barriers of taking care through legal process; support to ensure that prosecution and case closure happens with few or no delays;"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Psychosocial Support -Emotional support/crisis counseling; Social/community reintegration;"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• Safety/Security -protection of survivors and witnesses, investigation of the case, arrest of alleged perpetrator."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"These service providers will be:"},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"• Provided with financial support to cater for expenses in the mediation process. The GBV service providers will not be paid any basic fee for their services. Payment will be based on case by case, where the Project will seek the World Bank advice and approval on the maximum expense cost that can be absorbed by the project for the survivor of each case;"},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• Required to use their respective GBV case management procedures to provide the essential services required by the survivor;"},{"index":9,"size":37,"text":"• Required to maintain confidentiality, safety, and security of survivors in accordance with best practices, in particular ensuring survivor centeredness through the processes and seeking the consent of the survivor when personal data has to be shared;"},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"• Required to inform the Safeguard Focal person when a case is resolved so it is recorded in the grievance logbook."},{"index":11,"size":53,"text":"Acknowledgment and Follow-up: After registering the case, the Safeguard Focal Person will inform the AICCRA Zambia GC and the AICCRA E&S Safeguard Specialist within 24 hours of receipt and send an acknowledgment letter to the complainant or survivor within 3 workings days of receipt. A sample acknowledgement letter is provided at Annex IV."},{"index":12,"size":94,"text":"Fact Analysis: After receiving the case, the AICCRA Zambia GC will analyze the facts of the allegation by determining whether (i) the allegation falls within the definition of SEA/SH; and (ii) the alleged perpetrator is an individual associated with the AICCRA project. If the GC confirms these two elements, it shall proceed to handle the case or otherwise discontinue the case and write to inform the survivor or complainant. Only SEA/SH complaints allegedly committed by any individual associated with the AICCRA project may be considered by the project after referring to GBV service providers."},{"index":13,"size":81,"text":"In the event that the survivor does not wish to pursue disciplinary action against the alleged perpetrator the case will be closed after providing referral assistance. The Safeguard Focal person shall record the survivor's preference and indicate that in the acknowledgement letter as well. However, irrespective of the survivor's choice, if the alleged perpetrator is a staff of AICCRA implementing partner, the AICCRA GC will address the case according to the implementing partner's code of conduct, sanction regime, and national legislations."}]},{"head":"Determine recourse action:","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The AICCRA Zambia GC will review all cases referred to it to determine and agree upon course of action for handling and resolving the case. The appropriate institution that employs the perpetrator takes the agreed disciplinary action in accordance with the employer's code of conduct and national legislation. Disciplinary actions may include informal warning; formal warning; additional training, loss of salary, suspension, or termination of employment. A survivor may continue to receive support from the appropriate GBV service providers while the case is being handled by the AICCRA Zambia GC."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"As and when necessary, a representative of the survivor or an independent reputable third party may be invited to serve on the resolution panel. To avoid conflict of interest, the composition of the GC may also change depending on the nature and source of the allegation. The Safeguard Focal Person shall write to inform the survivor about the course of action and disciplinary action taken against the perpetrator."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Instances where the case is being handled by a service provider, the Service Provider will work with the survivor or guardian to develop a comprehensive plan that identifies what the survivor needs and how these needs may be met. The survivor may be referred to connect with a range of service providers which correspond to their needs. The Safeguard Focal Person shall continue to track, monitor, and collaborate with service providers on all such cases until they are resolved."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Closing SEA/SH cases: Closing of SEA/SH cases will occur at these instances"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• If the survivor does not wish to place an official complain with employer;"},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• If after investigation, the GRC determines that the allegation does not fall within the definition of SEA/SH and the alleged perpetrator is not associated with the project;"},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"• If when the case is pursued, and the GC confirms that the disciplinary action taken is appropriate and has been implemented conclusively;"},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• If a Service Provider follows its internal procedure to meet the needs of the survivor on the case."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"In all these instances, the Safeguard Focal Person may require the survivor or its representative to sign a statement to acknowledge satisfaction using the form provided at annex VII."},{"index":10,"size":86,"text":"Filling an information access request: All stakeholders willing to request information on AICCRA project can do so through information request points outlined in section 6.5. Requests can be made in writing or verbally, and in any language applicable to the project locations. The Safeguard Focal Person will open a file to keep records of all information requested. Stakeholders who request information directly from staff of project implementing agencies would be advised and assisted to officially make their request through the information request points at section 6.5."}]},{"head":"Acknowledgement of receipt:","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Upon receipt, an acknowledgement letter will be sent to the requester, whilst the request is being referred to the appropriate project lead. All information requests shall be referred to the Country Lead."}]},{"head":"Determination of response:","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The Country Leads or the Project Director will review the request to determine its applicability to the project, the appropriate response needed, and the right person to be consulted whilst considering the appropriate response to the request made. Where applicable, such requests may escalate from country level to PMU level for advice and determination of response."}]},{"head":"Preparation and release of information requested:","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"After the Project Director or the Country Lead reviews the request and determines the appropriate response, the Safeguard Focal Person will prepare and transmit the approved response to the requester. The transmission will be done in a language and in a manner (verbally, written, in-person, email, phone etc.) suitable to the context of the requester. Irrespective of the medium of transmission, a written record shall be kept on all information released. Where applicable, the response may indicate why the information requested or aspects of it cannot be provided or released."}]},{"head":"Deadlines and extension:","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"After receipt of information request, the Safeguard Focal Person will relay the information to the appropriate project lead within a maximum 24 hours. The Country Lead or the Project Director will generally be required to decide whether or not to disclose information within 30 consecutive days. The 30-day time period begins to run on the date the Country Lead or the Director receives the written information request. The Director or the Country Lead may in appropriate circumstances extend the 30-day deadline and shall notify the requester in writing of such extension through the Safeguard Focal Person and by stating the reasons for extension and the new deadline."}]},{"head":"Other considerations","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"• Information requests will be free, and no fees will be charged for the processing of information to be provided to the requester;"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"• The Country Lead may deny access to requests which in the Leads view may constitute frivolous or vexatious. In such cases, the requester shall be given a written notification on the reason for which the information requested is considered frivolous or vexatious;"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• The Project Director or the Country Lead may ask for clarification on the identity of the third-party requesting information if not clear;"},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"• If the scope of information requested is not sufficiently clear or is so broad in scope that it makes it difficult to generate, the Project Director or the Country Lead may write to the requester seeking clarification before taking further steps. The requester shall have 30 consecutive days from the date of such letter to clarify the request made. If there is no response, the request will be considered abandoned, and the case closed. In addition, IWMI will conduct regular feedback survey with collaborating SME's on CSA innovations being piloted. Such surveys will be conducted in local languages and in a manner that allows the farmers to share their learning progress on the CSA innovations being piloted."}]},{"head":"Reporting back to stakeholders","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Information on public engagement activities undertaken by the project during the year will be conveyed to the stakeholders during biannual progress updates sessions with stakeholders. Any necessary changes made in this SEP in course of implementation will be communicated to stakeholders. Biannual summaries and internal reports on public grievances, and enquiries together with the status of implementation will be collated and reported to AICCRA Program Management Unit and included in regular reporting summaries."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FiguresFigure 1 Figure 1 Grievance Redress Structure .............................................................................................................. Figure 2: AICCRA Zambia Grievance Procedure ............................................................................................... Figure 3: Case Management Procedure for SEA/SH cases .............................................................................. "},{"text":" Plan (SEP) has been prepared to identify the key stakeholders of the Accelerating Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) Zambia Cluster, define information disclosure and establish stakeholder engagement measures, and provide a grievance mechanism (GM). The SEP outlines how, when, and ways in which the project team will inform, communicate and consult with stakeholders including vulnerable groups and a mechanism by which people can raise concerns, provide feedback, or make complaints about project and any activities related to the project. The SEP has been prepared according to Environmental and Social Standard 10 (ESS-10) on Stakeholder Engagement and Information Disclosure of the World Bank's Environmental and Social Framework (ESF) and the overall ACCRA SEP prepared by Center for International Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). It will cover the whole life of the Project. "},{"text":"Component 3 . Validating Climate-Smart Agriculture Innovations through Piloting: Supporting testing and validation (including gender and social inclusion) of CSA technologies in research stations and in farmers' fields; linking of validated CSA technology packages to technology transfer systems; and improving access by farmers and other value chain actors to climate-informed agricultural advisory services so as to inform decision-making about choice of technology and enterprise management.Component 4. Project Management: Supporting day to day implementation, coordination, supervision and overall communication and management (including, procurement, financial management, monitoring and evaluation, carrying out of audits and reporting) of Project activities and results, all through the provision of goods, consulting services, non-consulting services, Training and Workshops, Operating Costs, and payment of staff salaries for the purpose.Zambia Cluster ActivitiesAICCRA-Zambia, led by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), will focus on bridging the gap between the research institutes that produce improved technologies and the development organizations that promote the adoption of improved technologies including digital climate advisories, for the purpose of enhancing the resilience of the country's agriculture and food systems in the face of climate change while improving livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of farmers. "},{"text":"IWMI• Overall coordination of Zambia Cluster activities and implementation of this SEP; • Ensure effective implementation of GRM; • Document the performance of SEP implementation. Implementing partners (ICRISAT, IITA, WorldFish, IRI Columbia University, ZMD) • Initiate and coordinate stakeholder engagement activities; • Assign staff to keep written records on stakeholder engagement activities and on grievances; • Ensure the involvement of other implementing partners in the monitoring of SEP activities. "},{"text":" Request for information on how to: o access project grant; o access climate smart information and innovations; o collaborate with implementing agencies; and o participate in project activities and meetings. • Community health and safety related risks and impacts; • Selection of farmers for participation in project activities; • Exclusion of vulnerable groups; • Sitting of project demonstration farms; • Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA)/ Sexual Harassment (SH). "},{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Grievance Redress Structure "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: AICCRA Zambia Grievance Procedure "},{"text":"Follow up and close out actionMonitor and verify redress action - "},{"text":"IPI 1 . 3 : Satisfaction with the quality and usefulness of climate-relevant knowledge products, decision-making tools and services received under AICCRA expressed by surveyed partners and stakeholders (Percentage); IPI 2.4: Satisfaction with the effectiveness of the partnerships under AICCRA expressed by surveyed partners and stakeholders (Percentage); IPI 3.3: Use or adaptation of AICCRA-funded climate-relevant knowledge products, decision-making tools and services stated and confirmed by surveyed partners and stakeholders (Percentage). "},{"text":" national agricultural research systems (NARS) and other key stakeholders in Africa. It will support knowledge creation and capacity building activities to enable regional and national-level stakeholders to take Climate-smart Agriculture (CSA) innovations to scale. It will achieve that by fostering partnerships between CGIAR and local research institutes, universities, civil society organizations, farmer organizations, and private firms. AICCRA will facilitate the development of climate-informed services (CIS) "},{"text":"BRIEF SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT ACTIVITIES actionable CIS and CSA technologies (solar irrigation, drought tolerant seed varieties, integrated actionable CIS and CSA technologies (solar irrigation, drought tolerant seed varieties, integrated aquaculture/agriculture practices, integrated crop/livestock practices) that will achieve water and food aquaculture/agriculture practices, integrated crop/livestock practices) that will achieve water and food security and build resilience. security and build resilience. The project will also strengthen local capacity by training intermediaries to communicate climate services; The project will also strengthen local capacity by training intermediaries to communicate climate services; but also, by implementing a local internship/learning program; providing incubator/accelerator grants for but also, by implementing a local internship/learning program; providing incubator/accelerator grants for Small Scale and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)/entrepreneurs; and assessing challenges in the enabling Small Scale and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)/entrepreneurs; and assessing challenges in the enabling environment for startups. Finally, it will seek to inform policy (in the drought declaration process); and environment for startups. Finally, it will seek to inform policy (in the drought declaration process); and enhance investment plans by identifying suitable financing mechanisms, using fiscal tools to de-risk private enhance investment plans by identifying suitable financing mechanisms, using fiscal tools to de-risk private sector investments in food value chains. Key activities include: sector investments in food value chains. Key activities include: 1.3.1 Development of ag-data hubs and decision support systems; 1.3.1 Development of ag-data hubs and decision support systems; 1.3.2 Strengthening digital climate advisory services; 1.3.2 Strengthening digital climate advisory services; 2.2.1 Support strengthening of national meteorological real-time services; 2.2.1 Support strengthening of national meteorological real-time services; 2.3.1 Support strengthening of national meteorological real-time services; 2.3.1 Support strengthening of national meteorological real-time services; 2.3.3 Build capacity in three focus countries of public and private sector next users to support 2.3.3 Build capacity in three focus countries of public and private sector next users to support implementation of CSA technology packages; implementation of CSA technology packages; 2.3.4 Develop existing or strengthening new National Frameworks for Climate Services (NFCS); 2.3.4 Develop existing or strengthening new National Frameworks for Climate Services (NFCS); 3.3.1 Identify climate-and gender and social inclusion-smartness of CSA packages; 3.3.1 Identify climate-and gender and social inclusion-smartness of CSA packages; 3.3.2 Prioritize and increase awareness of best-bet CSA options and approaches for key value 3.3.2 Prioritize and increase awareness of best-bet CSA options and approaches for key value chains; chains; 3.3.3 Integrate climate-smart options and tailored CIS advisory systems for specific value chains; 3.3.3 Integrate climate-smart options and tailored CIS advisory systems for specific value chains; 2.3.2 Enhance the capacity of public institutions and private firms to provide climate service 2.3.2 Enhance the capacity of public institutions and private firms to provide climate service delivery models; delivery models; 3.3.4 Develop and promote climate-smart agricultural investment plans in East Africa. 3.3.4 Develop and promote climate-smart agricultural investment plans in East Africa. 2.0 In preparation for AICCRA implementation, IWMI and other implementing partners have held several 2.0 In preparation for AICCRA implementation, IWMI and other implementing partners have held several engagements with stakeholders in Zambia. The table below summarizes the key engagements held up to engagements with stakeholders in Zambia. The table below summarizes the key engagements held up to date. date. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Summary of Previous Stakeholder Engagements Center Leading the Consultation Stakeholder Name Method of Consultation Date of Consultation Purpose of Consultation IWMI/CCAFS Small and Medium Enterprises Virtual Workshop, 5 June 2020 National Consultation for Zambia, Identified broad IWMI/CCAFSSmall and Medium EnterprisesVirtual Workshop,5 June 2020National Consultation for Zambia, Identified broad (SME's), Non-Governmental emails Results for Development (R4D) research priorities (SME's),Non-GovernmentalemailsResults for Development (R4D) research priorities Agencies (NGOs), and government Agencies (NGOs), and government agencies agencies IWMI SME's, NGOs, and government Virtual Workshop, 29 July 2020 Introduced broader objectives for development of IWMISME's, NGOs, and governmentVirtual Workshop,29 July 2020 Introduced broader objectives for development of agencies emails, post- AICCRA proposal, and stakeholder feedback on agenciesemails, post-AICCRA proposal, and stakeholder feedback on workshop report needs and priorities workshop reportneeds and priorities IWMI Various SMEs/Start-ups Virtual SME 27 April 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst IWMIVarious SMEs/Start-upsVirtual SME27 April 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst Information Session SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk Information SessionSMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk 1 engagement of private and public sector partners 1engagement of private and public sector partners for the uptake of CSA bundles. for the uptake of CSA bundles. IWMI Various SMEs/Start-ups Virtual SME 26 May 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst IWMIVarious SMEs/Start-upsVirtual SME26 May 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst Information Session SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk Information SessionSMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk 2 engagement of private and public sector partners 2engagement of private and public sector partners for the uptake of CSA bundles. for the uptake of CSA bundles. IWMI Various SMEs/Start-ups Virtual SME 16 June 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst IWMIVarious SMEs/Start-upsVirtualSME16 June 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst Information Session SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk Information SessionSMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk 3 engagement of private and public sector partners 3engagement of private and public sector partners for the uptake of CSA bundles. for the uptake of CSA bundles. International Farmers' Outgrower Foundation Virtual 17 July 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst InternationalFarmers' Outgrower FoundationVirtual17 July 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst Crop Research Limited (FoF) SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk Crop ResearchLimited (FoF)SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk Institute engagement of private and public sector partners Instituteengagement of private and public sector partners (ICRISAT) for the uptake of CSA bundles. (ICRISAT)for the uptake of CSA bundles. ICRISAT Muchinga Corridors Virtual 17 July 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst ICRISATMuchinga CorridorsVirtual17 July 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk engagement of private and public sector partners engagement of private and public sector partners for the uptake of CSA bundles. for the uptake of CSA bundles. ICRISAT Eunimos Investment Virtual 17 July 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst ICRISATEunimos InvestmentVirtual17 July 2021 Info sessions for sparking an interest amongst SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk SMEs on innovation grants that seek to de-risk engagement of private and public sector partners engagement of private and public sector partners for the uptake of CSA bundles. for the uptake of CSA bundles. "},{"text":"Center Leading the Consultation Stakeholder Name Method of Consultation Date of Consultation Purpose of Consultation ICRISAT Zambia Meteorological Virtual 26 July 2021 Collaborative meeting with ZMD to demonstrate ICRISATZambiaMeteorologicalVirtual26 July 2021 Collaborative meeting with ZMD to demonstrate Department (ZMD) the ICRISAT iSAT tool to explore its suitability for Department (ZMD)the ICRISAT iSAT tool to explore its suitability for use as part of the AICCRA project. use as part of the AICCRA project. IWMI/WB/CCAFS SME's Virtual 23 August AICCRA session at Stockholm World Water Week IWMI/WB/CCAFS SME'sVirtual23AugustAICCRA session at Stockholm World Water Week 2021 2021 International Lima Links Virtual meeting August 25, Potential for collaboration InternationalLima LinksVirtualmeetingAugust 25,Potential for collaboration Institute for (ZOOM) 2021 Institutefor(ZOOM)2021 Tropical Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Agriculture (IITA) IITA VIAMO Virtual (ZOOM) September 9, Potential for collaboration IITAVIAMOVirtual (ZOOM)September 9,Potential for collaboration 2021 2021 ICRISAT International Research Institute Virtual 27 Collaborative meeting to establish a strategy of ICRISATInternational Research InstituteVirtual27Collaborative meeting to establish a strategy of (IRI) September engaging stakeholders involved in development of (IRI)Septemberengaging stakeholders involved in development of 2021 Map room in Zambia. This will lead to the 2021Map room in Zambia. This will lead to the establishment of Ag-hub that will be owned by the establishment of Ag-hub that will be owned by the government and all government and all AICCRA Zambia Multiple Virtual (ZOOM) 6 October Preparatory workshop on CIS needs and priorities AICCRA ZambiaMultipleVirtual (ZOOM)6OctoberPreparatory workshop on CIS needs and priorities partners 2021 in Zambia partners2021in Zambia AICCRA Zambia Multiple -Ministry of Commerce, In-person and 26-27 Introductory in-person meetings during first AICCRA ZambiaMultiple -Ministry of Commerce,In-personand26-27Introductory in-person meetings during first partners Lima Links, Vitalite, Lupiya, virtual October AICCRA Zambia Consortium visit to Zambia partnersLima Links, Vitalite, Lupiya,virtualOctoberAICCRA Zambia Consortium visit to Zambia German Chamber of Commerce, 2021 German Chamber of Commerce,2021 Bongohive, ACDI/VOCA, Bongohive, ACDI/VOCA, WARMA, Zamgoats, VIAMO, WARMA, Zamgoats, VIAMO, NATSAVE, ZMD COMACO, World NATSAVE, ZMD COMACO, World Bank Bank AICCRA Zambia Multiple SMEs (150 SMEs) Virtual (ZOOM) 27 October Matchmaking and networking in the lead up to the AICCRA ZambiaMultiple SMEs (150 SMEs)Virtual (ZOOM)27 OctoberMatchmaking and networking in the lead up to the partners, launch of the AICCRA Zambia Accelerator partners,launch of the AICCRA Zambia Accelerator BongoHive, and BongoHive, and Venture Capital Venture Capital for Africa (VC4A) for Africa (VC4A) AICCRA Zambia Multiple (50 pax) and members of In-person 27 October AICCRA ZambiaMultiple (50 pax) and members ofIn-person27 October partners and the media 2021 partnersandthe media2021 BongoHive BongoHive "},{"text":" Zambia Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock; • Zambia Ministry of Green Economy and Environment; • Zambia Ministry of Commerce, Trade, and Industry; • Zambia Ministry of Water Development and Sanitation; • Zambia Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises Development; • SMEs and Start-ups including but not limited to Lubiya, RentToOwn, NDKay, SolarPro, Zamgoat, COMACO, NATSAVE, Rent to Own Zambia Ltd, Fourthline limited, NELK Agro Services, Paywel logistics, Rentmels Agro Consultancy & Gen Enterprise Ltd, RDG Collective Ltd, RACFEMO GENERAL DEALERS; "},{"text":" • Non-Governmental Organizations and Development partners with operational focus on agricultural improvement in Zambia e.g., Germany Development Agency (GIZ) CRIIZ program, and ACDI/VOCA leading the USAID-funded EDGE program; World Bank's Agribusiness Trade Project; World Food Program; Food and Agricultural Organization; United Nation Development Program etc.; "},{"text":"Table 2 : Summary of Stakeholder Needs Stakeholder group Key characteristics Language needs Preferred notification means (e-mail, phone, radio, letter) Specific needs Direct Partners: Institutions that will receive funds English Emails, Meetings, phone None Direct Partners:Institutions that will receive fundsEnglishEmails, Meetings, phoneNone Implementing directly from the project calls Implementingdirectly from the projectcalls agency (CIAT), implementing agency (CIAT) agency (CIAT),implementing agency (CIAT) which include which include ABC, ICRISAT, ABC, ICRISAT, IITA, IRI, IWMI, IITA, IRI, IWMI, WorldFish WorldFish Indirect Institutions that will receive funds English Emails, Meetings, letters Financial support to IndirectInstitutions that will receive fundsEnglishEmails, Meetings, letters Financial support to partners : through sub-contracts from IWMI attend project partners :through sub-contracts from IWMIattend project Zambia meetings and training Zambiameetings and training Meteorological Meteorological Agency (ZMA), Agency (ZMA), SMEs SMEs "},{"text":"Table 3 : Strategy for information disclosure Project stage List of information to be disclosed Methods proposed Timetable: dates Locations/ Target stakeholders Percentage reached Responsibilities Project stageList of information to be disclosedMethods proposedTimetable: dates Locations/Target stakeholdersPercentage reachedResponsibilities Project Preparation Project SEP including AICCRA November 2021 - Implementing Partners, Emails, virtual and face to face Implementing partners - Project PreparationProject SEP includingAICCRANovember 2021 -Implementing Partners,Emails, virtual and face to faceImplementing partners - Grievance Emails, Virtual February 2022 collaborators, clients, meetings will reach 100% of IWMI, ICRISAT, WorldFish, GrievanceEmails, VirtualFebruary 2022collaborators, clients,meetings will reach 100% ofIWMI, ICRISAT, WorldFish, Mechanism meetings, face to face and others implementing partners, IITA, IRI Columbia Mechanismmeetings, face to faceand othersimplementing partners,IITA, IRI Columbia meetings & IWMI collaborators, and key clients University, Zambia Met meetings & IWMIcollaborators, and key clientsUniversity, Zambia Met website. Website will reach other Department and website.Website will reach otherDepartment and indirect stakeholders -NGOs, Collaborating SME's indirect stakeholders -NGOs,Collaborating SME's CSOs and research CSOs and research institutions. institutions. Face to face community Smallholder farmers Face to face community Face to face communitySmallholder farmersFace to face community meetings, focus group including women, meetings, focus group meetings, focus groupincluding women,meetings, focus group discussions and radio youth, PWD discussions and radio discussions and radioyouth, PWDdiscussions and radio announcements announcements are expected announcementsannouncements are expected to reach 100 farmers to reach 100 farmers E&S risks and Face to face meetings, February 2022 - Project affected Face to face meeting including IWMI and SMEs to be E&S risks andFace to face meetings,February 2022 -Project affectedFace to face meeting includingIWMI and SMEs to be mitigation measures community meetings, April 2022 persons community meetings and selected to pilot CSA mitigation measurescommunity meetings,April 2022personscommunity meetings andselected to pilot CSA considered on focus group discussions Implementing Partners, focus groups discussion will innovation bundle considered onfocus group discussionsImplementing Partners,focus groups discussion willinnovation bundle demonstration site collaborators, clients, reach 100% of targeted demonstration sitecollaborators, clients,reach 100% of targeted and others. stakeholders. and others.stakeholders. Smallholder farmers Smallholder farmers including women, including women, youth, PWD youth, PWD Project Biannual and Annual Soft copies of reports Once every 6 Implementing partners 100% reach through emails to Zambia Cluster Lead and ProjectBiannual and AnnualSoft copies of reportsOnce every 6Implementing partners100% reach through emails toZambia Cluster Lead and Implementation reports through emails months collaborators and indirect collaborating SMEs Implementationreportsthrough emailsmonthscollaborators and indirectcollaborating SMEs partners partners Smallholder farmers Face to face community Smallholder farmersFace to face community Face to face community including vulnerable meetings, focus group Face to face communityincluding vulnerablemeetings, focus group meetings, focus group groups discussions will reach 100% of meetings, focus groupgroupsdiscussions will reach 100% of discussions farmers discussionsfarmers "},{"text":"Table 4 : Strategy for Consultation Center leading the Stakeholder name Stakeholder type Method of Date of Purpose of consultation Center leading theStakeholder nameStakeholder typeMethod ofDate ofPurpose of consultation consultation consultation consultation consultationconsultationconsultation IWMI SMEs and cooperate SMEs, corporates ag value chain actors June - Info sessions & one-on-one online meetings IWMISMEs and cooperateSMEs, corporatesag value chain actors June -Info sessions & one-on-one online meetings institutions in the November to present AICCRA and spark interest in the institutions in theNovemberto present AICCRA and spark interest in the agricultural sector 2021 accelerator grant agricultural sector2021accelerator grant IWMI RentToOwn SME, Financial services In-person meeting October - In-person meeting to see the office and IWMIRentToOwnSME, Financial servicesIn-person meetingOctober -In-person meeting to see the office and provider November products, field trip providerNovemberproducts, field trip 2021 2021 IWMI Lubiya SME, Financial services In-person meeting October - In-person meeting to see the office and IWMILubiyaSME, Financial servicesIn-person meetingOctober -In-person meeting to see the office and provider November products, field trip providerNovemberproducts, field trip 2021 2021 IWMI PlantCatalyst Global corporation In-person meeting October - In-person meeting to see the office and IWMIPlantCatalystGlobal corporationIn-person meetingOctober -In-person meeting to see the office and with office in Zambia November products, field trip with office in ZambiaNovemberproducts, field trip 2021 2021 IWMI NDKay SME, Off-grid solar In-person meeting November In-person meeting to see the office and IWMINDKaySME, Off-grid solarIn-person meetingNovemberIn-person meeting to see the office and pump provider 2021 products, field trip pump provider2021products, field trip IWMI SolarPro Zambia SME, Off-grid solar In-person meeting November In-person meeting to see the office and IWMISolarPro ZambiaSME, Off-grid solarIn-person meetingNovemberIn-person meeting to see the office and pump provider 2021 products, field trip pump provider2021products, field trip IWMI ACDI/VOCA NGO In person meeting October - In person meeting to discuss partnership IWMIACDI/VOCANGOIn person meetingOctober -In person meeting to discuss partnership November strategy Novemberstrategy 2021 2021 IWMI GIZ Development agency In person meeting October - In person meeting to discuss partnership IWMIGIZDevelopment agencyIn person meetingOctober -In person meeting to discuss partnership November strategy Novemberstrategy 2021 2021 IWMI SMEs Potential applicants for >500 SMEs invited, October- Matchmaking Dialogue (virtual) to facilitate IWMISMEsPotential applicants for>500 SMEs invited,October-Matchmaking Dialogue (virtual) to facilitate the Accelerator Grant 100 -200 expected November and incentivize forming of partnerships for the Accelerator Grant100 -200 expectedNovemberand incentivize forming of partnerships for to attend the 2021 application to the Grant RFA to attend the2021application to the Grant RFA meeting meeting "},{"text":"Table 5 : Estimated Budget Stakeholder Engagement Plan -Estimated Budget Stakeholder Engagement Plan -Estimated Budget Activities Total Cost (USD) ActivitiesTotal Cost (USD) Sensitization 3000 Sensitization3000 Design of flyers 1000 Design of flyers1000 "},{"text":"Table 6 : Roles and Responsibilities "}],"sieverID":"8a6d8c81-3c00-4538-89e6-6b249ff684c0","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0cdcc2ab9ac0e876e2ce4d8396e763b2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7ff8bb9-867d-40b3-95a4-a832d1bdcb8b/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"It has only been in the last decade that policymakers and the public have started to awaken to the fact that quality of life is dependent not only on quantity of food but also on high quality food from diverse sources. It took the drastic simpli cation of global agriculture with its shrinking basket of agricultural choices and looming population growth gures to get their attention."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"With this awareness has come a recognition that a huge proportion of the world's lesser known traditional food crops have been left out of the agricultural advances of recent decades, neglected by scientists, who concentrate on only a few of the major staples. Yet these traditional crops have great potential for providing the world's population with a choice of nutritious foods and other needed products."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"This booklet has been prepared to present a positive look at what supporting the development of neglected and underutilized crops and refi lling the agricultural basket can mean in terms of health, income, culture and the global environment."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"By highlighting just a few examples of what these crops have to offer, the story becomes quite clear: when crops are ignored by research and not adopted by commercial farmers, the entire world loses."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"In recent decades, researchers began actively collecting seeds and plant materials from farmers and from the wild in order to conserve them. Gene banks around the world now house millions of these samples, which plant breeders are able to draw upon as they look for new ways to combine genetic traits and improve yields as well as the nutritional value of crops. Although the majority of research concentrates on major food crops, we know that with the advances of plant breeding, any species has the potential to bring an important trait to the mix."}]},{"head":"Counting the crops","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Our planet has some 250,000 identi ed plant species. Over the millennia only about 7,000 have been cultivated or collected for food."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"In fact, today, fewer than 150 species are under commercial cultivation and, of those, 30 species provide 95 percent of our food energy needs. Reducing it even further, only three -wheat, maize and rice -provide half. What has happened to the others? Why have we lost all of these food choices? Humanity moved on, and for a variety of reasons, those crops were left behind."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Right now, we are feeding a population of more than 6 billion people, which is expected to rise to more than 9 billion within 40 years, from a base of only 30 crop species. This is an untenable situation. A wide food crop base is crucial for supporting local economies, traditions and cultures and, above all, for being able to provide farmers with options for dealing with whatever agricultural problems may emerge in the future."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Already we have seen that the world's climate is changing."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"Changing weather conditions that cause variations in rainfall and air temperature not only lead to alterations in growing patterns, they set up new conditions that could lead to the emergence of new pests and diseases. In this situation, traditional crops have a comparative advantage over commodity crops because their high adaptability and resilience to stress are crucial in climate change coping strategies."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"Neglected and underutilized: the crops we left behind"},{"index":7,"size":79,"text":"IN THE RECENT PAST, as populations have expanded and dispersed, a global trading system has evolved to provide for the food needs of people who migrated away from rural areas and now depend on supermarkets rather than on their own gardens or community markets. This has led to an increased focus on the crop species that can meet the demands of a hungry world while still meeting the harvesting, processing, packaging and transporting requirements of the global food trade."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"Along with globalization, the liberalization of trade regulations has put even more pressure on producers to increase the production of food products that have competitive prices for global markets."},{"index":9,"size":108,"text":"To satisfy demand, plant breeders have concentrated on improving varieties and providing seeds for the major crops popular with urban consumers in developed countries. But this has been done at the expense of the traditional crops that are most often used by poor subsistence farmers for whom having a range of locally adapted crops is crucial to survival. Even crops that were once widely grown have fallen into disuse because farmers nd they are not competitive with the major commercial crops. Now we have a situation in which more and more people are eating the same food because that is all that is available from commercial food producers."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"Building respect for the world's … … neglected, underutilized, minor, orphan, underexploited, underdeveloped, lost, new, novel, promising, alternative, local, traditional, "}]},{"head":"Traditional crops make broad contributions","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Health and nutrition","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Traditional remedies from local plants","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 80 percent of the people in the world rely on traditional remedies to treat their illnesses either because they are too poor to afford modern medicines or because they trust traditional remedies more than modern drugs. These traditional remedies are the herbal and plant salves and creams and medicines developed by local people during thousands of years of trial and error. Through experimenting, they found the most effective local plants to cure illnesses. Now, with scienti c advancements, we can identify the chemical properties of the plants and understand better how they work. Many modern drugs used today are based on plants that owe their existence to local people who have conserved them and developed extensive knowledge of their healing powers over thousands of years. Society has to provide support to enable local communities to continue their roles as custodians of this precious heritage and, at the same time, to ensure that wild species are harvested in a sustainable way."}]},{"head":"Obesity and malnutrition: solving an oxymoron with support from underutilized species","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"The globalization of the food trade has created major health problems not just in the developed but also in the developing world where people are gravitating towards inexpensive, often imported, fast foods. As a result of these high-carbohydrate, low quality diets, for the rst time, many countries are facing huge increases in heart disease, diabetes and obesity and the fatter they get, the less healthy they are. Obesity has reached nearly epidemic proportions in many countries. For example, in Brazil today, 37 percent of adults are overweight or obese, compared to 20 percent in 1975; in Mexico, it is 70 percent, an increase of almost 9 percent since 2000; and in China, it is already 27 percent -more than doubled from 13 percent in 1991. Many of the world's island states have had enormous increases in heart disease as local people, drawn to the tourism industry, have abandoned their farms and moved to the tourist centres in search of salaried jobs, leaving their traditional diets behind. Their adoption of commercial, processed foods has been accompanied by enormous increases in diet-related diseases."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The term \"hidden hunger\" has been coined to identify the condition of people who may eat enough calories every day to survive, but are missing the vitamins, minerals and other micronutrients they need to sustain a healthy and productive life. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has determined that more than 850 million people are chronically hungry. This gure is well known, while there is less awareness that some 2 billion people, especially women and children in sub-Saharan Africa, suffer from hidden hunger."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"The irony is that the developing world is blessed with an array of locally-adapted plants that are highly nutritious and have been grown by local people for millennia. Yet many of today's farmers choose to plant improved varieties of commercial crops because they think they will have more dependable harvests and readymade markets. By the same token, today's plant scientists focus their research on improving crop varieties they assume farmers will want to plant. Now add the consumers, many of whom believe that modern processed foods are better than the commonplace greens they used to grow in their own gardens or purchase in local markets. Often, their local crops have the stigma of being perceived as \"poor people's food\" while imported food is prestigious and desirable. If this paragraph were animated, it would show a revolving circle -of farmers, scientists and consumers caught in a loop, illustrating both why local crops have been neglected by researchers and why they have been marginalized, if grown at all, by farmers."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"While the West is questioning its carbohydraterich diets and accepting that a varied diet is good for health, the developing world is increasingly attracted to fashionable modern foods and abandoning its traditionally diverse diets."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Diverse diets are good for human health and nutrition, and healthy people who value the diversity that surrounds them are more likely to preserve it. Farmers who benefi t directly from biodiversity are more likely to conserve it."},{"index":6,"size":107,"text":"As a result, consumers are missing the opportunity to ll hidden hunger gaps in their diets with a range of diverse foods. We have made great strides in producing the quantity of food needed to feed growing populations, but by narrowing the focus, we have compromised on the quality. With more and more of the world's food coming from fewer and fewer species, there has been a dramatic loss of diversity in the elds and many traditional varieties have already been lost forever. This means that as populations become both fatter and more undernourished, they are losing options for improving their diets with healthy and nutritious food."}]},{"head":"Income generation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"WHEN A TRADITIONAL CROP leaves the landscape, cast to the sidelines by farmers who decide they no longer want to grow it, there's a reason. Maybe the market value for the crop is too low or processing the crop is too complicated to make its cultivation worthwhile. Perhaps climate patterns have changed, making the crop harder to grow, or the farmer cannot nd quality seeds, or the seeds cost more than those for major commercial crops."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Each of these cases is indicative of a more generic problem: all too often, scientists and agricultural extensionists -who could advise farmers on how to improve yields or how to market their products -do not pay any attention to traditional crops. Instead, they tend to concentrate on a few major cash and staple crops. Of course, the development of these staples has been crucial in the short-term for increasing production enough to feed growing populations. However, in the long-term, this narrow focus has created a situation in which our food security depends on very few crops, which are traded globally and at very low prices."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"For poor farmers in marginal areas who have traditionally depended on many different crops for subsistence and exchange, this has not been a positive development. Many have been encouraged to give up their traditional species and varieties to grow particular varieties of cash crops, unaware of the potential pitfalls of uctuating market prices. As they have left behind their traditional crops that were perfectly adapted to their local ecosystems, they have also left behind the diversity that allowed them to be self-reliant and provided them with safety nets -if one crop was unsuccessful, there were others to fall back on."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Because these traditional crops have never been widely used, scientists have not taken the initiative to look into their commercial potential, have not studied their genetic traits -traits that enable the crops to survive in marginal areas and which, if further developed, could also help other farmers in other areas -nor has their potential to improve incomes been appreciated."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"The Maya Nut (Brosimum alicastrum) is a tree that can produce up to 200 kg of food a year without needing fertilizers or pesticides. The story of this tree is an example of how increased awareness can make an enormous difference. The Maya Nut was facing extinction but now, because of the efforts of The Equilibrium Fund, a non-governmental organization (NGO) that works with indigenous and marginalized women, "}]},{"head":"Markets bring underutilized crops to the world's table","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"I. HOESCHLE-ZELEDON more than 7,000 women in 320 communities in Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Mexico have been made aware of the amazing production capacity of the Maya Nut. They also have become involved in the conservation and marketing of Maya Nut products such as drinks and sweets. Many have formed micro-enterprises and have gone on to train other local people in the use and marketing of the Maya Nut. The potential for the Maya Nut was rst recognized by a researcher working in the area, who then founded The Equilibrium Fund. To date, throughout the region, more than 300,000 new Maya Nut trees have been planted as part of a rainforest reforestation programme. The women in the project area in Honduras have created a cookbook of Maya Nut recipes and the tree is once again secure in the landscape. This is not a unique story."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Forests around the world provide income sources for local communities, such as in the case of India, where non-timber forest products are estimated to generate employment for more than 10 million people a year. Increased market opportunities can generate additional income for poor farmers where these crops have a comparative advantage over staples or major crops. They also offer better nutrition and dietary diversity for local people plus they have market potential in the developed world where consumers are interested in their nutritional value but also are attracted to their novelty. Modern technologies can transform crops and other plants into diverse products and extend their shelf life."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"The challenge is to convince producers and consumers of the value of traditional foods and a diverse diet. Underutilized crops are usually sold in local markets. Surveys show that urban shoppers consider food sold at market stalls to be substandard and unsafe, and that many people are so far removed from their rural roots that they do not even know how to prepare the foods. To combat this scenario in Kenya, an NGO helped local farmers meet quality control standards for traditional leafy vegetables in the elds and also created packaging that included recipes. Now, the vegetables are sold in supermarkets, sales have increased eleven fold in just two years, farmers have improved income and consumers have access to better nutrition at lower prices. This case illustrates how important it is for local people to have support from those who understand their processing needs, can recommend the appropriate technologies and also help them nd the niches for marketing their products."}]},{"head":"Culture and religion","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Local crops build local pride","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"In ancient temples and religious centres around the world, walls are often carved with images of fruits and vegetables. Unearthed pottery vases have designs with imprints of grains. Religious symbols take the shape of crops to celebrate planting and harvest seasons. Even ancient farm tools that have been replaced by more modern instruments often remain in places of honour in villages."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"It wasn't so long ago -before the growth of the industrial age drove many rural people into urban areas -that most countries were completely dependent on agriculture. People were so bound to the land that their traditions and culture were linked to what they grew and ate. Special foods were, and still are in many places, associated with personal and community ceremonies such as births, weddings or funerals."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Communities evolved as a result of agriculture. After all, agriculture required people to work together, to organize themselves to share labour and resources, to set land boundaries and to barter for extra needs. This is the culture of agri-culture. Only now, the cultural side of agriculture is under threat, mainly because many of the traditions -meaning both the foods for ceremonies and the agricultural practices that brought people together -are disappearing."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"The modernization of agriculture has been necessary. With more and more people to feed from the same resource base, it has been crucial to nd ways to increase yields. However, in their move to modernize, many agricultural communities gave up the most important traditions of their heritage. Changes in lifestyle, accompanied by the simpli cation of diets and food cultures, are eroding the world's traditional culinary heritage."},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"For thousands of years, farming communities nurtured, conserved, improved and sustained their traditional crops, passing their seeds and their knowledge from generation to generation. With the march toward modernity, many farming communities moved away from traditions and subsistence farming, adopting commercial crops with market value. Of course, the move was forward and it was critical for family survival. But, when they cast aside their traditional crops, farmers not only lost dietary diversity, they gave up links to their history, devaluing their own culture. Now, there is a move back to tradition, and it comes in part from the developed world. The increase in ecotourism in developing countries is just one indication of the developed world's search for naturalness in food preparation and growing regard for the herbs, traditional healing and indigenous knowledge of rural peoples. This interest from the outside has rekindled the pride of local people, raised their awareness of what they are losing and many are pulling their traditional plants back from the brink of oblivion."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"One non-tangible aspect of the movement to ensure the conservation and respect for underutilized species is the feeling that comes from an appreciation of the cultural heritage of plants. When people outside their culture, such as ecotourists, recognize the value of rural traditions, it gives local people a feeling of pride and raises their self esteem. When they discover they have something of importance to offer or share -something they themselves are responsible for, such as their unique farm productionthey feel a greater sense of empowerment."},{"index":7,"size":57,"text":"This has prompted a wave of new initiatives celebrating traditional foods. For example, organizations in the Philippines, concerned that, as people become more af uent and urbanized, they will lose touch with their cultural heritage, have established rural gardens right in the centre of urban areas to promote appreciation for both the rural culture and rural farmers."}]},{"head":"Environmental Services","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"WHEN YOU LOOK at the world's forests, wilderness areas, farmers' elds or even backyard gardens, you may not realize it, but there's a lot of work going on behind the scenes. Bees are pollinating, micro-organisms are helping maintain soil fertility, insects that are natural enemies of invasive plant pests are making their homes, and trees are absorbing carbon from the atmosphere. These so called \"environmental services\" are one of the biggest and most economically important job sectors on earth."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"If monetary amounts were assigned to these services, they would add up to trillions of dollars a year. In 1997, the gross national product of all the countries on earth totalled US$18 trillion. That same year, the total of all the ecosystem services was estimated at US$33 trillion."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Looking at the services that have been provided by nature throughout the millennia, it is easy to see that they are becoming ever more important. Intensive agricultural practices are taking their toll on the environment and natural resources; industry and transportation are polluting the atmosphere. Around the world, governments and leaders are looking for ways to mitigate the effects of climate change, which are already having major impacts on weather patterns and, in turn, on agricultural production."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"That is why it is crucial that we protect the diversity of the agricultural systems that provide these environmental services. It makes sense that having the broadest array of biodiversity possible will provide more options for dealing with whatever natural or human-made problems may arise. This means having a range of trees, shrubs and grasses to provide habitats, send down root systems to stop erosion and retain the soil's water retention capacity or to add nitrogen to the soil. It also means having a broad diversity of plant species and varieties so as to bene t from their unique set of genetic traits. These are traits that make plants drought tolerant, disease resistant or able to grow in extreme climates or in poor soil. In addition, the more species there are in an ecosystem, the more interaction there will be, which adds to soil fertility and nutrient cycles."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"Environmental services have had a lot of attention lately, because the ability of trees to sequester carbon has the potential to offset the greenhouse gas emissions that are contributing to climate change. But, plant biodiversity also performs a crucial service in contributing to agro-ecosystem stability by helping to mitigate the effects of environmental changes. If a change in average temperature alters weather cycles or fosters the onset of a new plant pest, then having a broad diversity of plants will mean there is a better chance that some will have the traits that allow them to survive."},{"index":6,"size":72,"text":"Despite the fact that governments and international organizations are keenly aware of the importance of these environmental services, natural ecosystems continue to be degraded or lost at an alarming rate, with nearly two-thirds of the world's environmental services now under threat. Today, climate change has focused the world's attention on the carbon issue, but it is equally critical to make sure that crop diversity and its maintenance are factored into mitigation planning."}]},{"head":"Individual crops tell their stories","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Although we use the term \"underutilized\" when referring to crops that have been basically ignored by scientists and plant breeders, for the farmers who have continued to maintain these crops in their elds and gardens or to harvest them from the wild, they are anything but underutilized."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"In this section, we highlight an array of diverse crops from diverse regions with diverse uses. These may not be considered commercial crops, but they still are extremely important to the farmers and communities that rely on them for food, nutrition or livelihoods. The point is to illustrate that with just a small amount of attention -be it a new technology for improving yields or simplifying processing or even the kind of marketing advice that will help move the crops into a larger arena -the bene ts of many crops that are currently neglected could be enhanced, expanded and shared to bene t local people and, in some cases, all of humanity."}]},{"head":"Inviting all the world's crops to the table","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pomegranate","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Prehistoric cultivation to modern panacea T HE HISTORY of the pomegranate (Punica granatum) follows the same lines as the development of civilization. From prehistoric settlers who transplanted wild varieties to their homesteads, through the ancient Egyptians and then the Greeks and Romans, the pomegranate has always been more than simply a nutritious food item."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Many civilizations have praised the wondrous traits of the pomegranate. More than for its taste, the pomegranate was revered for its beauty and considered a symbol of fertility. Images of the fruit adorn the walls of many ancient places of worship and the illustrated manuscripts of many religions. It is mentioned speci cally in both the Bible and the Koran, was taken along by ancient Arab travellers to quench their thirst during journeys across the desert, and now is cultivated all over the world."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"From its origins in civilizations around the Mediterranean Basin, pomegranates spread into Central Asia and the Caucasus, India and China with domestication happening spontaneously and independently in several regions. Today it is present in cuisines and traditional remedies in many cultures. Long linked to folk medicines and credited with curing everything from baldness to sore throats and conjunctivitis, pomegranate is now being hailed by modern medicine as a panacea fruit that can also reduce the risk of heart disease."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"In addition to eating it fresh or processing its fruits and juices into jellies, sauces and avourings, parts of the plant are used traditionally for tanning leather and as a source of dye for wool and silk. Extracts of the bark, leaves and rind serve as astringents to treat dysentery, the dried bark of the root and stem contains alkaloids that are active against tapeworms, and powdered ower buds treat bronchitis. In addition, the juice of wild pomegranates is considered bene cial for treating leprosy. Yet, in spite of the many services the pomegranate has provided and the great esteem in which it is held, its wild relatives are under threat. As with many other traditional species, the pomegranate faces environmental degradation. But there is another element to this story."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Starting in the 1930s, the Garrigala Experimental Station for Plant Genetic Resources in Turkmenistan began collecting pomegranate varieties from around the world. The collection shows the incredible diversity and valuable traits of the plant including frost resistance, high yields, long shelf life, resistance to pests and diseases, high vitamin C content and antioxidant qualities. Today, the Garrigala gene bank contains more than 1,100 varieties of pomegranate from 27 countries on four continents. Of these, 371 are from the former Soviet Union."},{"index":6,"size":130,"text":"Although countless scientists and plant researchers over the decades have dedicated untold energy and expertise to pulling this collection together and conserving pomegranate diversity in a place where it might be safe, the collection now is at risk. Since the birth of the Central Asian Republics, the Garrigala Station has faced increasing nancial problems. Due to lack of funds, most of the varieties in the collection have not been properly documented and there are questions as to whether the collection will be lost if there is no funding to protect it. Even though many varieties of pomegranates are cultivated all over the world -in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones -many of the varieties in the Garrigala collection have already been lost from the elds and only exist in this collection."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"In 2001, Bioversity International started fundraising activities to support Garrigala, not only for administrative costs to maintain the gene bank but also for funding such things as translating the existing documentation from Russian into English and for public information campaigns on the endangered pomegranate populations."},{"index":8,"size":161,"text":"One of the big crises facing the agricultural sector today is the number of traditional crops that have been neglected by science or underutilized by farmers and run the risk of disappearing, if they haven't already disappeared. Even though the cultivated pomegranate is not under immediate threat, the threat is growing in parts of the world where climatic conditions are changing. Scientists may some day have to draw upon some of the genetic traits contained in pomegranates housed in gene banks -if they are still to be found. However, there is a new, disturbing element to add to this story. Emmer has typically been grown by poor farmers in mountainous regions who tend to plant a mixture of varieties in their elds. Today, because modern marketing requires uniformity, traditional farmers are under pressure to adapt their planting programmes or they stand to lose the market for the crop that they and their forefathers have been responsible for conserving over the centuries."}]},{"head":"Pomegranate -a millenium-old fruit that still quenches thirsts of health-conscious people","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A. GIULIANI","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Hulled wheats -emmer, einkorn and spelt -are no longer the food of the poor. Now they occupy a position as exclusive and trendy foods for which concerned consumers are prepared to pay premium prices."}]},{"head":"Emmer -an ancient cereal comes back to life","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Leafy vegetables","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Reintroducing African consumers to their own traditions D URING THE colonial era, many native African people came to believe that their traditional foods, clothing, religions and medicine were inferior to the novelties brought by the colonial powers. Although that era is over, the fallout continues in terms of the eating habits of many families in sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Not long ago, the only vegetables found in the urban supermarkets of Kenya were species brought over during the colonial era. Supermarkets had no interest in stocking their shelves with the traditional leafy vegetables that had been part of the Kenyan diet from time immemorial, even though there were some 200 species to choose from, which had higher nutritional value than the introduced choices such as cabbage, carrots or kale. The fact remained that there was no consumer demand."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Since the mid-1990s, Bioversity International has led a campaign to reverse this trend. It has been a slow process because there was initially a lot of information to gather and a lot of mind-changing to do. In addition to rejecting traditional vegetables because they weren't considered modern, consumers also said they were more dif cult to prepare."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"A Bioversity project focusing speci cally on leafy vegetables began with an inventory of these species in sub-Saharan Africa -estimated at between 800 and 1,000. These are the vegetables that have traditionally been used in rural areas as side dishes to the starchy staples eaten throughout Africa. The inventory also identi ed issues that were hindering their cultivation, conservation and marketing. Of the 210 species identi ed in Kenya alone, only 10 were found in markets, and those were usually local markets frequented by a few regular customers."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"A survey found that consumers felt the \"modern\" vegetable crops had more prestige. Traditional vegetables had been absent from public view for so long that the average person no longer knew how to prepare them. There was also a fear that the leafy vegetables that usually came to the markets from home, rather than commercial, gardens were not grown under proper hygienic conditions."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"In response, Bioversity and its partners worked to modernize systems for producing quality seeds for these vegetables and to develop agronomic techniques to ensure larger or more sustainable yields. A key concern was to introduce modern cultivation so the public could be assured of safety standards."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"At the same time, public awareness campaigns began promoting the nutritional and health value of the vegetables. Women farmers were particularly receptive to producing the vegetables once they recognized the health bene ts for their own families. When producers began to market the excess production, they enjoyed the bene ts of additional income."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"Eventually, through the support of the Kenyan NGO, Farm Concern International, farmers began supplying a supermarket chain. The loss of knowledge about the use of the product was overcome by designing packaging that contained recipes."},{"index":9,"size":50,"text":"Although this story took place in Kenya, it could be repeated in every country. The results in Kenya have been beyond anyone's imagination, with supermarkets increasing their sales of leafy vegetables by more than 1100 percent and farmers able to use the income to improve their lives and their lands."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"Cleome gynandra, Corchorus spp., Gnetum africanum and G. buchholzianum, Solanum nigrum, Amaranthus spp.: now becoming popular in supermarkets."}]},{"head":"Leafy vegetables ensure nutritional security in many countries across Africa","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"I. HOESCHLE-ZELEDON","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Andean Grains","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Incan \"mother grain\" still nurturing consumers I N YEARS past, in parts of Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador in the high Andes, patients with broken bones were given a unique prescription: eat plenty of quinoa and apply a plaster made of quinoa our and water. Although part of folk medicine tradition, modern scienti c testing bears out the accuracy of the treatment. Quinoa has a very high calcium content."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is a grain that has found a new life, thanks to its positioning as a \"super grain\" by health-conscious shoppers and to the development of processing techniques that allow the isolated Andean communities to grow enough for export."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Quinoa has been cultivated for 7,000 years. Called the \"mother grain\" by the ancient Incas, it sustained their population until the Spanish conquerors arrived in 1532 and replaced their cultivations with wheat and barley. But the Incas still managed to nd their quinoa growing wild at high altitudes, keeping it hidden from the Spaniards and, as is now appreciated, maintaining quinoa diversity for future generations."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Over the centuries, Andean farmers continued to grow quinoa, adapting and selecting varieties to reduce their vulnerability. However, modern agricultural practices of focusing on a few commercial crops with market value have also reached these mountainous areas. In Peru, the government began to import large amounts of wheat back in the 1940s and sold it at subsidized prices. As a result, quinoa cultivation dropped from 111,000 acres to 32,000 acres. This, combined with the high esteem that indigenous populations assigned to modern, imported crops, furthered the decline of quinoa. It lost its grandeur and became just another subsistence crop for the poor."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"Today, with scienti c recognition that quinoa has a protein level equal, if not superior, to powdered milk, plus a high calcium content, it is returning to \"mother grain\" status in some parts of the Andes. Because the farming practices of these areas for the most part t within the guidelines for organic farming, research and development efforts are encouraging the production and consumption of organic quinoa and also stimulating its export. Researchers are feeling their way because farmers are focusing on those varieties that suit the export market (like the \"quinoa real\" variety) above those that offer greater food security and sustainable harvests to local people."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"It can take up to six hours to process 12 kg of quinoa because the grains have a toxic, bitter coating called saponin that protects it from birds and the intense rays of the sun, but must be removed for the grain to be edible for humans. Thanks to funding from the USA Congressional Hunger Center, Bioversity has collaborated with a researcher from the Mickey-Leland Fellowship to assess the status of diversity and use of quinoa in the remote Uyuni Salt Flat region, 4,000 meters above sea level in Bolivia."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"The outcome of this study has raised great concerns over the genetic erosion of quinoa in the area. In spite of the fact that quinoa has become a boom crop, in reality, the boom is in two or three high-yielding varieties that meet market needs. Dozens of other local varieties with remarkable nutrition and resilience traits are being ignored."},{"index":8,"size":69,"text":"Lack of suitable processing technology for the local producers is one of reasons for the drop in local consumption of quinoa. Because quinoa processing is drudgery for the women who have responsibility for processing the seeds, they often choose to grow and process other crops. However, a local mechanic has invented a small machine that can reduce the processing time for 12 kg from six hours to seven minutes."},{"index":9,"size":51,"text":"The machine is now being promoted through the Bolivian research foundation, PROINPA. Although the machine is too expensive for an individual family to buy, the farmers join forces to buy and share the bene ts of the machine, each paying a user's fee according to the amount of quinoa they process."},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"Not only does the machine reduce the burden on women, it also has the potential to improve community health by facilitating the consumption of a nutritious grain. Additionally, the communal processing activities provide an opportunity for neighbours to be together socially."}]},{"head":"Quinoa's many varieties -conservation is needed to safeguard this rainbow of choices D. ASTUDILLO-ETERNO","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sumac","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Spicing the life of consumers while saving soil in Tuscan forests","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"T HERE ARE many examples of cultivated crops that have been abandoned over time."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The case of sumac goes a step further because the story of the downfall of sumac is even recorded in the proceedings of the Italian Parliament."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Sumac (Rhus coriaria), a shrub from the Mediterranean, has been used since Roman times. Its seeds were used as a spice and its roots, bark and leaves were used by the tanning industry to cure leather. The word sumac is traced to the Aramaic language and means \"red\" referring to the colour of its berries. In modern Hebrew, sumac means \"spice\", while its species name, coriaria, comes from the Latin word for leather, corium."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"As a tanning agent, sumac was much appreciated over the centuries because it produced white or lightly coloured soft and supple leathers. Leather treated with sumac resisted aging, darkening and decay. However, the modern leather industry has developed other technologies and less expensive tannins, so sumac is rarely used these days for tanning."},{"index":5,"size":114,"text":"Nevertheless, as a spice, sumac remains an important ingredient of Middle Eastern cuisine. Since at least the time of Discorides, who wrote of sumac's medicinal properties some 2,000 years ago, sumac has been crushed and sprinkled or made into a sauce in combination with other spices, and served with rice, meats and salads. The Romans used it because of its tart, tangy avour in the centuries before the introduction of lemons from the Arabs, which took place in Sicily around 1000 CE. Today, a typical Middle East breakfast consists of sumac combined with sesame seeds, thyme, salt, pepper and olive oil (a famous mixture called \"zahatar\" in Arabic) and served over freshly baked bread."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"In addition, sumac is an excellent substitute for salt, recommended for those suffering from hypertension. It also has been used as a traditional medicine to treat dysentery and even as an anti-tumour medicine."},{"index":7,"size":107,"text":"The story of the decline of sumac is typical. In spite of its dual role as a spice and a tanning agent, the tanning industry left it behind and, even though it is still widely used as a spice, the production comes mainly from wild stands. In Syria, where it is a highly popular spice, there are no cultivated sumac elds. Domestication, selection and crop improvement do not exist and knowledge of cultivation practices, multiplication and conservation of the genetic diversity of wild populations of sumac is scarce. This is also the case in the Near East, including Turkey, where the sumac spice is also very popular."},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"In nineteenth century Italy, sumac was a pro table export crop with farmers guided by a manual on sumac cultivation written in 1874. Today, it is grown only in limited areas of Sicily, in spite of the fact that there have been efforts to reintroduce it. That is why in 1961, during a session of Parliament, Italian deputies called on the government to give greater attention to the cultivation of sumac and other local crops as a way to strengthen the Italian gross domestic product."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"Efforts to reintroduce sumac cultivation as a spice have continued with limited success in Italy. However, there is another opportunity to promote sumac. It is now being used for reforestation projects in Italy's Tuscany region, not because of its taste or tannins, but because of its soil conservation properties."}]},{"head":"U. AL-HAJ IBRAHIM","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Processing of sumac fruits for the irresistable zahatar spice","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Henna","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Beyond cosmetics -from art form to medicine to income generator","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"N INITIAL glance at a henna bush (Lawsonia inermis), whether growing in the wild or cultivated in a hedgerow, gives no indication of the dramatic and artistic uses it offers to those who harvest and use its leaves and owers. Henna is a perennial shrub that grows to more than 3 metres tall, with pale bark and white or pink aromatic owers."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Henna, the world's rst known cosmetic, has been used for ritual body painting and decorating since prehistoric days some 5,000 years ago. In India, its use is depicted in murals painted on cave walls."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Scientists are divided over the origins of henna. Some think it originated in ancient India while others suggest it originated in the Middle East and North Africa and was brought to India in the twelfth century by Egyptian moguls. Over the centuries, its use developed into an intricate art form lled with symbolism."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"In India and Egypt as well as other Arabic countries, henna has been most notably used to dye hair, nails, hands and feet. Traditionally it is a woman's art, calling for intricate designs. It has also been used to dye fabric and horses' tails. Both Egyptian and Indian cultures used oil from henna leaves and owers as perfumes."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"At the same time, henna was also considered a traditional medicine with an incredible variety of uses. Historically, the leaves were powdered and used to treat skin problems and headaches. Asian folk medicine used them for dandruff, eczema, scabies, fungus and ulcers. The owers were used externally to combat excessive perspiration and orally to induce sleep and cure headaches, as a diuretic, to treat stomach ulcers and even to treat leprosy."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"Today, henna is produced in India, Pakistan, Yemen, Morocco, Egypt, Iran and the Sudan. Farmers in hot, arid regions of India nd henna a reliable cash crop, especially during drought and extreme heat when river levels drop too low for irrigation of other crops. At the same time, henna holds dry, fragile topsoil in place."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"Although large quantities are produced at home for local markets, there is also an export market, albeit much smaller. For instance, in 1998, the Rajasthan area of India cultivated 22,000 hectares with henna and produced 21,000 tonnes of high quality leaves for local processing."},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"One hectare can produce 1,000 to 1,500 kg of leaves and just 2 hectares of henna leaves can support one person."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"The marketing of traditional henna products has proven successful outside of its traditional use areas."},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"There is increasing interest in using it in modern products because it is natural, which is ever more important to consumers in the West."},{"index":11,"size":4,"text":"ANTONIE VAN DEN BOS/WWW.BOTANYPICTURES.COM"}]},{"head":"Henna -a source of cosmetics and medicine","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Henna -source of colour art of the ages","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"JEAN-LEO DUGAST/LINEAIR","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Forest berries","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Rescuing forgotten or neglected fruits B ILBERRIES (Vaccinium myrtillus) have almost disappeared from European landscapes, but a group of activists is working to get them back. For centuries, cultivated fruits and wild berries were the most important food sources for the people of Europe. There was an enormous diversity of cultivated species and varieties. Today, much of that diversity is gone, either lost forever to extinction or merely cast aside as farmers concentrate on growing major commercial fruits such as apples and pears."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The bilberry -also known as blackheart or whortleberry and by dozens of local names -is one of the fruits that has lost its way in Europe. Yet, bilberries were traditionally collected from the wild in Scotland, Ireland and Poland and Scandinavia. In fact, in Scandinavia, it was considered \"everyman's right\" to collect bilberries, regardless of land ownership. In Ireland where it is known as fraughan, it was traditionally collected at the rst harvest festival of the year. The belief was that a good fraughan harvest meant the rest of the harvests would go well."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"The story of the bilberries indicates the type of fascinating folklore that Europe is at risk of losing along with its berries. They are closely related to the North American blueberries and huckleberries, although they grow in singles or pairs on the bush instead of clusters like blueberries. In addition to being used for jams, juices and liqueurs, bilberries also have medicinal uses."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"British pilots of the Royal Air Force in World War II claimed that bilberries improved their night vision, although their claims were never scienti cally proven. Nevertheless, studies have shown that the berry can reduce or reverse the effects of degenerative eye disorders. Because there has been so little research, the extent of bilberries' potential contribution to nutrition and eyesight has not yet been determined."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"There are dozens of other berries that did not make the leap from wild harvest to commercial cultivation and now are rare nds, if found at all. Conservation efforts in Europe, for the most part, concentrate on widespread, commercially viable fruit species and pay less attention to species such as cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo),"}]},{"head":"Russian olive (Eleagnus angustifolia) or azarole (Crataegus azarolus).","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"There is no widespread cooperation and networking at the European level and only rare exchanges among conservationists and breeders."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"However, as policymakers and consumers have become more aware of the importance of cataloguing these vanishing berries, they are nding ways to link and coordinate some of the conservation efforts that are taking place with individual species in Europe. Safeguard for Agricultural Varieties in Europe (SAVE) has set up monitoring operations to support rescue efforts targeting endangered European plant species and animal breeds."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Other organizations have begun cataloguing neglected and forgotten fruits and berries to nd ways to improve local nutrition and income. For example, WHO reported in 2005 that because of chronic diseases linked to poor diets and lifestyle changes, Russians will suffer US$303.2 billion in lost income over the next ten years due to increased incidences of diabetes and heart disease. The same is true in Europe's developing and transition economies."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Bioversity International is currently working on a project with research centres in Luxembourg and the Russian Federation to study some fruit collections in the N.I. Vavilov Institute of St. Petersburg, including the berries. The goal is to identify potentially healthy, high nutrition products and raise greater interest for bringing these crops back into the public arena and enhance their cultivation and markets. "}]},{"head":"Strawberry tree fruits ready for pick","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cornelian cherry on sale in Anatolia region, Turkey","index":36,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"African Eggplant","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The \"garden egg\" looks for a wider market L ATE IN the 1500s, British traders introduced a West African type of aubergine (Solanum aethiopicum) to London. It was a small, white fruit the size of a chicken egg, and eventually picked up the name \"African eggplant\". At the same time, another larger, purple and misshapen fruit appeared in Europe from the Americas. It happened to be a botanical relative of the African eggplant."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Eventually, the African egg plant disappeared from Western cuisine but the other (S. melongena) remained and kept the misnomer \"eggplant\", as it still known today in North America. Meanwhile, the African type maintained its importance in Africa, where it is now known as the \"garden egg\"."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The garden egg is consumed on a daily basis by rural and urban families and provides income for many rural households. It also has higher drought and heat tolerance as well as lower susceptibility to pests and diseases than the conventional aubergine. Yet, in spite of its importance and popularity in Africa, there is limited knowledge about the plant, and its hundred of varieties have not been catalogued."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"As one of its activities for promoting wider use of traditional species, the Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species (GFU) commissioned a study of garden egg in Ghana, where the crop is especially important, looking into both farm and market information. Producers were interviewed, as were people involved in the garden egg market chain, including farmers, wholesalers, retailers and exporters."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"A well-developed market chain has emerged to cover domestic demand and occasionally, traders cross borders into neighbouring countries or other parts of the region. The interest in expanding trade into Europe has led to the further development of the market chain."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"Even with the potential for improving international trade, researchers in Ghana have shown little interest in the garden egg, and no of cial certi ed variety has been released for commercial cultivation. Some specialized farmers select and improve their own cultivars, but the majority use garden egg seeds that are available locally or from farmers' exchanges."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"Garden eggs can be pro table."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"For instance, in Tanzania, farmers who planted improved varieties had such success at the markets they were able to establish small enterprises, offering employment to local people and improving living standards."},{"index":9,"size":60,"text":"But there are risks from seasonal production gluts, pests and diseases that attack the crop in the eld, and from labour costs. The fruit must be harvested twice a week, early in the morning to avoid losing freshness. In terms of retailing, there are problems with colour, shape and taste variability that affect its potential for export to mass markets."},{"index":10,"size":63,"text":"The GFU study found that, unlike many other underutilized species, there is some knowledge about garden eggs, although the knowledge appears to be relatively recent in Ghana and has not ltered down to users. Whether the garden egg is going to have a future depends on how much effort the research and development community is willing to invest in this traditional African crop."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"An African eggplant variety that illustrates why it is known as the \"garden egg\""}]},{"head":"AVRDC","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Marketing of the garden egg provides employment and income to rural communities","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"M.L. CHADHA"}]},{"head":"Millets","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"A 6,500-year history and still critical to farmers' survival T HE REMOTE hillsides of some of the poorest areas of India and Nepal are not where you would expect to nd micro-enterprises run by women entrepreneurs who offer specialty food items for both local and urban markets. But that's exactly what has happened, thanks to one of the world's oldest and most versatile grains -millets."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"In these South Asian hills, some 20 million people, most of whom survive on incomes of less than US$1.00 a day, have relied on traditional millets throughout the centuries. Many varieties of millets, including nger millet (Eleusine coracana), Italian millet (Setaria italica) and proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), grow well in these semi-arid and mountainous environments and provide both family food and barter for local markets."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"Yet, in spite of millets' traditional importance here, they have been marginalized in recent decades because of the so-called modernization of agriculture. In their attempts to seize emerging opportunities from commodity crops, farmers have concentrated on growing commercial crops such as rice, wheat and maize to sell, rather than the traditional crops that they previously grew for family subsistence and local barter. Unfortunately, this idea never met expectations for increasing income, and the livelihood security of families even decreased because they lost the bene t of being able to use millet crops for bartering."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"\"Neglected no more\", an IFADfunded Bioversity project designed to bring neglected crops such as millets back into the daily lives of the rural poor, has been crucial in helping these farmers return to their traditional crops by working with them to determine which varieties work best and introducing them to better production methods. In fact, new cultivation methods enhanced grain yield by 23 to 34 percent. Adding the entrepreneurship element to the project enabled the communities to get the highest return from their increased production."},{"index":5,"size":132,"text":"Entrepreneurial activities have focused on village women, who are usually responsible for the processing and marketing of millet. One of the perceived advantages of the \"modern\" crops was their greater ease of processing. However, this turned out to be at a high cost, to both the livelihood security and better nutrition the family traditionally received from traditional millets. Thus, the entrepreneurship segment of the project concentrated initially on introducing the women to equipment that would reduce the drudgery associated with traditional household processing. With the establishment of self-help groups and access to microcredit activities, the women learned to add value to their millets by producing specialty items such as millet our, semolina malt and snack foods for sale in both local and urban markets. The processing activities generated employment opportunities and income."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"The project concentrated on 700 families in the two countries, and now those families are passing on what they learned to other people in their communities through workshops, seminars and local fairs. Not only are these farmers improving their incomes, they have become part of a larger scenario of keeping traditional varieties of millets from being cast aside. Now they are being conserved on family farms of India and Nepal. Millets have a history of cultivation that stretches back more than 6,500 years and, as this project demonstrates, it remains a crucial ingredient for food security on the mountainsides of Asia."}]},{"head":"Improved cultivation practices have increased yields of fi nger millet in southern India","index":41,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"S. PADULOSI","index":42,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Medicinal plants","index":43,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Traditional herbal remedies treat most of the world's ills","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"T HE PRODUCTS offered by today's modern pharmacies are not altogether different from what has been offered by traditional healers throughout the millennia. A study of the top 150 prescription drugs in the USA found that less than half were purely synthetic and that 57 percent contained at least one major active compound based on plant material. Another study found that 25 percent of modern medicines are descended from traditional plant remedies."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Although this awareness, along with evidence of the enormous potential commercial value of medicinal plants, has led to global efforts to protect intellectual property rights on the use of such species, the real issue actually precedes the rights. The real issue is protecting the plants themselves."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Most plants used for medicines are native to poor countries in tropical regions where few, if any, research and development efforts have been concerned with traditional plants. At the same time, because of social changes in rural areas, traditional and indigenous knowledge about these plants is weakening or even disappearing. As a result, medicinal plants may end up disappearing before their potential value can be investigated. Amla (Emblica offi cinalis), indigenous to South Asia and also known as the \"Indian gooseberry\", thrives throughout tropical India. It is cited in ancient literature for its medicinal uses and is still used extensively today as an ingredient in herbal health preparations. Traditional healers have used amla as a diuretic, laxative, antibiotic and for treating chronic dysentery, jaundice and coughs and even to stall the ageing process."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Today, researchers are especially interested in it because of its high vitamin C content -one fruit is said to have more vitamin C than a dozen oranges. In fact, for a so-called \"underutilized species\", there has been quite a bit of research on amla, which has led to improved varieties."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"In South Asia alone, there are more than 8,000 plant species with known medicinal value. India's ayurvedic medical practices date back to 5,000 BCE and still remain an important source of health and livelihoods for millions. Modern practitioners who recognize the importance of this healing resource have embarked on innovative projects to ensure that the genetic resources of such species are not lost to deforestation, species adulteration or total extinction. "}]},{"head":"Kreb","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Fighting famine and protecting the earth T HE MOST important traditional cereal source for pastoralists in the Sahel is an ever-changing mixture of many wild grassland grains known as \"kreb\". Kreb can contain a dozen or so different wild grains, varying from season to season and eld to eld according to soil and weather conditions and farmers' needs. Careful grassland management has allowed local pastoralists to harvest grains as well as graze animals."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Kreb was so important that elders forbid grazing in certain pastures in order to allow the plants to produce seeds. Owners of any animals found grazing in these pastures were ned heavily."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, kreb is one of the most sustainable and organized food production systems in the world. In the last century, a single household could harvest 1,000 kg of highly nutritious kreb grains per season. Protein levels in these grasses can reach levels of 17 to 21 percent. They contain amino acids that are lacking in other common staples, making them more nutritious than most commercially farmed cereals."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Yet, today, kreb is dismissed as a \"famine food\", food for the extremely poor to keep them from starvation. Just as with many other traditional foods, kreb has fallen victim to changing times with new emphasis on commercially viable cultivated crops. In addition, changes in customary land tenure agreements and population pressures have reduced access to grasslands and, at the same time, led many pastoralists to adopt a sedentary lifestyle which does not lend itself to seeding and harvesting grains from grasslands."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"As use of kreb becomes more sporadic, the loss is being felt on many levels. For the people who must survive on the unpredictable and often unfriendly Sahelian terrains for their food, kreb has always been a reliable food source. Because the diverse grains are all adapted to the local conditions, there is no need for chemical fertilizers or pesticides. In addition, the grasses provide protection for the soil, improve its fertility, reduce runoff, form a barrier against deserti cation and, because of their adaptive traits, have potential to help in the development of other grassland and forage crops."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"For those who still produce kreb, the process has changed very little over the centuries. Women usually handle the harvest, sweeping baskets through the grasses to collect the seeds that they then dry and pound into our. In spite of the fact that kreb does not have the importance it once had, it still has a place in local markets as well as the potential to be marketed as a niche product both locally and for export. Its high nutritional content as well as its connection to the nomads of the African plains would be sure to appeal to health-conscious consumers who would also appreciate the environmentally friendly aspects of kreb."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"20 Inviting all the world's crops to the table Kreb, a mixture of grains from several wild grasses, is a reliable source of food in the Sahel "}]},{"head":"Finding a place in the global arena","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Underutilized crop species: further marginalized by international agreements THE LOSS OF THE WORLD'S crop genetic diversity is not only one of the direst dilemmas the world is facing today, it is the one that has the most pressing deadline for action. In just the last century, more than three quarters of all known food crops disappeared from the world's landscapes. From the mountainous regions of Asia to the savannahs of Africa, the rainforests of Latin America and the idyllic islands of the Paci c, no place has been exempt from the disastrous loss of agricultural assets, which now seems to be picking up speed."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The reasons are many, from changing lifestyles to changing climates, but the result is the same. Each time a plant variety or species vanishes, there is nothing to ll the space it leaves behind. It takes with it all of the genetic traits that it amassed during its existence on earth; traits that cannot be recreated or replaced. We will never know what we have already lost."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"For decades, the international community has debated and negotiated crucial issues related to crop genetic diversity in an effort to set up a global system that will ensure that important plant diversity is conserved and used sustainably. The system now exists."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"The majority of the world's nations have agreed to the Global Plan of Action for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and they are supporting the Global Crop Diversity Trust -three major building blocks of a global strategy to reduce the level of crop diversity erosion."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"The Global Plan of Action identi es the 20 most important actions that need to be taken for the conservation and use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture."},{"index":6,"size":94,"text":"The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture sets up a multilateral system for facilitated access to a negotiated selection of plant genetic resources of 64 food crops and forages, and for the fair and equitable sharing of the bene ts arising from their use. These crops are listed in Annex 1 of the Treaty and, with the exception of a few minor food species such as Artocarpus spp., Eruca spp., Diplotaxis spp., Xanthosoma spp., Eleusine coracana, and some legumes and grass species, the majority are major food and feed crops."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"The Global Crop Diversity Trust is a funding mechanism that will ensure that crop diversity collections of global importance receive the nancial support they need for conservation activities."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"The vast range of underutilized species does not bene t from the Multilateral System and the protection provided by the Trust, although they would fall under the general provisions relating to conservation of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture set out in Article 5 of the Treaty, and their importance is explicitly recognized under Article 6, which calls for the expanded use of local and locally adapted crops, varieties and underutilized species."},{"index":9,"size":73,"text":"In any case, they continue to disappear from home gardens and the elds of rural communities. The global system for protecting crop diversity, established by the Plan of Action, the Treaty and the Trust, may not be enough to prevent the further marginalization of traditional crops. Although not globally notable, they can be essential at local levels. That is why it is critical for policymakers to consider traditional crops before they disappear forever."},{"index":10,"size":108,"text":"This situation could be improved by expanding the number of crops in Annex 1 to include a wide range of neglected and underutilized species. Realistically however, the Treaty is only just starting to feel its way forward with the 64 crops in Annex 1 and it is not yet ready to take on thousands of additional, neglected crops. Additionally, it might be argued that locally important crops are outside the scope of the Multilateral System set up by an international treaty. However, a policy framework could be developed that could work in parallel to the Treaty and cover the conservation and sustainable use of neglected and underutilized species."},{"index":11,"size":74,"text":"There is a major need for a concerted effort to raise awareness of the importance of neglected and underutilized crops for both nutrition and poverty alleviation. This, accompanied by information about their perilous situation, should encourage national governments to support their conservation. At the same time, conservation and development of traditional crops could be factored into poverty reduction strategies along with national legislation or policies that recognize the value of traditional crops and food."},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"The way forward: areas for action"},{"index":13,"size":64,"text":"It cannot be said strongly enough how crucial it is to ensure that neglected and underutilized species nd a place of their own. We need to have government and private sector commitment and the support of the world's consumers to work toward the type of multilateral policies and programmes that will establish a supportive system of collaboration to conserve them and facilitate their use."},{"index":14,"size":30,"text":"There is a possibility that these crops will become even further marginalized by the conservation and use systems being set up for more mainstream crops. We cannot let that happen. "}]},{"head":"Supportive research:","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The various values of crops (economic, nutritional, medicinal, cultural, etc.) call for greater attention by research and development communities. However, detailed studies to provide scienti c and empirical evidence are needed to better substantiate and advocate for the conservation and sustainable use of these species and hence contribute to their valorization over time, helping to create synergy among the agriculture, health and the environment sectors."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Creating awareness: Concerted efforts are needed to raise awareness of the importance of underutilized crops for both nutrition and poverty alleviation. Nowadays, consumers play a pivotal role in de ning the level of use or neglect of agricultural biodiversity by initiating new trends in consumption or following trends promoted by the food industry or the media. Such a role can be strengthened by creating awareness of the value of these crops and their contributions to enhanced livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Enabling policies:","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The perilous situation faced by most neglected and underutilized species should encourage national governments to support their conservation. The conservation and development of underutilized crops could be factored into poverty reduction strategies along with national legislation or policies that would help communities make use of the potential of these crops."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Self-help group from Tamil Nadu State, India S. PADULOSI"}]},{"head":"Broadening the livelihoods of people","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species"}]},{"head":"A portal to people, projects and policy","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species (GFU) was created in 2002 with funds from Germany, under the umbrella of the Global Forum on Agricultural Research (GFAR). It serves as a one-stop clearing house to bring together interested specialists and share up-to-date information on neglected and underutilized plant species."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Through its interactive Web site, portal, newsletter, accessible databases and awareness-raising activities, the GFU has built a broad alliance of researchers, policymakers, agricultural producers and consumers. The GFU keeps them informed of new developments and opportunities in the eld and provides constructive recommendations for creating legal and policy environments in which underutilized species can be better used for the bene t of the poor."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Often policymakers take no notice or are simply unaware of the fact that new policies and regulations in areas such as environment, health and trade as well as agriculture may have negative effects on underutilized species. For example, the European Union (EU) Novel Food Regulation, established for consumer protection, declares that any foods not imported in a signi cant way before 1997 must undergo analyses to prove their safety, which, of course, is cost-prohibitive for niche products using traditional species from developing countries. Thus, with its partners, GFU has drawn up suggested amendments to the regulation that would make export of minor crops into the EU more affordable."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"GFU also sets up displays, makes presentations and organizes side events at national and international meetings that illustrate the positive results such crops could have for the livelihoods of poor communities. A GFU display of commercial products made from underutilized crops by niche producers in the developing world -such as shoes and clothing made from Manila hemp and bottled fruit juices from the Amazon -shows the potential commercial viability of these crops and their products."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"Currently, the GFU online databases provide access to information about more than 300 species, as well as information on hundreds of experts, institutions, projects and nancing opportunities. Neglected No More: IFAD-Bioversity project"}]},{"head":"UN-supported initiative to develop neglected and underutilized species","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Simply helping to save plants from extinction is not enough. It is also critical to nd the ways that those plants might also help people. \"Neglected no more\", an IFAD-supported project for enhancing the contribution of underutilized crops to food security and rural income, takes a 360-degree view of minor species, but always with people at the centre of the picture."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The rst phase of the project (2002 -2004) sponsored dozens of activities to raise the visibility of neglected species, constituting the most comprehensive effort to date to enhance their use. The second phase, now underway, is looking at the cultural aspects of traditional plants and how they can help raise the self esteem and pride of local communities."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"From its beginning, the project worked to identify important traditional crops and then to increase opportunities for improving their production, processing and marketing. Something as simple as asking women to share recipes for traditional dishes and then publishing them in a book provided an opportunity to promote the use of Andean grains and millets. The project also worked with the Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture to construct a greenhouse for mass-producing seedlings of medicinal and aromatic plants and, as a result, local farmers gained access to new planting materials of underutilized species. By organizing biodiversity fairs to celebrate farmers who maintain a diversity of traditional crops on their farms, the project gave farmers the opportunity to exchange materials among themselves, further spreading the on-farm use of the crops."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"The rst phase of the project, with partners in places ranging from the Andean region to South Asia, included scientists, NGOs, universities, research organizations, regional networks, farmers' associations, women's associations and private companies. The global scope of activity created an unprecedented opportunity for cross-regional exchange of experiences. Through synthesizing and distributing information gathered through the regional activities and sponsoring policy seminars to review and develop new cultivation standards for grains, the project has raised visibility of underutilized species at local, national and international levels."},{"index":5,"size":125,"text":"Building on this success, IFAD is now funding a second phase of the project to determine if the methodologies developed in the rst phase are viable in other sites and communities. The second phase also will look at how awareness of the importance of traditional plants can increase self esteem and empower local communities. For example, women are often marginalized in traditional communities, but when they are given the opportunity to work on crops they know very well and share information on their care and use, it gives them a feeling of pride in their knowledge and skills. At the same time, promoting new opportunities such as ecotourism will raise the visibility of local traditions and local foods, making them a source of community pride."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"24 Inviting all the world's crops to the table"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Community members in Puno, Peru, participate in a training session to learn about organic practices for Andean grains"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" and they should be invited to the table. "},{"text":"For "},{"text":" Capitalizing on the medicinal plant market requires more than traditional knowledge. Farmers must learn the techniques and technologies for growing quality materials. Arya Vaidya Sala, a century-old charitable institution in India, is one of the organizations working to ensure the sustainable supply of medical materials by creating ecological awareness and improved income options for local communities. With support from Canada's International Development Research Centre, it has created the Medicinal Plants Germplasm Bank for cataloguing and conserving medicinal plants while serving as a resource centre for plant materials during shortages.Herbal remedies on sale in a traditional shop in Aleppo, Syria S. PADULOSI "},{"text":" of seeds from a variety of grasses. The following is a list of those most commonly used for the mixture. Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Sorghum sudanicus, Echinochloa pyramidalis, Echinochloa stagnina, Echinochloa colona, Cenchrus catharticus, Cenchrus bifl orus, Urochloa sp., Eragrostis tremula, Eragrostis tef, Eleusine indica, Brachiaria regularis, Panicum turgidum, Panicum laetum, Panicum coloratum, Panicum antidotale, Cyperus sp. "},{"text":" Action is needed in the following domains: Safeguarding traditions and local knowledge: Widespread erosion of local traditions and knowledge is the root cause of the loss of hundreds of species worldwide. Such a loss can be stemmed with appropriate interventions such as proper and timely documentation of indigenous knowledge, empowerment of local communities to increase their self esteem, and recognition that their identity and culture also are maintained through the continued use of local species. Conservation of genetic diversity: Ups and downs in the popularity of a crop are a common feature in crop usage patterns over time. The ultimate appreciation of a crop by people is the result of several factors such as the utility of the crop to satisfy speci c needs, convenience provided by the crop compared to competitors, fashion trends, and people's cultural and historical background. The loss of genetic diversity should be prevented through proper conservation measures ex-situ (seed gene banks or eld collections) and in-situ (on farms and home gardens). "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"PADULOSI Emmer Isolated fi elds to upscale consumers MMER (Triticum dicoccon), a hulled wheat that was domesticated more than 10,000 years ago, has suddenly gone from \"staple\" to \"chic\". E environmentally friendly, healthy food, emmer made the transition from forgotten to gourmet. Its reputation grew mainly through direct MMER (Triticum dicoccon), a hulled wheat that was domesticated more than 10,000 years ago, has suddenly gone from \"staple\" to \"chic\". Eenvironmentally friendly, healthy food, emmer made the transition from forgotten to gourmet. Its reputation grew mainly through direct Brought to Italy after Julius Caesar's marketing from farmers to the tourists Brought to Italy after Julius Caesar'smarketing from farmers to the tourists invasion of Egypt in 47 BCE and who vacation in the Italian countryside, invasion of Egypt in 47 BCE andwho vacation in the Italian countryside, named Pharaoh's wheat (farro in looking for idyllic rural holidays away named Pharaoh's wheat (farro inlooking for idyllic rural holidays away Italian), it was a staple at every level from mainstream hotels. Throughout Italian), it was a staple at every levelfrom mainstream hotels. Throughout of Roman society and sustained the Italy, owners of farms and country of Roman society and sustained theItaly, owners of farms and country Roman army. Interestingly, the crop is estates have added tourist apartments Roman army. Interestingly, the crop isestates have added tourist apartments also the source of the Italian word for and small retail outlets to sell the also the source of the Italian word forand small retail outlets to sell the our -farina. products of their farming operations. our -farina.products of their farming operations. They serve their guests the food the They serve their guests the food the farms produce and then sell them farms produce and then sell them products they can take back home. products they can take back home. to only a few thousand square metres modern supermarkets. In the two-year to only a few thousand square metresmodern supermarkets. In the two-year in two small mountainous production period from 1998 to 2000, the market in two small mountainous productionperiod from 1998 to 2000, the market areas in central Italy. grew by 15 percent each year and the areas in central Italy.grew by 15 percent each year and the farm-gate prices for the raw material farm-gate prices for the raw material However, by 2006, the number had increased by 30 percent each year. However, by 2006, the number hadincreased by 30 percent each year. increased enormously, to more than increased enormously, to more than 2,000 ha. Modern consumers had 2,000 ha. Modern consumers had rediscovered traditional crops. rediscovered traditional crops. Through a combination of increased Through a combination of increased ecotourism and the new interest ecotourism and the new interest of European consumers in eating of European consumers in eating "}],"sieverID":"6553e66c-7cff-4a3c-9ab3-7e4e4699ff2d","abstract":"Mobilizing the potential of underutilized plant species that have been overlooked by research and development is a powerful way to give visibility and voice to the poor and marginalized while strengthening nutritional security and income generation, and fostering cultural richness and self esteem.Gaining the perspective: 10,000 years of crop biodiversity GIVE OR TAKE A MILLENNIUM OR TWO, it has been 10,000 years since humans gave up their huntergatherer ways. They grasped the idea of not only gathering wild grains to eat but also of saving and planting the seeds. That way, they could remain in one general location for a while, secure in the knowledge that their seeds would grow where they had been planted, yielding a crop to feed the family and providing new seeds they could plant for the following season. This reduced the time they spent foraging, allowing them to concentrate on building their communities.In the ensuing millennia, the scenario did not change very much, although the settled communities grew larger and more types of wild foods were found dependable enough to be domesticated. Farmers grew what they needed, saving seeds to plant for the following season. When communities moved from place to place, they took their seeds with them, although they also found new grains, berries, fruits, tubers or edible grasses to domesticate in their new locations.They learned to save the seeds of the crops they deemed the easiest to process or store or the most likely to survive the growing season or even those that simply tasted the best. They also discovered that plants could provide medicines, bre, feed, fuel and shelter. They found out that some foods made them healthier and that, if they grew more than they needed, they could barter or sell the extra. Along the way, they adopted other plants for religious or cultural rituals.Thus with their seed selection, these early farmers were not only providing for future meals, they were improving the family's health and income, satisfying social needs and, at the same time, shaping the direction of the world's agriculture by conserving what we now know as crop genetic diversity -the genetic materials of the world's food and forage plants.Science entered the picture a few centuries ago, providing tools that allowed plant breeders to choose the best traits of crop varieties -their hardiness, their taste, their high yields -and combine them with varieties that had other interesting traits, thus creating new agricultural products that were even better at feeding families and communities, even those in risky or fragile environments.Women are the main custodians of agricultural biodiversity and traditional knowledge P. BORDONI"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0d11777e575e0cb6d31dd01d460f13cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c9d383c4-874a-490e-9d24-190f6e8e5fbe/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Quality seed production Varietal and seed production and demonstrations","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" in seed related activities from 2019 (maize, rice and lentil crops) All activities managed by women The case of Naya Srijanshil.... . Major business portfolio: rural microfinance and goat farming "}],"sieverID":"77bb1c77-2c98-4205-a8bd-7946edeca87e","abstract":""}
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