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+{"metadata":{"id":"0012a782e6bf31c4ce0b4db9b5386d5f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/baea7e4f-f4e2-4703-84e2-8b03383ec988/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"List of tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Table 1: Comparison in value (EC$) for selected agricultural exports from SVG (2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015). Table 2: Comparison in quantity (kg) for selected agricultural exports from SVG (2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015). "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Root and tuber crops (RTCs) including dasheen (taro) (Colocasia esculenta (L) Schott var. esculenta), eddoes (Colocasia antiquorum), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam.), ginger (Zingiber officinale), arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), yam (Dioscorea spp.), tannia (Xanthosoma spp.) and cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), are traditional staples in SVG."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"As fresh exports, dasheen, eddoe, sweet potato, ginger arrowroot and yam are the most economically significant (Tables 1 and 2).  An integrated approach to the production and marketing of major RTCs (dasheen, sweet potato, cassava and yam), has been the method for income enhancement across the supply value chain over the past 5 years."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Cottage industries making crisps and chips have added value to cassava and sweet potato products. However, training processors in good manufacturing practice (GMP) and improving infrastructure so that such agro-businesses can become Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) compliant, are important requirements to maintain and access new markets. These developments were addressed with funding from the EU-CFC Project, implemented by CARDI and the on-going FAO and APP Projects."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"The development of RTC enterprises in SVG, has emerged as a key policy component for a strong national and diversified agricultural sector. RTC initiatives are able to generate employment, contribute to food security, promote sustainable export, sustain incomes and reduce the high food import bill. In SVG, the focus of such enterprises is to enhance production through the application of improved technologies (e.g. high yielding drought tolerant varieties) and marketing, thus increasing earnings for all activities along the value chain (Figure 1)."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"CARDI's main contributions to SVG RTC programs are in the areas of micro and vegetative propagation, agronomy, post-harvest and crop value addition. Though CARDI does not have all the 'in-house-skills' to implement activities at all stages of the value chain, it has a distinct advantage of having a physical and functional presence (offices) in 13 Caribbean countries. CARDI uses this advantage, to collaborate with affiliated institutions/agencies, NGO's etc. to implement projects where possible. The activities of CARDI are demonstrated through projects, commodity research and development activities in SVG, Antigua and Barbuda. In SVG approximately US$500,000 was spent."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"One of the CFC project's major accomplishments, was the construction of the tissue culture laboratory at Orange Hill (Plate 1), and the erection of weaning and hardening facilities to support the new tissue culture facility. The new laboratory increased processing and growth chamber space by 189 m 2 , this in turn increased tissue culture plantlet production capacity by 200%. Similarly, development of the new weaning and hardening structures at Perseverance, expanded the facilities by 334 m 2 . This increased the holding capacity of weaned and hardened plants by 200% and production of plantlets by 600% (CARDI, 2011a)."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"Plate 1: New tissue culture facility at Orange Hill in SVG."}]},{"head":"Cassava FAO Project: cassava production and productivity","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Increasing cassava production and yield is critical to developing the industry. Considerable progress has been made in the identification of planting materials and improved crop production systems. Specific areas being addressed are the availability and intra-regional transfer of clean, disease-free planting material; development of technology packages (Tech Packs) and establishment of demonstration plots to train farmers (FAO, 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"The protocol for the transport of disease-free cassava planting material in CARICOM (prepared by CARDI in collaboration with FAO), is linked to the availability of good quality and clean planting material, throughout the region. Following its endorsement by the 51st meeting of Council for Trade and Economic Development (COTED) in October 2015, the protocol has under gone further reviews. The CARICOM legal services unit carried out a final evaluation before the protocol was sent to member countries for adoption and implementation."}]},{"head":"Cassava germplasm and planting material","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Cassava germplasm banks, comprising both indigenous and introduced improved sweet potato varieties, are being maintained in vitro (in SVG and Jamaica) and in vivo in most other CARDI member countries. CARDI is establishing systems for rapid multiplication and distribution of cassava planting material, as well as training in propagation of planting material in several countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belise, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, SVG and Trinidad and Tobago)."}]},{"head":"APP Project: Training in cassava vegetative propagation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"In SVG two training sessions using mini-stem hard wood and semi-mature stem cuttings, covered all aspects of cassava vegetative propagation. The first training session focused on Table 3 shows that overall, the yields of the CIAT introduced varieties (BRA 383, CM 3306-4, CM 7514-8, CM 7514-7, CM 4919-1, and CM 1565-15) were higher than the local types (Punt Stick, Butter Stick and White Stick). The CIAT varieties CM7514-7 (77.9 kg per plot/48,688 kg/ha) and the SM1565-15 (75.4 kg per plot/47,125 kg/ha), were significantly higher when compared with the local varieties. The highest yielding variety (CM7514-7) did not have the best cassava: farine ratio (4:1). The SM1565-15 CIAT variety was high yielding, demonstrated a high cassava: farine ratio (7:1) and was easy to peel. This variety was selected by the Arrowroot Industry Association as the best variety for processing (CARDI, 2010). Refurbishing of small cassava processing plants A baseline survey was conducted using seven farine producers, situated in Fancy and Orange Hill in North SVG, and at Calder Ridge, Victoria Village and Dorsetshire Hill in the South. Survey results indicated that of the farmers interviewed, five had registered their agro-processing facilities under law, while two had not. Of those registered under the law, one is owned by co-operatives and government respectively, while three have limited liability status. Five of the facilities are shared, while two are used exclusively by their owners."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Where facilities are shared, two are used by 2-3 persons. Six of the plant managers indicated that they belonged to clusters."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Five of the interviewees had open structures, while two had their structures enclosed. One of the respondents had dirt and carpet type floors and five had concrete floors. The equipment used by three of the respondents can be described as manual or traditional; the other four used modern and power operated equipment."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Responses varied regarding sanitation issuesthree of the respondents said that they cleaned before and after every processing activity and one did light cleaning before daily operations and a general cleaning every Friday. When not in operation, the facilities were not sanitised. All facilities have water and electricity available to them and six had access to washrooms."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Among the facilities, the minimum quantity of raw materials which can be used per day is 50 kg, while the maximum is 1,000 kg."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"The CFC-EU-CARDI project was able to up-grade five small agro-processing facilities and improve sanitation standards (Plate 6)."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"Plate 6: Refurbished farine processing plants in SVG."}]},{"head":"Composite bread","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Development of value-added products is an integral part of building a cassava industry. Demonstrations of bread making have been held across countries of the region and commercial production of composite breadmade with cassava, has started in Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Lucia and SVG. This activity was conducted in collaboration with Caribbean Agribusiness Association (CABA) and FAO."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Given that composite bread made with cassava is a new product, FAO is engaging the University of the West Indies (UWI, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago) to develop the supporting technical and operational specifications for its production. The nutritional assessment of the product is also being addressed."}]},{"head":"Sweet potato","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"In 2000, CARICOM gave CARDI a mandate to develop the sweet potato industry in the Caribbean. Over the years, CARDI's focus has been on: increasing productivity and prioritising the introduction of high yielding cultivars from the International Potato Centre (CIP) (CARDI, 2008); agronomy trials (CARDI, 2003b;CARDI, 2005;CARDI, 2006a;CARDI, 2008;CARDI, 2011a;Browne and Robin, 2011); integrated pest management studies (CARDI, 2001;CARDI, 2003a;CARDI, 2003b;CARDI, 2004;Dalip and Titus, 2006;CARDI, 2007;CARDI, 2008); post-harvest handling studies (CARDI, 2006a, CARDI, 2006b;CARDI, 2007); biochemical analysis of the various varieties/accessions (CARDI, 2007); and standardisation of the various varieties in the region through morphological studies (CARDI, 2005;CARDI, 2006;CARDI, 2007;CARDI, 2008;CARDI, 2014). The next step for standardisation is to conduct a regional study of all the accessions in CARICOM using molecular techniques. The range of activities described and their findings are documented in the Sweet Potato Technical Manual (CARDI, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"One of CARDI's priority research areas in sweet potato is to ensure that, as one of the commodities selected for food/nutrition security, sweet potato must always be available at affordable prices. However, to do so, technicians and farmers must have a clear understanding of the sweet potato production systems. Therefore, the true potential of the varieties across seasons and agro-ecological zones, using the most appropriate and tested technologies, must be understood."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Evaluating the effects of different accessions/varieties in three different agro-ecological zones in SVG showed that variety (Table 4) and zones (Table 5 and 6) influenced yield (CARDI, 2011b).  Similar experiments done in Antigua and Barbuda (inclusive of time of planting), showed that yield projections for sweet potato must consider variety (Figure 2), time of planting (Figure 3) and zone/location (Table 4) in which the crop is produced (CARDI, 2011a).   "}]},{"head":"Dasheen (taro)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"There are two local varieties of dasheen grown in Dominica, St. Lucia and SVG for consumption and export. The common dasheen is the variety predominantly exported throughout the Caribbean, including Jamaica and the Dominican Republic. Over the years, Caribbean scientists have expressed concerns regarding the narrow genetic base that exists in commercial dasheen genotypes. Such concerns initiated CARDI's involvement in the International Network of Edible Aroids (INEA). The INEA is a consortium of scientists and farmers formed to participate in the project Adapting Clonally Propagated Crops to Climatic and Commercial Change. The INEA is led by the SPC and CIRAD. This 5 year project uses edible aroids as a model to improve clonally propagated crops in the tropics."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"The project is on-going in SVG and St. Lucia where 50 and 35 genotypes were introduced and validated (Plate 7). To date, on-station validation and on-farm participatory trials (Table 8) in both SVG and St. Lucia, has lead to the selection of a pool of 15 genotypes that will be used to conduct crosses and validation trials. "}]},{"head":"Lessons learned from the WCRTC","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The WCRTC was the first congress of its type and followed the merger of the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21st Century (GCP21) and The International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Both organisations hold triennial meetings and it was thought it would be best to merge and have one global meeting on RTCs. As the GCP21 members have a much larger body of scientists that are linked to the CGIAR institutions, the meeting focused on cassava. About 80-85% of the papers were on cassava, 10% on sweet potato and the remainder on yam and dasheen (taro)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"What can we adopt and adapt from the WCRTC for the development of the RTC industry in SVG and the Caribbean?"}]},{"head":"Mechanisation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"In order to increase productivity of RTCs and enable them to become cost effective in SVG and the Caribbean, the use of appropriate mechanisation/equipment is essential."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Presentations from Brazil and Asia demonstrated that the use of appropriate technology is essential for improving the productivity and cost-effectiveness of production systems and value added operations. Using cassava as an example, appropriate machines/equipment (size and levels of sophistication) vary depending on location, from the continental countries (Belize, Guyana, Suriname), larger islands (Jamaica, Trinidad) and the smaller islands of the OECS. Shown below are an up-rooter and planter from Planticenter in Brazil (Plate 8)."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"These machines are on trial in Jamaica and adjustments to suit the farming systems are expected. The planters were designed to plant on flat sandy/loam, or sandy/clay/loam soils as compared to the ridged/clayey soils in the Caribbean. If successful, these machines could be used on the larger acreages in the Caribbean. Planters are available in 1, 2 and 4 rows. The cost reduction when using the planters and harvester is estimated at 51 and 42% respectively. Purchase of this equipment will enhance the cost effectiveness of the cassava production systems."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":" The use of phosphorous to influence sweet potato storage root shape and yield (Villordon, 2016).  Agronomy, in many instances, is site specific and therefore needs to be absorbed, adapted and adopted. Yields must be expressed correctly, therefore information on the variety, location and time of planting is important. The difference between farmer yield and biologically and climatically attainable yield must be understood."}]},{"head":"Value chains","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Conflicts within value chains arise between the processor and producer of raw materials."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"The issue is always price, but if quality dictates the price and quality is tied to Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and traceability, this should resolve any differences. In the case of cassava, in most instances, it is not the tonnage that matters, but dry matter and starch content of the raw material. Starch and dry matter content is dependent on the production system used by the farmer and at the factory, and is measured by water displacement methods and dry matter analysis. If production systems in the Caribbean are driven by quality, quality will be tied to the production system. This would encourage good practice across all activities along the value chain and coordinate the views of processor and producer."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Training processors in supply chain management should be considered as the Caribbean adopts the value chain model to grow and develop our commodity industries."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"The seed value chain model (Figure 4) can be adopted to alleviate the constraints of inadequate supplies of clean and improved high yielding plant material. "}]},{"head":"Value-added products","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Composite flour can be made out of dasheen (taro) (Arpah et al., 2016), sweet potato and cassava. Efforts should be made initially at the cottage industry level, to exploit these opportunities and create more wholesome, high priced products."}]},{"head":"Foundation seed","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Commercial grower Breeder","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Processing sweet potato into 'sparri' is made by peeling, washing, grating, pressing (while fermenting 2-3 days), then roasting (low heat), milling and packaging. The product tastes good and stores well (Uwandu et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The use of scaled down technology via manufacturing plants, may be the best option for processing and adding value to RTCs such as cassava, sweet potato and taro. However, the size of operations in SVG and the Caribbean would be much smaller than those described at the WCRTC, and therefore 'scaled-down-versions' of these processing plants would be required."}]},{"head":"Technology transfer","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The methods for connecting agricultural research to society were outlined in a paper by Gumisirisa, et al. (2016) at the WCRTC. In order to transfer technology to the farming community in a holistic and coordinated way, the paper suggested the following is needed for an effective process:"},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":" Communication officers  Bio-sciences information centre  Media campaigns  Extension officers should be more science orientated in their approaches  Farmer participatory programmes  Engaging the youth in agro-biosciences discourse  Identify more novel interventions, especially through partnerships of mutual interest."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The participation of farmers in crop evaluation, aids quicker adoption and transfer of technology. Involving farmers in the production of clean (virus free) plant material using screen houses to keep out vectors, is an example of how this can be achieved (Jeremiah et al., 2016)."}]},{"head":"Involving the youth","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The youth have ideas on how to participate in agriculture, however the majority require capacity building in areas such as:"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":" Understanding and technical knowledge of the crop/commodity of interest  Entrepreneurial skills  Enterprise and market knowledge  Business plan development  Knowledge on registration and legalisation of their operations  Diverse ideas on value addition for the new markets  Financial management and record keeping (Chibwe et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Training in the above cannot be achieved solely by the Ministry of Agriculture and requires the coordinated effort of a multidisciplinary group including NGOs and farmer groups, to transfer the necessary information."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"approaches such as the farmer field school method, should be the starting point, while adopting suitable recommendations obtained from the WCRTC."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Marketable yield of ten sweet potato accessions: Blackrock (A1), Hurricane (A2), Catch Me (A3), Fine Num (A4), Tremont (A5), Mandela (A6), White Drill (A7), King Crown (A8), 1987 (A9) and CRO2 (A10) in Antigua and Barbuda. Figure 3: Marketable yield sweet potato in response to time of planting when grown in Antigua and Barbuda.Figure 4: Seed value chain "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Value chain concept used by CARDI "},{"text":" propagators, extension officers, and data collectors; the second training session focussed on farmers. The sessions were organised and conducted with the Ministry of Agriculture's extension staff and the CARDI technician and comprised of a presentation and discussion of a cassava vegetative-propagation guide(IITA, 1996), and two 5 minute IITA videos (Plate 2). The practical sessions (Plates 3-5) included demonstration of techniques shown in the videos and guide(CARDI, 2015).Plate 2: Classroom sessions Plate 3: Practical sessions: preparing mini-stem hard and semi-mature cuttings Plate 4: Practical sessions: treating and planting stakes in humidity bins Plate 5: Plantlets growing in bin and concepts of vegetative propagation discussed with farmers Cassava processing In its effort to support development of the local SVG cassava industry, the CARDI unit, with funding from the IICA/CARDI Technical Cooperation Agreement, introduced and validated a wide range of local and introduced cassava varieties from CIAT in Columbia. The varieties from CIAT were previously evaluated for yield characteristics such as meal weight, percentage meal weight to cassava weight, farine (substance that remains after the cassava juice has been removed) weight and percentage farine to meal weight. The evaluation of the high farine yields continued during 2010 and comparisons were made with local accessions used for processing. The activity was implemented with technical assistance from the Tissue Culture Laboratory, the Ministry of Agriculture Research and Development Unit and the Cassava Processing Factory in Orange Hill. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Marketable yield of ten sweet potato accessions: Blackrock (A1), Hurricane (A2), Catch Me (A3), Fine Num (A4), Tremont (A5), Mandela (A6), White Drill (A7), King Crown (A8), 1987 (A9) and CRO2 (A10) in Antigua and Barbuda. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Marketable yield sweet potato in response to time of planting when grown in Antigua and Barbuda. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Seed value chain "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Plot (kg) and per hectare (kg/ha) yield characteristics of nine cassava varieties grown at the CARDI Research Station at Rabacca in SVG, 2009/2010.  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Marketable plot yields (kg) for nine sweet potato varieties grown in SVG.  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Plot yield (kg/ha) for nine sweet potato varieties grown in three different agroecological zones in SVG.  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Sweet potato marketable plot yield (kg) yield by zones in SVG.  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Marketable yield of tubers when grown in different agro-ecological zones in Antigua and Barbuda.  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Corm characteristics recorded from the dasheen genotypes yielding 1 kg and over from the farmer participatory trial in SVG.  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Comparison in value (EC$) for selected agricultural exports from SVG(2010- 2015). Agricultural       Agricultural commodity 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 commodity201020112012201320142015 Dasheen 4,243,068 5,120,582 5,324,779 6,907,843 5,791,025 6,334,644 Dasheen4,243,0685,120,5825,324,7796,907,8435,791,0256,334,644 Eddoe 3,295,194 3,896,891 4,593,746 3,502,088 3,287,894 3,489,514 Eddoe3,295,1943,896,8914,593,7463,502,0883,287,8943,489,514 Ginger 949,019 1,201,860 1,602,289 1,346,821 2,752,354 1,117,007 Ginger949,0191,201,8601,602,2891,346,8212,752,3541,117,007 Sweet potato 2,021,870 1,983,223 2,597,893 1,937,283 1,231,016 1,419,050 Sweet potato2,021,8701,983,2232,597,8931,937,2831,231,0161,419,050 Tannia 269,820 292,649 249,565 245,376 269,635 249,623 Tannia269,820292,649249,565245,376269,635249,623 Yam 442,273 356,106 378,644 415,153 389,492 504,316 Yam442,273356,106378,644415,153389,492504,316 Arrowroot 601,381 413,339 534,059 487,760 842,919 1,038,437 Arrowroot601,381413,339534,059487,760842,9191,038,437 Avocado 223,458 189,712 187,480 200,074 215,149 319,632 Avocado223,458189,712187,480200,074215,149319,632 Banana 13,781,278 2,102,086 2,737,127 3,143,680 2,326,588 2,735,594 Banana13,781,2782,102,0862,737,1273,143,6802,326,5882,735,594 Plantain 2,158,945 1,160,385 1,225,564 1,160,806 1,255,220 2,748,850 Plantain2,158,9451,160,3851,225,5641,160,8061,255,2202,748,850 Breadfruit 14,977 8,077 11,457 56,018 18,112 30,764 Breadfruit14,9778,07711,45756,01818,11230,764 Coconut 486,166 221,876 423,392 577,201 688,974 482,323 Coconut486,166221,876423,392577,201688,974482,323 Golden apple 344,483 61,831 84,062 69,574 123,216 167,541 Golden apple344,48361,83184,06269,574123,216167,541 Grapefruit 24,658 31,850 29,547 16,520 8,853 8,379 Grapefruit24,65831,85029,54716,5208,8538,379 Hot pepper 63 36 230 1,468 12,013 43,686 Hot pepper63362301,46812,01343,686 Lime 667 1,383 1,464 1,253 1,585 365 Lime6671,3831,4641,2531,585365 Mango 3,719 266,973 384,991 161,063 159,085 241,760 Mango3,719266,973384,991161,063159,085241,760 Nutmeg/mace 142,169 54,634 118,383 785,727 329,790 228,696 Nutmeg/mace142,16954,634118,383785,727329,790228,696 Orange 10,035 4,868 3,942 970 1,441 1,050 Orange10,0354,8683,9429701,4411,050 Passion fruit 1,233 137 602 261 550 1,080 Passion fruit1,2331376022615501,080 Plum/sloe 18,242 11,670 16,495 5,287 6,108 15,492 Plum/sloe18,24211,67016,4955,2876,10815,492 Pumpkin 12,851 30,449 39,772 106,191 70,474 49,576 Pumpkin12,85130,44939,772106,19170,47449,576 Anthurium 0 700 300 100 100 0 Anthurium07003001001000 Total 29,045,569 17,411,316 20,545,783 21,128,517 19,781,593 21,227,378 Total29,045,56917,411,31620,545,78321,128,51719,781,59321,227,378  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Comparison in quantity (kg) for selected agricultural exports from SVG(2010- 2015). Agricultural       Agricultural commodity 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 commodity201020112012201320142015 Dasheen 2,594,922 3,184,962 3,381,124 3,362,500 3,687,349 3,043,599 Dasheen2,594,9223,184,9623,381,1243,362,5003,687,3493,043,599 Eddoe 2,009,364 2,259,983 2,780,601 2,800,876 2,768,169 2,545,343 Eddoe2,009,3642,259,9832,780,6012,800,8762,768,1692,545,343 Ginger 709,673 868,536 1,067,650 741,821 703,538 773,513 Ginger709,673868,5361,067,650741,821703,538773,513 Sweet potato 1,563,466 1,627,446 2,099,219 1,803,457 949,428 913,749 Sweet potato1,563,4661,627,4462,099,2191,803,457949,428913,749 Tannia 122,510 126,105 120,968 188,768 161,038 147,111 Tannia122,510126,105120,968188,768161,038147,111 Yam 278,492 173,753 257,791 258,002 249,483 270,926 Yam278,492173,753257,791258,002249,483270,926 Arrowroot 21,650 13,893 12,501 11,819 20,455 35,636 Arrowroot21,65013,89312,50111,81920,45535,636 Avocado 240,433 157,854 181,962 226,841 244,658 215,114 Avocado240,433157,854181,962226,841244,658215,114 Banana 8,939,000 1,750,396 1,999,194 1,868,236 1,552,986 1,573,115 Banana8,939,0001,750,3961,999,1941,868,2361,552,9861,573,115 Plantain 2,075,050 1,084,245 1,257,164 1,306,326 1,307,769 1,562,118 Plantain2,075,0501,084,2451,257,1641,306,3261,307,7691,562,118 Breadfruit 18,846 11,852 9,133 36,173 17,652 24,968 Breadfruit18,84611,8529,13336,17317,65224,968 Coconut 473,596 207,731 360,770 512,132 529,506 453,614 Coconut473,596207,731360,770512,132529,506453,614 Golden apple 93,084 53,445 62,830 57,785 117,193 175,242 Golden apple93,08453,44562,83057,785117,193175,242 Grapefruit 29,007 39,195 42,133 25,305 13,388 9,086 Grapefruit29,00739,19542,13325,30513,3889,086 Hot pepper 96 60 184 299 1,580 5,852 Hot pepper96601842991,5805,852 Lime 591 1,263 1,396 2,716 1,713 350 Lime5911,2631,3962,7161,713350 Mango 2,188 160,704 233,496 173,990 172,945 218,657 Mango2,188160,704233,496173,990172,945218,657 Nutmeg/mace 38,019 44,017 31,868 25,835 22,819 27,873 Nutmeg/mace38,01944,01731,86825,83522,81927,873 Orange 10,035 7,663 6,616 2,005 2,117 1,254 Orange10,0357,6636,6162,0052,1171,254 Passion fruit 738 137 566 389 1,017 2,758 Passion fruit7381375663891,0172,758 Plum/sloe 12,836 10,611 16,663 9,779 10,308 13,723 Plum/sloe12,83610,61116,6639,77910,30813,723 Pumpkin 11,191 26,692 35,070 46,221 34,856 27,300 Pumpkin11,19126,69235,07046,22134,85627,300 Anthurium 0 95 51 5 3 0 Anthurium09551530 Total 19,      Total19,  "},{"text":"244,787 11,810,639 13,958,950 13,461,280 12,569,970 12,040,902   The slow pace at which the Ministry of Agriculture and farmers are implementing climate  The slow pace at which the Ministry of Agriculture and farmers are implementing climate change interventions change interventions  The slow pace at which the Ministry of Agriculture and farmers are implementing the  The slow pace at which the Ministry of Agriculture and farmers are implementing the value chain concept. value chain concept. The above constraints have been addressed through a series of projects funded by the EU, The above constraints have been addressed through a series of projects funded by the EU, Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) project, the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) project, the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA)/Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), on Agriculture (IICA)/Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), Technical Cooperation Agreement fund, the Caribbean Community and Common Market Technical Cooperation Agreement fund, the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM)/Japan Friendship and Cooperation Fund, the South Pacific Commission (CARICOM)/Japan Friendship and Cooperation Fund, the South Pacific Commission (SPC)/Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), the Food and Agriculture (SPC)/Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the EU funded Agricultural Policy Programme (APP) Project, Organization (FAO) and the EU funded Agricultural Policy Programme (APP) Project, implemented by IICA, CARICOM and CARDI. implemented by IICA, CARICOM and CARDI. Source: Ministry of Agriculture SVG (February, 2016) Source: Ministry of Agriculture SVG (February, 2016) Major constraints that have traditionally plagued sustained production of the RTC sector in Major constraints that have traditionally plagued sustained production of the RTC sector in SVG include: SVG include:  Access to clean and improved high yielding planting material  Access to clean and improved high yielding planting material  Low farm productivity  Low farm productivity  Lack of investment in the farm  Lack of investment in the farm  Lack of adoption and adaptation of appropriate and validated technologies  Lack of adoption and adaptation of appropriate and validated technologies  Farmer access to finance  Farmer access to finance  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Plot (kg)  and per hectare (kg/ha) yield characteristics of nine cassava varieties grown at the CARDI Research Station at Rabacca inSVG, 2009SVG,  /2010.   .         Cassava:farine  Cassava:farine  Marketable Unmarketable  ratio (based on  MarketableUnmarketableratio (based on Varieties yield yield Total yield marketable yield) Comments VarietiesyieldyieldTotal yieldmarketable yield) Comments Punt Stick 39.2 9.3 48.5 8.4 : 1 Some tubers have Punt Stick39.29.348.58.4 : 1Some tubers have  24,500 5,813 30,313  double skin, tubers have lots of 24,5005,81330,313double skin, tubers have lots of      water water Butter Stick 17.3 4.6 21.9 7.2 : 1 A few tubers have Butter Stick17.34.621.97.2 : 1A few tubers have  10,813 2,875 13,688  double skin, lots of fiber, farine light 10,8132,87513,688double skin, lots of fiber, farine light White Stick 38.3 5.4 43.7 3.9 : 1 Some tubers have White Stick38.35.443.73.9 : 1Some tubers have  23,938 3,375 27,313  double skin, less water than the 23,9383,37527,313double skin, less water than the      punt stick punt stick BRA 383 48.2 6.7 54.9 8.4 : 1 A few tubers have BRA 38348.26.754.98.4 : 1A few tubers have  30,125 4,188 34,313  double skin, less farine to the 30,1254,18834,313double skin, less farine to the      pound pound CM 3306-4 25.9 2.2 28.0 5.7 : 1 Easy to scrape, CM 3306-425.92.228.05.7 : 1Easy to scrape,  16,188 1,375 17,500  but the tubers are tougher than the 16,1881,37517,500but the tubers are tougher than the      other varieties other varieties CM 7514-8 55.6 3.1 58.7 4.1 : 1 Some tubers have CM 7514-855.63.158.74.1 : 1Some tubers have  34,750 1,938 36,688  double skin 34,7501,93836,688double skin CM 7514-7 77.9 5.9 83.8 4 : 1 Has very little CM 7514-777.95.983.84 : 1Has very little  48,688 3,687 52,375  starch 48,6883,68752,375starch CM 4919-1 56.5 15.2 71.7 4.9 : 1 Some tubers CM 4919-156.515.271.74.9 : 1Some tubers  35,313 9,500 44,813  began to rot 35,3139,50044,813began to rot SM 1565-15 75.4 4.2 79.6 7 : 1 Has no double SM 1565-1575.44.279.67 : 1Has no double  47,125 2,625 49,750  skin, skin thin and easy to scrape 47,1252,62549,750skin, skin thin and easy to scrape F pr 0.001 <0.001 0.001   F pr0.001<0.0010.001 LSD (5% level) 26.9 4.4 28.7   LSD (5% level)26.94.428.7 df 24 24 24   df242424 Plot size: 16 m 2      Plot size: 16 m 2 Source: CARDI, 2012      Source: CARDI, 2012  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Marketable plot yields (kg) for nine sweet potato varieties grown in SVG. Parameter Agriculture Black Vine CARDI Big Red CARDI K84-7 Dorrel Hubert Red Devil Kizzie Red Lovers Name Viola F pr ParameterAgricultureBlack VineCARDI Big RedCARDI K84-7DorrelHubert Red DevilKizzie RedLovers NameViolaF pr Marketable 29.4 12.9 19.2 27.8 34.1 19.6 26.6 16.1 28.8 <0.001 Marketable29.412.919.227.834.119.626.616.128.8<0.001 yield           yield  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Plot yield (kg/ha) for nine sweet potato varieties grown in three different agroecological zones in SVG. Zone Agriculture Black Vine CARDI Big Red CARDI K84-7 Dorrel Hubert Red Devil Kizzie Red Lovers Name Viola F pr ZoneAgricultureBlack VineCARDI Big RedCARDI K84-7DorrelHubert Red DevilKizzie RedLovers NameViolaF pr Akers 8,421 3,586 5,509 5,724 7,904 5,365 6,585 4,820 10,773 <0.001 Akers8,4213,5865,5095,7247,9045,3656,5854,82010,773<0.001 Chateaubelair 3,098 2,689 3,295 3,322 4,469 4,218 4,177 2,465 6,434 <0.001 Chateaubelair3,0982,6893,2953,3224,4694,2184,1772,4656,434<0.001 Rabacca 10,543 3,649 5,813 10,892 12,488 5,501 9,031 4,969 6,099 <0.001 Rabacca10,5433,6495,81310,89212,4885,5019,0314,9696,099<0.001  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Sweet potato marketable plot yield (kg) yield by zones in SVG. Zone Zone  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Marketable yield of tubers when grown in different agro-ecological zones in Antigua and Barbuda  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Corm characteristics recorded from the dasheen genotypes yielding 1 kg and over from the farmer participatory trial in SVG.     Flesh Number of Plant height FleshNumber ofPlant height Farm Genotype Weight (kg) Shape colour suckers (cm) FarmGenotypeWeight (kg)Shapecoloursuckers(cm) 1 BL/SM/83 1.8 Dumb-bell White 12 173 1BL/SM/831.8Dumb-bellWhite12173  BL/SM/80 1.6 Dumb-bell White 4 127 BL/SM/801.6Dumb-bellWhite4127  CE/IND/24 1.0 Dumb-bell White 1 102 CE/IND/241.0Dumb-bellWhite1102  BL/PNG/10 1.0 Dumb-bell Yellow 5 127 BL/PNG/101.0Dumb-bellYellow5127 2 CE/IND/24 1.0 Dumb-bell Pink 3 102 2CE/IND/241.0Dumb-bellPink3102  BL/SM/80 1.2 Dumb-bell Pink 4 96 BL/SM/801.2Dumb-bellPink496 3 BL/SM/83 1.5 Dumb-bell White 7 160 3BL/SM/831.5Dumb-bellWhite7160  CE/IND/24 1.3 Elliptical White 3 127 CE/IND/241.3EllipticalWhite3127  BL/PNG/10 1.2 Elliptical Yellow 23 149 BL/PNG/101.2EllipticalYellow23149  BL/SM/80 1.0 Elliptical White 3 103 BL/SM/801.0EllipticalWhite3103 4 CE/IND/24 2.1 Dumb-bell White 10 167 4CE/IND/242.1Dumb-bellWhite10167  BL/SM/80 1.2 Elliptical White 11 140 BL/SM/801.2EllipticalWhite11140  BL/SM/152 1.0 Elliptical White 4 138 BL/SM/1521.0EllipticalWhite4138 5 CE/IND/24 1.4 Dumb-bell White 2 135 5CE/IND/241.4Dumb-bellWhite2135 6 BL/SM/80 1.1 Dumb-bell White 6 68 6BL/SM/801.1Dumb-bellWhite668  BL/SM/13 1.2 Dumb-bell White 7 76 BL/SM/131.2Dumb-bellWhite776  "}],"sieverID":"f051687d-c008-4595-a9fe-66259c427afe","abstract":"The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). Its mission is to advance food and nutritional security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in ACP countries. It provides access to information and knowledge, facilitates policy dialogue and strengthens the capacity of agricultural and rural development institutions and communities.CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00609162b0cbd8c5db5abd6a6d8ffdd9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4017ccf2-e088-40ae-9ead-1a053040a6da/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"","keywords":["Zambia","agriculture","climate change","climate variability","food security","capacity development","climatesmart agriculture"],"chapters":[{"head":"1","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Strengthening the capacity of next users, particularly agricultural extension and advisory service (EAS) providers who work to support farmers to adapt to a changing climate, is crucial for enhancing access to climate information services and validated climate-smart agriculture technologies in Zambia."}]},{"head":"2","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"From March 1-3, 2023, a three-day multistakeholder consultative workshop brought together the main agricultural extension and advisory service (EAS) providers from across Zambia to co-design a curriculum to support climate risk management in agricultural extension (CRMAE)."}]},{"head":"3","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"A total of 15 participants representing national bodies, development partners, educational institutions partook in the consultative workshop in Lusaka, Zambia. Detailed feedback and inputs were gathered to support the adaptation of CRMAE curriculum implemented by the AICCRA project in both Ethiopia and Senegal to the Zambian context."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"The curricular content will be adapted to the local Zambian context and integrate and harmonize with existing capacity building resources on this topic provided by the workshop participants. A training of trainers (ToT) on this new curriculum will be implemented in August 2023."}]},{"head":"Highlights 5","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The list of participants representing EAS providers will be expanded for the ToT to reflect these actors more inclusively within the country. Given strong demand, the ToT will also be followed by an additional consultative workshop with Zambia's agricultural training institutions (ATIs) to plan for curricular adaptation for these colleges."}]},{"head":"6","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The hands-on, practical curriculum will equip EAS providers with foundational skills and knowledgeincluding on best-available climate information and digital innovations-to help farmers manage climate risk in the agricultural sector."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project aims to enhance access to climate information services and validated climate-smart agriculture technologies in Africa, to help these countries strengthen the resilience of their agricultural sectors to the threat posed by climate change. Strengthening the capacity of next users, particularly agricultural extension and advisory service (EAS) providers who work to support farmers in Zambia and five other target countries, is crucial for achieving this goal."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Towards these ends, the AICCRA project has been working to co-design curricula targeting the agricultural extension systems in each of the six AICCRA target countries to build foundational knowledge and skills to manage climate risk. These curricula aim to help EAS providers to take advantage of best-available and location-specific climate information and tools in their countries to better plan for, manage, and respond to a changing and varying climate."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"They also aim to pragmatically support the tailoring and communication of such information to meaningfully inform on-farm agricultural decision-making and build wider resilience of the agricultural sector."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"To advance these goals in Zambia, the AICCRA project organized a three-day multistakeholder consultative workshop in Lusaka from March 1-3, 2023, to co-design a curriculum to strengthen the capacity of EAS providers to incorporate climate services in their work with Zambia's farmers, and to formulate a roadmap for implementing the curriculum."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"The workshop built upon the experiences and advanced a collaborative curriculum design and planning process previously initiated in other AICCRA target countries, including Ethiopia (Grossi et al., 2022) and Senegal (Hansen et al., 2022). By convening the major public and private sector extension providers in Zambia, the AICCRA project team conducted a multi-stakeholder consultation to:"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"1. Define the target audience and learner profile that AICCRA will prioritize in its 2023 capacity strengthening activities."},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"2. Identify and prioritize competencies and foundational knowledge needed to equip the target audience to support Zambia's farmers with climate services."}]},{"head":"1: Introduction","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Participants of the Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) Multistakeholder","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Curriculum Consultative Workshop in Zambia pause for a group photo outside the Radisson Blu Hotel in Lusaka, Zambia. These participants represent the country's main agricultural extension and advisory service providers."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"3. Adapt and refine a short-course curriculum that will target the priority competencies and foundational knowledge, building on past AICCRA experiences, by:   • The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA)"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Ministry of Green Economy and Environment (MGEE)"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• National Agricultural Information Services (NAIS) within the MoA"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"Development Partners"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• Catholic Relief Services (CRS)"},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"• USAID (EDGE Project)"},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"• International Water Management Institute (IWMI)"}]},{"head":"Education Institutions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• National Resources Development College (NRDC)"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• University of Zambia (UNZA)"}]},{"head":"2: Approaches and Methods","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Philipa Haamakasu of the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment (MGEE) partakes in a SWOT mapping exercise to analyze the enabling environment for the implementation of the CRMAE curriculum in Zambia.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"While private sector partners were invited, none were able to attend the consultation."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The AICCRA team will therefore make special efforts to ensure representation of this important group at the follow-on workshops, namely the training of trainers (ToT)."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"The list of trainers and support staff for the workshop can be found in Box 2, and the full agenda for the workshop can be found in Section 6 (Agenda)."}]},{"head":"Workshop Structure","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The workshop consultation involved detailed presentation of the structure and content types of the curricular materials developed in Ethiopia and Senegal, as well as a comparative discussion to assess similarities and differences of Zambia's needs, enabling environment, and resources with these other African countries where curricular materials on the topic of climate risk management in agricultural extension (CRMAE) have been developed through the AICCRA project."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"An outline of the four-module CRMAE curriculum structure presented during the workshop is summarized herein and is also depicted in Figure 1:   All 15 participants representing Zambia's main EAS providers actively partook in discussions around the adaptation of the CRMAE curriculum for the Zambian context. A summary of these discussions and recommendations is outlined below, alongside the main findings from the SWOT analysis activity that was conducted."}]},{"head":"SWOT Analysis Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"A detailed account of the SWOT analysis activity results is included in Appendix A."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Generally, however, the SWOT analysis reinforced the need for the CRMAE curriculum and its component modules, especially Module 4 around communication of climate information, as many participants noted poor awareness, reach, or interpretation of climate information and especially forecast information as a major barrier inhibiting the use of climate information in decision-making."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"A positive enabling environment in terms of good strategies and policies at the national level alongside political will to address the climate challenge was highlighted through the exercise, as well as high-quality information generated through ZMD."}]},{"head":"General Feedback and Priorities","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Target Learners for the Curriculum (Learner Profile)"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Generally, the participants of the workshop agreed that the target of the CRMAE curriculum should be Zambia's camp extension officers (CEOs), though there was also strong interest and argument for inclusion of extension staff trained through Zambia's seven agricultural training institutions (ATIs) and select universities."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"The University of Zambia (UNZA) in particular noted that it is making efforts to be more intentional about the inclusion of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) topics within its own curricula, and highlighted that it is presently in the process of conducting a needs assessment of its own courses to inform the integration of these topics within its university-level curricula."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Similarly, the National Resources Development College (NRDC) noted that it also has courses to train extension, including short \"on-demand\" courses into which CRMAE content could be integrated or added, or incorporated on its own as a standalone course. This college has a student body of approximately 2,400 and trains about 560 graduates per year (2023 statistic)."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"There was some disagreement about the appropriateness of the materials in terms of complexity-While some participants felt that the material at its current level (as presented from the Ethiopian context) would be too complicated for CEOs to understand, others felt that the level of complexity was appropriate."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Within Zambia's 116 districts, it was noted that there are approximately 220 extension camps total."}]},{"head":"Target Value Chains and Livelihoods","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"As has been the case in many of the other countries where AICCRA has introduced this curriculum, the Zambia participants noted that the CRMAE curriculum is limited in that it majorly emphasizes crops while not having robust content to support extension staff working with other important livelihoods in Zambia, namely that of pastoralism and agropastoralism. This was noted as an area for further development perhaps for a second edition or version of the curriculum. "}]},{"head":"3: Key Results and Findings","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Public versus Private Modalities for Extension and the Role of Technology","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Because Zambia's extension-staff-to-farmerratio is quite high with not enough extension staff to support the country's millions of farmers (i.e. because the reach of the extension system is limited), participants noted that there is a push at the national level to increasingly adopt a \"distance model\" as a complement to face-to-face trainings. Still, challenges around technology access and internet connectivity limit some of these interventions."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Broadly, however, participants described two main channels for Zambia's agricultural extension system:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"1. A public advisory system provided by the Government of Zambia"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• This system embraces participatory extension approaches."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"2. A private advisory system with its own extension packages."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"• This system promotes certain inputs like seeds. While the private sector is operating by generally adding value to the information provided by the public sector, most of the population still sees climate and advisory information as the role of the government."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"Participants noted that Zambia's extension system is neither primarily top-down (like in Ethiopia) nor bottom-up, pluralistic, and participatory (like in Senegal), but rather a blend of the two."}]},{"head":"Learning Environment","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"In terms of access to technology, which influences what kinds of tools and information extension staff can be trained upon in the hands-on CRMAE curriculum, participants noted that at the district level, extension staff do have access to computers and internet connectivity. Moreover, participants noted that for the CEOs, the situation is improving, as there is a push by the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) to promote the use of tablets. Even so, according to the MoA and MLF participants, the primary challenge with use of technology is not necessarily access to digital technology and materials, but rather connectivity in the rural areas that limits their efficacy. In terms of access to phones, participants noted that it is expected that every CEO has a smartphone."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"While not the target of this workshop, the IRI team also shared curricular materials on Climate Risk Management in Agriculture (CRMA) targeting universities, which participants indicated would be most relevant and useful to district level officers (higherlevel officers than the CEOs)."}]},{"head":"Packaging of Information and Harmonization with other Resources and Efforts","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Participants and especially the national institutions emphasized that curricular materials should be packaged in a way such that the extension system can easily use it and assimilate it within existing materials and efforts."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"In this vein, there was a suggestion that the curriculum could be tailored or \"stratified\" in terms of complexity and content to different levels of experts within the extension system. It was suggested that subject matter specialists (SMS) at the district level could have an amplified or more detailed view of the content to be used by the CEOs such that they can assist in repackaging the content and ensuring it is tailored to local conditions. In this way, it was suggested that the curriculum could inform the standard operating procedures (SOPs) of the extensionists.  Inclusion of such topics may help to demystify insurance as a risk management option for farmers and extensionists and ultimately stimulate demand for when the products and policies do become more widely available."}]},{"head":"(Integrating Climate Services into Agricultural Extension-Communication)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"As highlighted in the SWOT analysis activity, despite robust and high-quality climate information generated at the national level through ZMD, access and use of this information can be quite limited by farmers, and effective communication a major limiting factor towards these ends. As such, participants generally appreciated this module, but requested more robust and context-specific materials related to supporting gender-sensitive and inclusive communication of climate information for decision-making. In particular, the MLF noted that there are several household-level strategies for supporting gender-inclusive decision-making and use of information that it could share for incorporation."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Moreover, ZMD is supporting the piloting of the PICSA and e-PICSA approaches in two districts in Zambia, for which it could share its experiences within this module. Overall, participants of the multistakeholder consultative workshop agreed that the structure and content of the CRMAE curriculum is valuable, though the detailed feedback outlined in the Results and Findings section should be addressed."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"In terms of next steps, which include planning for the training of trainers (ToT) and ultimately the pilot of the curriculum, workshop participants agreed upon the following. • National Association for Small-scale Farmers (NAPSSF)"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Zambia Seed Traders Association (ZSTA)"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"• World Vision Zambia "}]},{"head":"Ownership and Co-branding of the Curriculum","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Participants felt that the curriculum should be co-branded and co-owned by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Fisheries (MoALF) and the Ministry of Green Economy and Environment (MGEE) to have successful uptake and scaling. It was also noted that MoALF has very strong political will and would be an especially strong advocate amongst the two for advancing and sustaining the capacity building of EAS staff on climate risk management within Zambia."}]},{"head":"The Pilot of the CRMAE Curriculum","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The pilot of the curriculum following the ToT is anticipated for September 2023. Additional planning for the pilot, including decisions on the number and type of participants to include, site selection, and other important details will be revisited when the larger group of EAS providers is present at the August 2023 ToT workshop."}]},{"head":"6: Agenda","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Wednesday, March 1 Morning Workshop opening:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Opening remarks (ZMD, IWMI, IRI)"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Introductions by participating organizations and institutions"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Overview of the AICCRA project and its training goals and strategy (Amanda)"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• Workshop objectives, overview, context (Amanda)"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"Overview of curriculum structure and sharing of experiences from other AICCRA countries:"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"• Experiences, lessons, and approach from Ethiopia  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ************************************************************* "},{"text":"Module 1 : Climate Basics provides foundational knowledge about climate concepts, data and common data analyses, and forecasts. A basic understanding of climate from this module provides necessary background and context for subsequent learning about the types and use of climate information to improve agricultural risk management. It also prepares participants to address client farmers' questions and concerns about weather and climate. The module includes probability concepts that are foundational for understanding and managing risk, and for interpreting and using climate information to support risk management. Participants write down and share ideas about opportunities and challenges for implementing a CRMAE curriculum in Zambia. ** **************************************************************** "},{"text":"Following both the presentation and detailed discussion of the Ethiopia and Senegal CRMAE curriculum and its relevance for Zambia, as well as the SWOT activity, a detailed roadmap and action plan was developed to advance the co-development of such a curriculum for the Zambian context. Participants representing Zambia's main EAS providers learn about local and global factors that affect the country's climate, during a presentation by Dr. Dinku of the IRI giving an overview of Module 1 (Climate Basics) content. ** **************************************************************** "},{"text":" ************************************************************* "},{"text":"The• Training of Trainers (ToT) on the CRMAE Curriculum: Timing, Trainee Composition, and Location Timing: In moving forward and planning next steps towards actualizing the CRMAE curriculum in Zambia, participants agreed that the timing of a 10-day training of trainers (ToT) workshop should be August 14-25, 2023. Moreover, because of the important role that agricultural training institutions (ATIs) play in professionalizing and building the capacity of agricultural extension workers to strengthen the productivity and resilience of the agricultural sector, participants agreed that the AICCRA project should also aim to adapt this short course curriculum for implementation at each of Zambia's seven ATIs. A two-day consultative workshop to adapt this curriculum for this purpose following the ToT workshop is therefore proposed for August 28-29, 2023. Trainee Composition: To reflect and ensure inclusive representation of the EAS providers in Zambia within the curriculum development, refinement, and training processes, for the ToT, the group requested to expand participation beyond those already present in the room to also include the following institutions and organizations: Conservation Farming Unit (CFU) 4: Conclusions and Recommendations The MoA's Principal Extension Methodologist takes notes on opportunities for capacity building of extension staff. ** **************************************************************** • Zambia National farmers Union (ZNFU) "},{"text":" *************************************************************Afternoon Presentation of available curricular materials: • Integrating Climate Services into Agricultural Extension (communicating climate information and supporting its use); (Jim) Discussion on required competencies, foundational knowledge, structure, alignment of available materials with needs, gaps that require new materials Friday, March 3 Morning Summarize and finalize overall curriculum design (Amanda): "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" It also includes a unit that provides an introduction to the basics of reading and interpreting a map or graph, and exercises to expose participants to the most common climate maps and charts they are likely to encounter in their work. SWOT Analysis To equip participants to provide appropriate SWOT AnalysisTo equip participants to provide appropriate  support and guidance to their farmers, the support and guidance to their farmers, the To ensure the curriculum and its accompanying module builds understanding of factors that To ensure the curriculum and its accompanyingmodule builds understanding of factors that training strategy are in harmony with and building upon existing capacity building efforts around climate risk management in the country, as well as to avoid lead to different management decisions by different farmers and under different climate conditions. training strategy are in harmony with and building upon existing capacity building efforts around climate risk management in the country, as well as to avoidlead to different management decisions by different farmers and under different climate conditions. duplication of efforts and accounting of risks, a  duplication of efforts and accounting of risks, a Module 2: Climate Information Products and participatory Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Module 4: Integrating Climate Services into Module 2: Climate Information Products and participatory Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,Module 4: Integrating Climate Services into Tools Available for Agriculture provides an and Threats (SWOT) activity was carried out with the Agricultural Extension (Communication) equips Tools Available for Agriculture provides an and Threats (SWOT) activity was carried out with theAgricultural Extension (Communication) equips overview of relevant weather and climate workshop participants. The results of this activity are participants to bring climate services into the overview of relevant weather and climate workshop participants. The results of this activity areparticipants to bring climate services into the information products and services that are [or will soon be] available through the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD). It teaches summarized in the next section (Results and Findings) and included in full in Appendix A. services that they provide their client farmers. Building on learning from the other three modules, Module 4 equips them to lead information products and services that are [or will soon be] available through the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD). It teaches summarized in the next section (Results and Findings) and included in full in Appendix A.services that they provide their client farmers. Building on learning from the other three modules, Module 4 equips them to lead participants how to navigate and use relevant farmers in a participatory seasonal planning participants how to navigate and use relevantfarmers in a participatory seasonal planning historical, monitored and forecast information workshop, informed by historical and historical, monitored and forecast informationworkshop, informed by historical and products available through ZMD's web page seasonal forecast information. products available through ZMD's web pageseasonal forecast information. (ZMD, 2023) and online climate information  (ZMD, 2023) and online climate information products (Maprooms).  products (Maprooms).  "},{"text":" In terms of existing educational and capacity materials on the topic of climate risk management on which the CRMAE curriculum might build, some materials were shared by both national and development partners. In particular, ZMD shared its Agrometeorological Training Manual for Agricultural Extension Officers, while Catholic Relief Services (CRS) shared its Community-Based Climate Change Education Manual. These materials will be reviewed for possible integration with and coordination with the CRMAE curriculum content and materials. ensure sustained food security at both ZMD also highlighted that it is implementing ensure sustained food security at bothZMD also highlighted that it is implementing household and national level. Moreover, there the Participatory Integrated Climate Services household and national level. Moreover, therethe Participatory Integrated Climate Services are now several major insurance companies (PICSA) approach and e-PICSA in two districts. are now several major insurance companies(PICSA) approach and e-PICSA in two districts. operating within the country, including Such approaches are incorporated already in operating within the country, includingSuch approaches are incorporated already in Zambia State Insurance, Professional Module 4 (Integrating Climate Information Zambia State Insurance, ProfessionalModule 4 (Integrating Climate Information insurance, and Murchison Insurance. into Agricultural Extension-Communication), insurance, and Murchison Insurance.into Agricultural Extension-Communication),  and could therefore help ZMD and the and could therefore help ZMD and the  Government of Zambia in promoting this Government of Zambia in promoting this  approach with farmers. approach with farmers. \"There is a very  \"There is a very good connection  good connection between what is  between what is being relayed in  being relayed in this curriculum and  this curriculum and supporting farming  supporting farming as a business. This  as a business. This content can help  content can help farmers make  farmers make decisions on which  decisions on which enterprises to get  enterprises to get involved in-  involved in- this is what drives  this is what drives profitability!!\"  profitability!!\" -Dominic Namanyungu,  -Dominic Namanyungu, Principal Extension  Principal Extension Methodologist, Zambian  Methodologist, Zambian Ministry of Agriculture (MoA)  Ministry of Agriculture (MoA)  "}],"sieverID":"0acc26c1-7090-4ee0-a7cb-97d4200452b1","abstract":"A three-day multistakeholder consultative workshop was convened from March 1 to March 3, 2023, in Lusaka, Zambia by the Zambia Meteorological Department (ZMD), in close collaboration with the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) of the Columbia Climate School and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). The workshop, which was organized as part of the World Bank's Accelerating the Impact of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project, brought together 15 participants representing agricultural extension and advisory service (EAS) providers across Zambia to co-design a curriculum to support climate risk management in agricultural extension."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"019c3d1248e12ffa9341fa123329e98b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5820d000-650f-4c24-8699-20f6016664f8/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"4 Strengthening Capacity to Achieve Eco-Efficiency through Agricultural Research for Development","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"This chapter describes five key interventions that are important for mainstreaming eco-efficiency in research for development:"},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"1. Partnership strategies 2. Participatory research 3. Learning alliances 4. Monitoring and evaluation 5. Knowledge management and sharing Each aims to foster innovation and social learning, which are essential for adapting agricultural systems to changes in the climate and in local and global economies. These practices can be particularly effective if used in an integrated manner."}]},{"head":"Evolving approaches","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Capacity strengthening has evolved considerably over the years, as agricultural research has come to focus more sharply on development. Table 1 summarizes this shift from a relatively narrow focus on training for improved food production, mainly through plant breeding, to a more systemic approach for rural innovation."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"As research for development has evolved, it has searched for better ways to reach large numbers of end users. Reflecting on obstacles to research impact in the 1990s, social scientists began to question the so-called \"pipeline\" approach for addressing farmers' problems through scientifically proven technologies. Starting about 30 years ago, various participatory approaches were developed and tested, with emphasis on the learning cycle, in which users of agricultural research products and services learn together through partnerships and stakeholder engagement, thus increasing the chances of research results being put to use. "}]},{"head":"Social learning and innovation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Current approaches have their roots in two closely related theoretical fields: social learning and innovation systems. According to Leeuwis and Pyburn (2002), academics introduced the concept of social learning with an interest in studying and promoting sustainable development (Dunn, 1971;Friedmann, 1984;Milbrath, 1989;Woodhill, 2002). Social learning, as described by Röling (1992), assigns a central role to multi-stakeholder platforms that facilitate interaction and promote learning for change. The facilitator's role is to help establish these platforms and catalyze dynamics that foster synergy."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The concept of innovation systems emerged from inquiries into research and technology transfer, leading to an examination of the wider innovation process (Hall et al., 2004). Innovation is a complex process, described by Smits (2002) as the successful combination of \"hardware\" (new technical devices), \"software\" (new knowledge and modes of thinking), and \"orgware\" (new institutions and forms of organization). It depends on effective collaboration, networking of interdependent social actors, and other new forms of coordinated action. Innovation is thus a collective achievement rather than the result of individual adoption (Leeuwis, 2004)."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"A key message of this chapter is that making agriculture more eco-efficient requires a major commitment to developing capacity for innovation through continuous learning, particularly for stakeholders who have previously been excluded in research. One recent study (Mehta-Bhatt and Beniest, 2011) suggests that CGIAR centers have responded in various ways to new trends in capacity development. The sections that follow explore some of the results."}]},{"head":"Partnerships: From Knowledge to Action","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The authors of a recent working paper (Horton et al., 2009) define partnership as \"a sustained multi-organizational relationship with mutually agreed objectives and an exchange or sharing of resources or knowledge for the purpose of generating research outputs (new knowledge or technology) or fostering innovation (use of new ideas or technology) for practical ends.\" As this definition suggests, partnerships may involve diverse actors, working under informal or formal arrangements while sharing responsibilities and decision-making. They may also have a wide range of objectives-from the delivery of specific research products to the creation of a shared context for innovation and joint learning."}]},{"head":"Box 1","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fruit and vegetable research: moving in the right direction","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"As described in Chapter 12, researchers are using participatory methods to develop technologies aimed at ecologically sustainable improvement in the production of fruits and vegetables. This work provides a clear example of how research can help build the capacity of smallholder farmers to deal more effectively with shifting production constraints and market conditions through more eco-efficient practices."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Such initiatives require that scientists take a more systemic view, emphasizing the importance of crop diversity and of maximizing the producivitty of varied ecological niches. It is also important for donors and other stakeholders to create a policy environment that encourages collaboration between research and development agencies. Financial and human resources must be dedicated to the promotion of greater crop diversity and to the development of more resilient and profitable agricultural systems. A different type of education is needed to avoid overspecialization in agriculture and to promote better understanding of integrated crop management options, of the need to balance crops and livestock, and of the importance of balanced human diets."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Partnerships are essential for achieving impact through today's complex and ambitious agenda of agricultural research for development. Key actors in this work include civil society organizations, national research and educational institutions, the private sector, national policy makers, regional multistakeholder networks, donors, and the media. Such partners bring diverse perspectives to bear on shared goals, providing the basis for an equitable learning culture. This can increase the potential for solving problems successfully, generating useful knowledge, and empowering local actors. Further benefits include stronger resource mobilization, greater legitimacy, reduced risks, and increased flexibility."}]},{"head":"More systemic approaches to partnership","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Partnerships have evolved in step with the broader trends in agricultural research that are described in the introduction to this chapter (see Table 1). The purely research alliances of the 1960s have given way to new contractual relationships, which in the best cases transform knowledge into action, leading to sustainable development outcomes. This shift involves more systemic approaches to partnership, in which research is just one part of a complex puzzle (Kristjansen et al., 2009) or \"complex adaptive system,\" which also involves development methods and evolving knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Current partnerships often use tools such as outcome mapping, participatory impact pathway analysis (Alvarez et al., 2010), and other types of stakeholder analysis, such as social network analysis, for joint planning. Such approaches are useful for determining each partner's degree of influence on users of research products and therefore their potential multiplier effect and contribution to impact."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Partnerships figure importantly in the new research strategy resulting from recent CGIAR reforms (CGIAR, 2011). They are central to more innovative arrangements in research for sustainable development that involve advanced research institutes, reduce costs, and deploy new technologies, among other ends (Spielmann et al., 2007)."}]},{"head":"Partnerships for eco-efficient agriculture","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Since eco-efficient agriculture aims to reduce negative environmental impacts, its success depends on partnerships involving stakeholders engaged in environmental research and advocacy. Civil society organizations have an especially important role to play in these partnerships because of their ability to achieve positive multiplier effects (CGIAR, 2006), including the development of site-specific solutions that address the needs of the rural poor."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Partnerships for eco-efficient agriculture must pay particular attention to the needs of women. According to FAO (2011), women comprise, on average, 43% of the agricultural labor force in developing countries, ranging from about 20% in Latin America to almost 50% in eastern and southeastern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Interestingly, the report observes that female farmers produce less than male farmers, not because they are less efficient but because of differences in their use of inputs. This underscores the need for further research on the relationship between gender, production, and eco-efficiency. It is also important for research partners to be selected on the basis of their gender vision and practices, with the aim of achieving gender balance in partnership governance."}]},{"head":"Partnerships as learning opportunities","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Institutional arrangements in research for sustainable agricultural development are increasingly based on equity and accountability among all stakeholders (GFAR, 2010). Establishing trust and respect are fundamental for building confidence and empowering stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"As development expert Robert Chambers noted in a recent interview: \"So much in a partnership depends on what sorts of people are involved, how they relate to one another, how participatory they are, whether they dominate or whether they facilitate, how they make other people feel, whether they feel comfortable, whether they feel they can be open, or whether they feel they are vulnerable to criticism. Linked with this are power relations, which are inevitable, particularly when funding is involved. (ILAC, 2010)\" Partnerships offer three main opportunities to strengthen capacity for innovation and social learning:"},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"1. Complementary competencies: Achieving sustainable development requires that diverse partners pool their assets-such as specialized knowledge and human capital-under new institutional arrangements. The idea is to form multidisciplinary teams that are able to learn together across organizational and geographical boundaries (Lundy et al., 2005  (Tennyson, 2003). What often happens instead is that partnerships remain at the periphery of institutional learning, and neither leadership nor individual partners share best practices (Smith and Chataway, 2009). Partnerships are often driven by personal relationships; researchers and stakeholders decide to work together because they know and trust one another and share a common vision and field of interest. More attention should be paid to ensuring that partnership behaviors, policies, strategies, and practices progress from the micro level of individuals to the meso level of the organization (Özgediz and Nambi, 1999)."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Box 2"}]},{"head":"Nontraditional partnerships for impact","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Multi-stakeholder roundtables, such as the Better Sugar Initiative, the Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil, and the Roundtable for Responsible Soya, among others, demonstrate increasing concern about more-sustainable agricultural development. With growing frequency, even the big players in food production are asking whether it makes sense to develop a market unless it can be done in a sustainable way."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The US-based Sustainable Food Lab and the European Sustainable Agriculture Initiative Platform promote collective action across sector boundaries in such initiatives as certification schemes and smallholder inclusion. Unilever has set the goal of making every supply chain it works with (cocoa, sugar, tea, soybean, and so forth) sustainable by 2020. For this purpose, the company has developed its own sustainable agriculture code, which identifies social inclusion as the best way to practice corporate responsibility."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Roundtables, codes, and guidelines provide important opportunities for the private sector to engage with agricultural science aimed at achieving eco-efficiency. While big NGOs and private-sector actors set the rules, agricultural science can contribute high-quality research and strong public-sector connections."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Given the urgency of the multiple challenges that agriculture faces today, partnerships focusing on eco-efficiency must quickly provide strategies that translate knowledge into action and offer solutions that are effective and easy to implement. The increasing complexity of partnerships poses a major challenge. The following sections provide insights on how partnerships for eco-efficiency can be made to work."}]},{"head":"Participatory Research","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Participatory research methods arose in agriculture during the 1980s. They responded to the need for research to generate technologies that are more appropriate for small-scale farmers, resulting in wider adoption and greater benefits. The strategy for this work was to provide small-scale farmers with assistance in managing risky innovations collectively, obtain feedback for researchers from farmers, and delegate the implementation of adaptive technology testing to farmer associations or groups (Ashby, 1985). As participants in research, farmers can better communicate their perspectives on what, where, and when to research and their criteria for success. Farmers thus engage in the codevelopment of knowledge, taking responsibility for decisions about priority setting, implementation, and recommendations (Cárdenas and Gloria, 2009)."}]},{"head":"Farmers as researchers","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Participation in research is not to be confused with the discovery learning process used to teach farmers about recommended technologies. The latter is an extension method, in which farmers conduct their own experiments to demonstrate known principles and practices. In contrast, participatory research involves collaborative investigation of options for innovation, about which researchers are just as uncertain of the outcomes as are producers."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Participatory research in agriculture evolved from participatory rapid appraisal in rural development projects to the application of similar techniques for the purposes of research. New methodologies soon followed, which national and international research centers used for participatory selection of experimental germplasm of grain legumes (Mazon et al., 2007), applied research in farmers' fields (CORPOICA, 2002), and research to develop and strengthen community organizations and their links with markets (CRS, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Participatory research and social analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"To be effective, participatory research methods should be used in conjunction with social analysis. This is essential for determining who should participate, when, how, and where and also for ensuring that results are representative and can be generalized. In rice production, for Box 3"}]},{"head":"The value of participatory technology evaluation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Experience in Malawi with the evaluation of legumes for soil fertility improvement demonstrates the value of participatory technology evaluation. At first, farmers were averse to adopting legumes for this purpose, despite having serious soil-fertility problems. But they adopted the practice enthusiastically after participatory technology evaluation helped researchers understand farmers' priorities. Testing with more than 3000 men and women farmers showed that they preferred edible species, such as pigeon pea and groundnut, over mucuna, a green manure crop that researchers had recommended."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"By 2001, 72% of the target farm population had adopted pigeon pea and groundnut, compared with only 15% the year before. Evaluations found that children were better nourished in households that had adopted the edible legumes. SOURCE: Kerr et al. (2007)."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"example, achieving eco-efficiency implies very different outcomes for women who transplant rice, men who own rice paddy land, and ethnic minorities who want to preserve forests from encroachment by rice cultivation. The gender, ethnic identity, and social class of research participants must be investigated through social analysis to ensure that different groups in the intended beneficiary population are represented appropriately."}]},{"head":"Participatory research approaches","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Participatory methods have been applied in agriculture specifically for experimentation with farmers, participatory plant breeding, participatory technology development, participatory market appraisal, and communication for development."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Participatory methods have been widely used for farmer experimentation in Latin America (Braun and Hocdé, 2003). One such experience involved a method centering on farmer research committees (or CIAL, its Spanish acronym). These are groups of volunteer farmers from a community or farmer association who apply a simple form of the scientific method to study different options for improving local agriculture (Ashby et al., 2001). Participatory plant breeding is used worldwide for the evaluation of crop varieties and selection of parental materials and their crosses (Goncalves and Saad, 2001;Almekinders et al., 2006). New information and communications technologies have created opportunities for applying participatory principles and methods in combination with technologymediated learning approaches involving video, radio, and web 2.0 technologies (Van Mele et al., 2010), as well as knowledge sharing tools and methods (Staiger-Rivas et al., 2009)."}]},{"head":"Institutionalizing participatory research","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Participatory research capacity forms a crucial part of the overall capacity for innovation that is needed to achieve eco-efficient agriculture. It is particularly essential where public and private organizations are ill-equipped to address the multiplicity of small adaptive changes and trade-offs between desired environmental and production outcomes that farmers must constantly deal with as they fit new technologies to changing circumstances."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Strengthening capacity for participatory research must involve a wide array of professionals providing agricultural research and advisory services as well as others who contribute to innovation, including farmers, traders, and consumers. To institutionalize participatory research requires changes in policies and procedures aimed at making agricultural research and advisory services more accountable to farmers and other stakeholders. Thus, capacity strengthening must go beyond the use of participatory methods to include significant institutional changes, which are critical for achieving an eco-efficiency revolution."}]},{"head":"Evidence of impact and future opportunities","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The impact of participatory research has been widely evaluated. Impacts include increased yields in small-scale crop production (Catavassi et al., 2009) and higher yields and adoption rates as a result of participatory plant breeding (Ceccarelli et al., 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"Experience in Honduras shows how a participatory approach enabled farmers to obtain maize varieties that are well-adapted to local growing conditions. As shown in Figure 1, 59% of the farmers who were CIAL members engaged in participatory selection of maize varieties reported yield increases, compared with only 28% of those who were not CIAL members (Classen et al., 2008). In Latin America, plant breeders have used participatory technology evaluation widely to obtain information about farmers' preferences. Recently published work includes case studies organized according to the stage of the plant breeding cycle in which farmers participated. Overall, the results consistently show that when varieties are evaluated with farmers the rates of acceptability and adoption are higher. Involving farmers at an early or midstage in the breeding cycle-that is, well in advance of prerelease testing-allows breeders to take into account farmers' preferences when setting priorities, thus enabling them to provide farmers with benefits in less time than with conventional breeding (Ashby et al., 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Described below are two new opportunities for using participatory research methods: "}]},{"head":"Learning Alliances to Connect Research with Development","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The gold standard of research consists of publishing one or more articles in peer-reviewed journals aimed at a scientific audience, which may number in the thousands. Traditional development practice, on the other hand, focuses on solving problems for as many people as possible as quickly as possible. Its gold standard constitutes a favorable impact assessment, showing that a project has delivered considerable livelihood gains for the poor both in quantitative and qualitative terms."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Somewhere along the continuum between these caricatures of research and development lies the current reality. The CGIAR has recently announced that it will focus more strongly on achieving research outcomes that are reflected in measurable improvement of rural livelihoods. Yet, the incentive structures still favor scientific outputs over development impact."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Meanwhile, development practitioners have adopted various approaches to monitoring, evaluation, and learning in an effort to enhance performance. Learning alliances provide an institutional framework for facilitating more effective and consistent connections between research and development, as both strive to improve the lives of the rural poor."}]},{"head":"The learning-alliance approach","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Learning alliances differ substantially from common training practices, especially those involving short, one-off courses. This approach involves rather an iterative learning process undertaken jointly by multiple stakeholders, with the aim of improving the learning and innovation capacity of agencies that support farmer associations. There are three types of learning alliances (Table 2; Best et al., 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Partners in such collaboration need to agree on basic principles of collective work, including:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Clear objectives: These must reflect the needs, capacities, and interests of the participating organizations and individuals."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"What does each organization bring to the alliance? What complementarities or gaps exist? What does each organization hope to achieve through the collaboration? • Shared responsibilities, costs, and credit: A learning alliance seeks to benefit all parties, so costs, responsibilities, and proper credit for achievements should be shared among partners. • Outputs as inputs: Rural communities are diverse, and there are no universal recipes for sustainable development. In learning alliances, the outputs of research and development are viewed as inputs for rural innovation at specific places and times. The particular methods and tools employed may change, as users adapt these to their needs and circumstances. Key challenges are to understand the reasons for adaptation and its positive or negative impacts on livelihoods as well as to document and share lessons learned."}]},{"head":"• Differentiated learning mechanisms:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Learning alliances involve diverse participants."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Determining each group's willingness to participate in the learning process is critical to success. This requires flexible but connected learning methods, which range from participatory monitoring and evaluation through conventional impact assessment to the development of innovation histories."}]},{"head":"• Long-term relationships based on trust:","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Rural development takes place over many years."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"To influence positive change and understand why change has occurred requires long-term, stable relationships capable of evolving to meet new challenges. Trust is the glue that binds these relationships."}]},{"head":"Capacity strengthening for innovation and scaling up","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Under learning alliances, the learning process typically spans 12 to 24 months (Best et al., 2009). It involves learning cycles, which include feedback loops and opportunities for reflection and documentation aimed at improving practice. This approach consists of four interrelated learning strategies:"},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"1. Capacity building: This activity is not limited to training but focuses on practical application of methods in the field, follow-up, adaptation, and improvement. Partners receive ongoing support as they implement prototypes. This process is linked to specific learning cycles, which strengthen partners' ability to use specific tools These aim to strengthen the relationships that form the basis of the learning alliance through densification of networks and personal connections. To achieve this, the alliance can use face-to-face meetings, training-andexchange visits, and virtual tools such as a web site and list server. 4. Evidence-based decision-making: Aimed at influencing organizations in the public and private sectors, this strategy has been markedly less successful than the other three. Nonetheless, learning-alliance partners consider it to be critical for leveraging high-level change based on field results."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Alliance partners learn primarily through a learning cycle for each topic of interest, as shown in Figure 2."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"The learning alliance model involves the following activities, themes, and challenges: Box 4"}]},{"head":"Learning-alliance outcomes and impacts","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"A learning alliance in Central America for rural-enterprise development contributed to significant changes in the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of 25 partner agencies, which influenced a network of 116 additional organizations. By 2007, the alliance had contributed to benefits for 33,000 rural families (about 175,000 people) in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The alliance resulted in stronger networks with end users, involving both development actors and researchers. Partners changed from competitive to collaborative attitudes as they saw evidence that working together enhanced their capacity to meet the needs of rural communities and to obtain donor funds. These shifts, in turn, contributed to a more-efficient innovation system for rural-enterprise development, as evidenced by shared use and generation of information, joint capacity building, and large-scale collaborative projects."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"A community-level assessment conducted in 2007 identified 30 cases that highlight the positive impact of methods and tools used by the learning alliance on income generation, natural resource management, and the role of women. On the strength of such results, Catholic Relief Services (CRS) adopted the learning-alliance approach within its global Agriculture and Environment Program. From small beginnings in East Africa and Central America during 2002-04, CRS has extended its learning alliances for agro-enterprise development to five regions involving about 30 countries (Best et al., 2009). The approach has also been adopted in the water and sanitation sector (Smits et al, 2007) and in India's rice sector (Prasad et al., 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"In July 2009, the learning alliance in Central America entered a new phase. Five organizations that participated in its first phase-CRS, The Netherlands Development Organization (SNV), the Swiss Foundation for Technical Cooperation (Swisscontact), OXFAM-GB, and The Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE, its Spanish acronym)-signed a five-year agreement to support a coordination unit that is currently facilitated by CATIE."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"For more information: www.alianzasdeaprendizaje.org"}]},{"head":"Make learning alliances work at scale","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"What insights can be derived from the attempts described here to bridge the gap between research and development? Here's an initial list:"},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"1 for people from both sectors to share ideas through, for example, exchanges, field visits, and ongoing communication involving all concerned. These are critical parts of a learning process that motivates researchers and development practitioners to engage with one another around common issues that both need to resolve. Ultimately, learning-alliance partners must be accountable to one another as well as to their own stakeholders, and the partnership as a whole must be accountable to its stakeholders (APP, 2011)."}]},{"head":"Cultivate an organizational support network:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"It takes time and effort to build a shared learning culture. This is beyond the scope of a single project and requires ongoing support from staff and management in research and development organizations. To consolidate the learning culture requires a support network in both organizations, as it may run counter to short-term organizational thinking."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Many challenges must be addressed to make learning alliances sustainable. Both research and development organizations need to make significant changes in attitudes and practices while also creating clear incentives for effective learning. These organizations should also assign higher value to emerging knowledge and insights, which do not easily fit in project logical frameworks or academic journals. And they must allow for more collaboration across research and development boundaries. In addition, better documentation and measurement of results in a consistent and statistically valid manner are needed to complement current efforts focused on qualitative changes in knowledge, attitudes, skills, and practices."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The first round of learning alliances has provided useful lessons for the future, but important knowledge gaps remain. The overarching question is how to create and share knowledge within complex adaptive systems so that it contributes to sustained poverty reduction. Learning alliances and similar approaches provide opportunities to develop and test different hypotheses on this issue, which will remain an important concern for the foreseeable future."}]},{"head":"Reaching Users through Monitoring and Evaluation","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Project monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is a systematic approach to learning and capacity strengthening that involves all stakeholders (IFAD, 2001). Monitoring is periodic oversight of project implementation that seeks to establish whether the production of outputs is proceeding according to plan. Evaluation attempts to determine as systematically and objectively as possible the relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, and impact of activities in light of specified objectives. M&E is an action-oriented management tool and an organizational process for generating knowledge to improve decisions about policies, programs, and organizations (Horton et al., 2003)."}]},{"head":"Learning for enhanced adaptive capacity","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Achieving eco-efficient agriculture entails complex, long-term research. Its results must inform decision-making and uptake in specific contexts while also informing further research (Watts, 2008). M&E encompasses all the channels and methods by which evidence is gathered, documented, and shared in research, including its conclusions and recommendations. M&E of research and the resulting international public goods provide crucial support for learning-bydoing and other types of learning that can enhance adaptive capacity (Douthwaite et al., 2003). Unfortunately, evaluation is often limited to the purpose of justifying past funding and obtaining future funding by demonstrating accountability and impacts, which may be disconnected from the intended users of research results."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"M&E and capacity strengthening are closely linked, as both emphasize learning in research for development. It is of paramount importance for organizations to promote an \"evaluative culture\" through investment in evaluation for learning. They can accomplish this by encouraging people to share best practices and lessons learned, by showing appreciation for attempts at reflection, by learning from multiple sources and perspectives, and by assessing constructively past mistakes or lost opportunities."}]},{"head":"Recommended evaluation approaches","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"To involve stakeholders in evaluation and through their participation to promote learning from and about evaluation should be standard practice in systemic research. Methods such as inclusive and use-focused evaluation produce better results and yield more accurate recommendations for enhancing program development and change (Bledsoe and Graham, 2005)."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The main evaluation approaches currently in use are described briefly below, including comments on how M&E can be best organized and managed."}]},{"head":"Theory-driven evaluation","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"With this approach-which is also known as program-theory evaluation, among other names-evaluation is based on an explicit theory or model of how programs may cause intended or observed outcomes (Rogers et al., 2000). Drawing on a synthesis of stakeholder program logic and social science theory, the approach defines what a program does and how, and gauges the effects of outputs on outcomes. This enables the evaluator to ascertain the actual causal mechanisms of program strategies and link these to changes in program participants."}]},{"head":"Horizontal evaluation","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"This approach combines self-assessment with external evaluation by peers (Thiele, 2007). The two are then discussed and compared for the purpose of improving learning, communication, and sharing."}]},{"head":"Participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E)","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"This is an action-oriented process through which stakeholders engage in monitoring or evaluation at various levels. They share control over the content, process, and results of M&E and engage in reflection, aimed at identifying corrective actions. PM&E provides ways to simplify complex plans through measurement frameworks that are owned by implementing partners. This approach not only measures the effectiveness of a project but also builds ownership of the content and promotes accountability for the outcomes at various levels (Muthoni, 2007)."}]},{"head":"Participatory learning and action (PLA)","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"This is an umbrella term for a wide range of methodologies, such as participatory rural appraisal, rapid rural appraisal, participatory learning methods, participatory action research, farming systems research, active method of research and participatory planning (MARP, its French acronym), and many others. The common theme in all these approaches is the full participation of people in learning about their needs and opportunities, and about actions required to address them."}]},{"head":"Towards outcome-based evaluation","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Recent evaluation methods go beyond a focus on outputs (for the sake of accountability) to examine outcomes, particularly the extent to which they reach intended users. Such methods are concerned with the impacts triggered among target groups of users during and after an intervention."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"A method referred to as utilization-focused evaluation, for example, begins with the premise that evaluations should be judged by their utility (Patton, 1996). This method centers completely on the group of intended users and on the use they make of the information collected through the evaluation. Another option is outcome mapping, which does not assess the products of a program but rather focuses on changes in the behavior, relationships, and actions of the people, groups, and organizations directly involved. Then there is participatory impact pathways analysis-a planning, monitoring, and evaluation approach developed for complex projects in the water and food sectors (Álvarez et al., 2010). These M&E methods are not yet part of standard practice in international agricultural research. However, they could gain currency if continued use demonstrates their value convincingly and if scientists adopt more widely the \"innovation systems\" view of agricultural research for development, as opposed to the more common linear model."}]},{"head":"Box 5","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) in the Pan-African Bean Research Network (PABRA)","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"PABRA is a CIAT-supported research partnership that improves the productivity and nutritional quality of beans, with the aim of improving the incomes, nutrition, and food security of the rural and urban poor. PABRA employs an inclusive M&E system that reflects the complementarities and synergies that are inherent in a partnership involving national agricultural research institutes, other government organizations, NGOs, extension-service providers, and the private sector."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Based on the principles of PM&E, the PABRA system actively engages different partner groups in defining what will be evaluated, who will take part, when evaluation will take place, what quantitative and qualitative methods will be used to collect and analyze information, and how findings will be consolidated."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"A PM&E facilitator guides the group through the generation of a results framework and measurement plan and also manages the group dynamics and social and political issues that arise when stakeholders having different information needs, priorities, and expectations are all involved in M&E. Some of the immediate results are a mutually defined framework for results-based management (RBM) in the form of a program logic model; a performance measurement framework, which provides guidelines for monitoring results; and review processes organized as workshops and forums."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"These results provide PABRA with a platform that enables other partners in the region and beyond to participate in the alliance. PABRA's RBM framework also accommodates projects funded by specific donors, such as the work of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Program on developing market, gender, and institutional arrangements for integrated research for development."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"PABRA's social environment facilitates the introduction of new technologies and other innovations; its stakeholders are more tolerant of new ideas that emerge from discussions of research results and lessons learned. PABRA's member countries find it easy to replicate successful implementation of technologies and methods in other countries, thus boosting the rate at which innovations are taken up across the region."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Approaches such as participatory variety selection and private-public partnerships aimed at widening access to improved seed are still relatively new to the national institutions that are PABRA members. But some countries have quickly come to value and adopt these approaches based on reviews of case studies and lessons learned."}]},{"head":"Where do we go from here?","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Measuring research impact in a credible manner is a time-consuming and resource-intensive activity that requires specialized skills as well as research on new methodologies (CGIAR Science Council, 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"When M&E is done in a participatory manner focused on outcomes and learning, it can provide research managers with much useful information on the efficiency, relevance, sustainability, impact, and effectiveness of work in progress (Guijt, 1999). It can also contribute to adaptive management and improvement of a program, making it more relevant to users. The information derived from M&E offers research a \"bigger picture\" that reflects the complexity of any agricultural intervention. Through a continuous, inclusive, and wellorganized information exchange and learning, M&E can strengthen partners' ownership of an intervention, thus increasing the chances of adoption and sustainability."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"The way ahead for M&E in agricultural research concerned with eco-efficiency must involve a shift from summative evaluation driven by accountability concerns to M&E cultures and practices that are formative, inclusive, and systemic. Given growing pressures on funding and the urgency of addressing food insecurity, agricultural research must combine traditional impact assessment with more timely, affordable, and inclusive ways of learning for the future."}]},{"head":"Strengthening Capacity through Knowledge Management and Sharing","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"This section underlines the contribution that knowledge management can make in strengthening capacity to make tropical agriculture more eco-efficient. It first summarizes some general trends in knowledge management and then looks into various aspects and applications of knowledge management and sharing as well as their respective tools and methods. These include:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"(1) participatory research communication and documentation;"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"(2) open access to research outputs as well as to broadband telecommunications channels; (3) research project collaboration; and (4) information and communications technologies for development (ICTs4D)."}]},{"head":"Recent trends","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Organizations engaged in research for development are necessarily knowledge organizations. Their core business is to combine primary informationdata-with experience, context, interpretation, and reflection to generate what has been referred to as \"tacit\" knowledge (Nonaka, 1994). This knowledge is intended to help users make better-informed decisions and take appropriate actions."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Recent trends in knowledge management suggest that this is no longer a top-down process but rather has become a participatory activity, in which the role of management is to \"make it possible for staff to act as the managers of their knowledge\" (Wenger, 2004). Knowledge management has thus shifted from a managerial and technology-heavy discipline to one that centers on learning by doing and collective reflection and innovation (Hall, 2006). This shift has profound implications for the relevance of knowledge management to issues such as sustainability and equity in research for development. It has also created new opportunities to reach the intended users of new knowledge."}]},{"head":"New opportunities for learning","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Technology changes people's behavior, and new behaviors, in turn, create new contexts for technological innovation. Much the same thing happens with knowledge management. ITU (2010) states that continuous improvement in connectivity has turned the internet into a general-purpose technology like electricity. By 2010, two billion people had access to the internet, and five billion had mobile cellular subscriptions. This has created new opportunities for providing broad access to scientific knowledge around the world. Even so, significant barriers remain, such as a lack of content in multiple languages and limited access to broadband infrastructure."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Improved connectivity has also given rise to significant progress in technology-enabled human interactivity, providing new possibilities for the online co-creation, discussion, and promotion of content across organizational and geographical boundaries. The emergence of web 2.0 technologies has created an unprecedented entry point for practicing horizontal and decentralized communication and collaborative learning, which are crucial for multi-stakeholder and networkbased activities such as agricultural research for development."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"But not all knowledge management happens virtually. On the contrary, much experience and many studies suggest that face-to-face communication is crucial for creating new types of collegial relationships and fostering more creative scientific collaboration because it creates the trust and other conditions needed for effective flow of knowledge among teams and partners (Staiger et al., 2005)."}]},{"head":"Knowledge management in research for development","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The scientific community has not been quick to pick up on the opportunities created by these trends. Rather, it continues to rely on a few, traditional vehicles for sharing and validating new knowledge that involve relatively poor interaction. The most important of these are experiment replication, publication of research results in peer-reviewed journals, literature searches, and formal communication at conferences and workshops."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Many scientists worry that more open and rapid sharing of research under way might not only undermine the quality of its outputs but also make it impossible to publish the results in peer-reviewed journals. These still constitute the ultimate proof of high-quality science and therefore strongly influence researchers' incentives. However, there are many promising paths for combining traditional and modern vehicles for knowledge sharing. A recent working paper from the World Bank (McKenzie and Özler, 2011), for example, shows that blogging about a scientific paper causes a massive increase in the number of times the abstract is viewed and downloaded during the month after publication."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The principles, methods, and tools of knowledge management are designed to support collective action and learning. Their application in research for development not only creates a more positive environment for eco-efficient agriculture but also enhances research impact in concrete ways by involving users. It is particularly important to mainstream and apply in all areas of agricultural research the four knowledge management applications described in the sections that follow."}]},{"head":"Participatory research documentation and communication","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Over the past five years or so, new knowledge management tools and methods have widened the horizons of research communications. Communicators and knowledge management practitioners are moving from unidirectional use of almost exclusively agricultural media towards bottom-up communications (Shaxson, 2011), using interactive media and multimedia to engage users and enhance the adoption of research results."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Social media are providing endless possibilities for stakeholder engagement. Among the most popular channels are Wikipedia (19 million articles in approximately 270 languages), YouTube for videos (48 hours of video uploaded per minute), Twitter for microblogging (one billion tweets posted per week), Facebook for social networking (500 million active users), WordPress for blogging (over 400,000 posts daily). These figures give a perspective on the potential for engaging users on almost any issue or activity."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"To exploit the power of social media, one must continuously cultivate relationships and networks virtually. This involves \"social media listening\" (i.e., posting and replying to comments); using information technology (IT) to monitor and optimize the use of social media (e.g., search engine optimization); combining social media with traditional media (such as radio, the press, and conferences); and providing high-level content to position issues among user communities, with the aim of opening dialogue instead of trying to sell an organization or product."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"The use of communications as a strategic pathway for engaging stakeholders has profound implications for an organization's web publishing strategy. Rather than just serve as a mechanism to diffuse information, the web can promote interaction and learning in relation to research processes and products. Such an approach should have these three features: Communication units and staff have to acquire new skills so as to incorporate social-media practices and tools into their day-to-day work and promote these among staff and partners, with explicit support from management."}]},{"head":"Open access","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Although the scientific outputs of public international research are considered global public goods, access to them may be limited for various reasons. The information may not be available in public repositories; access to it may be blocked by the copyright restrictions of peer-reviewed journals; or key information may not be available in the languages of intended users (Arivananthan et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Access to research outputs is the first condition for learning and capacity strengthening. The Coherence in Information for Agricultural Research for Development (CIARD) initiative indicates useful pathways and provides step-bystep guides for creating favorable institutional conditions (such as licensing) for collecting and preserving research outputs (e.g., through digitization of older outputs and use of digital repositories) and for making content widely accessible on the web (e.g., through \"selfarchiving,\" which allows publishing of the preprint or postprint of papers submitted for publication in peer-reviewed journals or conference and workshop proceedings)."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Easy access to information further depends on Information Technology (IT) infrastructure and broadband Internet access. Improvements in these areas can make the internet available to all staff of an organization, better enabling them to promote its products and achievements. To create entry points for open access requires corresponding institutional policies and incentives."}]},{"head":"Research project collaboration","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Working in multidisciplinary global partnerships requires a change in individual computer work habits. Online collaborative tools (such as Google applications and wikis) and practices can be used to share work in progress, encourage regular feedback, and improve the use and reuse of information as well as to create and facilitate online communities. Recent experience demonstrates that these practices support the emergence of an ongoing learning process (Staiger-Rivas et al., 2009). They enhance team integration, engagement, and involvement and ultimately research impact. The organizational benefits include staff empowerment, increased transparency, and stronger internal capacity, which should contribute to organizational development and change."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Whether collaborative tools thrive in an organization depends on several key factors. IT support services must be open to software solutions that are non-proprietary and must move to a technology stewardship role (Wenger et al., 2009). The adoption of collaborative online tools requires patience and careful facilitation of the change in work habits. Before collaborative web tools are introduced, their purpose must be clearly identified, and the key people involved must understand and agree with their use."}]},{"head":"Information and communication technologies for development (ICTs4D)-site-specific eco-informatics","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The emergence of the internet made possible widespread use of new ICTs4D, based on the principle of connectivity as a powerful means of inclusion (http://www.ictinagriculture.org/ictinag/ content/ict-agriculture). The spread of mobile phones is rapidly overcoming barriers to access. According to ITU (2010), 86% of the world's population is covered by a mobile cellular network, and 75% of the world's rural population is covered by a mobile cellular signal."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The tools and possible applications for agriculture are limitless, including market information and financial services, land administration and risk management, advisory services, decentralized data collection, and many more. ICTs4D should contribute importantly to eco-efficiency in agriculture by providing smallholder farmers with inexpensive access to information that can help make their production more productive and competitive."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"However, as often occurs with the introduction of new technology, adoption of ICTs4D has been hindered by flaws in the approach used. Initial efforts have focused too much on IT infrastructure and on access to hardware and have taken a top-down approach to information diffusion."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"In order for projects involving ICTs4D to be more effective, they must meet several conditions (Rogers, 2011). First, the application must be relevant to the local context and correspond to local needs. Second, the available IT infrastructure capacity must be well understood. Third, steps must be taken from the start to ensure sustainability. And finally, applications must be developed in a participatory manner, focusing on what farmers have to offer, avoiding condescending assumptions, and providing opportunities for social learning."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"In research centering on eco-efficient agriculture, ICTs4D should be a key focus for the development of applications that facilitate the creation and use of new knowledge. Several organizational changes are required to promote a knowledge sharing culture:"},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"• A clear commitment to horizontal forms of management and related incentives. Hierarchical handling of communications and decision-making, in contrast, keeps staff from discussing research for development openly and learning from peers. • A sustained effort to promote changes in national and regional research organizations that enhance knowledge flow between stakeholders, based on shared values and knowledge-management practices. • A shift in the orientation of IT personnel away from technology control and towards technology stewardship, aimed at helping users choose the best technologies, including those needed to foster knowledge sharing."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"These changes are critical for strengthening capacity to achieve eco-efficient agriculture through active knowledge management and sharing in research for development."}]},{"head":"The Way Forward","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"This chapter has examined various approaches by which stakeholders can mainstream eco-efficiency in the agricultural development agenda. To achieve this transformation will require a multidisciplinary effort to build innovation capacity through joint learning and stakeholder empowerment."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"One of the chapter's key assumptions is the need for a systemic approach to research for development that acknowledges the complexity of research and of the interactions between those involved. Creating the institutional arrangements needed for such an approach is a huge challenge. How can organizations incorporate the notion of eco-efficiency into their work? How can they learn and adapt continuously? How can they handle complex processes and interactions efficiently? How can they walk their talk? Horton (2012) spells out the institutional changes that are required: Becoming a learning organization frequently requires: shifting from closed innovation strategies to more open ones; shifting from simple, hierarchical organizational designs to more complex ones that feature multidisciplinary teamwork and multi-organizational collaboration; shifting from traditional planning and implementation systems to adaptive management; expanding evaluation functions to encompass both accountability and learning; and incorporating societal concerns and priorities into performance incentives."}]},{"head":"Eco-efficiency starts at home","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"As agricultural research organizations begin to mainstream eco-efficiency, they can start by examining their internal capacities, policies, administrative processes, incentive structures, and other organizational arrangements. Suggested steps are to:"},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"• Develop a good understanding of ecoefficiency internally through training, workshops, field visits, and seminars. • Adopt appropriate business practices and policies, such as carbon-footprint standards and eco-efficient practices in office-space design, renovation, construction, landscaping, and supply-chain management. • Widen staff skills to include new capacities in areas such as facilitation, mentoring, networking, and social media. These are essential for working with diverse stakeholders to identify and develop new opportunities for technical and institutional innovation (Horton, 2012). • Use monitoring and evaluation methods and tools for learning and adaption in conjunction with traditional approaches centering on accountability and return on investment. • Design incentives (such as appraisal criteria, competitions, rewards, and small grants) to promote teamwork, open knowledge sharing, and a practical focus on development results. • Allow for adaptive management (Horton, 2012) in terms of planning, budgeting, reporting, and career development."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Organizations that take these steps can strengthen their capacity for innovation through a combination of bottom-up and top-down approaches, involving dialogue between staff, partners, and other stakeholders. Such organizations can learn from past experience and make better decisions that focus their research more sharply on development outcomes, leading to eco-efficient agriculture."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Changes in maize yields in Honduras, 2007. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Evolving approaches to capacity strengthening. Decade Research focus Key partners Principle mode of Entry points DecadeResearch focusKey partnersPrinciple mode ofEntry points    knowledge exchange for capacity knowledge exchangefor capacity     strengthening strengthening 1960s and Improving food National agricultural Technology transfer Training 1960s andImproving foodNational agriculturalTechnology transferTraining 1970s production through research institutes through extension  1970sproduction throughresearch institutesthrough extension  plant breeding    plant breeding 1980s and Natural resource Advanced research Networks Participatory 1980s andNatural resourceAdvanced researchNetworksParticipatory 1990s management and Institutes  research 1990smanagement andInstitutesresearch  sustainability    sustainability 2000s Development Multi-stakeholder Multi-stakeholder Learning 2000sDevelopmentMulti-stakeholderMulti-stakeholderLearning  challenges and partnerships platforms alliances challenges andpartnershipsplatformsalliances  innovation systems    innovation systems  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Types of learning alliance. Type Need Focus TypeNeedFocus 1 Building capacity and skill Training and learning using concrete, practical 1Building capacity and skillTraining and learning using concrete, practical   approaches and proven methods approaches and proven methods 2 Developing new methods, tools, and Action research that generates methodology guides 2Developing new methods, tools, andAction research that generates methodology guides  approaches based on good practice, which is then validated through approachesbased on good practice, which is then validated through   capacity-development learning cycles capacity-development learning cycles 3 Generating information that can Conventional socio-economic research to understand 3Generating information that canConventional socio-economic research to understand  influence policy principles and lessons across experiences influence policyprinciples and lessons across experiences  "}],"sieverID":"d1bbd290-35b2-4541-9f35-516c43b5364a","abstract":"Global climate change and food security are complex and closely intertwined challenges. A key requirement for dealing with them successfully is that agriculture becomes more eco-efficient. As researchers work toward this goal, they must always ask, \"Efficiency for whom?\" Finding answers to this question requires that research be conducted from a systems perspective in a broadly participatory manner involving complex collaborative arrangements.In recent decades, training and other efforts to strengthen the capacity of national partners in such collaboration have declined because of funding scarcity. As a result, key links in the chain that Contents 2 Introduction 3 Partnerships: from knowledge to action 6 Participatory research 8 Learning alliances to connect research with development 12 Reaching users through monitoring and evaluation 15 Strengthening capacity through knowledge management and sharing 18 The way forward 19 References"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01a8cc91bada6229291722c2a9e891e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ff828aa5-5864-4b3d-bb3a-7e83736a61fe/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Root and Tuber Crops in Central Vietnam: An Underestimated Potential for Food and Income?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"the second most important crops in the developing world, after cereals. In Vietnam, cassava has both industrial and food uses, and it is the third most important crop in terms of cultivated area, which doubled in size from 237,600 ha in 2001 to 560,000 ha in 2014. It is also among Vietnam's top agricultural exports. In contrast, the land area for other RTCs is declining, particularly for sweetpotato. However, sweetpotato remains an important food and animal feed crop in Vietnam. There are no specific national policies in support of RTCs, and local programs are limited. Aside from land use change and lack of policy support, climate change is also considered a major vulnerability factor by RTC farmers, who observe the climate becoming hotter and dryer."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"The scoping study results presented here will further aid in developing recommendations for increasing resilience among poor RTC-producing and -consuming households."}]},{"head":"Research Site Description","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Relevant data were gathered in Quang Binh and Ha Tinh provinces, which correspond to the geographic area of the IFAD investment project Sustainable Rural Development for the Poor (SRDP). SRDP's main objective is \"investment in climate-smart, socially equitable and profitable rural development models that promote pro-poor market linkages, value chains, and enhanced rural business competitiveness\". Based on the findings of the scoping study, FoodSTART+ activities will be designed to complement SRDP activities to ensure that research outputs change; decreasing during the dry season and increasing during the rainy period (MONRE, 2009). The project aims to enhance food resilience among poor households in upland and coastal communities of the Asia-Pacific region through introducing root and tuber crops (RTCs) innovations. To achieve this goal at scale, the project develops, validates and implements effective partnership strategies with IFAD investment projects to promote RTCs for food security."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"The project's key components are:"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"1. Project start-up and scoping studies including mapping on food vulnerability of RTC production and use; "}]},{"head":"About FoodSTART+","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"contribute directly to the SRDP objective and targets."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Ha Tinh and Quang Binh are two of the six provinces of the North Central Coast, where poverty rates are relatively high. Despite this, both provinces are developing rapidly. Table 1 shows relevant socio-economic data from the two sites (most recent data available)."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Both provinces have a tropical monsoon climate with an average annual temperature of about 23-25°C in the lowlands and 14-15°C in the uplands. The warmest temperatures occur in June and July, while droughts mostly occur between February and August. Both provinces are exposed to tropical typhoons, usually between July and October. According to climate change scenarios for Vietnam, rainfall seasonality and intensity will"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Research Highlights:"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• North Central Coast of Vietnam is increasingly facing the effects of climate change, such as increased temperatures, droughts and irregular precipitations."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• Although consumption of roots and tubers as food has dramatically decreased during the past 30 years, cassava and sweetpotato remain important for farmers' livelihoods strategies."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"• Use of cassava and sweetpotato is diverse (on-farm consumption, animal feeding, commercialization), contributing to the resilience of smallholder farmers."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"• Farmers face crop management and postharvest challenges. A better organization of the value chain could promote adoption of small-scale technologies and the inclusion of smallholders."}]},{"head":"Scoping Study Highlights","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Production, area, and yield. Both in Ha Tinh and Quang Binh, cassava and sweetpotato production areas are concentrated in a few districts (Fig. 1). In Ha Tinh, cassava and sweetpotato areas are 4,082 ha and 6,465 ha respectively, accounting for 8% of the total agricultural area. In Quang Binh, RTCs represent 11% of the total agricultural area, with 5,794 ha of cassava and 2,882 ha of sweetpotato. In both sites, official data on yields were far lower than yields reported by farmers during this study."}]},{"head":"Crop utilization patterns and trends.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Cassava producers are often smallholders who produce local varieties for food in very small areas and improved cassava for industrial (mainly starch) processing in larger plots. Cassava roots are used either for starch production, animal feed, or human consumption, depending on quality and variety. Cassava is mostly seen as a cash crop and adoption often depends on prices offered by starch processing factories and the quality of soil. Most farmers grow sweetpotato on very small areas for their own consumption. Shoots and leaves are consumed as vegetables, older leaves and stems are used to feed livestock, and roots are consumed as a snack. Surpluses are sometimes sold in local markets on an irregular basis."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"There has been a dramatic decrease in sweetpotato consumption and production in the past 30 years, especially in Ha Tinh. However, it seems that there is a new demand from urban areas resulting in relatively higher sweetpotato prices."}]},{"head":"Postharvest, processing, and marketing.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Most of the cassava roots are sold by farmers to traders and are processed in large-scale starch factories. Price negotiations between farmers and traders are limited and when prices are too low, farmers opt to process their own cassava into chips for storage or animal feed. Piece-meal harvesting of local varieties is common for roots consumed on-farm or for sale in local markets, mostly by women. Conversely, sweetpotato is usually processed on-farm where roots are sliced and sun-dried for animal feed. Most of the sweetpotato produced is consumed locally, within the commune for shoots and leaves, and within the district for roots."}]},{"head":"Constraints and Opportunities","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate Change","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"• Cassava and sweetpotato are climateresilient crops that can endure extreme temperatures, floods and drought. • Cassava and sweetpotato have a short production cycle and can be grown with minimum investment of inputs and labor, providing an alternative income source after a disaster."}]},{"head":"Shift in diets","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Diets of rural farmers have greatly improved and diversified, with more people wanting to consume meat, particularly beef, but also fruits and vegetables."}]},{"head":"Changing gender roles and perspectives","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• In some communes, women perceive cassava production as hard work and expect innovative approaches in reducing drudgery, while men are more interested in improving yield and market value."}]},{"head":"Migration","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• Labor migration plays a significant role in diversifying income sources, but leads the youth away from agriculture."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Recommendations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Farmers need better varieties, particularly cassava varieties with shorter cycle, higher yields and higher starch content in order for smallholders to raise the economic productivity of their land and reduce processing costs for factories."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Cassava crop management should also be improved, with farmers seeking ways to increase productivity with reduced input."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Intercropping systems (i.e. with legumes) could be investigated."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Sweetpotato farmers are also willing to try new varieties with better market potential. Better access to planting material seems to be a key leverage point."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Postharvest and on-farm processing are problematic for both RTCs. Difficulties in drying sliced cassava and sweetpotato properly result in high postharvest losses."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"Cassava-starch value chains could be enhanced in terms of both sustainability and inclusiveness. Farmers complain about low and unstable prices for fresh roots. They also have little knowledge of the final use of the produce and of the different market opportunities available."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"An RTC market assessment should be conducted at the provincial level in order to identify current trends in terms of RTC consumption, including consumers' perception of RTC products, both for raw and processed food. This will enable farmers to make informed choices of varieties and marketing strategies."},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"Potential of RTCs for animal feed should be investigated further, as the demand for animal feed increases and the price and supply of maize for animal feed fluctuate."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"Research on understanding the social contexts of RTCs will be central to identifying gendered needs and interests and addressing social power relations played out in the process of agricultural innovation."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2. Research for development (R4D) partnership development; 3. Needs and opportunities analysis on gender sensitive RTC innovations; 4. R4D action planning and launching; and 5. Documentation and knowledge products development. The first series of FoodSTART+ Research Briefs features the results of the country scoping studies under Component 1. They present an in-depth look at the RTC production trends, vulnerabilities and opportunities in the target countries. The scoping studies were conducted during the first year of project implementation. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Socio-economic context of the two project sites*.  Ha Tinh Quang Binh Ha TinhQuang Binh Population 1,250,000 868,000 Population1,250,000868,000 Density 209 people/km 2 108 people/km 2 Density209 people/km 2 108 people/km 2 %Rural 84% 80% %Rural84%80% Poverty 7.42% 7.93% Poverty7.42%7.93% GRDP 32,052 billion** 16,307 billion** GRDP32,052 billion**16,307 billion** • growth 19% 7.5% • growth19%7.5% • per capita 34.89 million**/yr 25.3 million**/yr • per capita34.89 million**/yr25.3 million**/yr • %agriculture 20% 20.6% • %agriculture20%20.6% Agriculture   Agriculture Labor Force 435,000 300,560 Labor Force435,000300,560 • % of total 64% 66.5% • % of total64%66.5% *Sources: Ha Tinh Portal, 2015; Quang Binh People's Committee, 2011; Quang Binh Portal, 2015; Quang Binh Statistical Office, 2015 **in VND *Sources: Ha Tinh Portal, 2015; Quang Binh People's Committee, 2011; Quang Binh Portal, 2015; Quang Binh Statistical Office, 2015 **in VND  "}],"sieverID":"9e47fc18-16a7-45b6-b99f-64ea9f092401","abstract":"Tropical root and tuber crops (RTCs) are"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01ffbdc6513c00e243a015040d4b5faa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d8ce6f9-c594-4d77-b616-9ba633557b63/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Talleres para el fortalecimiento de capacidades en predicción climática Agro-climatic forecast and climate-site-specific management system (CSMS) for climate-smart agriculture in dry bean crop in Choluteca and coffee crop in Copan (Honduras)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"1er Taller. Capacitación sobre Herramientas para el análisis y manejo de información meteorológica en Honduras."}]},{"head":"Objetivo","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Fortalecer las capacidades en análisis de información provenientes de estaciones meteorológicas a través del uso de la herramienta RClimTool. Los participantes aprenderán conceptos básicos de estadística y a utilizar la herramienta de análisis de información climática RClimTool (desarrollada por CIAT). Este paquete basado en R, permite realizar control de calidad de series meteorológicas, llenado de datos, análisis de indicadores climáticos, entre otros Instituciones SAG -CENAOS -COPECO."}]},{"head":"Agenda","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Día 1 (lunes 21 de agosto de 2017)  El primer día en horas de la mañana, se dio un repaso de conceptos estadísticos: los indicadores de tendencia central, los indicadores de dispersión, indicadores de asimetría, e indicadores de posición con ejercicios prácticos."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":" Luego se explicó las formas de representación gráfica de los datos, a través de los histogramas de frecuencias y el diagrama de cajas (Boxplot), también se presentó las distribuciones de frecuencias típicas de los principales elementos climáticos."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Figura 2. Distribuciones de frecuencias típicas de los principales elementos climáticos."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Figura 1. Indicadores de tendencia central."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":" Luego, se realizó una introducción a la programación con R, incluyendo los siguientes temas, características principales de R, estructuras de datos, estructuras de control, lectura y escritura de datos, gráficos en R e instalación de paquetes."}]},{"head":"Segundo día (Agosto 22 2017)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":" Durante el segundo día se realizó la introducción a la herramienta para el procesamiento y manejo de información climática Rclimtool, en horas de la tarde se explicó cada uno de los módulos disponibles en la herramienta. Figura 3. Algunos ejercicios de la introducción a la programación con R."}]},{"head":"Tercer día (Agosto 23 2017)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Durante esta jornada se realizó la exploración de los módulos de la herramienta RClimTool con los datos ejemplo, posteriormente se analizaron 11 estaciones provenientes de COPECO para Honduras (ver Figura 5)"}]},{"head":"Figura 5 Distribución espacial de las estaciones meteorológicas","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Para todas las estaciones se realizaron diferentes análisis los cuales se describen a continuación:"},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":" Análisis gráfico y descriptivo: Inicialmente los participantes analizaron la información mediante algunos estadísticos descriptivos, de ésta manera identificaban el comportamiento para cada sitio de interés. En la Tabla 1 se observa que el porcentaje de datos faltantes (NA%) es aceptable para todas las estaciones ya que es inferior al 13%. El periodo de análisis fue desde el año 1990 -2010.  Para la identificación de datos atípicos se utilizaron 3 desviaciones estándar y se estableció un rango de valores permitidos 10 < tmax < 45, 5 < tmin < 35, 0 < prec < 300. Los datos identificados en este proceso fueron reemplazados por datos faltantes, a excepción de los identificados como datos atípicos y en el caso de la variable temperatura, aquellas con variación mayor a 10ºC de un día para otro."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Figura 7 Control de calidad: Identificación de datos atípicos  Llenado de datos: Después de corregir los errores encontrados en el control de calidad se procede a realizar el llenado de datos mediante el paquete Rmawgen, el cual utiliza modelos de Vectores Autoregresivos (VAR)"},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"Figura 8 Llenado de datos para la estación Ocotepeque  Relación con fenómeno El Niño/ La Niña: En éste módulo los participantes pudieron identificar si en cada uno de los sitios analizados el fenómeno del Niño/ La Niña tenía incidencia sobre el clima de la región. Esto se logra mediante el análisis de la Figura 9 , la cual muestra las anomalías del indicador del índice oceánico del Niño y las anomalías del clima para cada sitio."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"Figura 9 Gráfico de anomalías para relacionar el fenómeno El Niño/ La Niña Al finalizar éste ejercicio los participantes lograron obtener una base de datos confiable para 11 estaciones de Honduras y quedaron con la capacidad de realizar próximos análisis para las demás estaciones de interés."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"*Durante este día los participantes de la capacitación solicitaron un refuerzo en análisis de información espacial en R, la cual se programó para el siguiente día."}]},{"head":"Cuarto día (Agosto 24 2017)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"En horas de la mañana se realizó la introducción al manejo y procesamiento de información espacial en R, donde se enfocó principalmente en el manejo de los paquetes RASTER, SP y RGDAL que sirven para el manejo de información espacial en R."}]},{"head":"Quinto día (agosto 25 2017)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"En este día se realizó una reunión con COPECO para definir plan de trabajo y próximas actividades a realizar, a partir de esta se agendó una capacitación con dos integrantes de COPECO en predicción climática con CPT, el lugar que se estableció para la capacitación fue la sede de CIAT en Colombia con una duración aproximada de una semana."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Cronograma de trabajo: Capacitación sobre la predicción climática con CPT."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Objetivo: Fortalecer el uso de la herramienta de CPT para condiciones hondureñas."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Tabla 2. Cronograma de trabajo sobre predicción climática con CPT."}]},{"head":"Temas a abordar Descripción Resultado esperado","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Técnicas de análisis multivariante","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"En este tema se van a abordar las técnicas de análisis multivariante usadas en predicción climática como lo son, PCA, EOF y CCA."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Los participantes podrán realizar e interpretar las metodologías estadísticas aplicadas en predicción climática."}]},{"head":"Predicción climática con CPT","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Para este tema se va a realizar un taller teórico práctico sobre la herramienta de predicción climática CPT."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Los participantes podrán realizar e interpretar las predicciones climáticas estacionales."}]},{"head":"Automatización de CPT utilizando R","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Para este tema se va a realizar un taller teórico práctico sobre la automatización de las predicciones climáticas y selección de área predictora utilizando R."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Los participantes tendrán la capacidad de realizar predicciones climáticas y automatizar los procesos utilizando la herramienta R. Al final de la capacitación el equipo de COPECO entregó predicciones de los meses de Noviembre, Diciembre para los sitios de interés en Honduras utilizando las metodologías y herramientas trabajadas en la capacitación. Evaluación retrospectiva de la predicción climática estacional en honduras."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Socialización del plan de trabajo con el equipo de COPECO sobre la evaluación retrospectiva de la predicción climática estacional en Honduras."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Informe consolidado con el equipo de COPECO sobre la evaluación retrospectiva de la predicción climática en Honduras."}]},{"head":"Segundo Taller. Capacitación en Predicción Climática","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Durante el periodo comprendido entre el 19 de febrero y el 2 de marzo de 2018, en las instalaciones del Comité Permanente de Contingencia para Honduras (COPECO), se desarrolló un segundo taller para fortalecer los conocimientos en predicción climática, participaron diferentes entidades invitadas por el Centro de Estudios Atmosféricos, Oceanográficos y Sísmicos (CENAOS-COPECO), entre ellos; la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras (UNAH), la Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica (ENEE) y la Aeronáutica Civil."}]},{"head":"Objetivos","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"1. Fortalecer la capacidad en predicción estacional mediante la implementación de Climate Predictability Tool (CPT)."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"2. Fortalecer las capacidades en la generación de bases de datos históricos de clima de la red de estaciones COPECO."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"3. Apoyar la generación de las predicciones de clima incorporadas en los boletines de las mesas agroclimáticas participativas de Honduras."}]},{"head":"Actividades","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"1. Implementar CPT para las condiciones del territorio hondureño a. Realizar una evaluación retrospectiva de las metodologías convencionales b. Presentar resultados de la evaluación de las predicciones usando CPT para Honduras (con CHIRPS) c. Explicar teoría estadística usada en CPT: ACC, ACP, entre otras d. Instalación e implementación de CPT automatizado con herramienta de programación R."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"2. Explorar las opciones de automatización de procesos y protocolos de control de calidad que actualmente se lleva a cabo con las series de datos de las estaciones meteorológicas usadas por CENAOS -COPECO."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"a. Identificar proceso se pueden automatizar y desarrollar algoritmos computacionales b. Definir protocolos de control de calidad ajustados a las necesidades del usuario."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"3. Apoyar a CENAOS -COPECO en la generación de la predicción de clima para las mesas agroclimáticas de Choluteca y Occidente para la temporada de primera 2018."}]},{"head":"Cronograma","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Figura 12. Taller fortalecimiento capacidades febrero marzo 2018."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Las temáticas tratadas durante el taller fueron las siguientes:"},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":" Introducción a CPT y conceptos básicos  Teoría Estadística ACP y ACC  Introducción al entorno R y Llenado de datos con CHIRPS  Automatización de CPT en R  Evaluación de desempeño de la predicción climática en Honduras El contenido del taller está disponible en: https://sites.google.com/view/copeco Como resultado del taller se obtuvieron las predicciones para el inicio de la temporada de primera para Santa Rosa de Copán, en la Error! Reference source not found. se observan las probabilidades de precipitación para ésta localidad donde predomina la condición bajo lo normal para los primeros 2 trimestres y posteriormente se prevé precipitaciones por encima de lo normal."}]},{"head":"Blog post","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":" Versión en español: http://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/es/cpt-herramienta-climatica-oportuna-yconfiable-para-los-agricultores-hondurenos/  Versión en inglés: http://blog.ciat.cgiar.org/cpt-a-timely-and-reliable-climate-tool-for-honduranfarmers/"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 4 . Figura 4. Módulos de la herramienta Rclimtool. "},{"text":" La Esperanza 0.0 102.8 0.0 10.6 31.0 0.0 -0.4 17.6 0.0 La Mesa 0.0 154.4 0.6 18.8 42.8 0.6 13.4 29.3 1.0 Ocotepeque 0.0 120.0 12.4 2.0 36.7 12.6 7.8 23.7 12.7 Pto Lempira 0.0 182.4 2.4 14.2 38.8 1.7 12.0 28.2 1.6 Roatán 0.0 260.1 0.7 20.1 35.3 0.2 14.4 29.4 0.2 Santa Rosa 0.0 157.7 0.0 2.0 35.8 0.0 5.0 21.8 0.0 Tegucigalpa 0.0 120.4 0.0 16.0 36.4 0.0 4.0 22.7 0.0Mediante el análisis gráfico identificaron aspectos como que la estación La Esperanza es la que registra las temperaturas más bajas de acuerdo a la Figura 5, también se destaca que la estación La Ceiba es el sitio donde se presentan lluvias mayores a 400 mm / día. "},{"text":"Figura 6 Figura 6 Diagrama de cajas y alambres  Control de Calidad: Ahora se realiza una validación para las diferentes estaciones en estudio, la cual consta del cálculo de varios criterios que ayudan a identificar datos atípicos y/o erróneos para su posterior corrección. "},{"text":"Figura 10 . Figura 10. Algunos ejercicios de la introducción a los datos espaciales con R. "},{"text":"Figura 11 . Figura 11. Taller fortalecimiento capacidades agosto 2017. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"miércoles 23 de agosto de 2017)    L. Llanos L. Llanos 10:30 AM 11:00 AM Coffee Break 10:30 AM11:00 AM Coffee Break 10:30 AM 12:00 AM Taller práctico RClimTool -Parte 2 10:30 AM12:00 AM Taller práctico RClimTool -Parte 2   Continuación de la explicación de módulos de RClimTool con datos ejemplo Continuación de la explicación de módulos de RClimTool con datos ejemplo   L. Llanos L. Llanos 12:00 PM 1:30 PM Almuerzo 12:00 PM1:30 PMAlmuerzo 1:30 PM 4:00 PM Taller práctico de RClimTool con información climática de Honduras 1:30 PM4:00 PMTaller práctico de RClimTool con información climática de Honduras   L. Llanos L. Llanos 4:00 PM 4:30 PM Socialización y discusión de resultados obtenidos en el taller 4:00 PM4:30 PMSocialización y discusión de resultados obtenidos en el taller Día 3 (Hora Hora fin Tema Día 3 (HoraHora finTema inicio   inicio Hora inicio Hora fin 8:30 AM 10:30 AM Análisis de tendencias de series históricas en R Tema D. Agudelo, L. Llanos Hora inicio Hora fin 8:30 AM 10:30 AMAnálisis de tendencias de series históricas en R Tema D. Agudelo, L. Llanos 8:30 AM 10:30 AM 11:00 AM 9:00 AM Registro de participantes, bienvenida y presentación de cada participante Coffee Break 8:30 AM 10:30 AM 11:00 AM 9:00 AMRegistro de participantes, bienvenida y presentación de cada participante Coffee Break 9:00 AM 10:30 AM 11:00 AM 10:30 AM Introducción conceptos básicos de estadística descriptiva Resultados de análisis de otras fuentes de información de clima como aWhere y CHIRPS y su desempeño para Honduras D. Agudelo L. Llanos 9:00 AM 10:30 AM 11:00 AM 10:30 AM Introducción conceptos básicos de estadística descriptiva Resultados de análisis de otras fuentes de información de clima como aWhere y CHIRPS y su desempeño para Honduras D. Agudelo L. Llanos 10:30 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 10:45 AM Coffee break Diagnóstico de necesidades para mejorar la información meteorológica 10:30 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 10:45 AM Coffee break Diagnóstico de necesidades para mejorar la información meteorológica   en COPECO Identificar qué hay disponible y en base a esto recomendar en COPECO Identificar qué hay disponible y en base a esto recomendar 10:45 AM 12:00 PM 1:30 PM 12:00 PM Ejercicio práctico en Excel procesos y/o metodologías implementadas en CIAT L. Llanos D. Agudelo Almuerzo 10:45 AM 12:00 PM 1:30 PM 12:00 PM Ejercicio práctico en Excel procesos y/o metodologías implementadas en CIAT L. Llanos D. Agudelo Almuerzo 12:00 PM 1:30 PM Almuerzo 12:00 PM1:30 PMAlmuerzo 1:00 PM 3:00 PM Presentación de metodología sobre el estudio de predictibilidad en 1:00 PM3:00 PMPresentación de metodología sobre el estudio de predictibilidad en 1:30 PM 2:30 PM Introducción al entorno de R y RStudio Colombia 1:30 PM2:30 PMIntroducción al entorno de R y RStudio Colombia   D. Agudelo L. Llanos D. Agudelo L. Llanos 2:30 PM 3:00 PM 4:30 PM 4:30 PM Presentación de metodologías de predicción climática en Honduras Taller práctico en RStudio D. Agudelo COPECO 2:30 PM 3:00 PM4:30 PM 4:30 PMPresentación de metodologías de predicción climática en Honduras Taller práctico en RStudio D. Agudelo COPECO Día 2 (martes 22 de agosto de 2017) Día 2 (martes 22 de agosto de 2017) Hora inicio Hora fin Tema Hora inicio Hora finTema 8:30 AM 10:30 AM Taller práctico RClimTool -Parte 1 8:30 AM10:30 AM Taller práctico RClimTool -Parte 1   Explicación de módulos de RClimTool con datos ejemplo Explicación de módulos de RClimTool con datos ejemplo  "},{"text":"Día 4 (jueves 24 de agosto de 2017)  12:00 PM 1:00 PM Almuerzo 12:00 PM1:00 PMAlmuerzo Hora inicio Hora fin Tema Hora inicio Hora finTema 9:00 AM 12:00 AM Reunión focal con COPECO 9:00 AM12:00 AMReunión focal con COPECO   Definir plan de trabajo y próximas actividades a realizar. Definir plan de trabajo y próximas actividades a realizar.  "},{"text":"Desarrollo de la capacitación, Primer día (agosto 21 2017)   "}],"sieverID":"cb79986f-fc5a-4ba3-8e6a-93b77edb5050","abstract":""}

data/part_2/024a136c56728a3ea409c7906dd40512.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"024a136c56728a3ea409c7906dd40512","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8530b299-0a38-4f39-9469-91475d1f0bda/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Sweetpotato: Enhancing food and","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objectives","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• Integrate enhanced sweetpotato production with improved dairy cattle and pig productivity to benefit smallholders and, ultimately, consumers."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Identify forage or dual-purpose (for both animal feed and human consumption) sweetpotato varieties (vines only)."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Investigate how to effectively integrate sweetpotato varieties into existing livestock systems to improve farmers' profits and product quality."}]},{"head":"Key findings","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"1. The Gweri variety is the most promising for forage production. Kemb 23, Kemb 36, NASPOT-1 and Wagabolige varieties are the most promising dual purpose varieties in Kenya. 2. Varieties performed differently across different agro ecological zones showing characteristics for dual-purpose, forage, or root varieties. Farmers in each zone will have various options to choose from. However, they will need to make tradeoffs between forage, dual-purpose, and root varieties depending on their needs. Those facing acute feed shortages will probably opt for forage or dual-purpose varieties. 3. Optimum combinations of silage based on sweetpotato vines, roots and locally available feedstuff have been formulated for livestock feeding and are being applied in the pig value chain work in Uganda."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• East African Dairy Development project (EADD), a consortium of partners lead by Heifer International and including:"}]},{"head":"Partners","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution -Non commercial -Share Alike 3.0 Unported License, December 2013 feed in smallholder systems in Eastern Africa"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"a6d29295-c47e-4bae-aa8a-1e22a28781ca","abstract":"Sweetpotato offers great potential as an animal feed in sub-Saharan Africa but its potential use as a feed or dual purpose (food and feed) crop has not been fully exploited. The International Potato Centre (CIP) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) are researching ways that sweetpotato can play a more significant role in livestock production in East Africa, examining the conditions under which it can play such a role, where it could make the most noteworthy contribution, and what research and development activities need to be carried out to realize this potential.Making silage of sweetpotato and reject roots Sweetpotato vines for feed Sweetpotato for food"}

data/part_2/028454a5fae87f70cb4e29d11824b69c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"028454a5fae87f70cb4e29d11824b69c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a1fe769-379d-465a-bfb6-03a0e1a64be3/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"-'-'~MIT","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Chapter 14","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Whitefly-Transmitted Viruses","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"General Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Whiteflies belong to the order Homoptera, family Aleyrodidae, and are currently reported to transmit 28 different plant viruses ofbeans and other crops (71,120). Whitefly species reported to be vectors of plant viruses include Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (=B. inconspicua Quaintance), B. lonicerae, B. manihotis Frappa, B. tuberculata Bandar, B. vayassieri Frappa, Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar, Aleurothrixus jloccosus Mask, Trialeurodes abutilonea Haldeman, T natalensis Corb. and T vaporariorum Westwood (13,32,36,91,106). Whitefly populations are commonly restricted to tropical zones below 1300m, where they are capable of transmitting viruses to various plant species (13, 32, 36, 61 , 68, 95, 102, 119, 120)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Bemisia tabaci is the most common whitefly vector ofbean viruses and is variable in its feeding habits and reproduction rates on different plant species. Flores and Silberschmidt (56) and Russell (107) characterize this variation as biotypes. However, Bird (9,10,11,14) denotes the variation as races, B. tabaci race jatrophae and B. tabaci race sidae."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The virus diseases transmitted by whiteflies (B. tabaci) are grouped into two main types by Costa (52) according to their symptomatology. These types are mosaic and leaf curl."},{"index":4,"size":225,"text":"A green, or more frequently yellow, mosaic of foliage is the most conspicuous symptom in the mosaic group. Y ellowing may appear along the veins and develop into a yellow net orbe limited by the veins. Curling or crinkling of the foliage m ay occur dueto the ~bnormal or unequal growth of healthy and infected mosaic areas of the leaf. As the foliage matures, the mosaic tends to become less apparent, and for certain diseases, such as cotton common mosaic, the yellow areas may turn reddish llite in the season (28). In the case of Malvaparviflora infected with the disease agent from Abutilon thompsonii, the initial mosaic is followed by witches' broom symptoms (58). The characteristic yellow or gol den color of infected plants is easy to distinguish from hea1thy plants in a field . . In the case of leaf curl, infected plants do not exhibit clear mosaic symptoms but may show a diffused yellowing of leaves and vein clearing which may be easily overlooked. The characteristic symptom caused by this group is the stunting of infected plants, curling, enation, and vein thickening of foliage. Costa (36) recently included a third group of whitefly-transmitted viruses which produces yellowing symptoms to distinguish from similar symptoms induced by aphid-transmitted viruses or nutritional disorders. Yellowing symptoms induced by whitefly-transl\\}itted viruses commonly appear only later during plant development."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"Symptomatological differences suggest that the first group of viruses occurs in parenchymatous tissue and the second group occurs in phloem vessels (32). However, sorne diseases may induce symptoms of the first group in sorne hosts and symptoms of the second group in other hosts. F or example, the disease agent from infected Rhynchosia mínima induces a bright yellow mosaic symptom on Rhyncosia mínima but induces leaf curl and enation on tobacco (11). Duffus (54) also mentions two major groups of whitefly-transmitted viruses identified as variegation-producing and plant malformation-producing types."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"Very few whitefly-transmitted diseases have been isolated and provento have a viral etiology. The previously mentioned groups of viral diseases have been based upon arbitrary classifications due to similarities in symptomatology and presumed insect vectors. Bird et al. (20) suggested that these whitefly-transmitted viruses with unknown or incomplete etiology be placed in one group, rugaceous diseases, instead of different groups primarily distinguished only by symptomatology. Much organized and collaborative research is required to characterize these whiteflytransmitted viruses and establish their true relationships."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"The following viruses of beans and other plant species have been demonstrated to be whitefly-transmitted, many however, only under research conditions. These viruses are grouped in order of their decreasing economic importance: a) bean golden mosaic; b) bean chlorotic mottle, abutilon mosaic, yellow dwarf mosaic, infectious chlorosis of M alvaceae; e) euphorbia mosaic; d) rhynchosia mosaic; e) jatropha mosaic; f) jacquemontia mosaic; g) ipomoea or merremia mosaic; and h) mung bean yellow mosaic."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"The following sections of this chapter will review the geographical distribution, economic importance, host range, symptomatology, physical properties, transmission, epidemiology and control measures reported for these viruses."}]},{"head":"Bean Golden Mosaic Virus Introduction","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Bean golden mosaic virus (BG MV) was first reported in Latín Ame rica in 1961 (31), at which time it was considered to be a minor disease in Sao Paulo, Brazil. lt has since occurred in practically every major bean production area in Brazil, including Minas Gerais, Parana, Bahía, Pernambuco, Ceara, Para, the Amazon, and the Valle del Rio Sao Francisco (33,44,121). BGMV has been reported in many other bean production regions of Latín America, such as El Salvador (66,67,126,127), Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama (66,67), Puerto Rico (12,17,21), Jamaica, Dominican Republic (1 , 2, 101, 102, 108), Colombia (63), Cuba (23), Belize, Mexico, Honduras and Venezuela (Gálvez, personal observations)."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Identification and nomenclature of BGMV has been quite diverse and must be standardized between workers in different regions, since BG MVlike symptoms have been called BGMV, bean yellow mottle, bean golden yellow mosaic, bean yellow mosaic and bean double yellow mosaic(l2, 17,21,46,47,48,108,126,127). Gálvez et al. (64) utilized serology, electron microscopy and density gradient centrifugation to prove that isolates inducing similar disease symptoms in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Colombia, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Brazil and Nigeria aU were bean golden mosaic virus. This relationship between isolates also should be clarified by utilization of the BGMV antisera developed by Goodman (75) from isolates collected in Puerto Rico."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Bean golden mosaic virus is an economically important disease, especially in regions of Latín America such as Brazil and parts of Central America and the Caribbean. Brazilian bean production has been reduced / greatly by the virus since 1972, and its seriousness ha~ been attributed to the increasing whitefly populations associated with the expanded production of soybeans in bean growing areas (33,44,121). Gámez (66,67,70) considers BG MV to be the principal bean di sea se in the Pacific coastal plains of El Salvador, where disease incidence frequently reaches 100%."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"Various workers (42,69,101,102) report that infection by BGMV reduces the number of pods, number of seeds per pod and seed weight. Reported yield losses consist of 57% in Jamaica ( 1 O 1, 1 02), 48-85% in Brazil ( 42,90), 40-100% in Guatemala (96), and 52-100% in El Salvador (Cortez .._-/ and Diaz, personal correspondence). Yield losses vary greatly depending upon plant age at the time of infection, varietal differences and possibly viral strains (33, 6 1)."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"The host\"range of BG MV includes Phaseolus vulgaris, P. luna tus, P. acutifolius, P. polystachios, P. longepedunculatus, P. aborigeneus, P. coccineus, Desmodium occuleatum, Macroptilus lathyroides, Terramnus urcinatus, Vigna radiata, V. unguiculata and Calopogonium muconoides (2,4,12,13,20,21,27,31,33,34,35,36,51,57,68,79,102,122,124)."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"Common names frequently used for bean golden mosaic virus in Latín America include mosaico dorado del frijol, moteado amarillo del frijol and mosaico dourado do feijoeiro."}]},{"head":"Symptomatology","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Symptoms of BGMV are readily visible in infected bean plants which exhibit a brilliant yelJow or golden color of lea ves (Fig. 1). Symptoms may appear in the primary 1eaves within 14 days after planting if high populations of whiteflies are present in or near the fie1d. Bird et al. (20,21) observed the presence of small yellow spots, sometimes apparent as starshaped lesions, near the leaf veins three to four days after exposure to viruliferous whiteflies."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The primary systemic symptoms of BG MV infection are apparent as rolling of the lower leaf surface of young lea ves, which 1ater exhibit a range of mosaic symptoms (Fig. 2). These symptoms are predominant near the veins and within the leaf parenchymatous tissue, where an intense and often brilliant yellowing deve1ops. Susceptible cultivars exhibit a marked rugosity and rolling of lea ves, many of which may be completely yellowed or occasionally white to nearly b1eached. Tolerant cu1tivars often present symptoms with less intense leaf mosaics and may exhibit sorne plant recuperation at a later stage of development."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Most cu1tivars do not show a reduction of leaf size (33). When the infection occurs during the seedling stage, susceptible plants may become stunted. Pods of infected p1ants may exhibit mosaic spots orbe malformed (Fig. 3). Seeds may be disco1ored, malformed, and reduced in size and weight (24,66,67)."},{"index":4,"size":178,"text":"The symptomatology of BGMV appears to be similar to that reported for lima bean golden mosaic virus in Africa (122) and lima bean yellow mosaic in India; but the 1atter differs in its host range (95,105). Mung bean yellow mosaic, urd bean yellow mosaic viruses and yellow mosaic of Do/ichos lablab likewise are not able to infect the majority of Phaseolus vulgaris cultivars (104). However, these viruses appear to have a similar symptomato1ogy on their respective hosts as doesBGMV in beans (92,93,95,104,128). Electron microscopy evaluations of infected bean tissue reveal that the principal cellulu symptom is evident as a drama tic change in chloroplast morphology, particularly in the lamellar system (81). Recently Kim et al. (80) reported that the symptoms are limited to the phloem tissue and cells adjacent to the parenchyma tissue. Virus-like particles appear as packed hexagonal crystal arrangements or as loose aggregates in the nuclei of infected cells. Distinct changes in the nucleoli also are evident, since there is a segregation of granular complexes and fibrils which may occupy 75% of the nuclear volume (76)."}]},{"head":"Physical Properties","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"Bean golden mosaic virus has been classified as a viral disease beca use of its characteristic transmission by insects, symptomatology and mode of dissemination in the field (21 , 31 , 68, 85, 101). However, its viral etiology was not completed until its isolation was accomplished in 1975 by Gálvez and Castaño (62). They observed that fixed BGMV has a specific form which consists of icosahedral particles united in pairs (identical dimer particles or geminates). The bonded particles are flattened at their point of union (Fig. 4) and measure 19 x 32 nm, while individual particles have a diameter of 15-20 nm. Matyis et al. (87) reported individual particles measured 12-13 nm in diameter. A similar particle morphology was found for the viruses causing tomato golden mosaic, euphorbia mosaic (86,87) as well as BGMV of beans in Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, and BG MV of P. luna tus from Nigeria (64)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Goodman et al. (77) could not determine whether these geminate particles actually were the infectious entities or artifacts of fixation. However, Gálvez and co-worlcers (24,62) could observe particles in unflxed preparations, and they gave the highest infectivity. When the BGMV particles were disassociated with EDTA at high molarity(O. IM), infectivity was almost completely lost."},{"index":3,"size":189,"text":"BGMV particles have a therrnal inactivation point of 50°C (18,19) to 55°C (62}, a final dilution end-point of 10-1 ( 62) to 10-2 ( 18, 19), and an in vitro longevity of 48 hours at room temperature (62). Goodman and coworkers (76,77) deterrnined that the particles have a sedimentation coefflcient value of 69 S, a molecular weight of 2.6 x 1()6 daltons, a 260 nm absorbance value of7.7 anda 260{280 absorbance ratio of 1.4. The genome of BGMV contains DNA which has a sedimentation coefficient of 16 S, a molecular weight of O. 75 x 1()6 daltons, and compases 29% of the particle (24,25,72,73,76). Two protein components, of molecular weight 3.8 x 1 ()4 and 5.5 x 1()4 daltons, were isolated by Cárdenas and Gálvez (24,25). The DNA is single stranded and resistant to exonucleases (24,74). It has a buoyant density of l. 717 g/ mi in cesium chloride and is resolved into two components during polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in 8 M urea (74, 77). Francki and Bock (60) have included BGMV in a newvirusgroup called the Geminivirus, based upon its particle characterization, physicalchemical properties and single-stranded DN A."}]},{"head":"Transmission and Epidemiology","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"BG MV can be transmitted naturally by whiteflies and artificially by mechanical inoculation. Other whitefly-transmitted plant viruses such as euphórbia mosaic, abutilon mosaic and sweet potato virus 8 also ha ve been transmitted mechanically (32,36). However, Meiners et al. (88)   (87) were notable to transmit BGMV isolates mechanically in Brazil, which may reflect differences in methodology or strains. Sorne strains of BG MV may be transmissible only by the whitefly vector (36,41,76)."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"BGMV has not been shown to be transmissible in seed from infected bean plants. Pierre (102) tested seed from 300 infected bean plants, and Costa (31 , 33, 34, 36) tested seed from 350 infected lima bean plants. N one of these seeds was found to be infected by BGMV."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"The principal mode of BGMV transmission, especially under field conditions, occurs from the whitefly vector, Bemisia tabaci. Whiteflies are able to extract plant sap, but the principal threat to crop productivity is their ability to transmit plant viruses. Costa (32) stated that the whitefly is able to transmit viruses to more than 16 plant species, including cultivated and non-<:ultivated plants. Nene (94) has studied the biology of whiteflies in relation to legumes such as Phaseolus aureus, Vigna mungo and Glycine max. The insect can produce 15 generations a year, during which time populations may be restricted toa single crop species or migra te to a variety of plant species. A whitefly may la y 38-106 eggs(Fig. 5) during its life cycle, which requires 13-20 days d uring March to Octo ber or 24-72 days d uring N ovember to M arch in India. Populations of whiteflies are reduced as the mung bean crop matures. These populations then may migrate to other plants such as crucifers, lentils and peas."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"The life cycle on cotton in India ( 107) varies from 14-107 days, is shortest during April to September (14-21 days), and is longer during November to February (69-72 days). The maximum ovipos,tion occurred at temperatures greater than 26.5°C, and no oviposition occurred at temperatures below 24°C ."}]},{"head":"Adults of B. tabaci are able to transmit BGMV in a circulative manner.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"There is no evidence of transovarial transmission or virus multiplication within the whitefly (32,36,95)."},{"index":2,"size":215,"text":"Costa (32) states that .whitefly-transmitted viruses are not acquired as rapidly as aphid-transmitted viruses. Inoculation efficiency increases more because of longer acquisition periods than because of differences in virus infectivity. Whitefly-transmitted viruses have a defined but shorter incubation period, and particles are retained for more than 20 days in the insect vector. Whitefly adults can acquire and transmit BGMV within 5 minutes (7, 21 , 68), and the inoculation efficiency is increased as population size is increased per infected plant (7, 13, 32, 36, 68, 120). Gámez (68)found an average acquisition and incubation period of three hours each. The retention period varíes according to the acquisition period but may reach 21 days or the entire life ofthe whitefly (7,20,32,36,68,120). The insects occasionally have been observed to lose their capacity for transmission (68). lmmature forros (Fig. 6) are able to acquire mung bean yellow mosaic virus which persists during pupation and can be transmitted during the  Whitefly-Transmitted Viruses adult stage. At least 50% transmission has occurred from adults (Fig. 7) obtained from irnmature fonns which had previously fed on infected plants (95,105). Costa (35} reported that female whiteflies were more efficient than males as vectors ofBGMV to Phaseolus vulgaris, P. acutifolius and P. po/ystachios. However, males were more efficient vectors on P. lunatus and P. longepedunculatus."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"BGMV is not seed-transmitted and, therefore, probably exists in many regions in plant reservoirs such as lima beans and other susceptible legumes including voluntary and cultivated beans, and weeds (34, 36, S l , 52, 61, 68, 1 02). Pierre ( 1 02) considers that lima beans and Macroptilium lathyroides are natural hosts for BGMV in Jamaica, in addition to poinsettias (Euphorbia pulcherrima). Increased production of soybeans has increased whitefly populations and BG MV incidence great\\y in beans planted in Parana and Sao Paulo, Brazil (33,44,121). Tobacco, tomato and cotton plantings in El Salvador and Guatemala are responsible for the high whitefly populations in those countries (5,6,27,52,61,78)."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"Bean golden mosaic virus is more prevalent in lower to intermediate elevations ( 13, 33}, nonnally below 2000 m where whitefly populations, temperatures and inoculum sources are greater. BGMV incidence is less during November to March when temperatures and insect vector populations are lower in Jamaica, Cuba and the Dominican Republic. BG M V is more common and severe in Brazil at elevations between 400-800 m and near the end of the summer or dry period (January to February) when whiteflies migrate from other maturing crops, such as soybeans, to the young bean plantings. Whitefly populations decline rapidly during cooler periods of the year, when temperatures are unfavorable to the whitefly and when fewer susceptible crops exist (31 , 33)."}]},{"head":"Control by Cultural Practices","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The incidence of BG MV in a bean production region can be reduced by eliminating altemative plant reservoirs of inoculum such as volunteer plants of Phaseolus vulgaris, P. lunatus, P. longepedunculatus, Calopogonium sp. and other plant species. Crop rotation and distribution within a production region also are important. BGMV incidence is increased greatly by planting beans near fields of soybeans which, although not susceptible to BGMV, are favorable for whitefly populations which may encounter and transrnit BG MV from infected plants, such as Sida spp. and other hosts, to developing bean crops (33,102). BGMV infection of beans can therefore be reduced by not planting beans near fields of other crops such as soybeans, tomatoes, tobacco and cotton, which favor the build-up of whitefly populations."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Date of planting should be varied, if possible, so that young bean plants develop during periods of lower temperature and higher moisture which are less favorable to the whitefly and its ability to transmit BGMV (5, 6, 23, 31' 32, 33, 36, 44, 70, 78, 1 02)."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"N o economical and practical biological control measures are currently available (95,109). Plant mulches have been shown to reduce whitefly populations (8), possibly due to altered air temperature near the plants."}]},{"head":"Control by Chemicals","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The whitefly vector can be controlled by applying insecticides to economically reduce the population size and incidence of BGMV tranmission to susceptible cultivars. Various insecticides are effective against whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum). These include Tamaron 600E (l lt / ha), Nuvacron 60 (0.5 lt/ ha), Folimat 1000 (0.5 lt / ha), Bux 360 and Thiodan 35 or End• osulfan (1.5 lt fha) (50). Populations of whiteflies were reduced effectively in El Salvador by applying Tamaron 600 ( 1 lt / ha) every seven days during the first 30 days after plant emergence (53,82,83). Alonso (6) reported that Nutasystox R-25 (1 lt / ha), followed by Nuvacron 50 (1.5 lt/ ha) and Folimat 80 (0.33 ltf ha), effectively controlled whiteflies when applied 15 and 30 days after planting."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Systemic insecticides, such as Furadan and Thimet, effectively control whitefly populations when applied at planting (6). Substantial yield increases were obtained in the Dominican Republic by applying Carbofuran (Furadan 5G) (2.5 g / m row) at planting followed by 0.15% Monocrotophos (Azodrin 60E) applied at six, 15 and 30 days after plant emergence (3,89,99,100). Nene(94) obtained effective control ofwhiteflies in India with a mixture of (a) 0.1% Thiodan, 0.1% Metasystox and 2% mineral oil, anda mixture of (b) 0.1% Malathion, 0.1% Metasystox and 2% mineral oil. He observed that the mineral oii acted as an ovacide."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Chemical control of insect vectors can be effective and economical in areas with moderate to low disease pressure and whitefly populations. However, its effectiveness can be reduced in regions where high numbers of viruliferous vectors migrate continuously from other infected plant species. Therefore, chemical control may have to be combined with other control measures, such as plant resistance, to achieve a higher leve! of protection."}]},{"head":"Control by Plant Resistance","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Plant resistance can provide an economical method of disease control. W orkers ha ve evaluated more than 10,000 accessions of Phaseolus vu/garis, and sorne accessions of P. luna tus. P. acutifolius, and P. coccineus under field and laboratory conditions, but they have not found any source of high resistance or immunity to BG MV (24, 26, 27 , 31, 33, 43, 61, 66  (116,117,118) obtained a tolerant mutant, TDM-1 , by treating seed of Carioca with 0.48% ethyl methanol sulfonate for six hours at 20°C. TDM-1 has a leve! of to1erance similar to that of Turrialba 1, but it is not as agronomically acceptable."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The tolerance of Turrialba 1, Porrillo 1, ICA-Tuí and ICA-Pijao has been confirmed in Guatemala, El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, Brazil and N igeria under high disease pressure in bean nurseries interplanted between tomatoes, tobacco, cotton, and soybeans to favor high whitefly populations (Fig. 8). Glasshouse inoculations and subsequent laboratory analyses revealed that these tolerant materials contained lower virus concentrations than highly susceptible accessions (24,26,27)."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"These tolerant materials have been utilized in breeding programs, and initial progenies appear promising (65,129). Sorne progenies are highly tolerant to BGMV and produce 1,500 kg/ ha under high disease pressure, as compared to yields of 1,000 (ICA-Pijao) and 650 (Turria1ba l) kg/ ha for the progenitors. These progenies can produce 3,000 kg f ha in conditions where the virus is not a limiting factor to production."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Bean golden mosaic virus and its whitefly vector are able to survive on and infect various p1ant species, including beans. Integrated control measures can effective1y reduce the incidence and severity of BG MV. These measures should consist of reducing vector populations by chemicals, eliminating altemative hosts, and using different p1anting dates combined with the deve1opment of agronomicaUy acceptable cultivars with improved levels of to1erance or resistance."}]},{"head":"Bean Chlorotic Mottle Virus Introduction","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Bean chlorotic mottle virus (BC1MV), abuti1on mosaic virus (AbMV), yellow dwarf mosaic virus and infectious ch1orosis of Malvaceae have a similar symptomato1ogy and are considered as a group in this section. Additional research is required to fully characterize these viruses to determine whether or not they are identical."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"These viruses reportedly are widespread throughout Latín America, wherever the whitefly vector exists (4,JO,12,13,14,15,16,36,38,45,78). They have been observed in Colombia, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Trinidad, Tobago, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and the United States. Often they are present in regions where bean golden mosaic virus and Rhynchosia mosaic virus exist. Their symptoms frequently are confused with those of BClMV and AbMV (27,29,31,32,36,61,97,111,113,123)."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Common names frequently used for bean chJorotic mottle virus and abutilon mosaic virus in Latín America include moteado clorótico del fríjol, enanismo amarillo, enanismo del fríjol, anao amarelo, clorosis infecciosa de las Malvaceas, and mosaico de Abutilon."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"BClMV can cause 100% infection in susceptible cultivars but seldom is economically importan t. Its incidence normally is onJy 2-5% in Brazil (31 ). However, Costa (33) reported that BClMV caused 100% yield loss in each of five cultivars that he studied.   14,15,20,29,30,31,39,40,45,49,55,59,61,78,81,98,110,111,112)."}]},{"head":"• .","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Whitefly-Transmitted Viruses","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Symptomatology","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"BCIMV and AbMV infection can cause asevere dwarfing of susceptible plants, accompanied by a high proliferation of buds and a bunchy or rosette type of plant development. If infection occurs in young plants, a witches' broom is produced and leaves often exhibit chlorotic mottling (Fig. 9). Chlorotic spots or mottled areas may be produced on leaves of tolerant cultivars or older susceptible plants (Fig. 10). These spots may be accompanied by a rugosing of leaves (Fig. 11). Severely affected plants   produce few or no pods. Figure 12 illustrates AbMV symptoms produced in an infected Pavonia sp. plant, and Figure 13 illustrates symptoms of infectious ch1orosis of Ma1vaceae in an infected Malva sp. plant."}]},{"head":"Physical Properties","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"S un (115) observed ultrathin cytoplasmic sections of Abutilon stn'atum var. thompsonii infected with AbMV and found spherical particles 80 nm in diameter. These particles consisted of an inner core 16 nm in diameter surrounded by an outer shell. Kitajima and Costa (8 I) observed isometric particles 20-25 nm in diameter in infected tissue of Sida micrantha. Additional studies are needed to compare these observations with BCIMV isolated from other infected hosts including beans."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Costa and Carvalho (39,40) determined that AbMV had a thermal inactivation point of 55° -60°C, a final di1ution end-point of 5-6, and retained its infectivity for 48-72 hours in vitro in water or sodium sulfide buffer."}]},{"head":"Transmission and Epidemiology","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Mechanical transmission of AbMV has been very difficult but has been accomplished by Costa and Carvalho (39,40) from Malva parviflora and Sida micrantha to soybeans. The virus can be propagated in these species as well as in Sida carpinifolia. Bird et al. (20) was unable to transmit AbMV mechanically and had difficulties with its natural vector, Bemisia tabaci race sidae. Strain differences may exist within the virus and whiteflies."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Whiteflies have been demonstrated to transmit BClMV and AbMV to beans ( 1 O, 20, 29, 30, 31 , 33, 36, 38, 56, 97, 113, 114). Bird et al. (20) showed that whiteflies could acquire the virus during a 15-20 minute feeding and retain their ability to transmit AbMV for seven days. Costa (33) was able to transmit AbMV easily from Sida sp. to beans but had difficulty transferring it from beans to beans via the whitefly."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Euphorbia mosaic virus (EMV) was isolated in 1950 from Euphorbia prunifolia Jacq. (37) and has since been observed in many species of Euphorbia. The virus has been detected in beans in Brazil but does not appear to be economically important. "}]},{"head":"Symptomatology","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"EMV or bean crumpling generally produces only local necrotic leaf lesions at the feeding sites of viruliferous whiteflies. Occasionally EMV may induce a systemic infection characterized by twisting or crumpling of leaves due to the unequal growth of green tissue surrounding the initial necrotic lesions. A bnormal development of auxillary buds al so may occur, and plants are commonly stunted."}]},{"head":"Physical Properties","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"M a tyis et al. (86,87) purified EMV partially and reported that it consists of identically-paired particles 25 nm in diameter and individual isometric particles which measure 12 -13 nm in diameter. They determined that EMV belongs to the Geminivirus group."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Costa and Carvalho (39,40) reported that EMV in sap has a thermal inactivation point of 55° -60°C and retains its infectivity in vitro for more than 48 hours. Bird et al. (18) also report that EMV has a thermal inactivation point of 55° -60°C but retains its infectivity in vitro less than 24 hours and has a dilution end point of 10-J. lnfectivity can be maintained : in tissue dried in calcium chloride at 4°C for 12 weeks."}]},{"head":"Transmission and Epidemiology","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Euphorbia mosaic virus can be transmitted mechanically from Euphorbia sp. (Fig. 14) to Datura sp. at a rate of 31 % and easily between Datura sp. (18,22,39,40). Transrnission from soybeans to soybeans is difficult. EMV is not seed-transmitted (20,33)."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Bemisia tabaci supply the natural mode of transmission, can acquire the virus during a 1 O-minute feeding period, but require a 20-rninute period for transmission, and can retain their infectivity for 20 days (20, 31 , 36, 37)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Euphorbia mosaic virus seldom is observed in bean fields unless there is a high incidence of whiteflies and infected Euphorbia spp. near or within the field."}]},{"head":"Control","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Very Jittle research has been conducted on control measures for EMV, which is even less infectious to beans than BCJMV or AbMV (31 , 33, 36). However, plant resistance has been identified in accessions of Phaseolus  "}]},{"head":"Rhynchosia Mosaic Virus Introduction","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Rhynchosia mosaic virus (RMV) was isolated in Puerto Rico and produces symptoms similar to those reported for infected Rhynchosia mínima in other tropical countries (ll, 12,13,14,15,20,84). Symptoms of RMV are similar to those caused by BCIMV and AbMV. Research is required to determine the relationship between these viruses. Rhynchosia mosaic virus is transmitted by whiteflies but is not reported to cause economic problems."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"The common name frequently used for Rhynchosia mosaic virus in Latin America is mosaico de la Rhynchosia."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"The virus has a host range which includes Salvia splendeus Sellow, Cajanus indicus Spreng, Canavalia ensifomis (L.) D.C., C. marítima (Aubl.) Thou., Crotalaria juncea L., Glycine max (L.) Merrill, Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urban, Pachyrrhizus erosus (L.) Urban, Phaseolus aborigeneus Burk., P. acutifolius A. Gray. P. l. Wright, P. acutifolius A. Gray latifolius, P. coccineus L., P. lunatus L. , P. trichocarpus C. Wright, P. vulgaris L., Rhynchosia mínima DC, R. reticulata DC, Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal, V. angularis (Willd.) Ohwi and Ohashi, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) M oendi, Gossypium hirsutum L., Malachra capitata L. , Oxalis berrelieri L., Nicotiana acuminata Hook, N. afata Link and Otto, N. bonariensis Lehmann, N. glutinosa L., N. nightiana Goodspeed, N. marítima Wheeler, N. paniculata L.and N. tabacum L. ( 11 , 20)."}]},{"head":"Symptomatology","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Rhynchosia mosaic virus infection of beans causes symptoms such as leaf malformation, yellowing (Fig. 15), witches' broom and plant stunting . "}]},{"head":"Transmission and Epidemiology","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Mechanical transmission ( 18%) has been demonstrated by using buffers and the tobacco cultivar, Virginia 12, as source of inoculum (12,20). Rhynchosia mosaic virus has not been found to be seed-transmitted (20)."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The virus is easily transmitted by Bemisia tabaci (11,20). Transmission can be achieved in less than 24 hours and the insect retains its infectivity for seven days. Apparently, the virus survives in infected weeds such as Rhynchosia minima which is widespread throughout the tropics."}]},{"head":"Control","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Very little research has been conducted into control meas u res for RM V. Glasshouse investigations in Puerto Rico (20), revealed that the bean cultivars La Vega (R 19) and Santa Ana (selection from Masa ya, Nicaragua) were tolerant to the virus and hada good leve! of resistance in the field ."}]},{"head":"Other Whitefly-Transmitted Viruses","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Bird (9,20) reports that three viruses were capable of infecting beans under controlled conditions in Puerto Rico. They were Jatropha mosaic virus, isolated from Jatropha gossypifo/ia (L.) Pohl and transmitted by Be misia tabaci race (biotype) jatropha; Merremia mosaic virus, isolated from Merremia quinquefolio Hall and transmitted by Bemisia tabaci race (biotype) sidae; and Jacquemontia mosaic virus, isolated from Jacquemontia tamnifolia Griseb and transmitted by Bemisia tabaci race (biotype) sidae."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"This chapter has reviewed briefly sorne of the whitefly-transmitted viruses which are reported to infect beans under natural and artificial conditions. Much confusion exists between investigators as to virus identification and relationships (20, 33, 36, 41, 61 , 76, 86). Additional research is required to elucidate this complex group ofviruses and to study the variability which may exist within these viruses and their whitefly vectors."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 - Fig. 1-Symptoms induced by bean golden mosaic virus in beans. "},{"text":"F ig. 2 - Mosaic symptoms and leaf malfor-Fig. 3-Pod malformation caused by mation induced by BG MV infection.BG MV infection of a susceptible bean cultivar. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 - Fig. 4-Geminate particles of bean golden mosaic virus (160,000 X). "},{"text":"Fig. 5 - Fig. 5-Eggs and immature forms of Fig. 6-lmmature fo rms of Bemisia tabaci. Bemisia tabaci on the lower leaf surface. "},{"text":"Fig. 7 - Fig. 7-The adu\\t whitefly ( Bemis ia tabaci) vector of BGMV . "},{"text":"Fig. 8 - Fig. 8-Bean golden mo:> a•g.: virus screening nursery the Dominican ~ep ublic. "},{"text":"Fig. 9 - Fig. 9-Plant stunting and witches' broom produced by the bean chlorotic mollle virus. "},{"text":"Fig. 10 - Fig. 10-hlorotJc m o lile symptoms Fig. 1 1-Leaf rugosing suspected to be induced by produced on leaves infected by BCIMV. BCIMV. "},{"text":"Fig. 12 - Fig. 12-Chlorotic mottling induced by AbMV infection of Pavonia sidaef o /ia. "},{"text":"Fig. 13 - Fig. 13-lnfectio us chlorosis of Malvacea e sympto ms induced in an infected Malva sp. plan t. "},{"text":"Fig. 14 - Fig. 14-Leaf wrinkling and chlorosis of an Euphorbia sp. plant infected with Euphorbia mosaic virus. "},{"text":"Fig. 15 - Fig. 15-Bean leaves infected with Rhynchosia mosaic virus. "},{"text":" were the first workers to mechanically transmit BGMV to beans. Successful inoculation required a high temperature of 30°C, and a 30% transmission rate was obtained at 24° -28°C. No transmission occurred below 21 °C. Bird and co-workers (16, 19) originally obtained onJy a 4% transmission but have since improved this efficiency. Gálvez and Castaño (62) obtained nearly 100% transmission under glasshouse conditions at 25°C with BGMV inocuJum extracted from plants infected 21 days earlier in a 0.1 M phosphate buffer at pH 7.5 and 1% 2-mercaptoethanol. Transmission was significantly reduced or zero if inoculum was extracted from plants infected after 21 days. Bird et al. ( 19) utilized a similar buffer at pH 7.0 to obtain 100% transmission by inoculation with an airbrush at 80 lb/ in2. Matyis et al.  "},{"text":" Pompeu and Kranz (1 03) observed field tolerance in Aete-1 / 37, Aete-1/ 38, Aete-1 / 40 (Bico de Ouro types), Rosinha GZ/ 69, Carioca 99 and Preto 143/ 106. Rio Tabagi and Goianio Precoce are tolerant in Capinopolis, Brazil (Rava, personal communication). Tulmann-Netoet al.  , 67, , 67, •. 68, 102, 124). However, sorne accessions have exhibited a low to moderate •.68, 102, 124). However, sorne accessions have exhibited a low to moderate  level of resistance or tolerance, including Porrillo 1 and 70, Turria1ba 1, level of resistance or tolerance, including Porrillo 1 and 70, Turria1ba 1,  ICA-Pijao, ICA-Tuí, Venezuela 36 and 40, Puebla 441 , Guatemala 388 and ICA-Pijao, ICA-Tuí, Venezuela 36 and 40, Puebla 441 , Guatemala 388 and  417, and CIAT G-651,-716, -729,-738, -843,-951, -1018, -1069, -1080, 417, and CIAT G-651,-716, -729,-738, -843,-951, -1018, -1069, -1080,  -1157, and -1257. Various P. coccineus accessions from the ICTA -1157, and -1257. Various P. coccineus accessions from the ICTA  germplasm bank are resistant in Guatemala. They include Guat. germplasm bank are resistant in Guatemala. They include Guat.  -1278, -1279, -1288, -1291 , -1296, -1299, M7689A and M7719 (24, 26, 27, -1278, -1279, -1288, -1291 , -1296, -1299, M7689A and M7719 (24, 26, 27,  79, 124, 125). 79, 124, 125).  "},{"text":" This group of viruses has a wide host range which includes Phaseolus vulgaris, P. lunatus. Abutilon hirtum Sweet, Althere rosea (L.) Cav., Bastardfa viscosa (L.) H.B.K., Corchorus aestruans L., Gossypium barbadense L., G. hirsutum L., G. esculentum Mili., Hibiscus brasi/ensis L., H. esculentus L., Malva parviflora L., Malva silvestris L. , Malvaviscus sp., Sida acuminata D .C., S. aggregata Presl., S. bradei Ulbricht, S. carpinifolia L., S. cardifolia L., S. glabra Mili., S. glomerata Cav., S. humilis Cav., S. micrantha St. Hit., S. procumbens Sw., S. rhombifolia L., S. urens L., Datura stramonium L. , Nicandra physaloides Gaertn., Nicotiana glutinosa L., N. tabacum L., Solanum tuberosum L., Arachis hypogea L., Canavalia ensiformis D.C., Cyamopsis tetragonalobus (L.) Taub., Glycine max(L.) Merr. , Lens culinaria Medik., L esculenta Moench. , Lupinus a/bus L. and Pisum sativum L. (JO, 12, 13,  "},{"text":" Common names frequently used for EMV in Latín America include mosaico de las Euforbiaceas and encarquilhamente da folha. The host range of EMV includes Euphorbia prunifolia, Datura stramonium, Lycopersicon esculentum, Nicandra physaloides, Nicotiana glutinosa, Canavalia ensiformis, Glycine max, Lens esculenta and Phaseolus vulgaris ( 18, 20, 22, 3 1, 33, 36, 40).  "},{"text":" angularis. P. aureus. P. calcara tus and P. trinervius. Additional research is required to determine if resistance exists within P. vulgaris and is practica! as a control measure.  "}],"sieverID":"c9f2fcee-fd82-40a7-9107-72d6188cea58","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0305033d9ed91f37d79a7574a565a8f8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0305033d9ed91f37d79a7574a565a8f8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7119081-03cb-46a6-abce-d6a595b60d37/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Effect of integrated potassium nutrition on Fusarium wilt tolerance in apple bananas","keywords":["Chlorophyll content","stomatal conductance","Fusarium oxysporum sp. Cubense","manure","potassium"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Banana as a crop in Uganda is threatened by a combination of abiotic (soil nutrient, moisture or drought stress) and biotic (pests and diseases) constraints (Tinzaara et al., 2018). Potassium was highlighted by several authors (Taulya, 2013;Nyombi, 2013;Fratoni et al., 2017) as the most limiting nutrient in bananas. Regardless of cultivars, banana yields are significantly affected by banana weevil, nematodes, banana xanthomonas wilt, black sigatoka and banana bunchy top virus diseases (Blomme et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"In addition to the general common diseases, apple bananas are affected by Fusarium wilt, Fusarium oxysporum spp. cubense (Foc). Foc exists as different pathogenic races such as Foc races 1, 2, 3 and 4 classified according to their ability to cause disease in different banana cultivars (Ploetz, 2015; Siamka and *Corresponding author. E-mail:[email protected]."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License Zheng, 2018). Foc 1 is responsible for epidemics in apple bananas (AAB), kisubi (ABB), kayinja (ABB) and bogoya (Gros Michel) varieties, Foc 2 in cooking banana type bluggoe, Foc 3 in Heliconia spp. and Foc 4 in Cavendish cultivars (Viljoen et al., 2017). Fusarium wilt is a soil borne fungal disease and has remained one of the most important diseases in the country having wiped out susceptible cultivars on farms (PARM, 2016). It is a major factor that has lowered plantation longevity mainly for dessert bananas and production cannot meet the demands of the growing population due to up to 100% yield loss on some farms (Viljoen and Mostert, 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"The characteristic symptom of banana Fusarium wilt is chlorosis (yellowing) of older banana leaves (Ploetz, 2015). The yellowing most often begins at the leaf margins, from where it progresses to the leaf midrib. A second external symptom often linked to banana Fusarium wilt is the splitting of the pseudostem. The splitting is caused by the inability of dead leaf bases to expand as the plant grows, thus splitting open as the inner pseudostem swells (Viljoen et al., 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":147,"text":"Fusarium wilt induces characteristic internal symptoms in the rhizome and pseudostem, irrespective of the affected variety. When sliced longitudinally, affected pseudostems present reddish-to dark-brown lesions inside the leaf bases that form the pseudostem. Early infection in banana pseudostems is often yellow to dark red and limited to the xylem vessels. Diseased plants will have a characteristic yellow to dark-brown discoloration of the inner rhizome, which usually starts at the edges and progresses inwards (Ploetz, 2015;Viljoen et al., 2017). Plants affected with Fusarium wilt also have reduced plant biomass, leaf net photosynthetic rates and stomatal conductance (Wang et al., 2015). Fusarium wilt fungus blocks the xylem tissues thereby blocking movement of water and nutrients in the plant. Banana plants respond to constrained water uptake through closure of stomata (hence reduced stomatal conductance) and increased breakdown of chlorophyll thereby causing yellowing or chlorosis of leaves (Chávez-Arias et al., 2019)."},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"Traditional methods such as chemical control using soil fumigants and fungicides have been tried to control the disease but are not economical and environmentally friendly (Siamka and Zheng, 2018). Other options tried were crop rotation using Chinese leek-Allium tuberosum (Zhang et al., 2013), pineapples (Wang et al., 2015) and ground cover (Deltour et al., 2017), biological control using Pseudomonas spp. and using resistant cultivars (Dale et al., 2017). Although resistant cultivars are an option, these have not yet been a success [in Uganda] as the banana crop improvement process takes a long time to achieve a locally acceptable resistant cultivar (Viljoen et al., 2017)."},{"index":7,"size":177,"text":"Plants have developed wide mechanisms to resist a variety of stressed conditions (Wang et al., 2013). Increasing evidence suggests that mineral nutrients play a critical role in plant stress resistance (Marschner, 2012). Out of all mineral nutrients, potassium plays a critical role in plant growth and metabolism and greatly contributes to the survival of plants under biotic and abiotic stresses (Taulya, 2013). Potassium-deficient plants tend to be more susceptible to infections than those with adequate supply (Wang et al., 2013). Reddy (2017) observed that application of potassium reduced susceptibility of bananas to Xanthomonas wilt. With adequate potassium, bananas increase in vigor and disease resistance (Silva et al., 2014). There has been a controversy of K-increasing resistance to fungal diseases in different plants (Andersen et al., 2018) but none of these studies has been done to evaluate the effect of K on Fusarium wilt tolerance in apple banana (cv.Ndiizi). Therefore, this study was set up to investigate the effects of integrated potassium management using inorganic fertilizer, manure and potassium solubilizing bacteria on apple banana tolerance to Fusarium wilt."}]},{"head":"General objective","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Evaluate the effects of integrated potassium management on Fusarium wilt tolerance in apple bananas."}]},{"head":"Specific objectives","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"i) To determine the interactive effect of K on stomatal conductance and chlorophyll degradation in Foc affected apple bananas. ii) To determine the incidence and severity of Foc 1 as influenced by mineral K or manure in apple bananas. iii) To determine the effect of Foc 1 on the growth parameters of apple bananas."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area description","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The study was carried out at Kawanda National Agricultural Research laboratories (NARL), 00º25'N and 32º31'E at an elevation of 1156 m above sea level. The area has two rainy seasons (March to May and September to December), with annual rainfall of 1250 mm. Daily minimum temperature is on average 15.3ºC and maximum temperature is on average 27.3ºC while the relative humidity is about 76.3% (Nyombi et al., 2009)."}]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The experiment was set up in pots containing steam sterilized soil at 90ºC for 2 h in a screen house. A randomised complete design was used with full factorial combination of K-solubilizing biofertilizer, mineral K fertilizer and manure, in triplicate (Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Mineral K was applied using muriate of potash fertilizer-MOP containing 60% K2O at the rate of 150 kg K ha -1 . MOP was procured from Githingi Elgon fertilizers company. Dry animal "}]},{"head":"Treatment/Input","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Input combination 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Biofertilizer (K solubilizing bacteria-KSB)"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"manure was applied at a rate that is equivalent to 150 kg K ha -1 ."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"Well composted cattle manure consisting of dung, urine and straw remains was used (Organic matter 5.88%, Nitrogen-3.0cmol/kg, potassium-0.21cmol/kg, Phosphorous-170ppm). The inputs were all incorporated at planting except for liquid biofertilizer containing Frateuria auranta (1x10 13 CFU/ml) as a KSB which was sprayed in the soil at a rate of 1ltr/ha a week after application of muriate of potash. KinyPotash a liquid biofertiliser containing Frateuria was procured from Kinyara Sugar limited. Pots of 10-liter capacity were perforated at the bottom and a 5cm thick layer of sand added to permit rapid drainage. Each pot was then filled with 10 kg (dry weight basis) of soil and a composite soil sample was taken per treatment per replicate routine analysis of nutrient contents before application of the treatment inputs. The inputs were mixed with the soil (according to the treatment) before adding the soil to the pots to ensure uniformity of distribution."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Each pot was planted with a hardened tissue culture dessert apple banana (cv. Ndiizi) sucker and watered adequately. The plantlets were left to establish for 2 months before inoculating them with Foc race 1. Foc race1 was cultured on Potato dextrose media (Viljoen and Mostert, 2017). The grown fungus was then inoculated on millet seeds, and 25 g millet seeds containing spores x10 5 /ml was used to inoculate the soil. The inoculum was first tested for pathogenicity before application in the main experiment. Half the pots of each treatment were inoculated with Fusarium wilt and the other half was left uninoculated."}]},{"head":"Data collection (i) Effect of Foc on stomatal conductance and chlorophyll conten.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Stomatal conductance in mmol m⁻² s⁻¹ (Campbell and Norman, 1998) was measured weekly from the day of inoculation. This was done using a hand-held Leaf Porometer SC-1 from Decagon TM devices. Measurements were done at consistent time intervals between 9am to mid-day. Measurements were done on the 3rd youngest fully expanded leaf for two plants from the uninoculated group and 2 plants from the inoculated group in each nutrient input treatment per replication. For chlorophyll content, the same third youngest fully expanded leaf was considered for measurements. Chlorophyll meter Spad-502 plus (from Konica Minolta TM ) was used. Readings were taken on five different points of the leaf lamina (avoiding the edges) and their average was recorded as the chlorophyll content reading of the entire leaf. Chlorophyll content was recorded in µmol m -2 (Süß et al., 2015) "}]},{"head":"(ii) Incidence and severity of Fusarium wilt on apple bananas","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Plantlets were monitored on weekly basis for Foc exterior symptoms (yellowing of leaves). The number of plants showing symptoms was recorded per treatment. Fusarium wilt incidence was rated visually using the following scale: 0 = no wilt symptoms; 1 = 1 leaf wilted; 2 = 2 to 3 leaves wilted; 3 = 4 leaves wilted; 4 = all leaves wilted; and 5 = plant dead as described by Viljoen et al. (2017)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"After a 4-months period, plants which were inoculated with Fusarium per treatment, per replicate were carefully uprooted from the pot and cut at the base to observe for internal symptoms described by Ploetz (2015). The corm dislocation was scored using the rhizome discoloration index (RDI) described by Viljoen et al., (2017). Rhizome discoloration scores were; 1-no internal symptoms, 2 -few internal spots, 3 -<1/3 discolored, 4 -1/3-2/3 discolored, 5 ->2/3 discolored and 6-entire inner rhizome discolored."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Disease severity was calculated according to the equation by Viljoen et al. (2017) Disease severity (%) = ∑ [(number of plants in disease scale category) x (specific disease scale category) / (total number of plants) x (maximum disease scale category)] x 100."}]},{"head":"(iii) Growth monitoring","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Growth was monitored by measuring different growth parameters (Füzy et al., 2019). Data were collected on pseudostem height (length from collar region to the vertex of the youngest unfurled pair of fully leaves measured using a metre ruler), pseudostem girth at base (measured using a measuring tape), length of 3rd functional leaf, with at the widest point of lamina were taken on weekly basis from time of inoculation on uninoculated and treated (inoculated) plants."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Data on disease incidence and severity, chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance and growth monitoring were subjected to analysis of variance and means separated by least significant difference (LSD) in GenStat TM at 95% confidence level."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Uninoculated plants recorded significantly (p<0.001) higher chlorophyll content (µmol m -2"},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":") than those plants that were inoculated with Fusarium wilt. The same observation was noted with stomatal conductance; where the uninoculated plants had significantly higher stomatal conductance than the inoculated ones (Figure 1A and B). It was generally observed that, inoculating the plants with Fusarium wilt significantly reduced chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance across all treatments. Those treatments that receive manure as K source (sole or in combination) recorded, higher chlorophyll content than those treatment without. On the contrary, stomatal conductance was low in those treatments which received manure but was highest in MOP or KSB treatments (sole or combinations-T2, T4, T6, T8) Figure 2A and B."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"There was a gradual decrease in both chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance due to effect of Fusarium wilt over time. Treatments T6 (MOP x KSB), T1 (no input) and T2 (MOP alone) were among the treatments that recorded the least readings by the 8th week after inoculation, while T8 (KSB x MOP x Manure) resiliently recorded higher reading (Figure 3A). Stomatal conductance also was negatively affected by Fusarium wilt inoculation as it gradually reduced over time (Figure 3B). As already noted above, same treatments with manure (sole or combinations) were the highly affected except for T8 (MOP x Manure x KSB)."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Application of potassium significantly affected the expression of Fusarium wilt whether externally or basing on internal symptoms. Treatment T1 (no input) recorded significantly high (p<0.001) levels of corm discoloration (rotting) to all treatments. Out of a score of 6, T1 recorded a mean of 5.3 score which translated to about 88% of the corm being discolored. This was followed by T5 (KSB alone) which was also significant to all other treatments while treatment T8 (KSB x Manure x MOP), recorded the lowest corm discoloration score."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"All plants in treatment T1 (no input) which were inoculated with Fusarium wilt exhibited pseudostem splitting (100%) which was significantly high (p<0.001) compared with treatments T7 (Manure x KSB) and T8 (Manure x KSB x MOP). A mean of 0.2 score equivalent to 20% of the plants in treatment T8 recorded pseudostem splitting. Similarly, T8 significantly supressed the expression of Fusarium wilt through wilting of leaves with only about 2 leaves per plant wilted w compared to 4 leaves per plant wilted in T1 (Table 2). Consequently, Fusarium wilt severity was highest in T1 followed by T5 while T8 and T4 (MOP x Manure) recorded the lowest (Figure 4)."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Inoculation with Fusarium wilt on apple bananas significantly affected growth. This was manifested by significant reduction in girth, pseudostem height and leaf length of plants which were inoculated against the uninoculated ones. However, there were no significant differences observed on leaf width between the inoculated plants and the uninoculated."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Inoculating plants with Fusarium wilt significantly reduced chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance as compared with uninoculated plants (Figure 1A and B)."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"There was a 16.1 % reduction in chlorophyll content caused by the effect of Fusarium wilt. On the other hand, stomatal conductance reduced by 40.2% between the inoculated and the uninoculated plants. This could be because Fusarium wilt causes a disruption in water and nutrient uptake which causes wilting; a situation that was not the case in healthy plants (Wang et al., 2015). Due to this reduced uptake of water and nutrients, banana plants responded to the constraint through closure of stomatal which was manifested in reduced stomatal conductance."},{"index":3,"size":335,"text":"In the same regard, reduced water uptake increased breakdown of chlorophyll thereby causing yellowing or chlorosis of leaves which was observed as reduced chlorophyll content (Chávez-Arias et al., 2019). Chlorophyll contents were generally high in treatments where manure was applied (T3-Manure alone, T4-MOPx Manure, T7-KSBxManure and T8-KSBxMOPxManure, Figure 2A). This could be because application of manure supplied nitrogen which is a building block of the chlorophyll molecule (Kotapalli et al., 2017). Same treatments exposed to Fusarium wilt had significantly reduced chlorophyll content. Application of potassium solubilizing bacteria did not have any effect on chlorophyll content. However, with stomatal conductance, treatments which had application of potassium recorded higher readings than those where manure was applied (Figure 2B). Potassium being important in regulating the opening and closing of stomata, and therefore regulates carbon dioxide uptake (Kotapalli et al., 2017). Higher reading of stomatal conductance where potassium was applied could also imply that plants were able to conserve more water in the tissues even in presence of disease stress (Galeano et al., 2019). K helps plants resist disease organism invasion by strengthening cellwall structure (Marscher, 2012). Plants with adequate K have thicker cellwalls than the deficient ones. This makes it harder for disease organisms to penetrate plant cells and establish an infection. In treatments where potassium levels were low, the cellwall structure could have been leaky hence nutrients out of the cell to the apoplast caused a fertile ground for the fungus to thrive (Galeano et al., 2019). It was observed that chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance kept reducing in all treatments over time after inoculation with Fusarium wilt (Figure 3A and B).   Application of manure, Potassium solubilizing bacteria and Muriate of potash (T8) recorded higher chlorophyll contents and stomatal conductance than treatments where single nutrient source was used (T2, T5 and T3). This means that the supply of an individual nutrient is important, but it is also crucial for balanced supply of nutrients for improving plant health and development under varying environmental conditions (Li et al., 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":276,"text":"The results of this study also agree with (Yanmei et al., 2018), potassium nutrition through use of biofertilizer was reported to reduce Fusarium wilt in China, although their study looked at using Bacilllus spp not Frateuria spp as a potassium solubilizing bacteria. Potassium application irrespective of the source (MOP, Manure or KSB and their combinations) generally supressed the expression of Fusarium wilt in apple bananas. Although disease was able to express in all treatments, expression levels significantly varied across treatments (Table 2). This could have been because of improved nutrition provided by manure, MOP and KSB, and that were more vigorous to counter the disease effects (Dita et al., 2018). Application of nutrients, irrespective of the source (MOP or KSB or Manure or a combination) significantly suppressed wilting. Soil  amendments by organic and mineral fertilizers can lead to beneficial interactions between macro-and micronutrients; thus, they provide the optimum need for micronutrient requirements (René et al., 2017). Fertilizers have been reported to improve crop yield and quality and play a key role in the maintenance of soil productivity (Bayu, 2020). Overall, treatment T1 (control) recorded the highest disease severity of over 60% followed by T5 (KSB alone) with 55% and lowest was obtained in T8 with about 22% severity level Figure ( 4). Therefore, it can be deduced that T8 (MOP x Manure x KSB) controlled about 38% of the Fusarium wilt in apple bananas. These results recorded lower control of Fusarium wilt using fertilizer when compared to the findings of Yanmei et al. (2018) where 60% of Fusarium wilt was suppressed by use of biofertilizer (Bacillus spp.) and 90% was suppressed by using KCl + biofertilizer."},{"index":5,"size":160,"text":"There was a general reduction in disease severity with input combinations with manure (Figure 4). This could be attributed to the fact that manure supplies not only nitrogen which is a major nutrient for plant growth but could also have supplied beneficial microorganisms (such as the Bacillus spp. and Pseudomonas spp.) that are have been documented to supress Fusarium wilt in the soil (Köberl et al., 2017;Dita et al., 2018) recommended use of 5 t/ha of manure to reduce Fusarium wilt in soils. This is because; application of inorganic N to the soil through use of fertilizer (urea or ammonium nitrite) has a tendency to lower the pH of the soil which is associated with increasing incidences of Fusarium wilt. Low response to KSB in treatment T5 (KSB alone) could be attributed to the fact that the soil was sterilized and had low carbon source which acts as a source of food for potassium solubilizing bacteria (Vannier et al., 2019)."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"It was observed that Fusarium wilt significantly reduced pseudostem height, girth and leaf length (Table 3). Across all treatments, growth was observed to reduce 3 weeks after inoculation with Fusarium wilt. However, application of potassium mitigated the loss in growth vigor of the plants due to the disease. Similar findings were recorded by Reddy (2017), where potassium increased the resistance of plants to xanthomonas wilt."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Inoculation of apple banana with Fusarium wilt significantly reduced chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance. Treatments where manure was applied had higher chlorophyll content but lower stomatal conductance. A combination of manure and MOP (T4), KSB and Manure and MOP, Manure and KSB gave increased stomatal conductance and chlorophyll content than single input source."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"As with other mineral nutrients, appropriate management practices of potassium relating to application can improve the uptake of potassium by plants and consequently increase crop production, while reducing disease incidence. The results of this study indicated that integrated application of potassium using MOP, Manure and KSB increased the capacity of plants to withstand the effects of Fusarium wilt. We recommend that these results be a benchmark to scale out the use of manure, MOP and potassium solubilizing bacteria on soils to study the long term effect of these inputs on Fusarium wilt tolerance in field grown apple bananas."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Effect of Fusarium wilt on (A) leaf chlorophyll content and (B) stomatal conductance. § Error bars represent standard deviation "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Treatment effects on (A) Chlorophyll and (B) stomatal conductance due to Fusarium wilt inoculation. § T1-control; T2-MOP only; T3 Manure; T4-Manure + MOP; T5-KSB alone; T6-MOP + KSB; T7-KSB + Manure; T8-MOP + Manure + KSB. Error bars represent standard deviation. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Fusarium wilt effects on (A) chlorophyll and (B) stomatal conductance over time. § T1-control; T2-MOP only; T3 Manure; T4-Manure + MOP; T5-KSB alone; T6-MOP + KSB; T7-KSB + Manure; T8-MOP + Manure + KSB. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Disease severity across treatments. § T1-control; T2-MOP only; T3 Manure; T4-Manure + MOP; T5-KSB alone; T6-MOP + KSB; T7-KSB + Manure; T8-MOP + Manure + KSB. Error bars represent standard deviation. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Treatments structure.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Fusarium wilt Internal and External symptoms mean score per treatment. Treatment description Corm discoloration Pseudostem splitting Number of wilted leaves Treatment descriptionCorm discoloration Pseudostem splitting Number of wilted leaves T1 Control (no input) 5.3 1.0 3.6 T1Control (no input)5.31.03.6 T2 MOP 3.1 0.8 2.3 T2MOP3.10.82.3 T3 Manures 3.4 0.6 2.2 T3Manures3.40.62.2 T4 MOP+ Manure 2.3 0.6 2.0 T4MOP+ Manure2.30.62.0 T5 KSB 4.3 0.9 3.3 T5KSB4.30.93.3 T6 KSB + MOP 3.0 0.7 2.4 T6KSB + MOP3.00.72.4 T7 KSB + Manure 2.7 0.4 2.3 T7KSB + Manure2.70.42.3 T8 Manure + MOP + KSB 2.3 0.2 1.6 T8Manure + MOP + KSB2.30.21.6 LSD at 5%  0.7 0.3 0.6 LSD at 5%0.70.30.6 F pr value   <0.001  F pr value<0.001  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Effect of Fusarium wilt on growth parameters. Particular Girth (cm) Height (cm) Leaf length (cm) Leaf width (cm) ParticularGirth (cm)Height (cm)Leaf length (cm)Leaf width (cm) Uninoculated 17.15 77.59 58.02 22.78 Uninoculated17.1577.5958.0222.78 Inoculated 14.9 67.13 52.35 22.18 Inoculated14.967.1352.3522.18 Lsd at 5% 0.54 2.23 1.58 1.29 Lsd at 5%0.542.231.581.29 F Pr  <0.001  ns F Pr<0.001ns  "}],"sieverID":"7bab8345-a593-4d18-ba50-09b380c7e070","abstract":"has not yet been tested on control of Fusarium (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense -Foc), a major fungal disease constraining apple banana production. This study was set up with a general objective to investigate the effects of potassium on tolerance to Fusarium wilt in apple bananas using chlorophyll content, stomatal conductance and severity of Fusarium wilt symptoms as indicators. A screen house pot experiment was set up using tissue culture plantlets of apple bananas cv Ndiizi. Treatments comprised of different sources of potassium (Manure, inorganic K and potassium solubilizing bacteria -KSB) in a full factorial combination. Manure and Muriate of potash (MOP) were applied at rates equivalent to 150 kg K/ha and KSB (Frateuria auranta) at a rate of 1 l/ha. Fusarium wilt was inoculated in half the pots at 8 weeks after planting. Measurements on chlorophyll content and stomatal conductance as well as growth parameters were taken on weekly basis from the time of inoculation. Fusarium wilt significantly reduced stomatal conductance and chlorophyll content of the plants. Application of integrated potassium management (KSB x MOP x Manure) significantly reduced Fusarium wilt symptom expression."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"035af65518cd81f0b88ef90f9b147a4c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4675/41ba9ca85b91705ba8cd37d2cdfeb965.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"This publication should be cited as: Shabaan, Leah Rosen, Saadiah Ghazali, Goutam Dha of COVID-19 on Aquatic Food Supply Chains in Egypt on Fish Agri-Food Systems. Program Report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Overview","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"We conducted a bi-weekly phone survey with fish supply chain actors in Egypt to assess impacts of COVID-19 on the availability and price of aquatic foods and production inputs. Respondents answered questions about their activity between the months of Febru The sample totaled 75 respondents, comprised of the following: feed mills (7), feed sellers (10), fish hatcheries (10), fish farmers (25), traders (7) and retailers (16). The areas covered included the Governorates of Kafr El-Sheikh Damietta (3%), Cairo (1%) and Dakahlia (1%). Most farmers were located in the Kafr El Sharkia Governorate. A complete summary of survey results can be accessed"}]},{"head":"Key findings","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":309,"text":"The percentage of respondents attempting to buy inputs or sell products gradually rose between February and June and remained stable over the survey period. The share of respondents attempting to sell inputs rose from 45% in February to 78% in June and rem between March and September, before falling to 62% in November (Figure 1). The percentage of respondents attempting to buy products rose from 73% to 100% in June, staying relatively stable until October before falling slightly to 85 relatively stable during and after the initial COVID The share of respondents able to access inputs, buyers and transport followed a 'U shaped' curve between February and June and remained stable between July and November (Figure 2). The percentage of respondents able to access inputs dropped from 100% to 59% between February and April before climbing back to 99% in June and remained at 100% until November. The share of respondents able to find buyers and access transport followed the same trend and hal 100% and 98% to 46% and 37%, respectively, between February and May close to 100% by July, and stabilized thereafter, suggesting an increase in demand after the COVID-19 lockdown measures were lifted at the end of May. weekly phone survey with fish supply chain actors in Egypt to assess impacts of 19 on the availability and price of aquatic foods and production inputs. Respondents answered questions about their activity between the months of February and November 2020. The sample totaled 75 respondents, comprised of the following: feed mills (7), feed sellers (10), fish hatcheries (10), fish farmers (25), traders (7) and retailers ( 16). The areas covered included the Sheikh (52%), Sharkia (33%), Beheira (4%), Fayoum (4%), Giza (3%), Damietta (3%), Cairo (1%) and Dakahlia (1%). Most farmers were located in the Kafr El Sharkia Governorate. A complete summary of survey results can be accessed"},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The percentage of respondents attempting to buy inputs or sell products gradually rose between February and June and remained stable over the survey period. The share of respondents attempting to sell inputs rose from 45% in February to 78% in June and rem between March and September, before falling to 62% in November (Figure 1). The percentage of respondents attempting to buy products rose from 73% to 100% in June, staying relatively stable until October before falling slightly to 85% in November, suggesting that the demand remained relatively stable during and after the initial COVID-19 lockdown measures."}]},{"head":"Respondents attempting to buy or sell inputs, by month (%)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"The share of respondents able to access inputs, buyers and transport followed a 'U shaped' curve between February and June and remained stable between July and November (Figure 2). The respondents able to access inputs dropped from 100% to 59% between February and April before climbing back to 99% in June and remained at 100% until November. The share of respondents able to find buyers and access transport followed the same trend and hal 100% and 98% to 46% and 37%, respectively, between February and May, and stabilized thereafter, suggesting an increase in demand after the 19 lockdown measures were lifted at the end of May. weekly phone survey with fish supply chain actors in Egypt to assess impacts of 19 on the availability and price of aquatic foods and production inputs. Respondents ary and November 2020. The sample totaled 75 respondents, comprised of the following: feed mills (7), feed sellers (10), fish hatcheries (10), fish farmers (25), traders (7) and retailers (16). The areas covered included the (52%), Sharkia (33%), Beheira (4%), Fayoum (4%), Giza (3%), Damietta (3%), Cairo (1%) and Dakahlia (1%). Most farmers were located in the Kafr El-Sheikh and Sharkia Governorate. A complete summary of survey results can be accessed here."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"The percentage of respondents attempting to buy inputs or sell products gradually rose between February and June and remained stable over the survey period. The share of respondents attempting to sell inputs rose from 45% in February to 78% in June and remained relatively stable between March and September, before falling to 62% in November (Figure 1). The percentage of respondents attempting to buy products rose from 73% to 100% in June, staying relatively stable % in November, suggesting that the demand remained"},{"index":3,"size":227,"text":"The share of respondents able to access inputs, buyers and transport followed a 'U shaped' curve between February and June and remained stable between July and November (Figure 2). The respondents able to access inputs dropped from 100% to 59% between February and April before climbing back to 99% in June and remained at 100% until November. The share of respondents able to find buyers and access transport followed the same trend and halved from but also recovered to and stabilized thereafter, suggesting an increase in demand after the The percentage of respondents employing male casual workers fluctuated over the survey period, climbing from 8% to 25% between February and April before falling to 36% in June, before falling again September before falling to 15% in November (Figure 3). reported employing a casual fluctuating share of businesses employ in hiring workers throughout the April, suggesting businesses' ability to find workers was not impacted by the lockdown measures. In May, we began asking respondents whether they had experienced and selling products or experienced any reduction in the quantity of products sold usual expectations. In May, 42% of respondents reported that they had experienced delays in selling products and 63% reported that 47% and 72% in June, before dropping to 38% and 57%, respectively, in July. Both indictors Respondents able to access inputs, transport or buyers, by month (%)"},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"The percentage of respondents employing male casual workers fluctuated over the survey period, climbing from 8% to 25% between February and April before falling to 15% in May and t 36% in June, before falling again to 21% in August. This number then rose again to 33% in September before falling to 15% in November (Figure 3). In contrast, only one a casual female worker during the entire survey period. Despite the employing male labor, respondents did not experience challenges e survey period, with only 1% unable to hire labor in the month of g businesses' ability to find workers was not impacted by the lockdown measures."},{"index":5,"size":93,"text":"Respondents employing women or men casual workers, or unable to hire casual workers, In May, we began asking respondents whether they had experienced delays in accessing inputs and selling products or experienced any reduction in the quantity of products sold 42% of respondents reported that they had experienced delays in selling products and 63% reported that they had sold less than usual. These numbers increased to 47% and 72% in June, before dropping to 38% and 57%, respectively, in July. Both indictors Respondents able to access inputs, transport or buyers, by month (%)"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"The percentage of respondents employing male casual workers fluctuated over the survey period, in May and then rising This number then rose again to 33% in"},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"In contrast, only one respondent during the entire survey period. Despite the male labor, respondents did not experience challenges 1% unable to hire labor in the month of g businesses' ability to find workers was not impacted by the lockdown measures."},{"index":8,"size":194,"text":"Respondents employing women or men casual workers, or unable to hire casual workers, delays in accessing inputs and selling products or experienced any reduction in the quantity of products sold, as compared to 42% of respondents reported that they had experienced delays in they had sold less than usual. These numbers increased to 47% and 72% in June, before dropping to 38% and 57%, respectively, in July. Both indictors subsequently improved, with only 2% experiencing delays in selling products and 7% selling less than usual in the month of October. The share of respondents report accessing inputs followed a similar yet more pronounced trend dropping from 36% in May to 4% in July. The share of respondents who reported using fewer inputs than usual fel over the same period, suggesting the impact of slowing demand and/or reduced cash flows. By October both indicators had significantly improved with only 9% of respondents using fewer inputs than usual in October. The share who experienced 1% in September, suggesting a growing demand after COVID November, however, those who experienced delays in accessing inputs or reduced inputs remained low while those who experienced to 30% and 25%, respectively."},{"index":9,"size":79,"text":"From May onwards, we asked respondents if they had sufficient income to pay for their household's weekly expenses, and how the quantity of compared to usual. Both these indicators improved between May and November of respondents with sufficient weekly incomes grew from 77% to 91% over this period. 76% of respondents reported purchasing the same quantity of food as usual in M in July and remained stable until November, suggesting that income improved after COVID-19 lockdown measures were lifted."},{"index":10,"size":120,"text":"From May onwards, we also asked respondents if they had received any form of as whether they travelled more than one mile from home during the past month (as an indicator of the severity of movement restrictions). The share of respondents travelling more than one mile from home remained stable between 96% and 100% from Ma COVID-19 related regulations did not restrict movement during this time period. Following the same pattern, the share of respondents receiving any form of assistance remained low, but stable during this time period. 5% and 3% respectively, with trade associations reported as the main source, with only 1% receiving assistance between July and October and none in November, citing the government as the main source."}]},{"head":"Hatcheries","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Although all surveyed fish hatcheries remained operational between March and October, none were operating in November, surveyed businesses rose from zero (16 million) due to rising temperatures, falling again in May sharply climbed to 15 million in June before quickly dropping in July (Figure 4). Production continued to fall, dropping from 10 October."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"As the temperature rose in April, signaling the start of farming season, there was an 83% increase in the total quantity of fry sold in comparison to March. Despite the spike in hatchling in June, the quantity of fry sold was low in June (4.6 million) and July (6.9 million) and consistent with the drop in production. There was a sharp fall in the quantity of fry sold between September and October, towards the end of the farming produced and sold. As no hatcheries operat sold during this month."},{"index":3,"size":228,"text":"improved, with only 2% experiencing delays in selling products and 7% selling less in the month of October. The share of respondents reportin experiencing delays in accessing inputs followed a similar yet more pronounced trend dropping from 36% in May to 4% in July. The share of respondents who reported using fewer inputs than usual fel over the same period, suggesting the impact of slowing demand and/or reduced cash flows. By October both indicators had significantly improved with only 9% of respondents using fewer inputs than usual in October. The share who experienced delays in accessing inputs remained at 1% in September, suggesting a growing demand after COVID-19 restrictions were lifted. In November, however, those who experienced delays in accessing inputs or reduced inputs remained low while those who experienced delays in selling products or reduced sales increased From May onwards, we asked respondents if they had sufficient income to pay for their household's weekly expenses, and how the quantity of food purchased in the past mont compared to usual. Both these indicators improved between May and November of respondents with sufficient weekly incomes grew from 77% to 91% over this period. 76% of respondents reported purchasing the same quantity of food as usual in May, which rose to 100% in July and remained stable until November, suggesting that respondents' food security and 19 lockdown measures were lifted."},{"index":4,"size":409,"text":"From May onwards, we also asked respondents if they had received any form of as whether they travelled more than one mile from home during the past month (as an indicator of the severity of movement restrictions). The share of respondents travelling more than one mile from home remained stable between 96% and 100% from May to November, suggesting that 19 related regulations did not restrict movement during this time period. Following the same pattern, the share of respondents receiving any form of assistance remained low, but stable during this time period. 5% and 3% of respondents received assistance in May and June respectively, with trade associations reported as the main source, with only 1% receiving assistance between July and October and none in November, citing the government as the main lthough all surveyed fish hatcheries remained operational between March and October, none due to having sufficient stock. Total hatchling production in zero in February to 9.7 million in March, befo (16 million) due to rising temperatures, falling again in May (9.4 million). This trend continued and sharply climbed to 15 million in June before quickly dropping in July (Figure 4). Production continued to fall, dropping from 10 million hatchlings to 500,000 hatchlings between July As the temperature rose in April, signaling the start of farming season, there was an 83% increase in the total quantity of fry sold in comparison to March. Despite the spike in hatchling in June, the quantity of fry sold was low in June (4.6 million) and July (6.9 million) and consistent here was a sharp fall in the quantity of fry sold between September towards the end of the farming season. Tilapia accounted for all hatchlings and fry produced and sold. As no hatcheries operated in November, no hatchlings or fry were produced or improved, with only 2% experiencing delays in selling products and 7% selling less experiencing delays in accessing inputs followed a similar yet more pronounced trend dropping from 36% in May to 4% in July. The share of respondents who reported using fewer inputs than usual fell from 47% to 14% over the same period, suggesting the impact of slowing demand and/or reduced cash flows. By October both indicators had significantly improved with only 9% of respondents using fewer delays in accessing inputs remained at 19 restrictions were lifted. In November, however, those who experienced delays in accessing inputs or reduced inputs delays in selling products or reduced sales increased"},{"index":5,"size":232,"text":"From May onwards, we asked respondents if they had sufficient income to pay for their purchased in the past month compared to usual. Both these indicators improved between May and November. The percentage of respondents with sufficient weekly incomes grew from 77% to 91% over this period. 76% of ay, which rose to 100% respondents' food security and From May onwards, we also asked respondents if they had received any form of assistance and whether they travelled more than one mile from home during the past month (as an indicator of the severity of movement restrictions). The share of respondents travelling more than one mile y to November, suggesting that 19 related regulations did not restrict movement during this time period. Following the same pattern, the share of respondents receiving any form of assistance remained low, but stable of respondents received assistance in May and June respectively, with trade associations reported as the main source, with only 1% receiving assistance between July and October and none in November, citing the government as the main lthough all surveyed fish hatcheries remained operational between March and October, none sufficient stock. Total hatchling production in in February to 9.7 million in March, before a sharp rise in April his trend continued and sharply climbed to 15 million in June before quickly dropping in July (Figure 4). Production million hatchlings to 500,000 hatchlings between July and"},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"As the temperature rose in April, signaling the start of farming season, there was an 83% increase in the total quantity of fry sold in comparison to March. Despite the spike in hatchling production in June, the quantity of fry sold was low in June (4.6 million) and July (6.9 million) and consistent here was a sharp fall in the quantity of fry sold between September . Tilapia accounted for all hatchlings and fry in November, no hatchlings or fry were produced or "}]},{"head":"Feed mills","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"All surveyed feed mills were fully operational between April and November; some had suspended their activity in February (57%) and March (29%) due to poor weather conditions as water temperatures are still too low during those two months for tilapia to eat other fish such as mullet and marine species can eat artificial feed at this time of the year."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Average prices of common raw materials used in feed manufactur May and June (e.g. rising by 8% for rice bra July. Subsequently, the price remained stable but climbed again in October, caused by an increase in the average price of soy meal (+22%) and maize (+18%) while all other raw material prices remained stable over this time period. The total quantity of raw material purchased by surveyed feed mills increased sharply from 1240 t in May to 3820 t in June and gradually dropped to 2025 t in September, jumping to 4014 t in October, the greatest quantity of raw m feed mills over this time period, before quickly falling back to 2528 t in November."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"The total amount of feed manufactured by surveyed mills rose by 5492 t between February and April, but quickly fell in May (3050t) September (-1426 t) before gradually rising to 2590 t in November. In May we began asking respondents about the quantity of feed sold in the past month. Sales for May stood at 3010 t, increasing by 8% to 3379 t in Jun the quantity manufactured, sales continued to fall, with 1695 t sold in September, the lowest amount over this period, before jumping in October (+2525 t), the greatest quantity sold, and falling back to 2590 t in November."}]},{"head":"Feed sellers","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"All feed selling businesses surveyed in Egypt sold pelleted feeds. All of were fully operational between April and November, while some suspended their businesses in February (60%) and March (10%) due to the off sellers operated steeply rose from 9 days Total quantity (in 1000) of hatchlings produced, by month All surveyed feed mills were fully operational between April and November; some had suspended their activity in February (57%) and March (29%) due to poor weather conditions as water temperatures are still too low during those two months for tilapia to eat other fish such as mullet and marine species can eat artificial feed at this time of the year."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Average prices of common raw materials used in feed manufacturing climbed slightly between May and June (e.g. rising by 8% for rice bran and 12% for maize), before falling by around 5% in July. Subsequently, the price remained stable but climbed again in October, caused by an increase in the average price of soy meal (+22%) and maize (+18%) while all other raw material prices ble over this time period. The total quantity of raw material purchased by surveyed feed mills increased sharply from 1240 t in May to 3820 t in June and gradually dropped to 2025 t in September, jumping to 4014 t in October, the greatest quantity of raw m feed mills over this time period, before quickly falling back to 2528 t in November."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"The total amount of feed manufactured by surveyed mills rose by 5492 t between February and May (3050t) and remained relatively stable until August 1426 t) before gradually rising to 2590 t in November. In May we began asking respondents about the quantity of feed sold in the past month. Sales for May stood at 3010 t, increasing by 8% to 3379 t in June, before dropping by 31% in July. Following the same trend as the quantity manufactured, sales continued to fall, with 1695 t sold in September, the lowest amount over this period, before jumping in October (+2525 t), the greatest quantity sold, and ng back to 2590 t in November."},{"index":4,"size":226,"text":"All feed selling businesses surveyed in Egypt sold pelleted feeds. All of the surveyed feed sellers were fully operational between April and November, while some suspended their businesses in February (60%) and March (10%) due to the off-season. The average number of days pelleted feed sellers operated steeply rose from 9 days in February to 23 days in April before falling to 16 days in All surveyed feed mills were fully operational between April and November; some had suspended their activity in February (57%) and March (29%) due to poor weather conditions as water artificial feed, though other fish such as mullet and marine species can eat artificial feed at this time of the year. climbed slightly between n and 12% for maize), before falling by around 5% in July. Subsequently, the price remained stable but climbed again in October, caused by an increase in the average price of soy meal (+22%) and maize (+18%) while all other raw material prices ble over this time period. The total quantity of raw material purchased by surveyed feed mills increased sharply from 1240 t in May to 3820 t in June and gradually dropped to 2025 t in September, jumping to 4014 t in October, the greatest quantity of raw materials purchased by feed mills over this time period, before quickly falling back to 2528 t in November."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"The total amount of feed manufactured by surveyed mills rose by 5492 t between February and until August, falling in 1426 t) before gradually rising to 2590 t in November. In May we began asking respondents about the quantity of feed sold in the past month. Sales for May stood at 3010 t, e, before dropping by 31% in July. Following the same trend as the quantity manufactured, sales continued to fall, with 1695 t sold in September, the lowest amount over this period, before jumping in October (+2525 t), the greatest quantity sold, and the surveyed feed sellers were fully operational between April and November, while some suspended their businesses in season. The average number of days pelleted feed in February to 23 days in April before falling to 16 days in 500 0"},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"OCT NOV May and remaining stable in the following months, reflecting an increased demand from farmers for feed to meet the needs of production during April, when the temperature rose."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"The total quantity of feed purchased by surveyed feed sellers gradually declined from 3293 t in May to 1642 t in July before slightly increasing and remaining stable in August and September. In October the quantity of feed purchased rose to 2592 t, the same quantity purcha fell by 49% to 1330 t in November procurement price remained stable between EGP 8189/t and EGP 8323/t."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"The amount of pelleted feed sold by surveyed businesses followed an 'in between February and July, gradually climbing from 67 t June (4805 t) before dropping in July ( November from 2254 t to 1330 t, exce for pelleted feed remained stable between March and November at around EGP 8700/t. "}]},{"head":"Farmers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Almost all surveyed farmers were operational between February and November. operating, the inability to obtain credit to purchase inputs was cited as the main cause."},{"index":2,"size":333,"text":"The share of farms procuring inputs rose from 26% in February to 100% in stable for the rest of the survey period. The total bell-shaped curve, climbing gradually between February (38 t) and May (880 t) before rising sharply to 2205 t in June, before dropping procurement stayed stable before falling again to 378 t sales reported by feed sellers. The increase in feed procurement from April to June can be attributed to rising temperature Floating feed was the main feed purchased. The greatest quantity of fish seed was purchased during April (12.7 million pieces), mirroring the pattern of hatchling production stocking period at the beginning of the growing season plummeted after April and continued to fall in the following months, with the lowest quantity procured in August (340 pieces), before rising marginally i the following months, reflecting an increased demand from farmers for feed to meet the needs of production during April, when the temperature rose. y of feed purchased by surveyed feed sellers gradually declined from 3293 t in May to 1642 t in July before slightly increasing and remaining stable in August and September. In October the quantity of feed purchased rose to 2592 t, the same quantity purcha in November, the lowest amount over the entire survey period. The average procurement price remained stable between EGP 8189/t and EGP 8323/t. The amount of pelleted feed sold by surveyed businesses followed an 'inverted U' shaped curve between February and July, gradually climbing from 67 t in February, reaching t) before dropping in July (-2551 t) (Figure 5). Sales gradually fell between July and November from 2254 t to 1330 t, except for a jump to 2599 t in October. The average sales value for pelleted feed remained stable between March and November at around EGP 8700/t. Total quantity (t) of pelleted feed sold, by month Almost all surveyed farmers were operational between February and November. operating, the inability to obtain credit to purchase inputs was cited as the main cause."},{"index":3,"size":314,"text":"procuring inputs rose from 26% in February to 100% in of the survey period. The total quantity of feed procured by farmers followed a shaped curve, climbing gradually between February (38 t) and May (880 t) before rising before dropping to 929 t in August. In the subsequent months the feed stayed stable before falling again to 378 t in November, similar to the pattern of sales reported by feed sellers. The increase in feed procurement from April to June can be ng temperatures, causing fish metabolism to increase, requiring more feed. Floating feed was the main feed purchased. The greatest quantity of fish seed was purchased during April (12.7 million pieces), mirroring the pattern of hatchling production stocking period at the beginning of the growing season. The number of seed purchased by farmers April and continued to fall in the following months, with the lowest quantity procured in August (340 pieces), before rising marginally in September (770 pieces) the following months, reflecting an increased demand from farmers for feed to meet the needs of production during April, when the temperature rose. y of feed purchased by surveyed feed sellers gradually declined from 3293 t in May to 1642 t in July before slightly increasing and remaining stable in August and September. In October the quantity of feed purchased rose to 2592 t, the same quantity purchased in June, then , the lowest amount over the entire survey period. The average verted U' shaped curve ing its highest point in 2551 t) (Figure 5). Sales gradually fell between July and pt for a jump to 2599 t in October. The average sales value for pelleted feed remained stable between March and November at around EGP 8700/t. Almost all surveyed farmers were operational between February and November. Among those not operating, the inability to obtain credit to purchase inputs was cited as the main cause."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"procuring inputs rose from 26% in February to 100% in June and remained of feed procured by farmers followed a shaped curve, climbing gradually between February (38 t) and May (880 t) before rising . In the subsequent months the feed , similar to the pattern of sales reported by feed sellers. The increase in feed procurement from April to June can be , causing fish metabolism to increase, requiring more feed. Floating feed was the main feed purchased. The greatest quantity of fish seed was purchased during April (12.7 million pieces), mirroring the pattern of hatchling production, and the main . The number of seed purchased by farmers April and continued to fall in the following months, with the lowest quantity (770 pieces). "}]},{"head":"Traders","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"All surveyed fish traders were operational between February and November, while the number of days operated per month fell from a high of 27 days in February, to 15 November."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"Farmed fish were traded throughout the entire survey period, while marine capture fish were only traded from May onwards. No respondents reported trading freshwater capture fish or shrimp. The total quantity of farmed fish s month and followed an 'inverted U shaped' curve between May and November (Figure 6). The lowest quantity sold was in March (303 t) and May (318 t), after highest quantity sold, in August (499 t) and September (489 t). After the quantity traded peak these months, sales fell in October and continued to fall to 165 t in November, a 62% decrease from February. In contrast, the total quantity of marine capture fish s stable, standing at 67 t in May and June, falling slightly to 51 t and 47 t in July and August remaining stable until November, when sales dropped to only 18 t."},{"index":3,"size":360,"text":"The average wholesale sales price of farmed fish declined steadily f EGP 18/kg in July (which is about 20% lower than the normal market price at this time of year) before slightly rebounding to around drop in the price received by wholesal the fish traded over this period. Farmed fish sales fluctuated over the survey period. Fish sales rose by more than ten times, from 40 t to 433 t between February and April, before falling back sharply in May ( increased again in June to 323 t, falling again by 54% in August to 147 t. Sales trended upwards in September and jumped in October to 817 t, the greatest quantity of farmed fish sold in this time period, then plummeted by 76% to 197 t in November. The high fish sales in April can be ed to Easter holiday, during which eating fish is tradition for Egyptian consumers. The average farmgate price received by farmers declined gradually, from EGP 26/kg in February to EGP 21/kg in July; a reduction of about 24%, remaining at this level thereafter. Tilapia accounted for All surveyed fish traders were operational between February and November, while the number of days operated per month fell from a high of 27 days in February, to 15-Farmed fish were traded throughout the entire survey period, while marine capture fish were only traded from May onwards. No respondents reported trading freshwater capture fish or shrimp. The total quantity of farmed fish sold by surveyed traders fluctuated somewhat from month to month and followed an 'inverted U shaped' curve between May and November (Figure 6). The lowest quantity sold was in March (303 t) and May (318 t), after which it gradually in August (499 t) and September (489 t). After the quantity traded peak these months, sales fell in October and continued to fall to 165 t in November, a 62% decrease from February. In contrast, the total quantity of marine capture fish sold remained relatively stable, standing at 67 t in May and June, falling slightly to 51 t and 47 t in July and August stable until November, when sales dropped to only 18 t."},{"index":4,"size":338,"text":"The average wholesale sales price of farmed fish declined steadily from EGP 27/kg in February to EGP 18/kg in July (which is about 20% lower than the normal market price at this time of year) around EGP 21/kg in October and November. This amounts to a 50% drop in the price received by wholesalers over this six-month period. Tilapia accounted for Total quantity (t) of farmed fish sold by traders, by month Farmed fish sales fluctuated over the survey period. Fish sales rose by more than ten times, from 40 t to 433 t between February and April, before falling back sharply in May (-313 t). Sales ling again by 54% in August to 147 t. Sales trended upwards in September and jumped in October to 817 t, the greatest quantity of farmed fish sold in this time . The high fish sales in April can be ed to Easter holiday, during which eating fish is tradition for Egyptian consumers. The average farmgate price received by farmers declined gradually, from EGP 26/kg in February to EGP remaining at this level thereafter. Tilapia accounted for All surveyed fish traders were operational between February and November, while the number of -21 days during May-Farmed fish were traded throughout the entire survey period, while marine capture fish were only traded from May onwards. No respondents reported trading freshwater capture fish or shrimp. old by surveyed traders fluctuated somewhat from month to month and followed an 'inverted U shaped' curve between May and November (Figure 6). The gradually climbed to the in August (499 t) and September (489 t). After the quantity traded peaked in these months, sales fell in October and continued to fall to 165 t in November, a 62% decrease old remained relatively stable, standing at 67 t in May and June, falling slightly to 51 t and 47 t in July and August, rom EGP 27/kg in February to EGP 18/kg in July (which is about 20% lower than the normal market price at this time of year)"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"EGP 21/kg in October and November. This amounts to a 50% month period. Tilapia accounted for most of "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2. Key findings ................................ Hatcheries ................................ Feed mills................................ Feed sellers................................ Farmers................................ Traders................................ Retailers ................................ 3. Recommendations................................Table of contents ................................................................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ ................................................................................................ 3 ............................................................. ...................................................................... ................................................................. .................................................................... ..................................................................... .................................................................. ........................................................................ ......................................................................... ..................................................................... ..................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Respondents attempting to buy or sell inputs, by month (%) "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Respondents employing women or men casual workers, or unable to hire casual workers, by month "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Total quantity (in 1000) of hatchlings produced, by month "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Total quantity (t) of pelleted feed sold, by month "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Total quantity (t) of farmed fish sold by traders, by month "},{"text":" research program. Designed in collaboration with research partners, beneficiaries and stakeholders, FISH develops and implements research innovations that optimize the individual and joint contributions e fisheries to reducing poverty, improving food and nutrition security and sustaining the underlying natural resources and ecosystems services upon which both of the CGIAR Consortium. CGIAR is a global "},{"text":" Table of contents ................................ 1. Overview................................  "},{"text":" Farmed fish sales fluctuated over the survey period. Fish sales rose by more than ten times, from 40 t to 433 t between February and April, before falling back sharply in May ( increased again in June to 323 t, fal September and jumped in October to 817 t, the greatest quantity of farmed fish sold in this time period, then plummeted by 76% to 197 t attributed to Easter holiday, during which eating fish is tradition for Egyptian consumers. The average farmgate price received by farmers declined gradually, from EGP 26/kg in February to EGP 21/kg in July; a reduction of about 24% the bulk of fish sold. 2599  2599  1330 1330 OCT NOV OCTNOV  "}],"sieverID":"69f75493-1aae-4c6c-a619-49f1451fc77e","abstract":"is a multidisciplinary research program. Designed in collaboration with research partners, beneficiaries and stakeholders, FISH develops and implements research innovations that optimize the individual and joint contributions scale fisheries to reducing poverty, improving food and nutrition security and sustaining the underlying natural resources and ecosystems services upon which both ember of the CGIAR Consortium. CGIAR is a global rch Program on Fish Agri-. The program is supported by contributors to the CGIAR"}

data/part_2/036dcd8c0f2f839c58212a5b9eddbbcc.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"036dcd8c0f2f839c58212a5b9eddbbcc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c787189-c985-4e42-a302-d02a116dbc95/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Next Steps for Climate Change Mitigation in Agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Agriculture is both a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and a potential sink for carbon. Shifts in agricultural practices can significantly affect climate change. Yet mitigation of climate change in agriculture has been limited to date. What is needed to advance?"},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Evidence strongly suggests that climate change mitigation in agriculture is feasible and can be significant at large scales. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, agricultural emissions can be managed by: (1) reducing emissions from methane and nitrous oxide, (2) greenhouse gas removals from the atmosphere through carbon sequestration, and (3) avoiding or displacing emissions, e.g. by maintaining existing biomass or soil carbon, or increasing energy efficiency. This policy brief proposes that action is needed in six areas: `international and national policy support; `implementation options and effective governance; `developing tools and technical guidelines; `financing and economic incentives; `strengthening national capacities; and `ensuring co-benefits for the environment and poverty alleviation."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Opportunities and barriers for climate change mitigation in agriculture are presented for each of these areas. Key points are summarized in Table 1."}]},{"head":"Increasing international and national policy support","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Frameworks already exist for mitigation policy in agriculture at international and national levels. These policy windows (see below) provide scope for action, but few make provisions that directly support mitigation measures. Only New Zealand has enacted a policy to reduce agricultural emissions starting in 2015."}]},{"head":"Policy windows for agricultural climate change mitigation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The To advance policy, mitigation in agriculture will need to be compatible with national goals for food security, economic development and trade."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Whether agriculture can become greenhouse gas neutral is an open question that will depend on countries' priorities. The largest potential for mitigating climate change from agriculture is in developing countries. Technical mitigation options in agriculture compatible with sustainable food production such as increasing soil carbon, should therefore be prioritized."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"Similarly, mitigation measures must provide tangible benefits to farmers, including the poor. Some may receive higher prices from corporate social responsibility programs for 'low climate impact' agriculture, or may gain income by selling carbon credits or receiving public funds for mitigation practices. However, innovations are needed to further improve access to financial benefits, as current profits per hectare or per tonne of carbon are low. Carbon project developers for example, are looking to aggregate farm-based projects to lower transaction costs and reduce risk."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"For developing countries planning to import more of their food, including many in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, support for agricultural mitigation rests on measures not limiting trade or reducing economic competitiveness. Trade concerns should be at least partly addressed by compensating importing countries for mitigation costs incurred. "}]},{"head":"Developing tools and technical guidelines","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Robust monitoring, reporting and verification are needed to ensure that changes in land management result in reduced net emissions. Developing simple, cost-efficient methods that can be applied globally will facilitate comparisons and rapid implementation."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Climate change mitigation in agriculture involves high reversibility, patchiness, variability and diversity of land ownership, making precise monitoring costly. A combination of models and on-farm measurements can yield robust results if applied at large enough scales, though some changes in management can be hard to detect. For example, there is no consensus about the economic feasibility of measuring changes in soil carbon over extensive areas and long time periods, or attributing the changes to land management."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Few standards exist for agricultural practices, though some countries are moving quickly to develop them, e.g. Australia 2 . The Voluntary Carbon Standard is the only system to address agriculture globally, covering improved cropland and grassland management, and crop and grassland conversion. Methodologies currently under review include sustainable agricultural land management practices, nitrous oxide emissions for agricultural crops in the USA from nitrogen fertilizer reductions, afforestation/ reforestation of agricultural land, adoption of sustainable grassland management through fire and grazing, and mosaic deforestation."}]},{"head":"Financing and economic incentives","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Both public and private funding will be required to promote climate change mitigation in agriculture. The small number of on-farm pilot projects measuring emissions reductions and sequestration is not yet sufficient to mobilize significant levels of investment capital, and low carbon prices further limit investment interest. The first Emission Reductions Purchase Agreement for soil carbon in Africa was signed in 2010, which should lead the way for more projects. Also, the market value of agricultural offset credits is strongly influenced by regulations requiring international, regional or national compliance to mitigation targets."}]},{"head":"Strengthening national capacities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Low capacity exists in most developing countries for promoting climate change mitigation in agriculture, and accountability structures are typically weak. Few countries have the means for monitoring greenhouse gas emissions or to effectively develop technical options with farmers. REDD programs have begun to"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Ensuring co-benefits for the environment and poverty alleviation"},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"Co-benefits will be necessary for mitigation to be widely adopted and sustained. Some existing standards and certification programs like the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance, provide such opportunities, including poverty reduction, enhanced biodiversity and soil health. Mitigation initiatives should also include safeguards such as contributions to a community fund to reduce negative social or environmental impacts. Smallholder farmers still remain largely uninformed about climate change policy and mitigation options, even in existing REDD and CDM projects. They must be informed about how mitigation mechanisms work, what benefits they can realistically expect and the potential risks from engaging in offset contracts along with other impacts."}]},{"head":"Towards action","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The agricultural sector can potentially play a much more significant role in enhancing climate change mitigation at a global level. Action is needed on multiple fronts, from policy to finance and co-benefits. Similar to the Bali Action Plan for REDD, a period of intensive development and investment is needed now, to advance mitigation in agriculture. Moving forward on multiple fronts will enable rapid development of policy, but also more robust approaches to climate change mitigation that also meet the economic development needs in the world's poorest regions."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Key barriers and opportunities for agricultural mitigation Monitoring, reporting and verification is complicated by the high potential for reversibility in agriculture, difficulties in measuring nitrous oxide and methane, and the cost of measuring diverse and changing farm practices `Few developing countries have capacity for this ` Standard-setting processes are not well coordinated The carbon market is unlikely to be a stand-alone incentive for changing practices ` The credibility and value of agricultural offset credits has been hindered by slow progress toward cap-and-trade markets, and challenges in establishing national standards for monitoring, reporting and verification ` Early financing is needed for readiness and capacity building activities Aggregating projects may reduce transaction costs and facilitate investment ` Integrated analysis of potential sources, types and magnitude of finance can compare financing approaches and assess likely impacts and opportunities Increasing international and national policy support Increasing international and national policy support Barriers `Lack of clear financial incentives Barriers`Lack of clear financial incentives  `Concern about constraining economic development, food security `Concern about constraining economic development, food security  and trade and trade Opportunities ` Significant mitigation potential globally Opportunities` Significant mitigation potential globally  ` Technical options exist that are compatible with economic ` Technical options exist that are compatible with economic  development, adaptation and food security development, adaptation and food security  ` Policies that set caps on emissions could increase carbon prices ` Policies that set caps on emissions could increase carbon prices  ` REDD+ is a precedent and includes agriculture as a driver of ` REDD+ is a precedent and includes agriculture as a driver of  deforestation deforestation Demonstrating implementation options Demonstrating implementation options  "}],"sieverID":"d3a4cef0-11ac-4ca9-978f-0d011f49ad20","abstract":"Agriculture can contribute significantly to climate change mitigation, but more action is needed to identify appropriate implementation mechanisms, technical guidelines, policies and sources of finance to improve readiness and capacity building. `Mitigation measures must provide direct benefits to farmers and contribute to national food security, economic development and trade to gain political support and investment. `Pilot projects need to demonstrate different mitigation mechanisms and improve their technical and economic feasibility under diverse farm conditions.`Simple, cost-efficient and regionally adapted methods are required for monitoring, reporting and verifying agricultural emissions.`Carbon markets are unlikely to provide sufficient incentives for widespread adoption of mitigation practices in agriculture."}

data/part_2/03a5d38ad3f89896ecafd7a7b77e630e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03a5d38ad3f89896ecafd7a7b77e630e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3cf15ceb-52b4-40ae-acf0-f6d6bde11df0/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"Estrategias de comercialización local de Arroz Biofortificado enfocadas en las comunidades de Leticia y Zapatero","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introducción del caso","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Como parte de la iniciativa AgriLAC Resiliente: \"Sistemas de innovación agroalimentaria resilientes en América Latina y el Caribe\" en el desarrollo de su paquete de trabajo 1 Dando forma a las 'mejores apuestas' socioecológicas-tecnológicas (SET) sensibles a la nutrición, la Alianza Bioversity CIAT y la Fundación Canal del Dique COMPAS firmaron un acuerdo de colaboración para fortalecer e impulsar la producción y consumo de arroz biofortificado Fedearroz-BIOZn035 en el Caribe. Esta actividad se ha realizado a través del acompañamiento de organizaciones de productores de arroz en Bolívar con el fin de fortalecerlos técnicamente en la producción, postcosecha y posterior comercialización de su producto. La Alianza ha generado herramientas metodológicas y acompañamiento técnico para la implementación e investigación de los temas de interés, mientras que la Fundación Canal del Dique y el SENA seccional Bolívar han jugado el papel de implementadores estableciendo contacto más directo con las comunidades."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Dentro de las actividades planteadas en el acompañamiento que la Alianza y la Fundación están: i) establecimiento de parcelas diversas intercalando arroz con otros cultivos implementados por la comunidad(es)/grupo(s) seleccionado(s) con un acompañamiento técnico profesional entrenado por la Alianza, ii) fortalecimiento de los procesos de postcosecha, iii) estudio de la cadena de mercado de arroz en Bolívar y sondeo de oportunidades de mercado para el arroz Biofortificado."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"Este documento es una continuación del primer estudio Exploración de la demanda de arroz local frente a las condiciones productivas de la Asociación de Productores de Leticia -Bolívar, resultado de la implementación de la fase 1 y 2 del Protocolo para la Exploración de las Condiciones Productivas, Empresariales y la Demanda de Arroz en la Zona Caribe. El presente estudio refleja los resultados de la aplicación de la fase 3 de la metodología cuyas actividades se relacionan a la cuarta actividad mencionada que enmarca el análisis de la cadena de valor y sondeo de mercado. Estas actividades se llevaron a cabo entre abril y octubre de 2023."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"El objetivo principal de este estudio en esta etapa fue recopilar información complementaria clave sobre los segmentos de mercados potenciales para la definición de la estrategia de comercialización local de la variedad de arroz Fedearroz BioZn035 para la Asociación de Productores Agropecuarios de la comunidad de Leticia y Canal del Dique. Adicional a esto, se aplicó la metodología de mercados con los productores del Consejo Comunitario de Zapatero, con quiénes se había trabajado en el fortalecimiento de la producción y postcosecha en los semestres anteriores."},{"index":5,"size":137,"text":"Durante esta etapa del estudio, se enriqueció la información acerca de la demanda a través de entrevistas semiestructuradas con actores clave, especialmente restaurantes interesados en adquirir productos locales y tiendas saludables. Además, se llevó a cabo la validación y complementación del mapeo de la cadena de valor con la comunidad de Zapatero, junto con talleres enfocados en comercialización y costos de producción para ambas comunidades. Todos estos datos recopilados fueron fundamentales para dos elementos cruciales: El primero, el diseño de una planeación estratégica fundamentada en los DOFAs (Debilidades, Oportunidades, Fortalezas y Amenazas) identificados con las comunidades. Esta planeación busca establecer acciones a largo plazo que definan la dirección para estas comunidades en el ámbito del mercadeo del producto y la situación comercial de la Asociación de Leticia y los productores de Zapatero, ambos ubicados en Cartagena, Bolívar."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"Y el segundo, la formulación de una estrategia de comercialización adaptada a dos perfiles de clientes específicos, definidos a partir de los hallazgos clave. Asimismo, se trabajó en el establecimiento de conexiones comerciales con clientes en Cartagena para implementar un primer piloto de comercialización del arroz blanco pulido de Leticia y Zapatero."}]},{"head":"Metodología","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"La fase 3 del protocolo metodológico para el componente de mercados propone investigar la demanda de arroz en Cartagena y otros municipios cercanos a las regiones donde se ubican los grupos de productores. Este paso busca complementar el estudio de la cadena de valor y, a partir de ello, elaborar estrategias para conectar a los productores con posibles nichos de mercado. Los avances en la identificación de los actores clave en los eslabones de transformación y comercialización en las primeras etapas proporcionaron una base sólida para enfocar esta etapa final en los nichos con potencial de enlace para estos grupos y avanzar en la construcción participativa del plan estratégico y las estrategias de comercialización."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"Para llevar a cabo esta etapa, se utilizó un enfoque cualitativo de investigación, utilizando herramientas de aproximación participativa y técnicas de recolección centradas en abordar a los principales actores en los nichos de mercado seleccionados a partir de instrumentos abiertos. Además, se implementó un proceso de sensibilización y capacitación en conceptos de comercialización y mercados, permitiendo que los productores de los grupos objetivo puedan acercarse de forma más directa a las relaciones comerciales. Este proceso siguió los siguientes pasos: Identificación de la capacidad productiva actual de los productores de los grupos objetivos y análisis DOFA para construcción de plan estratégico: En la fase 2 se realizó un taller de costos de producción con la comunidad de Leticia con aproximadamente 14 participantes entre líderes y asociado(a)s para determinar costos y capacidad aproximada de producción por productor. La fase 3 amplió el componente de mercados para los productores del Consejo Comunitario de Zapatero con quiénes se realizó un taller que incluyó conceptos generales de comercialización y mercados, socialización de datos de mercado de arroz de Bolívar e identificación de costos de producción asociados al proceso productivos del cultivo de arroz, identificando etapas del cultivo, capacidad productiva y precio de venta tentativo. Este taller contó con la participación de 16 mujeres y 4 hombres, para un total de 20 participantes."}]},{"head":"Entrevistas abiertas y visitas a actores comerciales claves en los nichos potenciales (restaurantes y tiendas saludables):","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Se realizaron entrevistas a los gerentes de tiendas saludables, un restaurante y un café bar. Con los restaurantes se indagó requerimientos en volumen y frecuencia de entrega de arroz, además de indagar estándares de calidad, mientras que con las tiendas se indagó sobre los productos transformados a base de arroz y arroz blanco pulido empacado."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Construcción de planeación estratégica para los grupos de productores de Zapatero y Leticia: El equipo investigador construyó una planeación estratégica con acciones y plazos para contrarrestar las debilidades y amenazas, e impulsar las oportunidades y fortalezas identificadas en los DOFA construidos participativamente con las comunidades."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Socialización de los resultados del mapeo de la cadena, capacidad productiva y planeación estratégica: El equipo de la Alianza realizó la socialización de los resultados y la validación del mapeo y capacidad productiva en sesiones grupales con la Asociación de Productores de Canal del Dique de Leticia y con los productores del Consejo Comunitario de Zapatero. Estas sesiones fueron aprovechadas para retroalimentar los hallazgos y complementar acciones, además de introducir conceptos fundamentales para la definición de estrategias de comercialización."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"Estrategias de comercialización: Con base en la información recolectada en la fase 1, 2 y 3 el equipo de la Alianza identificó mercados potenciales de los cuales se escogieron dos perfiles de cliente para desarrollar las estrategias de comercialización y el piloto de conexión comercial. Aunque la idea inicial era dichas estrategias fueran construidas con las comunidades, el tiempo y los conocimientos comerciales restringieron la posibilidad de hacer esta construcción en conjunto, sin embargo, se tuvieron en cuenta las condiciones de cada una de las comunidades, y se espera a futuro puedan ser implementadas."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"Consideraciones éticas: Todos los participantes recibieron información sobre el estudio y dieron su consentimiento informado antes de participar. Se garantizó el anonimato y la privacidad de los datos. El estudio cumplió con todas las normas éticas y regulaciones vigentes."}]},{"head":"Análisis del entorno","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Situación actual del cultivo de arroz en Bolívar","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":256,"text":"La producción de arroz es un pilar fundamental en la economía agrícola del departamento de Bolívar. Entre los municipios sobresalientes por su destacada producción de arroz se encuentran San Jacinto del Cauca, Montecristo, Morales, Achí, Tiquisio, Córdoba, Magangué y San Pablo. Según cifras oficiales, la producción en toneladas y la extensión de hectáreas cultivadas en el departamento han mostrado variaciones, aunque mayormente con una tendencia al crecimiento a lo largo del tiempo. (Ver Figura 1). las variedades de arroz más cultivadas son Fedearroz 2000, Fedearroz 2020, Fedearroz 67 y Fedearroz 70, desarrolladas por la Federación. También se utilizan semillas de otras compañías privadas como Pajonales SAS, que ofrece variedades adaptadas para la región Caribe, como Panorama 394 y Cálida 22. Todas estas variedades comparten características como amplia adaptabilidad, estabilidad durante todo el año, resistencia al virus de la hoja blanca y alto potencial de producción, llegando hasta 10 toneladas por hectárea (García Botina et al., 2023).  (2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022). Fuente: Fuente: (Andrade et al., 2022) Figura 1. Producción y área sembrada en Bolívar (2014Bolívar ( -2022) ) Fuente: (Andrade et al., 2022) El municipio de Cartagena de Indias, donde se ubican las dos comunidades de interés en este estudio, no se destacan entre los principales municipios productores de arroz. No obstante, las estadísticas indican un incremento en la superficie cultivada en esta zona, probablemente atribuible a la migración de campesinos que anteriormente se dedicaban a la pesca hacia la actividad agrícola (Ver Figura 2). Las principales zonas productoras en este municipio son la Vereda Zapatero y Puerto Rey."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"El sistema que lidera en términos de tonelaje a nivel departamental es el secano mecanizado, contribuyendo con el 55% del total (71,625 toneladas), seguido por el secano manual con el 30% (39,139 toneladas) y, en última instancia, el arroz de riego con el 15% (19,585 toneladas)."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"En cuanto a la distribución de la producción en el departamento, se identifican dos grupos principales de productores: los pequeños y medianos. En el caso de los pequeños productores, poseen áreas de cultivo que varían de 0,5 a 20 hectáreas y se caracterizan por emplear el sistema secano manual. En general, no utilizan tecnología avanzada ni semillas certificadas, lo que resulta en rendimientos bajos, generalmente por debajo de las 3 toneladas por hectárea. Parte de su producción se destina al consumo propio, y los excedentes se venden en el mercado local."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"En contraste, los medianos productores tienen más recursos disponibles para invertir en la producción, lo que les permite obtener rendimientos más altos. Poseen extensiones de tierra para arroz que van desde 20 hasta 150 hectáreas. Comercializan su cosecha a mercados específicos, como intermediarios y molineras regionales. Este grupo no solo tiene una ventaja financiera, sino que también cuenta con habilidades técnicas adquiridas a través de capacitación y formación continua."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Finalmente, en el sistema secano manual, el nivel de asociatividad en el departamento es del 40% (Gobernación de Bolívar, 2019), y entre las asociaciones arroceras se destacan Asopromojana, Asproas y Asopablo, algunas de las cuales disponen de bancos de maquinaria agrícola y molinos para la transformación del arroz (García Botina et al., 2023)."},{"index":6,"size":131,"text":"En el departamento de Bolívar, los molinos se clasifican en grandes, medianos y pequeños según su capacidad de almacenamiento. En la región, el arroz producido bajo diferentes sistemas (secano manual y mecanizado de riego) se acopia principalmente en Magangué y otros molinos en ciudades cercanas. Además, parte del arroz de Bolívar se acopia en molinos de mayor envergadura en Barranquilla. Los productores de Bolívar llevan su arroz a los molinos y reciben un pago por el paddy verde, pero enfrentan desafíos en el transporte debido a la infraestructura de transporte precaria en la zona del Bajo Cauca. El costo del paddy seco puede ser menor que el del paddy verde de la región, y las asociaciones a menudo carecen de conocimientos y capital semilla para adquirir y comercializar arroz blanco pulido."},{"index":7,"size":97,"text":"A pesar de los desafíos, la transformación es un eslabón crucial en la cadena de valor del arroz, representando el primer paso comercial y asegurando la distribución y comercialización del arroz pulido y sus subproductos, lo que representa el 17% de los costos del arroz blanco. En la región, prevalece la informalidad en este eslabón, con molinos no registrados que abren y cierran según el ciclo productivo, lo que afecta la seguridad financiera de los productores. En resumen, aunque existen desafíos, hay interés en la industria y nuevas oportunidades con molineras enfocadas en diferentes tipos de transformación."},{"index":8,"size":176,"text":"La estructura de la cadena de arroz ha evolucionado, con grandes industrias transformadoras llegando directamente a las tiendas, fortaleciendo su red de distribución. Los molinos utilizan canales de distribución que incluyen la venta a mayoristas y distribuidores, y algunos tienen sus propias marcas reconocidas por los consumidores finales. En Barranquilla, por ejemplo, se transforma el arroz y se distribuye a diversas regiones a través de empaques variados. Marcas populares en la Costa Norte incluyen Arroz Diana y Arroz Sabrosón. El Mercado Bazurto es un punto clave de venta en Cartagena. Los productores locales a menudo destinan su arroz al autoconsumo y venden excedentes a la comunidad o mercados locales. También se producen subproductos del arroz, como harina, coladas y snacks, que se distribuyen a través de grandes superficies y tiendas especializadas. A pesar del alto consumo per cápita de arroz en la región norte, la comercialización enfrenta desafíos como impuestos, incertidumbre tributaria y fluctuación de precios, especialmente para pequeños productores que buscan ingresar a un mercado competitivo en términos de calidad (García Botina et al., 2023)."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"A continuación, haremos zoom en la realidad arrocera de Zapatero y Leticia para entender cómo es su situación productiva y comercial en el contexto del departamento."}]},{"head":"Leticia y Zapatero: dos comunidades arroceras en Cartagena de Indias","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Leticia y Zapatero son comunidades rurales situadas en zonas cercanas a Cartagena de Indias. Zapatero es una vereda ubicada en el corregimiento de La Boquilla, con acceso por el kilómetro 10 en la vía que conduce de Cartagena a Barranquilla. La vereda tiene aproximadamente 300 habitantes y es reconocida por su vocación arrocera. A pesar de su proximidad a la ciudad, enfrenta desafíos de infraestructura como la carencia de un sistema de acueducto y vías en estado deteriorado. Solo hasta este año se han iniciado obras para la construcción del acueducto y mejoramiento de la vía de acceso desde La Cordialidad, afectada por la ola invernal del año 2022 (Alcaldía Distrital de Cartagena de Indias, 2023)."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Por otro lado, Leticia es un caserío ubicado en el corregimiento de Pasacaballos en el municipio de Cartagena de Indias, bordea el Canal del Dique y alberga a aproximadamente 100 familias. Esta población se dedica a la pesca y a la agricultura, centrándose en cultivos como la yuca y, especialmente, el arroz. La comunidad encara dificultades concernientes a sus vías de acceso, carencia de unidad sanitaria y acueducto, y fallas constantes en el servicio eléctrico (Chavarro, 2023). Su actividad agrícola y social ha estado apoyada por diversos proyectos que ha adelantado en la zona la Fundación Canal de Dique debido a la alta vulnerabilidad de la región y sus habitantes."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"Parte del acompañamiento de los procesos productivos llevó a la creación de la Asociación de Productores Agropecuarios de Leticia y Canal del Dique en 2013. El objetivo de esta asociación es fomentar procesos en las áreas acuícola y agrícola, buscando garantizar la seguridad alimentaria de la población de Leticia (Chavarro, 2023;García Botina et al., 2023). La asociación está integrada actualmente por 16 asociados que han estado involucrados en los procesos productivos del arroz. En contraste con Leticia, en Zapatero no hay productores organizados, todos continúan trabajando de manera individual, lo que representa un desafío para sus avances en el sector productivo y comercial. No obstante, son parte del Consejo Comunitario de Zapatero, el cual está aún a la espera del aval, pero tiene como objetivo el desarrollo de las comunidades y administración de los territorios colectivos."}]},{"head":"Condiciones productivas y costos de producción de arroz","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Aunque las cifras oficiales sostienen que el área sembrada de arroz en el Municipio de Cartagena de Indias para el 2022 fue de 270 ha (Andrade et al., 2022), los productores consultados en los distintos talleres realizados en el marco de este estudio afirmaron que solo la vereda de Zapatero tiene 380 hectáreas sembradas de arroz, siendo una de las áreas más significativas y reconocidas por la producción de este cultivo. Las variedades predominantes son la Fedearroz 2020, conocida por su ciclo corto y macollamiento intermedio/alto, y la Fedearroz 67, caracterizada por su alto macollamiento, rápido crecimiento inicial y un ciclo intermedio a tardío. Por otro lado, las variedades biofortificadas se siembran de forma separada, aunque no siempre se dispone de semilla de manera constante."},{"index":2,"size":241,"text":"El establecimiento de arroz requiere actividades de preparación de terreno que varían según si es época lluviosa o seca. La siembra es manual y se hace al voleo, normalmente entre agosto y septiembre para cosechar entre diciembre y febrero, según las condiciones climáticas y las prácticas locales. En promedio, cada productor de arroz en Zapatero siembra alrededor de 3 a 4 hectáreas, produce en condiciones óptimas alrededor de 4 a 5 toneladas por hectárea, y en condiciones no óptimas puede llegar a 2 o 3 toneladas por hectárea. La producción en Zapatero contempla el uso de agroquímicos para el control de plagas y malezas, además de utilizar fertilizantes para aumentar rendimientos por área. En contraste, en Leticia, la producción de arroz se caracteriza por su enfoque menos tecnificado y suministro directo de semillas. Cada productor destina un área de aproximadamente entre 0.5 y 2 hectáreas para el cultivo de arroz, mayormente en tierras arrendadas o bajo contratos de préstamo renovados anualmente. En el último año, las condiciones climáticas de tiempo seco prolongado han impedido la siembra, y la última cosecha registrada fue en diciembre 2022. La producción de arroz en Leticia se caracteriza por ser libre de uso de agroquímicos. El control de malezas se lleva a cabo de manera manual, y no se aplican productos para fertilización o control de plagas. Aunque esta práctica reduce la inversión, también reduce significativamente el rendimiento por hectárea con respecto a zonas como Zapatero."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Además del cultivo de arroz, en los patios de las viviendas en Leticia se llevan a cabo procesos productivos con frutales como limones, guanábanas y papayas, que en su mayoría se destinan al autoabastecimiento."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"También es común encontrar especies menores como cerdos, gallinas y pavos, criados tanto para el autoconsumo como para la venta (García Botina et al., 2023). En Zapatero, los costos variables se distribuyen de la siguiente manera: un 36% para fletes y un 64% para la recolección del arroz. Esta distribución contrasta con la de Leticia, donde los costos variables incluyen un proceso adicional de pilado, representando por el 47% del costo variable total, mientras que los fletes solo suponen un 12% y la recolección un 41%. Es relevante notar que Leticia destina una menor proporción de costos variables al transporte, reflejando la naturaleza principalmente de autoconsumo de su producción y la consiguiente menor necesidad de comercialización a gran escala."},{"index":5,"size":114,"text":"La estructura de costos revela que el sistema de producción de arroz en Zapatero representa una rentabilidad viable para la actividad agrícola, y puede mejorar según las condiciones climáticas. Durante la temporada seca, los productores introducen maquinaria para preparar el suelo y eliminar malezas, mientras que en la temporada de lluvias optan por el uso de herbicidas, lo que aumenta el costo de los jornales. En el caso de Leticia, la rentabilidad es menor debido a su alta dependencia de la mano de obra y a la eficiencia limitada en los procesos de transformación. Por ello, es necesario implementar cambios productivos para aumentar el rendimiento y mejorar la eficiencia en los procesos de transformación."}]},{"head":"Oportunidades identificadas para la comercialización del arroz de Zapatero y Leticia","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Actualmente, en Zapatero, la producción de arroz se comercializa en forma de paddy verde, y su principal mercado son los molinos de Barranquilla, especialmente el molino de la Arrocera el Litoral. Los productores no están asociados y carecen de infraestructura para la transformación, lo que les impide comercializar arroz blanco y los limita al canal de comercialización con los molinos. Por otro lado, en Leticia, el rendimiento sigue siendo bajo y la producción no alcanza volúmenes comerciales significativos. La mayoría de la producción se destina al autoconsumo. No obstante, tienen la intención de comercializar los excedentes y obtener un margen de rentabilidad más amplio a través de la transformación a arroz blanco pulido, aprovechando la infraestructura poscosecha y las capacidades que han adquirido en este aspecto."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Ante este panorama comercial, se identificó la necesidad de explorar oportunidades para diversificar los canales comerciales y conectar a los productores con mercados directos que ofrezcan márgenes de rentabilidad más altos. En la primera fase del estudio de mercado, se examinaron diversos clientes potenciales para el arroz paddy y arroz blanco, incluyendo molinos y restaurantes. Los molinos representan un segmento del mercado orientado hacia grandes volúmenes de producción y se centran en mantener estándares de calidad que cumplan con los requisitos esenciales para la transformación. En este segmento, la cadena se extiende con la participación de intermediarios y comercializadores locales que reducen un porcentaje de las ganancias para el productor. Además, este mercado no ofrece precios diferenciales significativos, ya que solo requiere materia prima que luego es transformada y diferenciada según los distintos segmentos a los que se dirige (García Botina et al., 2023)."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"En Bolívar, particularmente en Cartagena, una ciudad turística con una fuerte presencia hotelera y gastronómica, se resalta la relevancia de los restaurantes en la cadena del arroz. Estos establecimientos incorporan el arroz en una amplia gama de platos, ya sea como acompañante o plato principal. Las entrevistas realizadas con estos restaurantes indicaron un interés positivo en el arroz biofortificado y en establecer relaciones comerciales con comunidades productoras. Además, se exploraron productos innovadores basados en el arroz, enfocados en un nicho de mercado que busca calidad superior, diferenciación y valor añadido. Aunque la investigación secundaria abordó parcialmente este nicho, se dejó abierta la posibilidad de investigar nichos de mercado específicos, como las tiendas saludables en la ciudad de Cartagena (García Botina et al., 2023)."}]},{"head":"• Restaurantes con enfoque en productos locales","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Con base en los resultados de la fase 2 se determinó enfocar el sondeo de mercado de la fase 3 en los restaurantes y tiendas saludables con mayor apertura a la comercialización de arroces diferenciados y productos de origen local. Además de las entrevistas realizadas con personal de La Cocina de Pepina y La Picúa, se logró tener nuevas conversaciones con personas del restaurante Celele y el café bar El Barón."},{"index":2,"size":311,"text":"El restaurante Celele, con alrededor de 5 años de trayectoria, ha recibido prestigiosos reconocimientos, incluyendo el Gin Mare Art of Hospitality Award en 2021, que destaca la excelencia en servicio y experiencias gastronómicas. Este premio ha atraído la atención de los visitantes a Cartagena, generando un notable interés por experimentar la propuesta culinaria de Celele (Latin America's 50 Best Restaurants, 2021). Los chefs Jaime Rodríguez y Sebastián Pinzón han dedicado esfuerzos a explorar los sabores autóctonos de la costa colombiana, fusionando la riqueza culinaria de las culturas indígenas y afrodescendientes. Impulsados por esta filosofía, aproximadamente el 90% de sus ingredientes provienen de productores locales en regiones como La Guajira, San Andrés y Montes de María. En su variado menú, destacan platos como el \"Arroz Crocante\" y el \"Arroz con Pato\", para los cuales emplean arroz parbolizado doña Pepa. Aunque actualmente no establecen transacciones comerciales específicas con comunidades locales para el suministro de arroz, mantienen El Barón es un café y cocktail bar ubicado en el centro histórico de Cartagena reconocido por su amplia gama de bebidas tanto clásicas como innovadoras. Su filosofía se centra en la sostenibilidad, incorporando prácticas respetuosas con el medio ambiente, como el reciclaje de botellas de vidrio y el cultivo en su propia huerta. Además, destinan parte de sus ganancias a organizaciones ambientales En su menú destacan platos como el 'Arroz Meloso de Mariscos'. Tienen un requerimiento mensual de 50 a 60 kilogramos de arroz. Actualmente, adquieren marcas como Sabrosón, Zulia y Flor Huila. Su principal interés en la compra de arroz radica en la alimentación de sus empleados, ya que no cuentan con muchos platos que lleven arroz en su menú. Al igual que Celele, el Barón tiene como proveedores a asociaciones de productores pequeños como Granitos de Paz, Asocoman, y pescadores artesanales, para el suministro de germinados, flores, mangos, frijol, ajonjolí, frutas, y huevos criollos."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Tanto La Cocina de Pepina, la Picúa, el Barón y Celele hacen parte de un grupo de restaurantes que representan un mercado prometedor para un arroz diferenciado que posea un componente social y local distintivo. Estos restaurantes valoran la posibilidad de resaltar una historia detrás del producto, conectando así con sus clientes a través de una narrativa que resalte la autenticidad del producto. Este tipo de clientes busca destacar productos locales como parte integral de su propuesta, y están interesados en establecer relaciones comerciales a largo plazo que aseguren sostenibilidad tanto para ellos como para sus proveedores."}]},{"head":"• Tiendas saludables","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"El consumo de alimentos saludables y sostenibles ha experimentado un notable aumento, impulsado por una creciente conciencia sobre los beneficios de la alimentación sostenible. Esta incluye el apoyo al medio ambiente, la reducción del desperdicio de alimentos, la comprensión y aplicación completa de cada componente alimentario, así como el consumo óptimo de nutrientes. De acuerdo con una recopilación de tendencias de consumo realizada por The Food Tech basada en un informe de Ainia, las principales actualmente son: consumo de alternativas a las proteínas de origen animal, consumo sostenible y consumo de productos de proximidad (Mora Aguilar, 2023)."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"El auge de las tendencias de consumo orientadas hacia la alimentación saludable ha dado lugar a un modelo de negocio representado por tiendas especializadas en ofrecer una amplia gama de productos Fotografía 2. El Barón Café&Cocktail Bar. Fuente: Lure Cartagena Fotografía 4. Galletas de arroz con granola. Fuente: Propia Fotografía 5. Galletas de arroz inflado con arroz integral y linaza. Fuente: Propia saludables, tanto locales como importados. Estas tiendas se destacan por su variada oferta que incluye frutas y verduras orgánicas, frutos secos, semillas, opciones sin gluten, alternativas lácteas, productos de grano integral, superalimentos, edulcorantes naturales, y productos de panadería saludable, entre otros. En el contexto de Cartagena, se han identificado dos establecimientos que podrían servir como canales comerciales prometedores para la promoción de arroz integral y snacks elaborados a base de arroz. Estos dos establecimientos, conocidos como CocoFit y Enjoyfit, se autodenominan como tiendas o mercados saludables."},{"index":3,"size":236,"text":"Durante las visitas a estas tiendas, se pudo apreciar una amplia gama de productos elaborados a partir del arroz, principalmente categorizados como snacks saludables. La producción de este tipo de productos implica un proceso especializado de transformación y un empaque particular, además de otros elementos complementarios. Aunque no represente una oportunidad directa para los productores en el momento actual, puede esbozar un potencial futuro para establecer vínculos comerciales con empresas especializadas en la transformación del arroz. Asimismo, ofrece una fuente valiosa de ideas innovadoras que pueden impulsar la transformación del arroz en un futuro, especialmente cuando las asociaciones y grupos de productores estén más sólidamente establecidos. Las tiendas saludables se destacan por atraer a un segmento de consumidores preocupados por su bienestar y que buscan alimentos nutritivos y beneficiosos para su salud. El arroz diferenciado, como el integral o biofortificado, responde a esta demanda. Estos establecimientos suelen ofrecer alimentos orgánicos, característica que encaja con facilidad con el arroz de Leticia, cultivado bajo un sistema de producción libre de agroquímicos. Estos casos son fuentes de ideas innovadoras para que las asociaciones puedan explorar opciones de productos y acceder a estos mercados nicho. En este tipo de mercados diferenciados, es fundamental educar a los consumidores sobre el producto y sus aportes nutricionales. Cambiar los hábitos de consumo puede ser desafiante, por lo que es crucial acompañarlos con información detallada sobre los beneficios y la historia detrás del producto."}]},{"head":"Riesgos, brechas y limitantes actuales para la comercialización de arroz","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"A partir de los análisis participativos DOFA realizados con la Asociación de Productores de la Comunidad de Leticia y Canal del Dique y los productores del Consejo Comunitario de Zapatero (Anexo 3 y 4) se identificaron los siguientes riesgos, brechas y limitantes para la comercialización del arroz de estas comunidades:"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Carencia de infraestructura, maquinaria y capacidades para la transformación del arroz paddy a blanco pulido: Basándonos en los resultados del sondeo de mercado realizado, nuestro equipo ha identificado oportunidades para comercializar arroz biofortificado tanto como arroz integral como arroz blanco pulido."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Estas oportunidades se encuentran en los mercados minoristas, tales como tiendas saludables, así como entre los clientes finales, incluyendo restaurantes. Sin embargo, para ingresar a estos mercados comerciales, se requiere infraestructura específica, que incluye máquinas trilladoras, separadores de gravedad, molinos, clasificadoras, blanqueadores, secadores de arroz, empacadoras y un espacio de almacenamiento."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"A pesar de que la Asociación de Leticia posee un molino que fue entregado por la Umata en 2021, hasta el momento no se ha brindado el acompañamiento necesario para su correcto funcionamiento y para implementar una estrategia de comercialización que abarque desde la compra de la materia prima hasta la venta final, considerando todo el proceso postcosecha. Recientemente, se ha iniciado un seguimiento más cercano en el marco de las actividades de la iniciativa, pero aún falta un enfoque integral."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"En el caso de Zapatero, la falta de maquinaria para la transformación limita las posibilidades comerciales únicamente a los canales de paddy verde, lo que vuelve a los productores vulnerables a la competencia y a las fluctuaciones de precios en este mercado. Esto subraya la necesidad apremiante de invertir en la adquisición de maquinaria y tecnología adecuada para la transformación del arroz y así diversificar sus opciones de comercialización y fortalecer su posición en el mercado."},{"index":6,"size":38,"text":"Es importante que si estas asociaciones apuntan al mercado del arroz integral o blanco pulido se pueda garantizar la calidad del grano, el empaque y que sea manufacturado bajo normas de calidad exigidas para que sean productos competitivos."},{"index":7,"size":78,"text":"Garantía de suministro y calidad del arroz a largo plazo: Para establecer relaciones comerciales a largo plazo, es fundamental contar con una garantía de suministro constante de los volúmenes de arroz requeridos. Sin embargo, ambas comunidades, especialmente Leticia, enfrentan desafíos para asegurar una producción continua durante todo el año. Estos desafíos están relacionados con factores climáticos y sistemas de producción poco tecnificados que afectan el rendimiento y la capacidad de respuesta de los productores ante épocas de sequía."},{"index":8,"size":70,"text":"Adicionalmente, la carencia de terrenos propios para la producción de arroz también limita la capacidad de garantizar el suministro constante. La mayoría de los productores dependen del alquiler de tierras, lo que a veces les impide asegurar la disponibilidad de área para la producción en momentos críticos. Esta incertidumbre en la disponibilidad de tierras afecta la planificación a largo plazo y la capacidad de establecer acuerdos comerciales sólidos y sostenibles."},{"index":9,"size":101,"text":"Falta de conocimientos y capacidades en comercialización y mercadeo: Las comunidades de Leticia y Zapatero enfrentan limitaciones significativas en términos de capacidades y conocimientos en conceptos comerciales y de marketing. Aunque los productores en Zapatero tienen cierta experiencia comercial con molinos de Barranquilla, su enfoque se ha centrado en la comercialización de materia prima de forma individual. Carecen de conocimientos sobre la transformación y comercialización del arroz procesado, así como sobre las estrategias y canales de comercialización que involucran el contacto directo con clientes, la formulación de ofertas comerciales y la implementación de estrategias integradas de promoción, precio, plaza y distribución."},{"index":10,"size":130,"text":"En el caso de Leticia, toda la producción está destinada al autoconsumo, aunque han realizado algunos intentos de comercialización en mercados locales. Sin embargo, se ven obstaculizados por dificultades en temas administrativos y comerciales debido a la falta de capacidades en la gestión administrativa del negocio. Es fundamental que ambas comunidades reciban capacitación constante en conceptos y metodologías clave que les permitan desarrollar una estrategia de comercialización para su producto final y abordar eficazmente los aspectos administrativos y comerciales relacionados con la venta de su arroz transformado. Esta capacitación les brindará las herramientas necesarias para establecer relaciones comerciales más sólidas, acceder a nuevos mercados y mejorar la rentabilidad de sus productos. En el marco de esta iniciativa se hizo una capacitación inicial, pero es importante que se refuercen estos temas."},{"index":11,"size":67,"text":"Organización y gestión: La ausencia de una estructura organizativa sólida en Zapatero, como una asociación debidamente constituida y la carencia de comités dentro de esta asociación, se convierte en una limitante crucial para la comercialización efectiva del arroz. Al no estar formalmente organizados como una asociación, los productores operan de manera individual o descoordinada, lo que fragmenta sus esfuerzos y dificulta la implementación de estrategias comerciales unificadas."},{"index":12,"size":70,"text":"En el caso de Leticia hay que realizar un fortalecimiento organizativo sobre la asociación ya existente. La falta de comités dentro de una asociación impide la asignación eficiente de roles y responsabilidades específicas relacionadas con la comercialización. Esta carencia de estructura y coordinación debilita la capacidad para establecer acuerdos comerciales, definir estrategias de mercado, negociar precios y condiciones ventajosas, así como aprovechar sinergias para una comercialización más efectiva y exitosa."},{"index":13,"size":77,"text":"Megaproyectos: hay dos grandes megaproyectos que pueden impactar las actividades agrícolas de Leticia y Zapatero. El primer megaproyecto es de Restauración de Ecosistemas Degradados del Canal del Dique que propone una intervenir 115, 5 km del Canal del Dique, que abarca la hidrovía, entre Calamar y la bahía de Cartagena. Este proyecto incluye la construcción de un sistema de esclusas y compuertas para evitar la entrada no controlada de grandes sedimentos y caudal(Agencia Nacional de Infraestrutura, 2022)."},{"index":14,"size":60,"text":"Aunque el proyecto promete efectos positivos para las comunidades ribereñas, la merma de caudal y la operación de las obras puede modificar y afectar la movilidad de las comunidades, además de impactar el recurso pesquero vital de su manutención(Ordoñez Ordoñez, 2023). La comunidad de Leticia teme tener que volver a reubicarse y ver su actividad económica afectada por estas intervenciones."},{"index":15,"size":63,"text":"Por otra parte, el ministro de transporte anunció el año pasado la construcción de un segundo aeropuerto para Cartagena en tierras cercanas a Zapatero(Gutierrez Nuñez, 2022). Esto ha encarecido el valor del alquiler de los terrenos, además de la venta de estos, y se teme una migración de la mano de obra agrícola hacia la construcción de estos megaproyectos y a temas turísticos."}]},{"head":"Definición de estrategias","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Se calcula que en Colombia el consumo de arroz blanco es de 43.2 Kg/persona/año cifra que puede variar en cada uno de los departamentos del país. Para el caso de Bolívar el índice de consumo de arroz es superior al nacional, se destaca la mayor importancia que tiene el arroz en la dieta de los hogares rurales del departamento (70,3 Kg/año) frente a los hogares urbanos (56,2 Kg/año), los cuales se asocian con menores ingresos, y sugiere que el arroz satisface las necesidades alimentarias de los hogares más vulnerables (DANE, 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Como se observa en las cifras anteriores, en esta zona del país el arroz es un producto de muy amplio consumo entre sus pobladores, y esto también se debe a que es el ingrediente principal de un sinfín de preparaciones y recetas entre las que se destacan: el arroz con ahuyama, con camarones, con coco, con frijol cabecita negra, arroz apastelado con cerdo, y otras bebidas que son elaboradas a base del cereal como lo es la chicha de arroz."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Teniendo en cuenta lo expuesto, se plantea desarrollar un conjunto de estrategias de mercado acompañadas de actividades con el fin de posicionar y comercializar el arroz blanco Biofortificado, esto a través de la diferenciación que permitirá una participación en un nicho de mercado importante en la ciudad de Cartagena."}]},{"head":"Target y perfil de los clientes o nicho de mercado:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"En Colombia el arroz pulido blanco hace parte de la canasta básica familiar, este cereal es consumido por todas las edades y estratos socioeconómicos en el país, así lo demuestra un estudio de investigación de mercados en donde se indagó sobre cuáles eran los productos más adquiridos por los consumidores en el supermercado, los resultados mostraron que el arroz ocupaba el primer puesto de adquisición, respuesta que coincidió entre las distintas generaciones que fueron entrevistadas (Portafolio, 2022). Explicar esta tendencia de consumo generalizada a nivel nacional podría atribuirse a la facilidad en el precio de compra (aunque en este último año se haya presentado un incremento en su precio) y a la tradición culinaria. Respecto a esta última, es importante mencionar que el mercado ha realizado una importante tarea de diversificación para el consumidor, sin embargo, es posible observar que aquellos esfuerzos se han centrado en el enriquecimiento del cereal con nutrientes como vitaminas B6, B12 y ácido fólico y a la selección del grano en distintas calidades para sacar al mercado líneas extra y gourmet."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Con este panorama, se evidencia una ventana de oportunidad en el mercado para el arroz Biofortificado Fedearroz-BIOZn035 producido en Leticia y Zapatero -Cartagena dado sus características de calidad fisicoquímica, molinera, culinaria y nutricional (Gallego, S. & Borrero, J, 2022), además del componente social que existe en torno al cultivo. En la actualidad este grupo de características presentes en un producto son apreciadas por un pequeño grupo de consumidores, el cual está motivado por un consumo más consciente e informado. Por tal motivo, para este caso de mercado se analiza la posibilidad de la comercialización del arroz biofortificado blanco pulido e integral en la ciudad de Cartagena, mediante una investigación de tipo exploratoria se ahondo en dos sectores: el gastronómico y las tiendas saludables."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Para el primero de ellos, se exploró entre un grupo de restaurantes cuya propuesta gastronómica es la comida regional y la puesta de ingredientes locales en sus platos. Otro componente importante es que su público objetivo son turistas y extranjeros que buscan más allá de una experiencia gastronómica descubrir que hay detrás de cada receta, es decir estos comensales están interesados en conocer de donde provienen los alimentos, como están producidos y por quienes."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"En el segundo caso está relacionado con las tiendas saludables donde se evidencia una oportunidad de comercialización esto dado sus características de negocio, donde entre los objetivos principales se encuentra la venta de alimentos saludables y mínimamente procesados. Algo en común con el primer grupo es que los consumidores que frecuentan este tipo de establecimientos son consumidores educados que demandan de alimentos de buena calidad y con un componente de sostenibilidad. Respecto a esto, en estos últimos 10 años se presenta un incremento de un grupo de consumidores que valoran con un precio diferencial aquellos productos que ofrezcan criterios como la sostenibilidad, el conocimiento ancestral y la proximidad (Forbes, 2023)."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"Una vez seleccionado el nicho de mercado se establecen las siguientes 4 estrategias para desarrollar el plan de comercialización del arroz biofortificado Fedearroz-BIOZn035:"}]},{"head":"Estrategias de producto:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Este arroz es cultivado en 2 zonas cercanas a Cartagena, se trata del corregimiento de Leticia y la vereda El Zapatero en jurisdicción de La Boquilla, una influenciada por las aguas del canal del Dique para el desarrollo de los cultivos de arroz. Para llegar a la primera se requiere entrar por lancha en un recorrido que puede tardar hasta 40 minutos o 1 hora desde la ciudad de Cartagena y en el caso de la segunda se debe tomar hacia la carretera de la cordialidad, más específicamente hasta el kilómetro 8."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"En la actualidad, cerca de 40 familias se benefician de este proyecto productivo, esta labor la aprendieron de sus abuelos y padres quienes fueron productores del cereal desde que se asentaron en estos territorios y vieron como el cauce de la entrada de las aguas dulces por el canal podían ser aprovechadas para los cultivos, esto considerando que los suelos aluviales suelen estar cargados de minerales y nutrientes beneficiosos para la agricultura. Estas condiciones agroecológicas, la disposición del recurso hídrico y el abundante brillo solar influyen de manera positiva en la producción y permiten obtener un grano de calidad alta no solo en aspectos físicos si no también en calidad culinaria."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Respecto al aporte nutricional el arroz Biofortificado Fedearroz-BIOZn035 tiene 63% más zinc (bajo condiciones de secano favorecido) que los arroces no biofortificados del mercado, este elemento es de gran importancia en la dieta nutricional humana debido a que contribuye al buen estado del sistema inmunológico, además algunas investigaciones sugieren que la carencia de zinc en niños es un factor limitante para el crecimiento y su desarrollo (Restrepo et al, 2016)."}]},{"head":"Estrategia de segmento y/o distribución:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"El arroz Biofortificado blanco pulido e integral será puesto a disposición final en cada uno de los establecimientos de los clientes identificados para ambos nichos (restaurantes y tiendas saludables). Para tal fin se creará un comité de comercialización y logística encargado de distribuir punto a punto el arroz empacado, este personal será previamente seleccionado y entrenado para cumplir sus funciones y conocer algunos procedimientos como la firma de contratos, recepción y entrega de producto (empaque, depósito y seguimiento de los inventarios)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Además, se planea como una de las actividades claves crear una cartera de clientes que permita identificar a los aliados comerciales potenciales, esta herramienta es útil para organizar la información y personalizar la atención, en este punto es clave que el comité de comercialización y logística pueda capacitarse en temas básicos como crear y alimentar formatos de hojas de cálculo y atención al cliente que otorgue a los productores seleccionados para esta labor dominar el \"argumento de venta\". Por último, se propone crear un cronograma de entregas que permitan visualizar de forma rápida y organizada las necesidades de cada cliente, así como también planear de forma anticipada las fechas de entregas de los pedidos y llevar un control sobre la rotación del producto."}]},{"head":"Estrategia de precios:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"El arroz Biofortificado blanco pulido e integral se distingue por sus características únicas nutricionales, el sabor y la calidad del grano, e incluso por la ecorregión donde es producido. Es importante mencionar que este arroz será comercializado de manera directa con los clientes potenciales identificados. Como ejercicio fundamental se presenta el cálculo de precio de venta basado en los costos de producción y la referencia de arroces diferenciales presentes en el mercado nacional."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Para fijar el precio de venta se considera desde los costos de producción de la materia prima -arroz paddy seco-hasta llegar a la transformación del arroz blanco pulido/integral empacado. Para el cálculo del precio de venta se tuvo en cuenta el costo total de producción, desde el arroz paddy seco que en la actualidad se comercializa en un precio de COP$ 1.900/Kg, con un incremento del 54% sobre este valor. Partimos de este porcentaje ya que significa un margen de ganancia significativa para el negocio, se considera que con esta rentabilidad se podrán asumir los gastos destinados a la transformación y empaque (para el caso de la comunidad de Zapatero se requiere realizar el proceso de maquila), administración, ventas y financiero."}]},{"head":"Cálculo del precio de venta arroz Biofortificado blanco pulido","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"Otro factor importante incluido en la fijación del precio de venta final del producto fue la investigación de los precios en el mercado de los arroces diferenciales que podrían caber como competidores directos, esto debido a que son las marcas consumidas por los clientes actuales potenciales. Estas marcas cuentan con características de alta calidad del grano relacionadas con el tamaño y porcentaje de grano partido y otras líneas como el arroz integral las cuales ofrecen un alto aporte de fibra otorgado por su diferenciación en la transformación que podrían llegar a comercializarse en las tiendas saludables. Para esto se ha querido construir subdivisiones de marcas competidoras en tres líneas: arroces premium (por tamaño y % de grano partido), arroz integral y arroces con sello orgánico. Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, se estima que el precio propuesto para el producto se encuentra en el rango hallado en el mercado para los arroces diferenciales (entre COP$ 6.500 a 11.500/Kg), sin embargo cabe aclarar que para justificar este precio será necesario garantizar una calidad alta del grano, proceso que inicia desde la producción donde se espera aplicar las BPA y procesos de producción limpia que promuevan la sostenibilidad y el cuidado de los recursos naturales, además se espera continuar con el proceso de formación en BPM y poscosecha, temas fundamentales en la inocuidad de los procesos de transformación."}]},{"head":"Arroz Premium","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"#","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Estrategia de promoción:","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Se espera captar la atención del mercado y especial de los clientes potenciales identificados, esto a través de visitas directas donde se comunicará acerca de los atributos y las características de producción y transformación artesanal del arroz, además se harán entregas de muestras de arroz Biofortificado blanco pulido para que puedan comprobar la calidad culinaria y recibir retroalimentación para mejorar aspectos del producto. Para esta primera etapa de comercialización es importante que las dos comunidades de productores de arroz -de Leticia y Zapatero -puedan formarse en marketing digital, esta herramienta les permitirá entre algunas acciones publicar contenido atractivo para la marca de arroz (fotos, videos e historias), crear publicidad de manera eficaz y dar visibilidad a los agricultores, el objetivo será acercar al consumidor final con el eslabón productivo, condición que es valora en el mercado actual por los consumidores de estos nichos de mercado, a quien les interesa conocer cómo es producido el alimento que consumen, el lugar y las personas que están involucradas en la producción."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Otra opción estratégica para la promoción del arroz Biofortificado blanco pulido/integral está relacionado con la participación en ferias y mercados campesinos organizados en la ciudad de Cartagena, para esto se indagará en la Secretaría de Agricultura Departamental de la Gobernación de Bolívar cuales son las fechas y requisitos para participar, estos espacios son propicios para dar a conocer a los consumidores sobre los atributos y diferenciaciones del arroz Biofortificado producido en Cartagena y apoyar el consumo de productos locales. Por último, se plantea como otra de las estrategias un evento a casa abierta con restaurantes aliados, en este espacio se reúnen tanto cocineros o chefs con los agricultores, ambas partes cuentan las historias detrás del producto, en este caso el arroz, y del plato para los comensales asistentes al evento. La idea es poder generar una experiencia única gastronómica cargada de sentido social y poder disfrutar de recetas locales con ingredientes que tienen una historia única."}]},{"head":"Plan de acción para la comercialización local","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Teniendo en cuenta las estrategias planteadas en el punto anterior se va a entrar a definir el objetivo del plan de comercialización y las acciones puntuales para lograr esas estrategias, incluyendo responsables y el seguimiento que se debe realizar."}]},{"head":"Objetivo del plan de comercialización Leticia:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Fortalecer los procesos de producción local para asegurar volúmenes constantes e incursionar en la comercialización de arroz blanco Biofortificado bajo su marca Naticia a restaurantes de Cartagena."}]},{"head":"Estrategias y acciones:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Estrategias Acciones Responsable Entidades de apoyo Periodicidad de seguimiento Estrategia de producto -Producción y mantenimiento de los cultivos de arroz."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"-Conservación de semilla de arroz biofortificado para nuevas siembras."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"-Capacitación en manejo del cultivo: fertilización, MIP y elaboración de bioinsumos."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"-Registros de producción y cosecha para trazabilidad -Renovación de espacio para la siembra conjunta de las familias productoras de arroz de la asociación."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"-Cosecha y postcosecha de la producción de arroz Biofortificado (secado y almacenamiento)."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"-Capacitación en BPM y prácticas de postcosecha."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"-Proceso de molienda: asegurar calibración y mantenimiento constante de equipos y logística para funcionamiento."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"-Proveeduría de empaques de diferentes presentaciones (ej. 500 gr y 1.000 gr) con diseño, logo y mensaje alusivo a producción de pequeña escala y atributos diferenciales del arroz biofortificado."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"-Adecuación de espacio para almacenar la producción final y despacho. -Envío de muestras comerciales del producto a clientes potenciales del sector HORECA, en conjunto con seguimiento de retroalimentación de la calificación del producto."}]},{"head":"Asociación","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"-Crear comité de ventas y seguimiento de potenciales clientes."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"-Crear comité de medios y divulgación para dinamizar contenido en redes sociales."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"-Divulgación del producto a través de redes sociales (Instagram, Facebook y WhatsApp)."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"-Evento de casa abierta entre el sector HORECA y los productores de la asociación para posicionar producto. -Indagar sobre interés de compra y pago de precio diferencial entre potenciales clientes del sector HORECA para fijar rangos de precio."}]},{"head":"Asociación","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objetivo del plan de comercialización Zapatero:","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Incursionar en procesos de transformación primaria y comercialización de arroz blanco e integral Biofortificado en la zona y restaurantes de Cartagena a través del desarrollo de una marca propia con el fin de mejorar sus ingresos y aumentar la rentabilidad del negocio."}]},{"head":"Estrategias y acciones:","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Estrategias Acciones Responsable Entidades de apoyo Periodicidad de seguimiento Estrategia de producto -Realizar producción mantenimiento y conservación de la semilla y el cultivo de arroz biofortificado -Participar de capacitaciones relacionadas con el manejo del cultivo, fertilización y preparación de bioinsumos."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"-Construir registros de siembra para planeación del cultivo y seguimiento de trazabilidad de procesos."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"-Negociar renovación del área de siembra para el cultivo de arroz biofortificado."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"-Continuar con procesos de formación en cosecha, poscosecha y BPM que permita asegurar la calidad del producto (ej. secado y almacenamiento) -Buscar a nivel regional maquila provisional para el arroz trillado y pulido."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"-Gestionar infraestructura y maquinaria (molino) necesaria para -Crear una marca (logo, eslogan) propia para la comercialización del arroz y otros productos de la asociación."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"-Diseño de empaque con logo e información alusiva a la producción local y atributos diferenciales del arroz biofortificado."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"-Adecuación de espacio para almacenar la producción final y despacho."}]},{"head":"Estrategia de canal","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"-Crear un directorio con clientes potenciales en la ciudad de Cartagena y municipios vecinos del sector HORECA."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"-Realizar reuniones comerciales con potenciales clientes para exponer portafolio e indagar sobre interés de compra."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"-Establecer canal directo de venta, donde se defina: personal encargado, tiempos y entrega del producto. -Divulgación del producto a través de redes sociales (Instagram, Facebook y WhatsApp)."}]},{"head":"Consejo","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"-Evento de casa abierta entre el sector HORECA y los productores de la asociación para posicionar producto."}]},{"head":"Estrategia de precio","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"-Elaborar costos de producción, poscosecha y transformación para fijar precio de venta final."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"-Calcular margen de rentabilidad del negocio."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"-Indagar en el mercado nacional precios de venta de arroces diferenciales."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"-Indagar sobre disponibilidad a pagar e interes de compra entre potenciales clientes del sector HORECA para fijar rangos de precio."}]},{"head":"Consejo","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Comunitario de comunidades negras de Zapatero Alianza Bioversity-CIAT Semestral"}]},{"head":"Conexiones comerciales y evento de cierre","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Las conexiones comerciales fueron diseñadas con el fin de propiciar un espacio de acercamiento para conocer y relacionar de forma directa el mercado potencial con los productores de arroz. Además, para que tanto oferentes como demandantes tuvieran la oportunidad de exponer los principales aspectos relacionados con la comercialización. Los lugares seleccionados para esta conexión comercial fueron: Restaurante Pepina, Restaurante la Picúa y Restaurante bar el Barón. Por el lado de las comunidades Leticia y Zapatero fueron seleccionadas dos personas (un hombre y una mujer) como representantes de las asociaciones para presentar la oferta de productos agrícolas y en especial el trabajo realizado en el cultivo de arroz."}]},{"head":"Criterios para definir las conexiones comerciales","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Criterio Descripción del criterio Producción y calidad del cultivo Los productores deben producir el arroz biofortificado, además garantizar la inocuidad y calidad. Esto para cumplir con la periodicidad de la demanda de los clientes."}]},{"head":"Uso del cultivo y volúmenes requeridos","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Los restaurantes seleccionados para la conexión comercial cuentan dentro de su menú con una cantidad considerable de platos que incluyen como base el arroz, además de realizar diferentes preparaciones con este producto."}]},{"head":"Enfoque de la empresa","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Los restaurantes cuentan con un enfoque de responsabilidad social, por lo cual promueven las compras locales y directas a pequeños productores."}]},{"head":"Capacidad de comunicación","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Los productores fueron escogidos en la asociación para participar en la conexión comercial por su capacidad de comunicación y liderazgo para transmitir los atributos de sus productos y procesos internos del proyecto productivo."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"6.2 Caso: Conexión comercial productores de Leticia y Restaurante la Cocina de Pepina"},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"El primer espacio de conexión se llevó a cabo entre los productores de la comunidad de Leticia y el Restaurante Pepina, este es un restaurante familiar con 14 años de experiencia en comida tradicional de la costa norte colombiana y nace por el interés de Pepina (la fundadora) en tener un lugar donde pudiera poner en práctica todas las preparaciones gastronómicas que había encontrado en su viaje por el Gran Bolívar (Córdoba, Sucre y Bolívar) del cual no solo surge el restaurante sino también un libro que detalla cada una de estas recetas."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"En este espacio, los productores tuvieron la oportunidad de exponer la oferta agropecuaria de la asociación que comprende productos como: arroz, camarones, peces y algunas hortalizas, además de contar sobre sus prácticas culturales entorno al proyecto productivo de arroz y la experiencia que tienen en el cultivo , por parte del Restaurante el administrador, manifestó el interés de trabajar con estas comunidades y de comprar los productos de manera directa, teniendo en cuenta que mucho de lo que producen es usado en las preparaciones, además socializó con los productores la razón de ser del restaurante, sus platos principales y el uso que le dan a el arroz, adicionalmente se indagó por la periodicidad de producción de diferentes cultivos y los volúmenes requeridos."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Finalmente, entre los pasos a seguir manifestó el interés por parte del administrador del restaurante de visitar la comunidad de Leticia para conocer más de cerca todos los procesos productivos que llevan a cabo y toda la oferta agropecuaria de la zona, también por parte de los productores se acordó llevar la muestra de diferentes productos para que sean probados en el restaurante y quedo la oportunidad abierta para concretar un acuerdo comercial en el mediano plazo."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"6.3 Caso: Conexión comercial productores de Zapatero y Restaurante La Picúa"},{"index":7,"size":197,"text":"El segundo espacio de conexión comercial se dio entre el Restaurante la Picúa (en Cartagena) y los productores de la comunidad de Zapatero, este restaurante es conocido por ofrecer a sus comensales propuestas gastronómicas de alta cocina de la región Caribe e incorporar productos agrícolas locales en la elaboración de algunas recetas y platos del menú, este restaurante nace como una idea fruto del trabajo realizado con asociaciones de pescadores del municipio, quienes encontraron en el restaurante la oportunidad de resaltar el trabajo de la pesca y las preparaciones de la zona. La Picúa cuyo nombre nace del apodo al pez barracuda se considera un restaurante con propósito, gracias al trabajo que realizan con diferentes asociaciones de productores y pescadores del municipio. En el desarrollo de la reunión los gerentes del restaurante indagaron sobre la capacidad productiva y volúmenes disponibles para la venta del arroz, temas relacionados con el empaque y la presentación del producto fueron relevantes durante esta charla, adicionalmente por parte de los productores se dio a conocer los años de experiencia que tienen en el cultivo de arroz y toda la oferta agrícola que producen en la zona, como: corozo, plátano, guanábana, entre otros."},{"index":8,"size":144,"text":"Los gerentes del restaurante resaltaron la importancia de que los productores de las comunidades tengan la iniciativa e interés de la búsqueda de nuevos mercados para la comercialización de sus productos, pues como se indicó previamente, este restaurante está comprometido para trabajar directamente con asociaciones de productores, con el fin de resaltar el valor de lo que se produce a nivel local, sin embargo, también se mencionó la necesidad de que los productores se organicen pues solo de esta forma se pueden lograr procesos de comercialización exitosos. A su vez, los representantes de la comunidad de Zapatero expusieron sobre el trabajo colaborativo que se realiza para las labores agrícolas y la importante participación de las mujeres en estos procesos. Respecto a la comercialización si bien actualmente comercialización arroz paddy, mencionaron el interés en vender arroz blanco pues encuentran en este mercado una gran oportunidad."}]},{"head":"Caso: Conexión comercial productores de Zapatero y El Barón Café Bar","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Por último, se llevó a cabo la conexión comercial entre los productores de Zapatero y el Café Bar el Barón, un lugar ubicado en el centro histórico de Cartagena que ofrece variedad de bebidas tipo coctel y platos de acompañamiento, este restaurante se destaca por tener un componente social donde se promueven las compras locales para la preparación de sus alimentos. Previo al espacio de conexión comercial, se envió al Barón una muestra del arroz biofortificado para que lo conocieran y probaran, el director ejecutivo del Bar manifestó que estaban realizando diferentes pruebas con el arroz, desde el peso y tamaño de los granos, hasta el tiempo de cocción, por otro lado, los productores contaron su experiencia en el cultivo de arroz, el trabajo comunitario que realizan en los procesos productivos. De ambas partes se manifestó el interés de entablar una relación comercial a corto plazo, esto teniendo en cuenta que por parte del Bar no solo se busca la inclusión del arroz biofortificado en sus recetas sino también asegurar la seguridad alimentaria de sus trabajadores con el consumo de este alimento."}]},{"head":"Evento gastronómico, socialización de resultados","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"El día 10 de octubre se llevó a cabo en Cartagena un evento gastronómico al cual fueron invitados diferentes instituciones como: UMATA, SENA, Fundación Canal del Dique COMPAS, Secretaría de Agricultura, Gobernación, Cámara de comercio, productores de las comunidades de Leticia y Zapatero, empresas y restaurantes y tiendas saludables que participaron en las entrevistas que sirvieron como instrumento claves para definir la cadena de arroz en el departamento de Bolívar y para la construcción de este documento."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"En el evento se socializó sobre los principales hallazgos, el trabajo realizado con las comunidades, las estrategias de comercialización definidas y los pasos a seguir; los actores claves reafirmaron su interés en contribuir en actividades relacionadas con las comunidades y en especial los restaurantes están con las puertas abiertas hacia una futura relación comercial en el mediano plazo. Finalmente, se realizó un almuerzo donde los participantes tuvieron la oportunidad de degustar un menú a base de arroz Biofortificado y con ingredientes producidos en las comunidades."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones y recomendaciones","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"• La actividad productiva del arroz, en la que ambas comunidades tienen amplia experiencia, presenta desafíos frente a las brechas de comercialización, que indican la necesidad de fortalecer a los pequeños agricultores de Leticia y Zapatero, poniendo en marcha las estrategias planteadas en este documento. Esto considerando la importancia del arroz en el departamento de Bolívar donde el consumo percapita está por encima del consumo a nivel nacional."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"• Entre las estrategias para mejorar la comercialización de los productos agrícolas de Zapatero se plantea la creación de una marca, con esto se espera el posicionamiento e identidad de estos productos, obtenidos con una producción limpia y prácticas sostenibles que logre obtener mejores precios en mercados diferenciados que aprecien estos atributos y apoyen la economía de los pequeños productores del municipio. Por parte de la comunidad de Leticia si bien ya tienen una marca propia, se recomienda la activación de las ventas haciendo uso de esta, para así generar reconocimiento en el mercado."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"• La investigación y el sondeo de mercado realizado en la ciudad de Cartagena fueron fundamentales para evidenciar que existe una ventana de oportunidad para la comercialización del arroz Biofortificado blanco pulido e integral. Por tal motivo es importante continuar con la identificación de otros posibles potenciales compradores, esto considerando que Cartagena posee una alta oferta de establecimientos gastronómicos, interesados en la compra de productos locales y pago diferencial por atributos que generan valor agregado a la propuesta de valor de su negocio."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"• Para la puesta en marcha de las distintas estrategias de comercialización es importante crear y fortalecer algunas capacidades de tipo técnico y comercial que permitan alcanzar los objetivos y las acciones planteadas para cada una de ellas. Además, es importante que ambas comunidades tanto Leticia como Zapatero busquen alianzas estratégicas con entidades del Gobierno y el sector privado para gestionar recursos que les permitan implementar varias de las acciones planteadas, como es el caso de la adquisición de maquinaria e infraestructura de transformación para Zapatero."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"• Las estrategias de comercialización planteadas son una herramienta que guía y facilita la toma de decisiones y el logro de resultados enfocados al tema comercial de estos grupos de agricultores arroceros. Las estrategias y acciones planteadas en el plan de comercialización se diseñaron a partir de objetivos que son alcanzables en el corto y mediano plazo, y que pueden ejecutarse de forma independiente por los productores, algunas de ellas requieren de gestión ante distintas entidades tanto públicas como privadas que pueden contribuir al alcance de las mismas. Por último, se recomienda una actualización periódica del plan, teniendo en cuenta que existen cambios continuos y dinámicas provenientes del entorno y las necesidades de cada una de las poblaciones."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"9.2 Anexo 2. Tabla de costos de producción de arroz en Zapatero, Cartagena de Indias, Bolívar  "}]},{"head":"FODA","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• Falta de acceso a recurso hídrico para los cultivos • Alto costo para alquiler de maquinaria agrícola"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 2 . Figura 2. Producción y área sembrada en el Municipio de Cartagena de Indias(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022). Fuente: Fuente:(Andrade et al., 2022)  "},{"text":"Figura 1 . Figura 1. Proporción de costos fijos de producción en ZapateroFigura 2. Proporción de costos fijos de producción en Leticia "},{"text":"Figura 3 . Figura 3. Proporción de costos variables de producción de arroz en Zapatero "},{"text":" Fotografía 1. 49 LatAm 50 Best 2020 \"The World's 50 Best Restaurantes. Fuente: Tripadvisor relaciones con diversas organizaciones locales para otros tipos de productos, lo que abre una puerta a posibles oportunidades comerciales en el futuro. "},{"text":"Fotografía 3 . Catálogo de productos virtual de Enjoy Fit -Cartagena. Fuente: Enjoy Fit Fotografía 6. Galletas de arrozinflado con orégano y albahaca. Fuente: Propia Fotografía 7. Rosquillas integrales de arroz. Fuente: Propia Fotografía 9. Arroces diferenciados empacados en tiendas saludables Fuente: PropiaDurante las visitas a las tiendas, se identificaron arroces integrales diferenciados y empacados que representan una competencia directa para cualquier producto de arroz blanco o integral que puedan ofrecer las asociaciones. Marcas como Karavansay, fundada en 2008, destacan en este sentido, ya que producen alimentos manufacturados bajo estrictas normas de calidad y son comercializados con el valor agregado de ser arroces adquiridos directamente con los agricultores, garantizando así trazabilidad y además beneficios nutricionales en sus marcas de arroces. Otra marca identificada fue Cocina intuitiva y una variación de arroz con quinua de la misma marca Karavansay. "},{"text":"OPORTUNIDADES•FORTALEZAS• Participación como proveedor en las compras publicas • Áreas nuevas para cultivos (35-40 ha) • Aumentar la capacidad productiva a través de siembras escalonadas • Alta demanda del arroz en la región AMENAZAS • Variabilidad climática • El acceso a tierras para la agricultura es limitado (contrato de préstamo) • Plagas (ej. grillos y pájaros) • Cierre del canal del Dique (es un macroproyecto) • Calidad de la semillaFODA • Buenas condiciones agroecológicas para la siembra • Existe un monocultor para el cultivo • Hay una selladora de costales 9.4 Anexo 4. DOFA Zapatero Buena calidad del arroz, tamaño grande, buen sabor al cocinar • Suelos con buena cantidad de materia orgánica y drenaje • Diversidad agrícola para autoabastecimiento y excedentes para la comercialización. • Mano de obra disponible • Se tiene experiencia en la parte productiva • Buen trabajo en equipo • Alta participación de las mujeres en los procesos productivos • Experiencia realizando transformados de arroz • Interés en organizarse para crear una asociación • Participación de los jóvenes en los procesos productivos DEBILIDADES • Los productores no cuentan con análisis de suelos (se han realizado talleres donde en 1 finca de un productor se encontró suelos con alta acidez y bajo en potasio) • No están constituidos como asociación • Falta de tecnificación en los cultivos • Falta de asistencia técnica • No se tiene experiencia en la comercialización de forma grupal • Débil capacitación en temas de comercialización • Falta programación en las siembras OPORTUNIDADES • Los suelos poseen alto contenido de M.O • Mercado local importante y turismo • Cercanía a Cartagena y Barranquilla • Variedad de productos derivados del arroz • Buena oportunidad de comercialización en la zona AMENAZAS • Cambio climático • Presencia de plagas (ej. pájaro maría mulata) • Alto costo de agroinsumos • Escases de terrenos para la siembra • Baja presencial institucional y de gremio del arroz • Falta de cobertura para asistencia técnica • Mal estado de las vías terciarias de las veredas "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"e6fe680c-dd21-4410-9a71-27030f2d4cf7","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03cc0e4045267ce97e3620c520b1e50d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/25de5303-c730-4f86-9ec8-5fbd9528b3ce/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcomes","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"• 100% of original members of the 44 youth groups are till participating after 1.5 years; a 26% increase in new memberships."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Fattening weights of rams have increased 44-67%, just with locally available feed resources."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Increase in fattening rams per youth from 2 to an average of 6 within 1.5 years."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Average youth incomes increased by ETB 15000 ($500) in the first year."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• Three Government bureaus began to incorporate the sheep fattening program into their regional agendas."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"The • Our interventions aim to improve sheep fattening practices to enhance productivity and market orientation to enhance incomes."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• We work in 29 villages in Menz, Bonga and Doyogena."}]},{"head":"Our innovative approach","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Collective entrepreneurship via formation of sheep fattening youth groups and cooperatives."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• We incorporate entrepreneurial skills development training as well as sharing, co-generation and knowledge transfer of good practices."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Public and private sector engagement co-opted through coordination committees (Community of Practice) to improve vertical and lateral engagements."}]},{"head":"Future steps","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Consolidation of youth groups into sustainable regional cooperatives."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Strengthen the roles, coordination and collaboration of Community of Practice teams for enhanced engagement of policy and value chain actors."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Develop digital tools for collaboration, sharing and dissemination of technical and market information."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Jane Wamatu j.Wamatu @cgiar.org "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" CGIAR Research Program on Livestock thanks all donors & organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. cgiar.org/funders This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. June 2020 Context • Traditional, subsistence sheep fattening systems in rural Ethiopian Highlands offer limited income potential for the farmers. "},{"text":" 18 years old, a beneficiary of the Sheep Fattening program, Menz. Photo Nahom Ephrem/ICARDA Sheep Fattening in Ethiopia opens up exciting economic opportunities for rural youth, including young women § 612 young people in 44 groups participate in sheep fattening activities. § 43% of participants are female; the rates are growing. § Participants increase their incomes from sheep. Shaya Women Sheep Fattening Group, Bonga Photo Nahom Ephrem/ICARDA "}],"sieverID":"c3b7f105-3a00-41f1-b65b-0af816b209c4","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03cdd5dc75cb551f27baee7f1684b1a9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2e21a0d4-97e2-45a6-8509-3e3976297909/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"CGIAR initiatives -Delivering Integrated Research and Innovation Solutions","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Continuous demand creation and solution feedback loops","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Enabling environmentlevel solutions (policies, institutions) at the national, regional and international levels "}]},{"head":"On","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Genetic Innovation (GI) Initiatives","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Resilient Agri-Food (RAFS) Initiatives"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Securing the Asian Mega-Deltas from Sea-Level Rise, Flooding, Salinization and Water Insecurity  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 32 new CGIAR Initiatives, 3-year launched through 2024, financed with pooled funding Out of 32 initiatives, 10 planned to work in Vietnam "},{"text":"• And Youth Entrepreneurship and Technology • Harnessing use of local agricultural biodiversity for greater resilience and improved diets Research themes will focus on targeted approaches where the One CGIAR has a recognized comparative advantage in research for development and impact "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"6a3ff374-9702-4b19-9558-66d68cec7a5a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"040d670f96777d4cf9f69298cbdd40f7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9f058472-0fdb-4618-b521-f9258f7b1693/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"systems struggle to bring their products within the reach of women."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"-Gender-responsive seed systems can directly bene t women by recognizing their preferences, interests and aspirations and by overcoming barriers to seed access. They can also contribute to empowerment outcomes for women."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"-Empowerment of women depends on many factors beyond seed systems, and evidence shows no automatic causal relationship between enhanced seed access and greater empowerment. Women with seed-producing roles do show empowering attributes. A recent review of evidence on gender in seed systems, that I undertook with colleagues, points toward two primary roles that shape the potential outcomes for women: their roles as seed users and as seed producers."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Women's roles as seed users hampered by seed systems' poor reach For women to bene t in seed systems, seeds need to be within the reach of women. The seeds may then help women achieve empowerment, but only when women also have access to and control over essential inputs, resources, skills, knowledge and decisions."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Access to seed on its own is bene cial, but not necessarily empowering."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"Evidence shows (https://doi. org/10. 1111/14 77-894 7. 12008) that the formal seed sector struggles to provide women with seeds that meet their preferences and that are important to them."},{"index":7,"size":86,"text":"Instead, seed systems tend to prioritize higher-value cash crops dominated by men. Women often lack information and knowledge about seeds, and limitations to their mobility and social networks often shut them out of formal information channels, such as extension services. Training opportunities are often limited by household norms and roles. These limitations restrict women's abilities to use new seed technologies effectively, and when combined with barriers to have and control cash, women must often settle for lower quality seed as it is all they can afford."},{"index":8,"size":54,"text":"In contrast to formal systems, women play a relatively bigger role in farmer-managed and community-based (informal) seed systems. These tend to provide locally preferred seeds that better respond to women's needs and preferences. However, even in these systems, challenges related to participating in decision-making, ensuring seed quality and accessing novel varieties and information persist."}]},{"head":"Women's roles as seed producers bring opportunities and empowerment","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"There is evidence that women's roles as seed producers can be empowering. Although they have to overcome nancial and other barriers, women are increasingly taking on stronger and leading roles in community seed systems and small seed enterprises."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Research in eastern India and Bangladesh (https://www . researchgate. net/publication/298398895_Addressing_Gender_Access_to_the_Dissemination_of_Stress_Tolerant_Rice_Vari"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":") showed that women who had access to improved seed and were trained in seed production claimed that their social status had improved. They perceived themselves as farmers and not just housewives. They also gained con dence in decision-making, enhanced their knowledge, had marketable surplus and experienced better status within households and the community."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Guidance for devising gender-responsive seed systems First, seed systems designers need to tackle systemic causes of inequality. Alongside any technical requirements, seed systems interventions should speci cally target objectives such as promoting women's access to resources, enhancing women's participation and voice in household and community decision-making, and developing gender-responsive policies. They must also consider power asymmetries, community norms and practices as well as customary and formal laws that shape gender relations and roles."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Gender-responsive design principles for seed systems include:"}]},{"head":"Future research and innovation priorities","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The potential of seed systems to catalyze transformative change and bring about women's empowerment is under-researched. Interventions that systematically test the impact of gender-responsive seed systems on women's empowerment are very much needed. From our evidence review, the key recommendations for future research are summarized below:"},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Build evidence on gender dynamics in seed systems: Understanding local roles, norms and power relations that determine access and use is critical to design equitable and inclusive seed systems. With little evidence on the gendered aspects of seed systems, research to bridge knowledge and evidence gaps is urgently needed to inform seed systems interventions."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Track gendered seed access: The 'Access to Seed Index' should be adapted to include crops and varieties important to women, both formal and informal seed sources, and gendered indicators."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Understand gendered impact of seed systems policies: The gender dimensions of seed system policies and governance are little-known, but critical to ensure that formal policies use an appropriate gender lens."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"Use integrated seed sector approaches: Gender-responsive seed systems require both formal and informal systems, each with their own bene ts for women. Research on the linkages between formal and farmer-managed systems, and the contributions of informal community-based systems to women's empowerment, is a high priority."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Recognizing the differentiated user needs and preferences of women and men and devising appropriate delivery channels for each."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"-Using targeted and accessible channels, such as video, mobile seed shops or promotions in local markets to provide information, solicit women's preferences and facilitate networking opportunities."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"-Making quality seed affordable and within the reach of women, tackling any negative outcomes and trade-offs from, for example, subsidy or voucher schemes."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"-Prioritizing interventions that enhance the knowledge and skills of women, while reinforcing access to supporting and complementary resources, inputs and services."},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":"-"},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"Adapting training and other support to meet the speci c needs of women-and their families-in terms of location and timing."},{"index":12,"size":27,"text":"-Involving women and men equally in decisions on seed systems and extending opportunities equally. Women should not miss out because of their home situations or community norms."},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"-Supporting women entrepreneurs with gender-speci c laws and strategies to strengthen their access to resources, credit or other nancial products."},{"index":14,"size":13,"text":"-Giving policy and operational space for both formal and farmer-managed seed systems. -"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" the-formal or informal-networks, comprising many different actors, that ensure (or not) availability of and farmers' access to high-quality seeds of a wide range of crops. Importantly, access to seeds, essentially shaping farm productivity, is largely segregated by gender roles. Women and men experience different levels of success in getting the seeds they need-from formal markets, from government sources or from other farmers. "}],"sieverID":"d5bfa33b-a97e-4ed9-95b6-c57eab27355b","abstract":"Timely access to good seeds is a critical input for any farmer. Good seeds shape harvests and this in uences decisions on how much a household may consume, what seed can be kept for the next season and how much can be turned into income."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"050ff3d1ea6413184e68f8e7eb55800c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/268/4134_2017-22.pdf"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Considering gender: Practical guidance for rural development initiatives in Solomon Islands","keywords":["Front cover","Filip Milovac/WorldFish Back cover","Wade Fairley/WorldFish"],"chapters":[{"head":"Overview","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"The majority of Solomon Islanders live in rural communities and are dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods. For many people, ways of generating income or producing food outside of small-scale fishing and agriculture are limited. Many development actors (e.g. government agencies and nongovernmental organizations) work with people in rural communities to develop and improve livelihoods, food security and environmental sustainability. However, development initiatives are often challenged to improve the lives of all people due to the presence of gender inequalities, which limit the abilities of certain individuals, mainly women (but also youth, and in some situations men), to participate in and benefit from development opportunities [1,11,5]. This challenge has been recognized at the national level in Solomon Islands [9,10], and an increasing number of development actors now wish to consider gender throughout their initiatives. However, many feel overwhelmed or confused about how to plan and implement initiatives that seek to reduce gender inequality to maximize the benefits that development initiatives bring for everyone. This resource draws together the knowledge of over 60 Solomon Islands development practitioners who shared their years of experience during two workshops. 1 We combined these insights with findings from a WorldFish study [2,7] to help illustrate how development initiatives can:"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"• identify and understand gender considerations for Solomon Islands contexts, including the gender roles, norms and relations that contribute to gender inequality; • acknowledge and account for gender inequalities within development activities conducted with rural communities; • actively effect change to reduce gender inequalities by addressing their underlying causes. This is referred to as a gender-transformative approach, where development actors and communities closely work together to identify, examine, question and attempt to shift, in locally appropriate ways, harmful or inequitable gender norms and power imbalances between women and men [3,4]."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"What is gender and why is it important?"},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Gender refers to the social expectations and opportunities associated with being female or male, and the relationships between women and men, girls and boys. These gender \"norms\" shape what society expects of a \"good woman, \" or a \"good man. \" For example, these expectations may influence what women or men should say (or not say), do or not do, where they should go or not go. Gender norms and relations also shape what happens when women or men do not conform to these expectations and may include ridicule from neighbors, punishment or even violence. These gender expectations and relations vary between cultures, and they change over time."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"There is an assumption that focusing on gender in development means only addressing differences between women and men. In fact, effectively addressing gender also means understanding and being sensitive and responsive to other socioeconomic differences (e.g. wealth, age, religion, ethnicity and migration status). These differences may mean certain men or women have more, fewer or different opportunities than other women or men. Additionally, while it is sometimes assumed that gender development initiatives should just work with women, development practice that seeks to challenge inequalities frequently works with both women and men. In Solomon Islands, this can be challenging because of misconceptions about gender and equality."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"However, addressing gender inequalities through development initiatives can bring about benefits to all members of a community for the following reasons:"},{"index":7,"size":111,"text":"• All community members-not only dominant groups-can participate in shaping development priorities and opportunities and have equal opportunity to determine the changes they want to see in their lives. Pursuing gender equitable development is the focus of one of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 5) which aims to \"achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. \" Gender equality is achieved when all women and men have equal rights, status and opportunities. Working toward this point requires development initiatives to consider the diversity of women's and men's interests, needs and priorities, and address the various barriers preventing people's abilities to participate in and benefit throughout the development process [15]."},{"index":8,"size":236,"text":"Past research conducted in Solomon Islands [2,3,14] suggests that men are better positioned to participate in, and benefit from, development opportunities. This is because they tend to have better access and control of productive assets (i.e. income, land, equipment, technology) and resources (i.e. education, information, extension services), and experience greater freedom to make important life decisions. To ensure that men, women and youth community members benefit from a development initiative, it is important to consider these differences in the way initiatives are designed and implemented and the way outcomes are measured. • Rosalie Masu, Deputy Director for the Inshore Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources (MFMR), reflected on how MFMR recognizes the need to promote gender. She stated, \"Our future MFMR overarching policy, which is to be developed soon, must capture gender and other crosscutting themes such as climate change that are not directly related to fisheries but are imperative. \" Rosalie also emphasized the importance of addressing gender imbalances within government ministries, saying, \"I think it's more difficult for women [to gain employment] because we need to prove we are more educated [than men], we are knowledgeable and have the right papers, qualifications and so on, \" whereas for men this may not be necessary. However, restructuring within MFMR has \"encouraged the recruitment of more women. It is changing now. More women are coming in [to the ministry]\" (pers. comm. 2017)."},{"index":9,"size":86,"text":"• Ronnelle Panda, Gender Focal Point for MFMR, claims, \"The government has historically had low numbers of women in decision-making positions. In 2005, only five women were employed in MFMR, and prior to 2012 there were no women working at the management level. Now two of the nine senior managers are women and females account for 15 out of the 65 fisheries officers. A broader representation of perspectives in decision-making in MFMR is another step on the way to moving toward gender-equitable development\" (pers. comm. 2017)."},{"index":10,"size":99,"text":"• Alex Carlos, one of the longest serving officers in MFMR, expressed the increasing need to support gender-balanced staffing. In the past, MFMR's focus was on technical skills to enhance fisheries management practice, which only supported recruitment of men. He stated, \"Now we don't have enough technical women staff posted in the rural areas. \" He acknowledged that many of MFMR's activities could also be undertaken by female officers. \"We are also doing things like fish preservation, fish handling and CBRM, and need skills like writing project proposals [and recognize that] women can do these things\" (pers. comm. 2017)."},{"index":11,"size":51,"text":"• Ledley Diudi, the principal field officer for the Malaita Provincial Agriculture Department, expressed the importance of gender-balanced staffing to improve agricultural outcomes. He reported that cultural beliefs make it difficult for male agricultural extension officers to work directly with female farmers. How do development initiatives consider gender in their approach?"},{"index":12,"size":60,"text":"At the broadest level, development initiatives can be considered on a spectrum from gender-reinforcing, to gender-accommodative, to gender-transformative (Figure 1). Development experience has shown that gender-reinforcing approaches can lead not only to weak development outcomes, but perpetuate existing inequalities. For this reason, development initiatives are best to, and are increasingly appearing to, avoid operating at this end of the spectrum."},{"index":13,"size":92,"text":"Further along the spectrum are genderaccommodative and gender-transformative approaches. Together these cover initiatives designed to understand, take into account and respond to existing gender norms and power relations. As described below, best practice involves ensuring, as much as possible, that initiatives are structured toward at least the accommodative and, ideally, the transformative end of this spectrum. This is because development experience has shown that operating in this portion of the gender spectrum enhances development outcomes, not only for gender equality and women's empowerment, but also in relation to poverty and food security."},{"index":14,"size":48,"text":"Figure 1. The way in which organizations and initiatives consider and work with gender can be viewed on a spectrum (adapted from the Gender Equality Continuum [5]) and highlights there are opportunities and actions that organizations and initiatives can take to move toward more accommodating and transformative approaches."}]},{"head":"Gender transformative","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender accommodating","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender reinforcing","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender-reinforcing approaches","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Development initiatives may intentionally or unintentionally reinforce, sustain or take advantage of inequitable gender norms and power imbalances to achieve their objectives. Gender-reinforcing approaches can result in harmful consequences for certain people and undermine an initiative's intended objective [4]."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Box 2 highlights examples of how development initiatives may exclude or disadvantage women (or youth or other groups) by intentionally or unintentionally targeting activities toward men (or more dominant groups). In some cases, initiatives may make assumptions about who should be involved in consultation processes (e.g. only consulting men), undertaking activities based on stereotypes (e.g. \"only men fish\"), or believing that women's interests can be represented by male leaders or relatives. Development initiatives may also exclude women from opportunities and their benefits by holding training sessions or workshops in locations or at times where women cannot attend. Ignoring these factors may even result in negative consequences, such as increased overall workloads for women."}]},{"head":"Box 2. Examples of gender-reinforcing activities","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"• Development initiatives might hold community consultation meetings in settings where men's voices may dominate, and therefore minimize or not capture the voices of women or youth. This can further marginalize people who have migrated to a village for marriage (and do not have primary rights to land) as their perspectives may not be prioritized (Helen Teioli, WorldFish, pers. comm., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"• The marine management plans that MFMR have implemented in the past have sometimes overlooked the role of women or only seen fish species as important for men (Duta Kauhiona, MFMR, pers. comm., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"• In Solomon Islands, development initiatives working with communities have sometimes only introduced new agricultural technologies to men, overlooking the fact that most women are also involved in subsistence farming work. This is made worse if all the agricultural extension officers are men because certain cultural beliefs may restrict women from attending these training sessions or working closely with male trainers if their husbands are not present [13]."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"• When development initiatives hold training sessions in locations that may require travel outside of a village, women may face difficulties attending due to their household and child care responsibilities, which are less of a constraint for men. Consequently, only very few women may have the opportunity to attend training sessions and build their skills [7]."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"A trainer explains organic farming techniques to women, Malaita, Solomon Islands."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Photo credit: J. van der Ploeg/WorldFish"}]},{"head":"Gender-accommodating approaches","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Many development initiatives take a genderaccommodating approach, where they acknowledge and aim to account for gender norms and inequalities, but do not actively attempt to change them. These initiatives \"work around\" inequitable gender norms by designing activities that adjust to and compensate for them [4]. Gender-accommodating approaches can be an important first step toward promoting gender equality."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The examples in Box 3 demonstrate how genderaccommodating approaches may work around gender differences and inequalities to enable more inclusive development processes. Development initiatives may choose to pursue this approach to meet short-term gender-related objectives (i.e. increasing the number of women attending meetings). However, a key limitation of this approach is that it does not actively work toward addressing the underlying norms that perpetuate women's and other social groups' limited voices or marginalization in development opportunities."}]},{"head":"Box 3. Examples of gender-accommodating activities","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• \"Because men tend to dominate decision-making processes within communities, we deliberately separate women, men and youth into groups for discussions when planning livelihood projects to gain equal perspectives from all community members\" (Helen Teioli, WorldFish, pers. comm. 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"• \"Committees that are set up in community-based management initiatives must always have women representatives. This is widely practiced in MFMR engagements to provide a platform to have women's voices heard in decision-making and be involved in training opportunities\" (Rosalie Masu, MFMR, pers. comm. 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"• Some development initiatives encourage equal numbers of women and men in leadership positions (e.g. within management groups or committees such as those established to manage marine areas) to ensure equitable participation. While stronger representation of women in leadership is important, this approach does not contribute to addressing imbalances in decision-making power. Women tend to be confined to secretarial or administrative roles and, in these cases, this does not translate into a greater voice or influence for women [7]."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"• Focusing on development initiatives such as homestead aquaculture ponds or women's savings clubs \"works with\" the fact that women are often responsible for household work and caregiving by having the opportunity close to home. While women may benefit from these kinds of development, their overall workload may increase or household tensions could arise as their attention is pulled to this new task."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"A facilitated discussion with women about local knowledge of fisheries and marine resources, Central Province, Solomon Islands."}]},{"head":"Box 4. WorldFish examples of gender-transformative activities in different contexts","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The heart of the way WorldFish implements a gender-transformative approach is that we seek to engage women and men in safe and inclusive opportunities: to critically reflect on gender norms and behaviors and how these influence women and men, and, in particular, how these influence a household's (family's) ability to meet its goals; to come up with locally appropriate shifts or alternatives; and to try out these new ways of thinking or being, and reflect again on those. This can look very different in different contexts and initiatives."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"• In Solomon Islands, gender-transformative strategies were applied to an aquaculture project to develop homestead ponds in Malaita Province. The facilitators made conscious efforts to engage married couples in a farmer workshop. They used tools that encouraged participation of both women and men, such as separately drawing a farming systems diagram that demonstrated that although men were the \"face\" of fish, women and children played a significant role. One couple shared their story of how they work together and share the workload, and this encouraged open discussions in the group and promoted the idea that other couples could benefit from working as a team. Since this workshop, women have attained greater confidence to attend other workshops and have shown increased confidence to speak in front of men. Men now recognize the importance of women's roles in this livelihood work [8]."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"• In a savings program in Zambia, a series of sessions on gender-transformation were facilitated within a savings group using a participatory action research approach. Women and men were able to go home, test, report back and reflect on how their \"new ways\" worked."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"• In a different fishing community in Zambia, gender-transformative activities involved fishers watching interactive community theater (drama) and videos of real Zambian women and men who had worked together to transform their households, followed by reflection in participatory action groups."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"• In an aquaculture extension program in Bangladesh, the gender-transformative approach meant involving women and men farmers-and sometimes powerful household members such as mothersin-law-in facilitated sessions over a period of weeks, using participatory exercises to encourage surfacing of norms and reflection on these. Another initiative in Bangladesh is also running similar sessions just for community leaders [8]."}]},{"head":"Gender-transformative approaches","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Gender-transformative initiatives seek to transform harmful or inequitable gender and social norms and power imbalances between women and men. Gendertransformative initiatives will identify and examine, question and attempt to change-in locally appropriate ways-harmful or inequitable gender norms and power imbalances between women and men. Gendertransformative approaches seek to understand genderbased differences, and transform gender and social norms to promote equal access to, and control of, the benefits from development opportunities (see Box 4 for examples) [6,8]."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"A gender-transformative approach is more likely to result in long-term, permanent changes, where benefits are equitable within society (i.e. they benefit families and the broader community-not just women), and ongoing growth and development is promoted [4]. There is no exact formula for applying a gender-transformative approach. However, guiding principles are emerging, including that it is important to involve both men and women, boys and girls, and that transformation is rooted in engaging people in reflecting and critically questioning gender norms and their influence [12]."}]},{"head":"Considerations for gender-transformative initiatives: Insights from development practitioners in Solomon Islands","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Discussions by experts participating in the workshops, as well as findings from a WorldFish study [2,7], have guided the development of this publication and Differences in women's and men's opportunities to participate in development Differences in women's and men's access to and control over resources Differences in women's and men's divisions of labor"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Differences in women's and men's decisionmaking power highlighted the importance of considering gender norms. These considerations have been grouped into four main areas:"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"A community meeting to discuss marine resource management, Western Province, Solomon Islands."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Photo credit: Filip Milovac/WorldFish"}]},{"head":"Box 6. Practitioner insights into division of labor","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"• There can be distinct differences in women's and men's roles and responsibilities within the household and community. In one community, women said, \"Gardening is our work\" and felt this was one of the only choices they had, stating, \"Some of us women only have our garden for our livelihoods. \" Whereas when men were asked about their responsibilities, they reported a diversity of livelihoods in addition to gardening, such as building hand-carved dugout canoes, cutting firewood, building houses and smallscale fishing. They also demonstrated a greater capacity to explore new opportunities than women [2]."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"• As development initiatives bring about change, women might experience increased demands on their time. In one example, women had become less willing to participate in agricultural development initiatives because in the past this meant they had to spend more time at markets to sell the surplus. Women's participation in development opportunities can bring benefits to the entire household (e.g. increased cash or food)-and this is more likely to be achieved if men are more willing to take on traditional \"women's work\" to alleviate some of the labor burden from their wives [7]."}]},{"head":"Division of labor","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"This refers to the norms and relations that shape the division of roles and responsibilities between individuals (women, men and youth) based on social expectations and the allocation of time spent on specific activities. This includes the roles and activities performed within the household as well as within livelihood activities or the community. A key consideration is to know whether women's time spent on unpaid care or domestic work limits their ability to participate in livelihoods activities, or whether their participation in livelihood activities will further their burden of time spent on paid and unpaid work (see Box 6 for examples)."}]},{"head":"Box 5. Practitioner insights into participation in development activities","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"• Women are often unable to participate in development opportunities located outside their communities due to social and cultural beliefs that women should not leave their communities. Some community members believe \"there is no reason for a woman to go out [of the community], she is supposed to be staying at home with the kids\" (male community member, Malaita)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"• Women tend to carry the responsibility of being the main food providers. Initiatives that promoted changes to their livelihood practices (e.g. changes in farming techniques) were perceived as too risky by women, and they were hesitant to participate. It was found that people's willingness to adopt new practices would be higher with prior evidence of success. \"[P]eople in the village want to see results first before they try new things\" (female community member, Malaita)."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"• Women may not have the confidence to participate in initiatives if they have not previously been exposed to other development opportunities. However, if women have been supported to attend training and work with organizations, then this may have flow on benefits. One woman explained, \"Before, I just stayed in the village.… People didn't know who I was, but now [an outside organization] has chosen me to attend training.… Now I join most workshops that come into the community. That's how I've changed\" (female community member, Western Province). Women's increased participation in development opportunities can result in positive benefits, including increased access to financial capital, increased influence in community and household decision-making, and increased confidence and willingness to trial new innovations [2]."}]},{"head":"Opportunities to participate in development","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"This refers to gender norms and relations that affect an individual's ability to participate, and the level of their participation, in development opportunities (e.g. training, workshops or pilot programs). Key considerations may include restrictions on women's mobility, time and labor allocation, and perceptions of risk in participating (see Box 5 for examples)."}]},{"head":"Decision-making power","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"This refers to the norms and relations that shape people's agency or ability to make decisions that affect their own lives and their household, as well as their voice and influence in decision-making processes at the community-scale."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"A key consideration is to know whether a woman (or other individual) has the ability to decide if, when or how to participate in a livelihood activity, such as marketing, and whether she has the power to make or participate in decisions about how to use the benefits or profits from livelihood activities (see Box 8 for examples)."}]},{"head":"Box 8. Practitioner insights into decision-making power","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• Men tend to hold the majority of leadership positions at the community level due to local and traditional governance structures that promote men as leaders, which can marginalize women from decision-making processes taking place in public forums [2]."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"• The absence of women from community decision-making can limit their abilities to benefit from development. Elsie Wickham (MWYCFA) shared a story of a group of village women who decided to pool their money and buy products from Honiara to sell in their village for a small profit. This small income-generating project was building up to be a profitable venture when the village leaders told them they could not continue until they paid them a hawker's license fee (approx. SBD 1000, or USD 128). The women did not have the money to pay for the license and were forced to abandon their business venture. If there were a greater representation of women on the village committee, there may have been more support for women as entrepreneurs (pers. comm., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"• Women are able to make some small decisions in the household, such as how many crops to sell at market. However, men tend to have the final say on household decisions. A community member reported, \"If she [the wife] respects her husband, she must ask him so he can make the final decision\" [7]."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• In some cases, women and men will need their spouse's support, or even permission, to participate in a development initiative [7]."}]},{"head":"Access to and control over resources","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"This refers to norms and relations influencing an individual's ability to access (i.e. gain or use) physical assets, such as equipment, technology, cash and natural resources, as well as social resources, such as information and support (e.g. through agricultural extension services)."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"It also refers to an individual's ability to control or make decisions about the use of these different resources."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"A key consideration is to know whether women (and men or other groups) are constrained in gaining access to resources or in their ability to decide how or when to use that resource (see Box 7 for examples)."}]},{"head":"Box 7. Practitioner insights into resource access and control","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"• Women may have had less access to formal schooling than men. This can influence women's confidence in engaging with or seeking out development opportunities. One women reported, \"If I were able to read and write, I would go and see those people [holding formal positions] in the [government or NGO] office, but I can't read or write so it's hard for me to go\" [2]."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"• The MECDM office has found that most of the community members seeking advice or reporting issues are men. \"Women may not have the access or the confidence to come into our office, or maybe they don't have access to a mobile phone, or they don't know who the contacts are\" (Agentha Vavekaramui, MECDM, pers. comm. 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Guidance for planning and implementing gender-accommodating and gender-transformative initiatives in rural Solomon Islands communities A tool (Table 1) has been developed to assist development initiatives working in rural communities to consider gender and provide guidance for the planning and implementation of gender-accommodating and gender-transformative initiatives in Solomon Islands."}]},{"head":"Using the tool","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The first column of the tool proposes a desired outcome. The second column indicates key questions and considerations for designing and implementing development initiatives that accommodate for or transform gender inequalities. The third and fourth columns provide factors or key criteria for gender-accommodating and gender-transformative development initiatives, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Although the tool is oriented toward communitybased initiatives, the points raised may also be useful to apply to organizational initiatives (e.g. within government and nongovernment agencies) that seek to consider gender at this scale. Gender inequalities differ depending on the context in which development initiatives are implemented. Therefore, this tool serves only as a guide for the types of gender considerations initiatives may need to integrate."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Women attend a workshop to discuss marine resource management issues, Maluu, Solomon Islands."}]},{"head":"Photo credit: Filip Milovac/WorldFish","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"A tool providing guidance for planning and implementing gender-accommodating and gendertransformative initiatives in rural Solomon Islands communities"}]},{"head":"Questions to assist in identifying gender differences and inequalities during planning and implementation:","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Gender-accommodating initiatives will seek to ensure the following:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"In addition, gender-transformative initiatives will seek to achieve one or more of the following: to participate in development"}]},{"head":"Desired outcome:","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Women and men can participate equally and each have a voice in development opportunities."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Do development initiatives seek to include both women and men and, where relevant, marginalized groups?"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• How do women's, men's or marginalized groups' participation in development initiatives differ?"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• What types of development initiatives or activities do women, men or marginalized groups want to participate in or undertake?"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"• What factors support or hinder women's, men's or marginalized groups' participation in development initiatives or activities (e.g. do men and other community members not support women's participation)?"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• Are there any social or gender norms that restrict women's or marginalized groups' mobility or participation in development initiatives?"},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"• Are women or marginalized groups able to and do they participate in leadership positions within development initiatives (and not just within women's groups)?"},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"• Are women or marginalized groups able to voice their opinions within development initiatives, and are their voices being heard?"},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"• Do development initiatives actively promote leadership opportunities for women or marginalized groups, or encourage their voice or influence in development activities?"},{"index":10,"size":29,"text":"• Do women's, men's or marginalized groups' perceptions of risk associated with participating in development initiatives or adopting new practices differ (i.e. do they have different things at stake)?"},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"• Are there opportunities within development initiatives to ensure that all voices are heard and have influence?"},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"• Activities are designed for and tailored to the specific interests of women, men or marginalized groups. This may be through separate interventions for women and men, or through mixed groups (as appropriate)."},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":"• Women's, men's and marginalized groups' participation is encouraged through direct outreach to them (e.g. women are invited directly to attend, not through their husband, or opportunities are advertised in spaces or sources that women access)."},{"index":14,"size":20,"text":"• Support for women's or marginalized groups' participation in the initiative is promoted among family members and the wider community."},{"index":15,"size":33,"text":"• Existing time and labor requirements do not hinder or exclude women, men or marginalized groups from being able to participate (e.g. activities are planned at appropriate times and consider women's time constraints)."},{"index":16,"size":34,"text":"• Women's, men's and marginalized groups' voices are represented and reflected within decisions related to the initiative. This may involve opening spaces for both women and men to share their views, interests and needs."},{"index":17,"size":32,"text":"• Women, men and marginalized groups have an equal opportunity to participate in the leadership of the initiative (e.g. opportunities for women's leadership are promoted or guaranteed through quotas or other mechanisms)."},{"index":18,"size":40,"text":"• Gender differences in risk perception are acknowledged (i.e. based on differing interests, needs and dependency on natural resources), and actions are taken to reduce this risk (i.e. through providing evidence of the potential success of participating in an initiative)."},{"index":19,"size":24,"text":"• Build personal and shared understandings of how gender norms and relations affect women, men and the ability of households to achieve their aspirations."},{"index":20,"size":22,"text":"• Promote locally led shifts in the social and gender norms that restrict women's ability and willingness to participate in development opportunities."},{"index":21,"size":26,"text":"• Empower and build the confidence and selfefficacy of women, men and marginalized groups to take part in and benefit from current and future development opportunities."},{"index":22,"size":13,"text":"• Increase the abilities and positions of women and marginalized groups in leadership."},{"index":23,"size":13,"text":"Questions to assist in identifying gender differences and inequalities during planning and implementation:"},{"index":24,"size":8,"text":"Gender-accommodating initiatives will seek to ensure the following:"},{"index":25,"size":14,"text":"In addition, gender-transformative initiatives will seek to achieve one or more of the following:"}]},{"head":"Division of labor","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Desired outcome:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Women and men have a more equitable division of labor, resulting in more time for women to participate in development opportunities."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• How do women, men and marginalized groups currently spend their time? Consider time spent on both paid and unpaid activities, such as care work."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• How much time do women, men and marginalized groups currently spend on livelihood or agricultural activities?"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• How do current roles and responsibilities within livelihoods or agricultural activities differ for women, men and marginalized groups?"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• What types of roles or responsibilities do development initiatives promote for women in livelihoods or agriculture (e.g. do they promote the same opportunities for women as for men)?"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Do development initiatives account for existing time and labor responsibilities of women, men and marginalized groups (e.g. women's unpaid care work, including childcare and household tasks)?"},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"• Will women's workload (including paid and unpaid work) increase as a result of their involvement in a given development initiative or adoption of a new practice (e.g. women needing to spend more time selling crops or fish at market as a result of increased production)?"},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"• How will a development initiative impact the ability of women, men or marginalized groups to carry out their existing roles and responsibilities (e.g. will an activity, such as a marine closure, reduce or alter their access to resources)?"},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"• If so, how can a development initiative minimize any negative impact on labor opportunities for women, men and marginalized groups?"},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"• Are there opportunities within a development initiative to challenge rather than reinforce gender-appropriate roles for women and men to undertake?"},{"index":11,"size":25,"text":"• Activities consider time constraints for women and work around their existing workloads, by planning activities at times that ensure women are able to participate."},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"• Wherever possible, women's care responsibilities are addressed by providing childcare support to enable women to participate."},{"index":13,"size":39,"text":"• Activities consider how participation in an activity or adoption of a new practice may increase women's workload and attempt to minimize them (e.g. by introducing timesaving techniques or technologies, or limiting the amount of time required of participants)."},{"index":14,"size":36,"text":"• Roles and activities promoted for women or marginalized groups do not reinforce existing stereotypes (e.g. women as food preparers or caregivers) and include opportunities at different levels or stages of production or the value chain."},{"index":15,"size":24,"text":"• Build personal and shared understandings of how gender norms and relations affect women, men and the ability of households to achieve their aspirations."},{"index":16,"size":23,"text":"• Increase the value ascribed to unpaid care work, by raising the visibility and importance of caregiving for families, communities and the economy."},{"index":17,"size":17,"text":"• Redistribute the burden of unpaid care work, including increasing men's participation in caregiving and household tasks."},{"index":18,"size":28,"text":"• Promote locally led shifts in social and cultural attitudes toward appropriate work for women and men, including greater (paid) roles for women in agriculture or livelihoods activities."},{"index":19,"size":28,"text":"• Identify champions (local men and women who display more equitable gender relations and behaviors) to act as role models in the community and within the development initiative."},{"index":20,"size":13,"text":"Questions to assist in identifying gender differences and inequalities during planning and implementation:"},{"index":21,"size":8,"text":"Gender-accommodating initiatives will seek to ensure the following:"},{"index":22,"size":14,"text":"In addition, gender-transformative initiatives will seek to achieve one or more of the following:"}]},{"head":"Access to and control over resources","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Desired outcome:","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Women, men and marginalized groups have equitable access to, and control over, physical and social resources required for development."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• How do access to and control over physical resources (e.g. equipment, tools, cash, natural resources) differ for women, men and marginalized groups?"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• How do access to and control over social resources (e.g. information and support) differ for women, men and marginalized groups?"},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• What factors restrict women (or marginalized groups) from obtaining or using these resources (e.g. are women not targeted by development initiatives, or are they unable to travel to reach them)?"},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"• Are there any laws, or social or gender norms that restrict ownership or use of certain resources for women, men or marginalized groups (e.g. laws that restrict women's land rights or inheritance, or norms that limit the use of certain equipment)?"},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"• Are there any physical or social restrictions on the mobility of women or marginalized groups that will limit their ability to obtain or use these resources (e.g. beliefs that women should not travel outside of the home, or fears for women's safety and security)?"},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"• Are there differences in the ability of women, men or marginalized groups to comprehend the information required for the initiative (e.g. are literacy rates lower for women)?"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• Are there differences in preferred ways of accessing information or resources for women, men or marginalized groups?"},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"• What factors restrict women or marginalized groups from deciding when or how to use resources (e.g. does a woman need her husband's permission)?"},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"• What factors hinder or support women's, men's or marginalized groups' adoption of new practices promoted by development initiatives (e.g. is evidence of success required before they are willing or able to participate)?"},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"• Do development initiatives currently create opportunities for women, men and marginalized groups to more equitably access and control resources?"},{"index":12,"size":30,"text":"• Are women and marginalized groups likely to be able to access or control any benefits derived from their participation in a development initiative or adoption of a new practice?"},{"index":13,"size":39,"text":"• Location and timing of workshops and opportunities do not hinder or exclude women, men or marginalized groups from being able to access physical or social resources. Women and men may require activities at different locations/ times of day."},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"• Restrictions on women's mobility (i.e. ability to travel to the market or attend a workshop) do not hinder their ability to access or obtain information or support offered by the development initiative."},{"index":15,"size":26,"text":"• Information is disseminated in ways that account for differences in literacy levels or preferences (e.g. practical vs. theoretical information) among women, men or marginalized groups."},{"index":16,"size":21,"text":"• The resources required to participate in an initiative do not exclude women or marginalized groups from being able to participate."},{"index":17,"size":22,"text":"• The tools and equipment required to participate in an initiative are socially and culturally appropriate for women and men to use."},{"index":18,"size":19,"text":"• Women, men and marginalized groups are informed of existing laws and rights of ownership or access to resources."},{"index":19,"size":22,"text":"• Mechanisms are in place to ensure that both women and men are able to access and benefit from the resources provided."},{"index":20,"size":24,"text":"• Build personal and shared understandings of how gender norms and relations affect women, men and the ability of households to achieve their aspirations."},{"index":21,"size":25,"text":"• Increase women's access to, ownership and control over resources, including advocating for legal and policy changes in support of women's land and inheritance rights."},{"index":22,"size":17,"text":"• Promote locally led shifts in social and gender norms that allocate greater decision-making power to men."},{"index":23,"size":25,"text":"• Promote locally led shifts in social and gender norms that restrict women's mobility, such as men's control over women's movements and violence against women."},{"index":24,"size":15,"text":"• Increase women's literacy and access to education, including challenging norms that prioritize men's education."},{"index":25,"size":2,"text":"Table 1."},{"index":26,"size":17,"text":"A tool providing guidance for planning and implementing gender-accommodating and gendertransformative initiatives in rural Solomon Islands communities."},{"index":27,"size":13,"text":"Questions to assist in identifying gender differences and inequalities during planning and implementation:"},{"index":28,"size":8,"text":"Gender-accommodating initiatives will seek to ensure the following:"},{"index":29,"size":14,"text":"In addition, gender-transformative initiatives will seek to achieve one or more of the following:"}]},{"head":"Decision-making power","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Desired outcome:","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Women and men have equitable decision-making power within households and communities."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• How do influence and power in decision-making differ for women, men and marginalized groups within the community (e.g. about the use or management of natural resources)?"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• How do influence and power in decision-making differ for women and men within the household (e.g. about how to spend household income, or the activities they participate in)?"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• What factors restrict the ability of women or marginalized groups to influence or make decisions within the community, development initiatives or the household?"},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"• Are there any customary rules, social or gender norms that limit the decisionmaking power of women or marginalized groups (e.g. customs that make men the head of the household, patriarchal norms of male authority or beliefs that men are better decision-makers)?"},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"• Are women or marginalized groups likely to be able make decisions about how to use or invest the benefits they derive from participation in a development initiative (e.g. to be able to decide what to do with cash earned or increased crop production)?"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"• Do the decision-making processes of current development initiatives account for the interests and needs of all stakeholders?"},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"• Do development initiatives promote equal voice and power for women, men and marginalized groups in decision-making at different stages, including planning and implementation?"},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"• Are there opportunities within development initiatives to transform imbalances in decision-making power (i.e. that create more space for women to participate and have influence in decision-making processes)?"},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"• Women, men and marginalized groups participate in decisions about the design and planning of development initiatives."},{"index":11,"size":34,"text":"• Spaces and opportunities are created for women and marginalized groups to be decision-makers within natural resource management processes and development initiatives (e.g. by reserving spaces for women in leadership or on decision-making committees)."},{"index":12,"size":26,"text":"• Activities acknowledge women's often limited power within household decision-making and mitigate risks that may accompany greater decisionmaking or earning power (e.g. risk of domestic violence)."},{"index":13,"size":26,"text":"• Activities respect local customs, but do not reinforce inequitable decision-making norms or practices (e.g. by gaining support from households and the community for women's participation)."},{"index":14,"size":24,"text":"• Build personal and shared understandings of how gender norms and relations affect women, men and the ability of households to achieve their aspirations."},{"index":15,"size":20,"text":"• Promote locally led shifts in social and gender norms that allocate greater decision-making power to men within the community."},{"index":16,"size":21,"text":"• Increase women's power in household decision-making by working with women and men to challenge norms that limit women's decision-making power."},{"index":17,"size":32,"text":"• Empower women with the skills and confidence to communicate their opinions and participate in household and community decisions, while challenging inequitable norms and promoting opportunities for women to practice these skills."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Examples of how organizations in Solomon Islands are considering gender within their internal operations • at which positive outcomes are experienced by society. This means that development organizations need to think about how their policies and activities align with the national and international gender policies such as the Solomon Islands National Policy on Gender Equality and Women's Development. While in the early stages, Agnetha Vavekaramui from the Ministry of Environment, Climate Change, Disaster Management and Meteorology (MECDM) reflected on MECDM's progress in recognizing how gender equality supports the achievement of development outcomes. She stated, \"We've been supporting gender mainstreaming policies and strategies by the Ministry of Women and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community … Our question is how do we integrate gender into this kind of sector? At the national level, we need to have some guidelines on what the government really wants out of gender, Box 1. Box 1. In a community when gender is In a community when gender is mentioned, people automatically mentioned, people automatically think of women, therefore we often think of women, therefore we often use the term 'inclusivity,' use the term 'inclusivity,' meaning everyone. meaning everyone. -Duta Kauhiona, MFMR, -Duta Kauhiona, MFMR, pers. comm., 2016 pers. comm., 2016 Due to the common belief that Due to the common belief that 'gender' is only associated with 'gender' is only associated with women's development in Solomon women's development in Solomon Islands, some people may resist efforts Islands, some people may resist efforts to reduce gender inequalities because it is viewed to reduce gender inequalities because it is viewed as challenging customary practices and cultural as challenging customary practices and cultural beliefs, and others may believe it will undermine beliefs, and others may believe it will undermine men's power and status. men's power and status.  "},{"text":" To ensure women can access agricultural information and training, the Provincial Agriculture Department recently established the Women Agriculture Extension Services with the intention to deploy female officers to work with community women's groups to work with female farmers to improve crop production, livestock and local poultry management (pers. comm. 2017). This also requires development organizations to work This also requires development organizations to work toward addressing gender inequalities within their toward addressing gender inequalities within their internal operations (see Box 1 for examples). Gender internal operations (see Box 1 for examples). Gender equality in communities can be mirrored, reinforced by equality in communities can be mirrored, reinforced by and/or even influence inequality within government and/or even influence inequality within government agencies and nongovernmental organizations. agencies and nongovernmental organizations.  "}],"sieverID":"b438c766-fc15-4d86-9092-0e761e007822","abstract":""}

data/part_2/054da7ed4d4c536214ce3b77964b635c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"054da7ed4d4c536214ce3b77964b635c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c3e6201-0d1c-4d31-9a20-a98408cef15b/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . The table below portrays the amount of kokum juice produced by the Mathabhoomi group from 2012 to 2016.  2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 20122013201420152016 Volume (kg) 20 150 350 500 600 Volume (kg) 20150350500600 Revenue 47.7 358.08 835.51 1193.58 1417.38 Revenue47.7358.08835.511193.581417.38 (US $)      (US $) Active 12  12 11 11 Active12121111 members      members  "}],"sieverID":"5e3b01ee-0c60-48fa-9bed-ca8c386d7dac","abstract":""}

data/part_2/056755af000bc5cc94046a06b19a1a17.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"056755af000bc5cc94046a06b19a1a17","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/35ce28a9-23cc-4ed4-9fe6-7fa018ae6725/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"2.","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"El propósito del presente trabajo es ofrecer a los futuros productores comerciales de semillas de esta nueva especie, métodos alternativos para la cosecha y el beneficio, factibles de ser empleados según las condiciones en distintas zonas de producción."}]},{"head":"METODOS DE COSECHA","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cosecha Manual","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Es el método que ofrece los más altos rendimientos prácticos de obtener."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Está limitado en área por los altos requerimientos de mano de obra (Cuadro 1)."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Se compone de tres etapas: corte, pila y sacudido. Las inflorescencias son recolectadas por medio de una hoz y llevadas en manojos hasta una pila."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"Las pilas son construidas ~n tal forma que mantengan un ambiente húmedo dentro de ellas, pero que al mismo tiempo tengan alguna aireación para evitar calentamiento excesivo. Allí las espiguillas son sometidas a un proceso de sudado por un período limitado de 3-4 días, durante el cual ocurre su desprendimiento natural, además algunas semillas aún inmaduras al momento del corte logran alcanzar su madurez. Una vez cumplido el sudado , se e fectúa el sacudido (o trilla suave), utilizando como med io de separación una malla horizontal de alambre ubicada al lado de la pila, ésto da como resultado un material cosechado o semilla cruda, libre de tallos, hojas, etc."}]},{"head":"Cosecha mecánica","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Combinada convencional","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Aunque esta máquina plantea problemas en la cosecha de semillas de An~topo9on gayanU6 , especialmente por tener un sistema de a li mentación Y de trilla no ap ro~i ado para este tipo de cultivo, es la máquina cosechadora más disponible en las zon as con potencial para producir semi ll as de estn especi e 3."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Datos comparativos con la cosecha manual en cuanto a rendimientos y pureza del material cosechado (Cuadros 2 y 3) indican pérdidas en rendimient o y baja pureza del material cosechado. Su principal vent aja est 5 en l o~ bJ jos requerimientos de mano de obra. Los principales ajustes a tene r en cuenta son los siguientes: baja velocidad de avance (0.8-1.0 km/hora), mínimo aire en el ventilador, alta velocidad del cilindro de trilla, máxima distancia entre el cilindro y el cóncavo y máxima abertura de la s zarandas."}]},{"head":"Combinada modificada","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Con el fin de aprovechar los beneficios del sudado practicado en 1 ~ cosecha manual se propone hacer algunos cambios en la combinada convencional habilitándola para cumplir la cosecha en dos etapas separadas : co rte y sacudido."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Estos cambios incluyen modificaciones en el sistema de alimentación y la eliminación del sistema de trilla."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Durante la primera etapa la máquina se utiliza básicamente como co rtadora, pero capturando al mismo tiempo las semillas maduras que se desp renden fácilmente. El resto del material compuesto por inflorescenci a s con espiguillas aún inmaduras, debe ser acumulado en pequeños montones o pil as donde se cumpla el sudado. Posteriormente a los 3-4 días, una zaranda desbrozadora vibratoria o \\a misma máquina ahora utilizada como sacudidora estacionaria efectuará la separación de las espiguillas del resto del material."}]},{"head":"Segadora-atadora","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Esta máquina antiguamente utilizada en la cosecha de varios cultivos como cebada, avena , etc., posee un sistema de corte y amarre del ma t e ri a l en atados que podrfa ser muy Gtil en la mecanización del corte."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Una vez cortadas, las inflorescencias se reúnen en pilas para someterlas al sudado. El sacudido se podrá efectuar en una zaranda vibratoria o en forma manua 1 ."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Otra posibilidad es tener una cuchilla con un molinete montada delante de un tractor con una plataforma para recibir las inflorescencias. Una vez que un volumen o peso ha sido cortado, se efectúa la descarga en forma ordenada para formar una pila y cumplir el sudado, el sacudido se efectúa como en el método anterior."}]},{"head":"Recolección del suelo","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Su utilidad está limitada a pequeRas áreas con suelo liviano y ausencia de lluvias en la época de madurez y cosecha, además existen complicaciones por obstáculos en la superficie del suelo como coronas del propio cultivo y malezas."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"La recolección de las semillas puede hacerse manualmente usando escobas y palas o por métodos mecánicos por medio de succión. En ambos casos el material recolectado llega con un alto porcentaje de residuos vegetales,"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"•j ... sue 1 o y po 1 vo por 1 o cua 1 se comp 1 1 ca mucho e 1 •acond i el onami ento de 1 as semi 11 as."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Es mejor sembrar este material como semilla cruda (sin limpiar}."}]},{"head":"BENEFICIO","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Su o bjetivo es eliminar contaminantes, adecuar las semillas para la siembra y proteger su viabilidad."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Abarca todas las etapas desde la cosecha hasta la siembra, esto es: secado, pre l impieza, desaristado, clasificación y empaque."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"s."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"La secuencia a seguir depende del método de cosecha empleado (Diagrama 1)."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"El grado de refinamiento en el beneficio dependerá del ti po de si embra a utilizar y de las exigencias del mercado. Para un mercado l ocal con s iembras hechas a mano o al voleo será suficiente tener una semill a cruda o prelimpia."}]},{"head":"Secado","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Puede harcerse en forma natural o artificial, pero s iemp re en forma lenta (éste debe ocurrir en un período no menor de dos dí as ni mayor de cuatro) para evitar pérdidas en la viabilidad."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"En zonas con alta radiación solar y viento el seca do natural es el más económico, las semillas se 'extienden en una capa de 40 cm de espeso r como mínimo si es al sol o de 15-20 cm si es a la sombra, en ambos casos pero especialmente si es al sol es necesario voltear continuamente el materi a l para permitir un secado uniforme y tener algún sistema de protecci ón en caso de vientos o lluvias."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"En zonas con mucha lluvia al momento de la cosecha e s f ac ti ble emplea r algún sistema de secado con aire libre inducido, conductos pe rf o rados con c irculación de aire a presión introducidos dentro de una mas a de semi ! las pueden ser muy útiles en el secado."}]},{"head":"Prelimpieza","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Comprende la separación de pedazos de ta l lo y hojas, se hace a mano como parte de la cosecha cuando se trata de sacud ido manual o semi-mecánico ."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"En el caso de la cose cha con combinada convencional es indispen sab le e l uso de máqui nas de sb roz adoras por tamaAo. Las za rand as p l anas vihrnlll ri as"}]},{"head":"Desaristado","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Consiste básicamente en separar las aristas y espiguillas superiores (infértiles) de las espiguillas basales con el fin de permitir su clasificación; debe ser hecho por fricción y no a golpes porque se causará daños mecánicos a la cariopside de las semillas puras. Puede ser hecho en molinos de martillos modificado o desbarbadoras debidamente adaptadas para trabajar en base a fricción. En el CIAT se desarrolló un modelo de desaristadora con dedos de caucho especialmente diseñada para este fin (Garcfa y Ferguson, 1981). Sus componentes básicos (Cuadro 4) pueden ser adaptados de otras máquinas ya existentes."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Como consecuencia del desaristado, se libera una gran cantidad de pelusa y polvo que debe ser controlado para evitar problemas en la planta de beneficio. Transportadores herméticos tipo sin-fin son muy eficientes en el transporte de este tipo de material y evitan el escape de pelusa y polvo al ambiente. Ellos deben estar inclufdos en la lfnea de benefi :n, ~c~~ cialmente a partir de la prelimpieza como sistema de alimentación a la desaristadora y como enlace entre esta máquina y la limpiadora de aire-zaranda."}]},{"head":"Clasificación","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Comprende la separación de aristas, espiguillas superiores infértiles, algunas vanas livianas, polvo, etc. las cuales son de menor peso que la semilla pura y son separadas por medio de aire. Otro tipo de material contaminante como tallos partidos, hojas, malezas, etc., son separados en base a tamaño por un sistema de zarandas.  1/ -Forma de semill a después de la cosecha manual ."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":".YForma de semilla después de la cosecha manual. un pase po r la de sa ri s t adora con dedos de caucho y luego un pase por la cri ba dó ra ven ti lado r~. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" dos sistemas de aire y una o más zarandas son l as má s eficientes en la clasificación. Siempre debe estar unida a un ciclón o a cualquier -otro tipo de control de polvo. Una capacidad de 20 kg/hora en semilla clasificada es normal y es lo que representa el mayor costo del beneficio. los cambios en cuanto a las características de las semillas debido al desari s tado y la clasificación se pueden ver en el Cuadro 5. REFERENCIAS CENTRO INTERNACIONAL DE AGRICULTURA TROPICAL (CIAT). Informe Anual 1977. Programa de Pastos Tropicales. Cali, Colombia. pp. A25-26. FERGUSON, J.E. 198~. Perspectivas da producao de sementes de Andropogon gayanus. Revista Brasileira de Sementes, Brasilia, D.F. 3(1) 175-193. GARCIA, D.A., y FERGUSON, J.E . 1981. Desaristado mecánico de las semillas de Andropogon 9ayanus. IV Seminario Nacional y 1 Congre so Co l ombiano de Ingeniería Agrícola. Universidad Nacional, Bogotá, OctJbre 8-11, 1981. JONES, C.A . 1979. The potential of Andropogon gayanus Kunth in the oxísol and ultisol savannas of America Tropical. Heb. Abstr. "}],"sieverID":"07cc12c2-bdd5-4790-b874-e68dec542a6d","abstract":"Andtopogon gayanU6 es una gramínea forrajera de porte alto, perenne y de origen africano. Sus características de alta productividad en suelos ácidos e infértiles, resistencia al pastoreo, sequía y quema y su compati~ bil idad con leguminosas forrajeras (CIAT 1978)  hacen que esta especie tenga un buen potencial como forrajera en América Tropical (Jones 1979) . En 1979 una introducción denominada CIAT 621, fue liberada como variedad comercial en Colombia y Brasil .La producción comercial de semillas de esta especie es potencial mente factible (Ferguson 1981) pero es necesario desarrollar tecnología apropiada para la cosecha . y el beneficio. Problemas inherentes al cultivo, como su altura en la madurez y el desuniforme y amplio rango de distribución de las semillas dentro de él, han dificultado la implementación de los métodos mecánicos fradicionales de recolección . Así también las características morfológicas de las e s pigui !las como estériles y abundante pelusa hacen que se en el beneficio de la s semillas de"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0597d46a51f5c9cc70cee7ddfb3fbd1f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.fao.org/climatechange/29829-092bc24a78d8c3a5ffc520d40f3fe630a.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"INCREASING AGRICULTURE'S CLIMATE SMARTNESS THE GOALS OF CLIMATE SMART","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"UNDERSTANDING THE USUAL OBSTACLES IN AN UNUSUAL SCENARIO","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The barriers that need to be addressed are historic -typical of "}]},{"head":"DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Agriculture has a dual relationship with climate changeagriculture is a key emitter of greenhouse gases and at the same time, farmers have to contend with the impacts of climate change in the form of unpredictable weather patterns and extreme events. A suite of techniques and livelihood strategies is needed to respond to the day-to-day risks and vulnerabilities associated with these uncertainties. A climate smart agriculture will have to be one that can adjust the management systems and production factors (soil, water, nutrients, crops, trees, livestock) with the aim of optimizing short and long-term benefits taking into account the range of possible future scenarios in a given location."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Methodologies will be required to clarify, prepare for and adapt to these changes over the longer term including through the use of \"analogue sites\" to realize potential outcomes of climatic shifts."}]},{"head":"TRANSITIONING TO ECO-FUNCTIONAL INTENSIFICATION AND LANDSCAPE APPROACHES TO SUPPORT SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Climate smart or development smart agriculture is one that ensures that agriculture transcends the multiple issues with which it is currently associated -GHG emissions, loss of biodiversity, water misuse, soil and land degradation and socio-economic inequities which are compromising the world's capacity to feed its population. Integrative approaches and boundary dynamics must be incorporated to ensure sustainable food and energy producing landscapes that underpin equitable value-benefit chains."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Integrated agro-ecological practices (crop-livestock-tree systems) that enhance yields through harnessing the ecosystem services and reduce pressure for conversion of forest (sustainable and carbon sequestering land sparing, with supportive policies) can provide benefits in terms of mitigation, adaptation and food security and should be further developed. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" agricultural development -as well as unprecedented -based on a set of seemingly unpredictable threats. While the barriers are intractable they are not insurmountable. Obstacles can be technological, knowledge, labour and market related. The climate dimension necessitates analyzing and understanding the associated trade-offs among practices aimed at food, nutrition and energy security, mitigation and adaptation in the short term and long term. Trade-offs can manifest in conflicts over biomass use, short term yields vs. long-term natural capital building, the enhancement of one ecosystem service over others, redirection of labour and loss of income among others. It is necessary to establish the associated trade-offs and the long-term costs and benefits to incentivize sustainable practices. ©FAO/Christina Seeberg-Elverfeldt PRACTICE, PROCESS AND POLICY PROMPTS To develop climate smart landscapes, functioning institutional arrangements will be tantamount. Multi-stakeholder processes and multi-sectoral coordination to address the multiple objectives of climate smart agriculture must be mainstreamed to become the 'enlightened norm'. Farmer Field Schools, Rural Resource Centres and Landcare can play a critical role in awareness raising and capacity development towards farmer-and pastoralist stewarded landscape management while \"dialogue and exposure visits\" can influence national decision makers. Among others, biophysical, ecological and socio-economic research will be required to assess appropriate actions and their effect on ecosystem function within different future scenarios and assist in the development of indicators for eco-functional/sustainable intensification and resilience at the landscape level. Promoting large-landscape approaches will need to be supported by coherent policies, investments, and markets that encourage transparent cross-sectoral decision-making toward desired outcomes through national processes (e.g. NAPAs, NAMAs); incentivize the enhancement of ecosystem processes and climate smart innovations and business opportunities; mobilize financial support to transition farmers and pastoralists to climate smart agriculture; and ensure all agricultural investments are climateand development-smart agriculture. "},{"text":"Source: Summary Notes from the Workshop on Agriculture Development and Climate Smart Agriculture in Developing Countries, Copenhagen, February, 2011 funded by the FAO and the European Union and organized by Aarhus University, ICROFS, CCAFS, the University of Copenhagen and the FAO. Drafted by Constance Neely (FAO). "}],"sieverID":"660a8cad-c045-439c-b875-d640766774e5","abstract":"increasing productivity and income (livelihoods), strengthening resilience of ecosystems (adaptation), reducing or removing greenhouse gases (mitigation), enhancing local and national food, nutrition, and energy security and development.Achieving these goals simultaneously will require policies, practices and processes framed within a broader development approach that builds on synergies and trade-offs among the multiple functions of agriculture and ecosystems from the farm to the landscape level."}

data/part_2/060a0baa1575f30d967700237dd84de3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"060a0baa1575f30d967700237dd84de3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/532/3970_2016_Global_Global.pdf"},"pageCount":21,"title":"","keywords":["Kyu","Wagner","Brown","Bertozzi-Villa","Charlson","Coffeng","L. Dandona","Clinical Review & Education Special Communication"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"T he current literature focuses on mortality rates and time trends among children younger than 5 years. There is little comparable information on the fatal and nonfatal burden of diseases and injuries among older children and adolescents. Children and adolescents constitute about a third of the world's population and their health status is important for every country and society."},{"index":2,"size":263,"text":"Global mortality rates among younger children (aged <5 years) have been declining since 1990, but striking variations in both the levels and trends exist across countries. 1,2 For example, the number of deaths in children younger than 5 years per 1000 live births varied from 2.3 (95% uncertainty interval [UI], 1.8-2.9) in Singapore to 152.5 (95% UI, 130.6-177.4) in Guinea-Bissau in 2013. 2 The annualized rates of change in mortality of younger children for 1990 through 2013 varied from −6.8% in Oman to 0.1% in Zimbabwe, and only 27 of 138 developing countries are estimated to have achieved the target of Millennium Development Goal 4, a two-thirds reduction of 1990 mortality levels by 2015 (equivalent to an annualized rate of change of −4.4%). 2 Although between-country variations in mortality among younger children have been reported, information on nonfatal health outcomes among these children is scarce. Moreover, there has been little systematic data collection and reporting on the fatal and nonfatal burden of diseases and injuries among older children and adolescents. Knowing the current burden and trends of the leading causes of death and disability in these age groups is critically important to shed light on areas that need more attention. In this study, we identified levels and trends in the fatal and nonfatal burden of diseases and injuries among younger children (aged <5 years), older children (aged 5-9 years), and adolescents (defined by the United Nations as those aged 10-19 years 3 ) from 1990 through 2013 in 188 countries based on the results from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2013 study."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Detailed methods of the GBD study have been published elsewhere 1,[4][5][6] and we provide only a brief description here. The study components relevant to the current article are shown in eFigure 1 in the Supplement."},{"index":2,"size":975,"text":"Cause-specific mortality was estimated using a database of vital registration, verbal autopsy studies, maternal and child death surveillance, and other sources covering 14 244 site-years (the number of years for which cause of death data were available for a particular geographic area such as a country or demographic surveillance site) from 1980 to 2013. 1 Of the 14 244 site-years, 5039 were from vital registration systems, 3860 from cancer registry, 1798 from sibling history, 1433 from police records, 1430 from surveillance, 538 from verbal autopsy studies, and 146 from other sources including surveys, census, hospital, and burial or mortuary. The quality and comparability of the cause of death data were assessed and enhanced through multiple steps that have been reported in detail previously. 1 Sample key steps include developing more than 100 maps to convert causes of death observed in the raw data to the GBD 2013 cause list and identifying deaths being assigned to ill-defined or intermediate causes rather than underlying causes of death, which were redistributed to more specific underlying causes. 1,7 Moreover, data that were reported in aggregated categories were split into estimates of age-and sex-specific deaths using the observed global pattern of relative risks of death for a cause by age and sex and the local age and sex distribution of the population. 7 Countryspecific data sources and citations for each cause and data before and after redistribution are shown in the online data visualization of the cause of death database at http://vizhub.healthdata.org/cod/. 8 For most causes, we used the Cause of Death Ensemble Model (CODEm) strategy, 1,7,9,10 which has been widely used for generating global health estimates. The CODEm strategy evaluates a large number of potential models that apply different functional forms (mixed-effects models and space-time gaussian process regression models) to mortality rates or cause fractions with varying combinations of predictive covariates. An ensemble of models that performs best on out-of-sample predictive validity tests is selected for each cause of death. For some infectious diseases (eg, human immunodeficiency virus [HIV] infection/AIDS, measles, hepatitis B) where the disease process is complex or the cause of death data were insufficient or unavailable, we used natural history models (ie, models developed based on the natural history of diseases). For example, the natural history model for HIV/AIDS took into consideration the nature of HIV epidemics in particular countries as well as HIV mortality rates among those receiving and not receiving antiretroviral therapy, which were not captured in the cause of death data. 11 Years of life lost due to premature mortality were calculated by multiplying the number of deaths at each age by a standard life expectancy at that age. 1,7 The prevalence of diseases and their disabling consequences, called sequelae in the GBD, were estimated using an epidemiological database compiling data from systematic reviews on prevalence, incidence, remission, mortality risk, and severity distributions of the diseases and injuries included in the GBD. There were 35 620 data sources (mainly covered from 1990-2013) that include studies published in the scientific literature, nationally representative household surveys, antenatal clinic surveillance data, disease notifications, disease registries, hospital admissions data, outpatient visit data, population-based cancer registries, and other administrative data. Household surveys including the Demographic and Health Surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, Living Standards Measurement Studies, Reproductive Health Surveys, and other national health surveys included in the Global Health Data Exchange were systematically screened for relevant data. For some diseases (eg, measles and pertussis), case notifications reported to the World Health Organization up to 2013 were used as input data. A full list of citations for sources organized by country is available in the appendix of a previous GBD article (pages 97-653). 5 Epidemiological data for most causes were meta-analyzed with Dis-Mod-MR 2.0, 5 a Bayesian metaregression tool that adjusts for variations in study methods between data sources and enforces consistency between data for different parameters such as incidence and prevalence. The tool evaluates all the data through a geographical cascade of 4 levels (global, superregion, region, and country). First, all data in the world are evaluated to estimate the fixed effects on age, sex, study-level, and country-level covariates and the random effects for countries, regions, and superregions (we grouped regions into 7 superregions for analytical purposes 4 ). The outputs of the global level are then used as prior information for the next superregion level of the cascade. After fitting the model to each superregion's data, the results are fed as priors to the region-specific fits, and finally region fits are used as a prior when modeling a country's results for a particular period. For countries and periods for which little or no data are available, the estimation is facilitated by country characteristics and random effects on superregion, region, and country. For this purpose, a database of country covariates for 93 topic areas and 242 variants was created using data from household surveys, censuses, official reports, administrative data, and systematic reviews. 1,5 The sources and imputation methods used to generate time series for the covariates have been reported previously. 1 DisMod-MR 2.0 also allows the user to add strong prior knowledge on the age pattern and/or epidemiological parameters including incidence, remission, and excess mortality rate. For example, major depressive disorder cannot be detected at very young ages, and we set a prior of 0 incidences in children younger than 4 years. The assumptions and priors by individual condition have been reported in the appendix of a previous GBD article (pages 654-684). 5 Years lived with disability (YLDs) were computed by multiplying the prevalence of each sequela by a disability weight. 5 Because we applied disability weights to prevalence in calculating YLDs, the most prevalent cause of disability (defined as any departure from full health) is not necessarily the leading cause of YLDs. For instance, mild vision impairment and caries are very common but cause relatively little disability."},{"index":3,"size":297,"text":"Disability weights for a set of 235 health states were estimated by pairwise comparison methods presenting pairs of lay health state descriptions to respondents in surveys conducted among the general population in 9 countries and an open web-based survey. 12 Each of the 2337 sequelae defined for 301 diseases and injuries mapped to 1 or a combination of the 235 health states. Sequelae are the direct consequences of disease or injury. 4 Sequelae that are common across different diseases or injuries are called health states. 4 For example, severe anemia due to malaria is a sequela that shares the health state of severe anemia with a number of other diseases such as hookworm disease and maternal hemorrhage. Disabilityadjusted life-years (DALYs) were computed as the sum of years of life lost due to premature mortality and YLDs for each country, age, sex, and year. A full list of causes of death and disability and the corresponding International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) and International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes have been reported in previous GBD articles. 1,5 The GBD classifies countries into developed (Australasia, North America, all of Europe, Brunei, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea) and developing (all other countries) rather than using the World Bank income classification of low-, middle-, and highincome countries. As the income status of a country may change over time, it makes reporting on time series for country groupings with a varying composition more difficult. Although we realize that the inclusion of some countries in either the developed or developing category is controversial, we have opted to use the GBD classification in this article as it illustrates important differences in the levels and trends of mortality and DALY rates between the 2 sets of countries."}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Global Mortality and Leading Causes of Death in 2013","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"In 2013, there were 7.7 (95% UI, 7.4-8.1) million deaths among children and adolescents globally, of which 6.28 million occurred among younger children, 0.48 million among older children, and 0.97 million among adolescents (Table 1, Table 2, and eTables 1-4 in the Supplement)."},{"index":2,"size":314,"text":"Among all children and adolescents, the leading causes of death were predominantly those common in younger children (Figure 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3) because of the large share of deaths in children younger than 5 years.  2 and eTable 1 in the Supplement). The leading cause of death among younger children in each country in 2013 is shown in a map (eFigure 2 in the Supplement). Lower respiratory tract infections, malaria, and diarrheal diseases were the prevailing leading causes of death in sub-Saharan African countries. Lower respiratory tract infections were also the leading cause for some countries in Asia. Neonatal encephalopathy was the most common cause of death in some South Asian countries. Preterm birth complications and congenital anomalies were the leading causes of death among countries in North America, Australasia, Europe, East Asia, and most countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.   Colors correspond to the ranking of the leading causes of death, with dark red as the most common cause and dark green as the least common cause for the    3 in the Supplement). These 5 causes accounted for 181 000 deaths or 39% of deaths among 5-to 9-year-old children. Five other causes accounted for an additional 23% of deaths: drowning (31 500 deaths; 95% UI, 25 452-42 630), HIV/AIDS (28 211 deaths; 95% UI, 26 407-30 307), hemoglobinopathies (20 229 deaths; 95% UI, 6077-42 394), congenital anomalies (17 508 deaths; 95% UI, 14 677-20 722), and meningitis (13 577 deaths; 95% UI, 10 777-16 863) (eTable 2 in the Supplement). Country-specific leading causes of death among children aged 5 to 9 years are shown in eFigure 4 in the Supplement. Road injuries were the leading cause of death for countries in North America, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Australasia, while drowning was the most common cause of death in most countries in Eastern Europe, East Asia, and Southeast Asia."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Intestinal infectious diseases and lower respiratory tract infections were the leading causes for countries in South Asia, while diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, and malaria were the leading causes for countries in sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"Among adolescents (aged 10-19 years), the leading cause of death in 2013 was road injuries (115 186 deaths; 95% UI, 105 185-124 870), followed by HIV/AIDS (75 564 deaths; 95% UI, 69 254-82 629), self-harm (59 114 deaths; 95% UI, 47 914-70 864), drowning (51 013 deaths; 95% UI, 43 533-68 179), and intestinal infectious diseases (44 171 deaths; 95% UI, 24 318-72 643) (eTable 3 and eFigure 5 in the Supplement). These 5 leading causes accounted for 34% of all deaths in this age group. Another 5 causes contributed an additional 17% of all deaths: interpersonal violence (38 300 deaths; 95% UI, 27 452-45 009), lower respiratory tract infections (36 190    "}]},{"head":"Contributions to Global Child and Adolescent Deaths According to Population Proportion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Table 1 shows the number of deaths and age-standardized mortality rates for the 10 leading causes among children and adolescents at the global level and in the 50 countries with the largest child and adolescent populations. In 2013, there were 2.5 billion children and adolescents in the world, and the 50 countries represented 73% of this population (eTable 5 in the Supplement). In 2013, Nigeria had about 4% of the world's children and adolescents (eTable 5 in the Supplement) but a 12% global share of deaths from lower respiratory tract infections and a 38% global share of deaths from malaria (Table 1). India had nearly 20% of the world's child and adolescent population but 33% of the world's deaths from neonatal encephalopathy. Half of the world's deaths from diarrheal diseases among children and adolescents occurred in just 5 countries: India, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Ethiopia, which together represented 30% of the world's pediatric population in 2013 (Table 1 and eTable 5 in the Supplement)."}]},{"head":"Mortality Time Trends","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"The global decline in mortality between 1990 and 2013 was faster among younger children (annual percentage change [APC], −3.0%) and older children (APC, −2.9%) than adolescents (APC, −1.6%) (eTables 6-8 in the Supplement). The corresponding APC figures in developing countries were −3.1%, −3.0%, and −1.7%, respectively, and those in developed countries were −3.5%, −3.9%, and −2.5%, respectively (eTables 6-8 in the Supplement). Among children younger than 5 years, countries in which allcause mortality declined rapidly experienced these large declines in most of the leading causes of death (eTable 6 in the Supplement). For example, Oman, China, and Maldives, the 3 countries with the fastest declining mortality rates for children younger than 5 years, showed an annual reduction of 5.6% or greater in mortality from at least 6 of the 10 leading causes of death (eTable 6 in the Supplement). Countries with the slowest declines (Vanuatu, Fiji, Swaziland, Lesotho, and Zimbabwe) showed either a stagnant or increasing trend in most of the 10 leading causes (eTable 6 in the Supplement). Similarly, among older children and adolescents, countries with a rapid decline in all-cause mortality experienced greater declines for most of the leading causes of death in these age groups (eTables 7-9 in the Supplement)."}]},{"head":"Global YLDs and Prevalence of the Leading Causes of Disability","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"In 2013, disability caused 135.6 million YLDs among children and adolescents, of which 26.4 million affected children younger than 5 years, 29.6 million affected older children, and 79.6 million affected adolescents (data not shown)."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Leading causes of YLDs largely overlapped among the 3 age groups. Iron deficiency anemia was the most common cause of YLDs in younger children, older children, and adolescents in 2013 (Table 3 and eTables 10-13 in the Supplement), affecting 619 (95% UI, 618-621) million prevalent cases in 2013. The 50 countries with the largest child and adolescent population contributed to 86% of global iron deficiency anemia cases in this population (Table 3). India contributed the largest number of cases (147.9 million), followed by China (75.8 million) and Nigeria (24.7 million). The prevalence of children and adolescents with iron deficiency anemia was highest in Afghanistan (41.0%), followed by Yemen (39.8%) and Senegal (38.5%) (Table 3 and eTable 13 in the Supplement)."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Skin diseases were the second leading cause of YLDs among children and adolescents in 2013 (Table 3). Younger and older children were most commonly affected by viral skin diseases and dermatitis, whereas adolescents were mainly affected by acne vulgaris (data not shown). Depressive disorders were the third most common cause of YLDs among children and adolescents, with the prevalence in adolescents being 4 times as high as that in older children (2.8% vs 0.7%, respectively) (Table 3 and eTables 11 and 12 in the Supplement)."},{"index":4,"size":256,"text":"Among other leading causes of YLDs among children and adolescents, conduct disorder, anxiety disorders, low back and neck pain, and migrainemainlyaffectedolderchildrenandadolescents,whereassense organ diseases and hemoglobinopathies affected all 3 age groups (Table 3 and eTables 10-12 in the Supplement). Among sense organ diseases, uncorrected refractive error and hearing loss were the most fre-quentlyoccurringcausesinall3agegroups(datanotshown).Thecountry-, year-, age-, and sex-specific distributions of YLDs for each cause and their subcategories are viewable in an interactive online visualization tool at http://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare. 13 DALYs Among Children and Adolescents Figure 4 shows DALY rates for leading causes among boys and girls aged 0 to 19 years at the global level and in the 50 countries with the largest child and adolescent populations. Age groupspecific leading causes of DALYs are shown in eFigures 7, 8, and 9 in the Supplement. The rankings of leading causes of deaths and DALYs are similar if the percentage of contribution to the disease burden by mortality is high, which is especially the case for the main conditions affecting younger children (Figure 2 and eFigure 7 in the Supplement). Sex differences were small in younger children but larger in some of the causes among adolescents. For instance, transport injuries, drowning, and interpersonal violence among adolescent boys were much higher than among adolescent girls (eFigure 9 in the Supplement). The most striking sex differences were observed in Venezuela, Colombia, and Brazil for interpersonal violence (eFigure 9 in the Supplement). Maternal disorders were common causes of DALYs among adolescent girls in sub-Saharan African and South Asian countries (eFigure 9 in the Supplement)."}]},{"head":"Time Trends in DALYs","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":389,"text":"Among all children and adolescents, the leading causes of DALYs were dominated by those common in children younger than 5 years (Figure 5 and Figure 6), who had the greatest share of deaths. Lower respiratory tract infections remained the leading cause of DALYs among children younger than 5 years in both 1990 and 2013, but the number and rate of DALYs declined during the 23 years by 58% and 59%, respectively (Figure 6). Preterm birth complications and neonatal encephalopathy rose in rank (from third and fourth to second and third, respectively) because of their   relatively slower rates of decline than diarrheal diseases, which dropped from second to fifth with a 67% decrease in DALY rates (Figure 6). The rate for measles also notably declined (from 8th to 14th), with an 84% decrease in DALY rates between 1990 and 2013 (Figure 6). Among older children and adolescents, iron deficiency anemia remained the leading cause of DALYs in both 1990 and 2013, with a modest decrease in the number and rate of DALYs during the 23 years (eFigures 10 and 11 in the Supplement). The rank of HIV/AIDS increased from 101st to 6th among adolescents, 78th to 10th among older children, and 33rd to 17th among younger children between 1990 and 2013, with a statistically significant increase in both DALY counts and rates (Figure 6 and eFigures 10 and 11 in the Supplement). Full details of the results by age, sex, geography, and period can be viewed in the online interactive visualization tool (http://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare). 13       Trends from the leading causes of death in younger children varied widely across countries. Countries with greater declines in all-cause child mortality tended to have a rapid decline in mortality rates for most of the main causes of death, suggesting that general improvements in healthservicesandpublichealthinterventionsforawiderangeofhealth problems (eg, improved management of childhood illnesses, immunization, mass distribution of insecticide-treated bed nets, and improved access to prenatal, obstetric, and postnatal care) rather than singlediseaseprogramsdeterminesuccess.Thedeclinesinpovertylevels and improvements in living conditions over time might have also contributed to the declines in mortality. Countries with slowly declining or stagnant trends in all-cause mortality in children younger than 5 years generally showed similar trends in mortality rates for the leading causes. Most of these deaths, especially in developing countries, could be prevented by a concerted response from health systems and public health interventions."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"The typical leading causes of death in younger children such as lower respiratory tract infections and diarrheal diseases were also common causes of death for older children in many developing countries, indicating that interventions targeting the former should extend to cover the latter. Mortality and DALY rates for lower respiratory tract infections and diarrheal diseases declined during the past 23 years, but they were still among the top 5 causes for both younger and older children in 2013. In fact, lower respiratory tract infections were the first leading cause of death among younger children, whereas diarrheal diseases were the most common cause of death among older children. These deaths are largely avoidable through case identification and proper management and prevention of risk factors. Unsafe water, sanitation, and hand-washing practices are largely responsible for diarrheal disease-related deaths, whereas household air pollution and ambient air pollution are important risk factors for deaths from lower respiratory tract infec-   b Changes that are statistically significant (P < .05)."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"tions in both younger and older children, with undernutrition being an additional key risk factor for both lower respiratory tract infections and diarrheal diseases among younger children. 14 Proven interventions [15][16][17] exist to reduce exposures to these risk factors but uptake is insufficient."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"The decline in all-cause mortality rates among adolescents between 1990 and 2013 was slower than that among younger and older children. Road injuries were the leading cause of death among adolescents globally, with a stagnant or increasing trend in most developing countries. Many countries inadequately implement proven road safety practices (eg, safety measures for road users and vehicles, road infrastructure, and postcrash care). 18 With increasing motorization, these trends are likely to worsen unless decisive action is taken."},{"index":5,"size":1134,"text":"Self-harm was the second most common cause of injuryrelated death among adolescents. While the most common suicidal methods differ across geography, restricting access to common lethal means has proven to be effective in reducing suicide rates. 19,20 For example, pesticide ingestion is a commonly used method of suicide among young people in developing countries. 21 Prohibition of toxic pesticides in Sri Lanka and South Korea has been shown to reduce both the overall and method-specific suicide rates. 22,23 National suicide prevention strategies can play a role in preventing suicide, but such strategies are lacking in many countries worldwide. 20 Mental and substance use disorders contributed to two-thirds of all suicide DALYs in the world, indicating the importance of early detection and effective management of these disorders as part of suicide prevention strategies. 24 Drowning was among the 10 leading causes of death among older children and adolescents and the 14th leading cause of death among younger children in 2013. Lack of barriers to water sites and absence of close supervision are key risk factors for drowning among younger children in both developing and developed countries. 25,26 Older children and adolescents usually drown during nonrecreational or daily activities in developing countries but during recreational activities in developed countries. 27 Risk of death from drowning is especially high in rural areas in developing countries, where unfenced water sources are close to the homes, without any emergency medical care facilities or capacity to perform resuscitation for the drowning child. 25,27 In developed countries, failure to wear life jackets during boating activities and alcohol use among adolescents during water-related recreation are among the risk factors for drowning. 26,27 In addition to injuries, infectious diseases were important causes of death among adolescents in developing countries, especially HIV/ AIDS, lower respiratory tract infections, intestinal infectious diseases, diarrheal diseases, malaria, and tuberculosis. The mortality rates for all these diseases except HIV/AIDS are decreasing. Deaths from HIV/AIDS among adolescents are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and have been increasing since 1990. This trend differs from that in all age groups, where it increased after 1990, peaked around 2005, and then declined steadily after antiretroviral treatment became more widely available. 11 Low rates of HIV testing, an important step toward HIV treatment, and poor access to antiretroviral treatment among adolescents 28 might explain some of the increases in HIV/AIDS mortality in this age group. Although much emphasis has been placed on prevention of HIV infection among adolescents, little attention has been given to the care of those who were infected during infancy. 29 High rates of children orphaned by HIV/ AIDS, the necessity of guardian consent to undergo HIV testing, and the lack of clear policies and guidance regarding consent and HIV testing among minors are some of the barriers to HIV testing and care for older children and adolescents. 29,30 Leading causes of disability among all children and adolescents were dominated by causes common in adolescents because of a larger share of YLDs by this age group. However, iron deficiency anemia, the largest cause of disability, is common in both younger and older children and adolescents. The high demand of nutrients for growth, blood loss during menstruation in adolescent girls, and hookworm infections (especially in developing countries) put children and adolescents at risk for this deficiency. Although iron supplementation is effective, challenges exist in terms of distribution, cost, and compliance. 31 Other cost-effective interventions exist, including food fortification and biofortification of crops, with the latter being a way of reaching rural populations with limited access to marketed fortified foods. 31,32 Compared with changes in the causes of mortality that are generally showing decreasing rates in all age groups, 1 there are smaller changes, if at all, in the prevalence of many causes of disability (data not shown). The slow decline in disabling conditions is not specific to children and adolescents but a more common feature across the age span. 5 Major depressive disorder, conduct disorder, and anxiety disorders were major causes of disability among older children and adolescents in 2013. Whereas identification and treatment of these disorders are important, prevention of modifiable risk factors such as child abuse and neglect, bullying, and intimate partner violence should also be a priority. 33 Other common causes of disability such as low back and neck pain, migraine, and skin disorders also showed little change. Musculoskeletal disorders have drawn more attention since the GBD 2010 study, but there is still limited policy discussion on the approaches to deal with and/or prevent the leading causes of low back and neck pain. 5,34,35 Migraine and other headache disorders generally attract low health care priority despite the disability attributed to them. 36 The general limitations of the GBD study also apply to this report. These limitations have been discussed widely and in detail in the published GBD 2013 articles and we summarize the relevant limitations here. 1,2,5,6,11 First, there were variations in the instrument used for collection of verbal autopsy data, which might reduce the betweencountry comparability of cause of death data. Moreover, the quality of the medical certification of causes of death (eg, diagnostic accuracy) might have also influenced our estimates. Second, although redistributionofill-definedorintermediatecausestospecificunderlyingcauses improved the comparability of cause of death data, it could yield results differentfromofficialstatisticsofcountries.Thiscouldhappenbecause the redistribution used global or regional algorithms, which did not pick up variations across countries in terms of certification practices or the timingofimplementationofcodingrules.Weplantousemorecountryspecific redistribution algorithms in future rounds of the GBD study. Third, the fact that the sum of cause-specific mortality estimates must equal all-cause mortality for a particular country, age, sex, and year is astrengthoftheGBDstudyapproach,butitalsohasalimitation.Causes of death with very wide UIs (eg, hemoglobinopathies) tend to be adjusted downward relative to causes with narrower UIs. Fourth, in general, the epidemiological data coverage for the period 2006 to 2013 wasrelativelylowerthantheperiod1998to2005,althoughtherewere variations by disease. For example, the percentages of countries that have epidemiological data on low back and neck pain for the periods The lower coverage for the latter might be explained by the lag in data collection, analyses, and publications. 5 For some diseases such as tuberculosis, the data coverage is higher for the recent years (91.5% for the period 1998-2005 vs 98.4% for 2006-2013). A systematic quantification of the geographical and temporal coverage of the input epidemiologicaldatabycausehasbeenreportedindetailpreviously. 5 Making estimates for every country over time is challenging especially for those with little or no data. We had to make use of sophisticated modeling techniques to borrow strength across geography and covariates tohelppredictforcountriesandyearswithsparsedata.Thelackofdata for a particular geography is reflected by wider UIs. Finally, for some causes of disability, long-term consequences in later years of life are not reflectedinthisarticle.Forexample,long-termimpairmentsduetopreterm birth complications, neonatal encephalopathy, and Down syndrome after age 19 years were not counted in the DALY rankings because we focused only on the burden of disease experienced by those aged 0 to 19 years."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Understanding the levels and trends as well as geography of the leading causes of death and disability among children and adolescents is critical to guide investment and inform policies. Monitoring these trends over time is also key to understanding where interventions are having an effect and where more attention is needed. The vast majority of deaths in children and adolescents are preventable. Proven interventions exist to prevent diarrheal and respiratory diseases, neonatal conditions, iron deficiency anemia, and road injuries, which result in some of the highest burdens of unnecessary death and disability among children and adolescents. The findings presented herein show that these and other available interventions are underused and point to where more attention is needed."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"The findings indicate that proven health interventions could save millions of lives. Despite the general decline in mortality, the speed of the decline could still be faster."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Clinical Review & Education Special Communication Global Burden of Diseases and Injuries in Children and Adolescents E6 JAMA Pediatrics Published online January 25, 2016 (Reprinted) jamapediatrics.com Copyright 2016 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/ by a University of British Columbia User on 01/27/2016 "},{"text":" location indicated. The numbers inside each box indicate the ranking. HIV indicates human immunodeficiency virus infection. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Top 25 Global Causes of Death for the 50 Most Populous Countries by Child and Adolescent Population, Both Sexes, Younger Than 5 Years, 2013 "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Top Cause of Death by Country for Children and Adolescents Aged 0 to 19 Years, Both Sexes, 2013 "},{"text":" Clinical Review & Education Special Communication Global Burden of Diseases and Injuries in Children and Adolescents E12 JAMA Pediatrics Published online January 25, 2016 (Reprinted) jamapediatrics.com Copyright 2016 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/ by a University of British Columbia User on 01/27/2016 Copyright 2016 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Age-Standardized Rates of Disability-Adjusted Life-Years (DALYs) per 100 000 Children and Adolescents Aged 0 to 19 Years, 2013 "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Top 25 Global Causes of Disability-Adjusted Life-Years (DALYs) in Children and Adolescents Aged 0 to 19 Years, Both Sexes, 1990 and 2013 "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Top 25 Global Causes of Disability-Adjusted Life-Years (DALYs) in Children Younger Than 5 Years, Both Sexes, 1990 and 2013 "},{"text":" lines connecting the 1990 and 2013 charts indicate increased or unchanged rank; dotted lines, decreased rank; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; and HIV, human immunodeficiency virus infection. a Calculated at the 1000 draw level. "},{"text":"Table 2 , Figure2, and eTable 1 in the Supplement). The leading causes of The leading causes of  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Number of Deaths and Rates per 100 000 Children and Adolescents for the Top 10 Global Causes of Death in the 50 Most Populous Countries by Child and Adolescent Population, Younger Than 5 Years, Both Sexes, 2013 (continued) Figure 1. Top 25 Global Causes of Death for the 50 Most Populous Countries by Child and Adolescent Population, Both Sexes, Ages 0 to 19 Years, 2013  Protein-Energy Malnutrition Meningitis 323 (11.0) 206 (7.0) 6799 (185.5) 3560 (97.2) 43 299 (142.2) 18 872 (62.0) 3367 (15.6) 17 091 (79.4) 281 (9.5) 149 (5.0) 1002 (8.7) 1438 (12.5) 47 (0.6) 353 (4.3) 10 (0.4) 17 (0.6) 1352 (25.2) 574 (10.7) 0 10 (0.4) 237 (4.0) 1007 (16.8) 7967 (92.1) 3593 (41.6) 2 (0.1) 83 (2.3) 43 (0.7) 210 (3.3) 7176 (99.9) 4906 (68.3) 1 (0.0) 56 (1.5)  14 (0.1) 238 (1.1) 4 (0.1) 214 (7.1) 210 (7.1) 117 (4.0) 6 (0.1) 230 (3.2) 138 (3.9) 708 (20.2) Protein-EnergyMalnutrition Meningitis323 (11.0) 206 (7.0)6799 (185.5) 3560 (97.2)43 299 (142.2) 18 872 (62.0)3367 (15.6) 17 091 (79.4)281 (9.5) 149 (5.0)1002 (8.7) 1438 (12.5)47 (0.6) 353 (4.3)10 (0.4) 17 (0.6)1352 (25.2) 574 (10.7)0 10 (0.4)237 (4.0) 1007 (16.8)7967 (92.1) 3593 (41.6)2 (0.1) 83 (2.3)43 (0.7) 210 (3.3)7176 (99.9) 4906 (68.3)1 (0.0) 56 (1.5)14 (0.1) 238 (1.1)4 (0.1) 214 (7.1)210 (7.1) 117 (4.0)6 (0.1) 230 (3.2)138 (3.9) 708 (20.2)  Congenital Other Neonatal Anomalies Neonatal Sepsis Disorders 972 (33.0) 2349 (79.7) 1354 (45.9) 3579 (97.7) 3507 (95.7) 2081 (56.8) 39 396 (129.3) 45 349 (148.9) 18 926 (62.1) 15 729 (73.1) 34 161 (158.7) 12 441 (57.8) 1864 (63.1) 1276 (43.2) 243 (8.2) 9014 (78.2) 4078 (35.4) 3378 (29.3) 4119 (49.7) 473 (5.7) 2326 (28.1) 2194 (78.1) 715 (25.5) 208 (7.4) 2201 (41.0) 1772 (33.0) 5112 (95.3) 397 (17.1) 74 (3.2) 145 (6.2) 9553 (159.5) 643 (10.7) 2559 (42.7) 9411 (108.9) 8409 (97.3) 6085 (70.4) 1823 (50.8) 579 (16.1) 297 (8.3) 7014 (111.7) 1214 (19.3) 2185 (34.8) 6153 (85.7) 8604 (119.8) 4409 (61.4) 969 (25.3) 77 (2.0) 114 (3.0)  6350 (30.2) 806 (3.8) 2399 (11.4) 2121 (70.6) 298 (9.9) 955 (31.8) 1675 (56.5) 733 (24.7) 192 (6.5) 4411 (61.4) 1053 (14.7) 515 (7.2) 5883 (167.5) 345 (9.8) 2237 (63.7) Congenital Other NeonatalAnomalies Neonatal Sepsis Disorders972 (33.0) 2349 (79.7) 1354 (45.9)3579 (97.7) 3507 (95.7) 2081 (56.8)39 396 (129.3) 45 349 (148.9) 18 926 (62.1)15 729 (73.1) 34 161 (158.7) 12 441 (57.8)1864 (63.1) 1276 (43.2) 243 (8.2)9014 (78.2) 4078 (35.4) 3378 (29.3)4119 (49.7) 473 (5.7) 2326 (28.1)2194 (78.1) 715 (25.5) 208 (7.4)2201 (41.0) 1772 (33.0) 5112 (95.3)397 (17.1) 74 (3.2) 145 (6.2)9553 (159.5) 643 (10.7) 2559 (42.7)9411 (108.9) 8409 (97.3) 6085 (70.4)1823 (50.8) 579 (16.1) 297 (8.3)7014 (111.7) 1214 (19.3) 2185 (34.8)6153 (85.7) 8604 (119.8) 4409 (61.4)969 (25.3) 77 (2.0) 114 (3.0)6350 (30.2) 806 (3.8) 2399 (11.4)2121 (70.6) 298 (9.9) 955 (31.8)1675 (56.5) 733 (24.7) 192 (6.5)4411 (61.4) 1053 (14.7) 515 (7.2)5883 (167.5) 345 (9.8) 2237 (63.7) Deaths, No. (Rate/100 000 Children and Adolescents) All Lower Respiratory Preterm Birth Neonatal Diarrheal Causes Tract Infections Complications Encephalopathy Malaria Diseases 22 241 (754.6) 4384 (148.7) 2536 (86.0) 4123 (139.9) 63 (2.1) 1897 (64.4) 97 824 (2 669.4) 14 845 (405.1) 5545 (151.3) 4375 (119.4) 22 819 (622.7) 17 426 (475.5) 892 598 (2 930.4) 113 255 (371.8) 61 669 (202.5) 60 479 (198.6) 235 483 (773.1) 44 743 (146.9) 348 496 (1 619.4) 61 669 (286.6) 36 320 (168.8) 64 388 (299.2) 367 (1.7) 48 321 (224.5) 13 209 (446.9) 2041 (69.1) 1879 (63.6) 1463 (49.5) 1 (0.0) 349 (11.8) 65 074 (564.6) 10 432 (90.5) 10 566 (91.7) 5117 (44.4) 16 (0.1) 3287 (28.5) 16 255 (196.2) 1656 (20.0) 1837 (22.2) 993 (12.0) 0 203 (2.4) 6775 (241.3) 121 (4.3) 1906 (67.9) 397 (14.2) 1 (0.0) 81 (2.9) 40 647 (758.0) 6061 (113.0) 4371 (81.5) 3251 (60.6) 21 (0.4) 6510 (121.4) 1764 (76.0) 55 (2.4) 371 (16.0) 90 (3.9) 0 7 (0.3) 59 503 (993.6) 6046 (101.0) 15 800 (263.8) 1628 (27.2) 3446 (57.5) 7173 (119.8) 145 246 (1 680.0) 25 290 (292.5) 8086 (93.5) 8948 (103.5) 22 604 (261.5) 9951 (115.1) 7675 (213.8) 680 (18.9) 1669 (46.5) 666 (18.5) 5 (0.1) 113 (3.1) 22 002 (350.5) 1273 (20.3) 4785 (76.2) 1345 (21.4) 0 253 (4.0) 127 340 (1 773.3) 15 339 (213.6) 10 838 (150.9) 10 733 (149.5) 22 449 (312.6) 8776 (122.2) 3785 (98.9) 158 (4.1) 1164 (30.4) 243 (6.3) 0 50 (1.3)  28 013 (133.1) 627 (3.0) 6822 (32.4) 1650 (7.8) 0 150 (0.7) 22 318 (742.7) 9217 (306.8) 1673 (55.7) 4454 (148.2) 0 376 (12.5) 7973 (268.9) 763 (25.7) 1418 (47.8) 566 (19.1) 2 (0.1) 465 (15.7) 26 628 (370.8) 5321 (74.1) 5522 (76.9) 2270 (31.6) 23 (0.3) 222 (3.1) 38 030 (1 083.1) 3879 (110.5) 9343 (266.1) 1391 (39.6) 2645 (75.3) 5177 (147.4) Deaths, No. (Rate/100 000 Children and Adolescents)All Lower Respiratory Preterm Birth Neonatal DiarrhealCauses Tract Infections Complications Encephalopathy Malaria Diseases22 241 (754.6) 4384 (148.7) 2536 (86.0) 4123 (139.9) 63 (2.1) 1897 (64.4)97 824 (2 669.4) 14 845 (405.1) 5545 (151.3) 4375 (119.4) 22 819 (622.7) 17 426 (475.5)892 598 (2 930.4) 113 255 (371.8) 61 669 (202.5) 60 479 (198.6) 235 483 (773.1) 44 743 (146.9)348 496 (1 619.4) 61 669 (286.6) 36 320 (168.8) 64 388 (299.2) 367 (1.7) 48 321 (224.5)13 209 (446.9) 2041 (69.1) 1879 (63.6) 1463 (49.5) 1 (0.0) 349 (11.8)65 074 (564.6) 10 432 (90.5) 10 566 (91.7) 5117 (44.4) 16 (0.1) 3287 (28.5)16 255 (196.2) 1656 (20.0) 1837 (22.2) 993 (12.0) 0 203 (2.4)6775 (241.3) 121 (4.3) 1906 (67.9) 397 (14.2) 1 (0.0) 81 (2.9)40 647 (758.0) 6061 (113.0) 4371 (81.5) 3251 (60.6) 21 (0.4) 6510 (121.4)1764 (76.0) 55 (2.4) 371 (16.0) 90 (3.9) 0 7 (0.3)59 503 (993.6) 6046 (101.0) 15 800 (263.8) 1628 (27.2) 3446 (57.5) 7173 (119.8)145 246 (1 680.0) 25 290 (292.5) 8086 (93.5) 8948 (103.5) 22 604 (261.5) 9951 (115.1)7675 (213.8) 680 (18.9) 1669 (46.5) 666 (18.5) 5 (0.1) 113 (3.1)22 002 (350.5) 1273 (20.3) 4785 (76.2) 1345 (21.4) 0 253 (4.0)127 340 (1 773.3) 15 339 (213.6) 10 838 (150.9) 10 733 (149.5) 22 449 (312.6) 8776 (122.2)3785 (98.9) 158 (4.1) 1164 (30.4) 243 (6.3) 0 50 (1.3)28 013 (133.1) 627 (3.0) 6822 (32.4) 1650 (7.8) 0 150 (0.7)22 318 (742.7) 9217 (306.8) 1673 (55.7) 4454 (148.2) 0 376 (12.5)7973 (268.9) 763 (25.7) 1418 (47.8) 566 (19.1) 2 (0.1) 465 (15.7)26 628 (370.8) 5321 (74.1) 5522 (76.9) 2270 (31.6) 23 (0.3) 222 (3.1)38 030 (1 083.1) 3879 (110.5) 9343 (266.1) 1391 (39.6) 2645 (75.3) 5177 (147.4)   Location Nepal Niger Nigeria Pakistan Peru Philippines Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sudan Tanzania Thailand Turkey Uganda United Kingdom United States Uzbekistan Venezuela Vietnam Yemen LocationNepalNigerNigeriaPakistanPeruPhilippinesRussiaSaudi ArabiaSouth AfricaSouth KoreaSudanTanzaniaThailandTurkeyUgandaUnitedKingdomUnited StatesUzbekistanVenezuelaVietnamYemen  "},{"text":" Colors correspond to the ranking of the leading causes of death, with dark red as the most common cause and dark green as the least common cause for thelocation indicated. The numbers inside each box indicate the ranking. HIV indicates human immunodeficiency virus infection. Global Burden of Diseases and Injuries in Children and Adolescents Special Communication Clinical Review & Education Location Lower respiratory tract infections Preterm birth complications Neonatal encephalopathy Malaria Diarrheal diseases Congenital anomalies Neonatal sepsis  Other neonatal disorders Protein-energy malnutrition Meningitis Sexually transmitted diseases Hemoglobinopathies Measles Drowning Road injuries HIV/AIDS Intestinal infectious diseases Whooping cough Foreign body Tuberculosis Mechanical forces Other infectious diseases Fire and heat Iron deficiency anemia Tetanus LocationLower respiratory tract infectionsPreterm birth complicationsNeonatal encephalopathyMalariaDiarrheal diseasesCongenital anomaliesNeonatal sepsisOther neonatal disordersProtein-energy malnutritionMeningitisSexually transmitted diseasesHemoglobinopathiesMeaslesDrowningRoad injuriesHIV/AIDSIntestinal infectious diseasesWhooping coughForeign bodyTuberculosisMechanical forcesOther infectious diseasesFire and heatIron deficiency anemiaTetanus Global 1 2 3 4 5 6 7  8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Global12345678910111213141516171819202122232425 Developing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7  8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 21 25 23 24 Developing12345678910111213141516171819202221252324 Afghanistan 1 2 7 21 4 3 13  5 16 6 35 18 10 9 14 75 20 8 34 17 26 24 22 19 12 Afghanistan12721431351663518109147520834172624221912 Algeria 6 1 3 84 8 2 4  5 9 11 15 24 12 21 7 80 13 46 45 47 39 41 22 31 58 Algeria61384824591115241221780134645473941223158 Angola 1 6 7 3 2 4 10  8 5 9 11 14 28 16 15 12 24 20 19 18 23 22 17 13 49 Angola16732410859111428161512242019182322171349 Argentina 4 2 6 91 9 1 3  5 13 11 19 17 88 12 10 46 48 25 7 45 33 35 18 54 76 Argentina426919135131119178812104648257453335185476 Bangladesh 3 2 1 79 11 6 4  7 10 14 8 19 16 5 25 64 9 15 18 52 23 24 37 34 60 Bangladesh32179116471014819165256491518522324373460 Brazil 5 1 4 65 7 2 3  6 9 10 12 32 80 13 11 59 15 45 8 49 31 27 25 34 64 Brazil51465723691012328013115915458493127253464 Cameroon 2 4 5 1 3 6 7 11 8 9 10 15 13 17 14 12 19 18 20 27 25 24 22 16 41 Cameroon24513671189101513171412191820272524221641 China 4 2 3 83 15 1 9  7 24 13 36 25 68 5 8 39 38 47 12 53 6 44 27 51 43 China42383151972413362568583938471253644275143 Colombia 3 2 4 60 5 1 6  7 8 12 17 39 91 10 11 72 18 46 9 50 27 32 23 43 61 Colombia32460516781217399110117218469502732234361 Cote d'Ivoire 1 3 5 2 4 7 6 10 8 9 16 12 11 18 13 17 20 14 24 21 25 26 22 15 19 Cote d'Ivoire13524761089161211181317201424212526221519 Democratic Republic of the Congo 1 5 7 3 2 6 8  9 4 10 12 11 15 13 20 18 22 23 26 16 25 19 17 14 44 Democratic Republic of the Congo15732689410121115132018222326162519171444 Egypt 2 3 12 87 4 1 8  5 21 22 52 13 29 14 10 64 11 43 44 71 45 18 40 35 57 Egypt23128741852122521329141064114344714518403557 Ethiopia 1 3 4 6 2 9 5 10 11 13 12 23 8 19 18 14 17 7 30 15 22 25 21 16 20 Ethiopia13462951011131223819181417730152225211620 Ghana 3 4 6 1 9 7 2 10 5 11 17 8 12 16 13 18 15 34 22 31 23 37 28 14 21 Ghana34619721051117812161318153422312337281421 India 3 2 1 21 6 7 4  5 10 22 9 33 24 15 29 48 8 19 12 13 25 11 27 28 14 India32121674510229332415294881912132511272814 Indonesia 1 3 2 45 5 4 7  6 15 9 13 23 8 11 14 26 12 10 16 38 43 24 22 36 25 Indonesia13245547615913238111426121016384324223625 Iran 4 1 5 67 7 2 13  3 31 15 42 19 16 8 6 89 11 50 14 51 17 32 10 40 65 Iran415677213331154219168689115014511732104065 Iraq 3 1 7 0 5 2 4  6 31 9 61 26 27 14 10 57 19 8 49 36 32 28 18 41 77 Iraq3170524631961262714105719849363228184177 Kenya 1 3 4 7 2 6 5 12 8 9 13 18 11 19 17 10 14 16 30 15 24 25 20 21 29 Kenya13472651289131811191710141630152425202129 Madagascar 1 3 11 10 2 9 6  8 5 12 4 22 7 20 21 18 17 19 38 25 28 14 24 13 33 Madagascar13111029685124227202118171938252814241333 Malaysia 4 2 5 69 15 1 6  3 53 10 14 21 9 12 11 47 8 27 7 46 39 22 33 58 70 Malaysia42569151635310142191211478277463922335870 Mexico 3 2 5 91 7 1 4  6 9 19 22 41 90 14 10 69 13 51 8 55 35 36 32 39 75 Mexico32591714691922419014106913518553536323975 Morocco 5 1 2 86 11 3 4  7 22 10 6 32 18 9 8 67 13 57 48 34 21 36 27 28 60 Morocco51286113472210632189867135748342136272860 Mozambique 3 7 5 1 6 10 4  9 11 12 8 22 13 24 16 2 19 15 31 18 25 26 17 20 21 Mozambique37516104911128221324162191531182526172021 Myanmar 1 2 3 10 6 4 5  7 21 11 9 24 8 12 33 39 13 14 23 52 34 26 18 31 48 Myanmar12310645721119248123339131423523426183148 Nepal 1 3 2 27 5 7 4  6 10 13 8 26 34 11 25 50 12 15 23 18 28 17 16 40 14 Nepal132275746101382634112550121523182817164014 Niger 3 5 6 1 2 7 9 10 4 8 11 12 18 15 19 29 21 16 27 17 22 23 20 14 13 Niger35612791048111218151929211627172223201413 Nigeria 2 4 5 1 7 9 6 11 8 12 13 3 15 16 10 14 23 21 25 18 22 27 17 19 50 Nigeria24517961181213315161014232125182227171950 Pakistan 2 4 1 44 3 7 5  8 11 6 14 26 12 13 16 54 9 17 10 19 30 22 23 39 27 Pakistan24144375811614261213165491710193022233927 Peru 1 2 4 81 7 3 5 11 9 13 10 30 92 14 8 73 18 17 6 41 28 29 26 33 62 Peru12481735119131030921487318176412829263362 Philippines 2 1 4 69 7 3 5  6 13 11 21 34 8 12 20 35 9 15 14 27 46 41 37 25 39 Philippines21469735613112134812203591514274641372539 Saudi Arabia 9 2 4 64 11 1 3  5 32 19 24 14 55 7 6 26 8 29 33 52 15 47 16 41 53 Saudi Arabia92464111353219241455762682933521547164153 South Africa Sudan Among older children (aged 5-9 years), the most common cause 2 4 4 1 5 7 54 5 1 3 7 2 8 12 3 6 9 23 12 10 10 9 33 17 23 11 18 32 15 13 6 25 19 15 13 30 16 38 14 35 24 33 22 28 21 24 48 27 72 47 South Africa Sudan Among older children (aged 5-9 years), the most common cause 2 4 4 1 5 7 54 5 1 3 7 2 8 123 69 2312 1010 933 1723 1118 3215 136 2519 1513 3016 3814 3524 3322 2821 2448 2772 47 Tanzania of death in 2013 was diarrheal disease (38 325 deaths; 95% UI, 1 8 6 2 4 5 7 10 9 11 3 19 12 17 18 13 16 33 31 14 23 25 21 20 29 Tanzania of death in 2013 was diarrheal disease (38 325 deaths; 95% UI, 1 8 6 2 4 5 7 1091131912171813163331142325212029 Thailand 30 365-47 678), followed by lower respiratory tract infections 3 2 4 56 10 1 5 7 63 11 12 22 19 6 9 41 8 50 13 66 36 16 33 55 59 Thailand 30 365-47 678), followed by lower respiratory tract infections 3 2 4 56 10 1 576311122219694185013663616335559 Turkey Uganda Uzbekistan (37 431 deaths; 95% UI, 30 713-44 837), road injuries (36 577 deaths; 5 2 1 2 3 4 4 4 2 88 1 0 10 5 7 1 8 3 6 6 8 12 3 5 95% UI, 31 097-41 896), intestinal infectious diseases (mainly ty- 33 7 52 12 10 12 22 9 32 20 20 19 11 13 83 32 19 6 9 14 15 49 11 74 7 17 36 39 16 66 14 23 14 45 15 47 35 18 9 38 22 18 30 21 10 53 29 31 68 25 82 Turkey Uganda Uzbekistan (37 431 deaths; 95% UI, 30 713-44 837), road injuries (36 577 deaths; 5 2 1 2 3 4 4 4 2 88 1 0 10 5 7 1 8 3 6 6 8 12 3 5 95% UI, 31 097-41 896), intestinal infectious diseases (mainly ty-33 7 5212 10 1222 9 3220 20 1911 13 8332 19 69 14 1549 11 747 17 3639 16 6614 23 1445 15 4735 18 938 22 1830 21 1053 29 3168 25 82 Venezuela phoid and paratyphoid) (36 110 deaths; 95% UI, 20 561-57 277), and 3 2 5 68 6 1 4 10 9 12 7 27 92 13 11 71 15 19 8 53 23 33 24 54 72 Venezuela phoid and paratyphoid) (36 110 deaths; 95% UI, 20 561-57 277), and 3 2 5 68 6 1 4 109127279213117115198532333245472 Vietnam Yemen Developed malaria (35 212 deaths; 95% UI, 26 187-46 691) (eTable 2 and eFig-2 4 6 1 1 2 5 7 4 45 5 90 13 3 18 3 2 1 6 13 7 ure 8 6 3 63 26 40 12 8 13 15 11 26 21 23 31 7 14 67 4 15 10 14 10 8 46 45 47 9 17 30 22 9 50 10 42 9 59 29 55 24 34 12 30 27 23 32 18 15 70 19 59 48 16 75 Vietnam Yemen Developed malaria (35 212 deaths; 95% UI, 26 187-46 691) (eTable 2 and eFig-2 4 6 1 1 2 5 7 4 45 5 90 13 3 18 3 2 1 6 13 7 ure8 6 363 26 4012 8 1315 11 2621 23 317 14 674 15 1014 10 846 45 479 17 3022 9 5010 42 959 29 5524 34 1230 27 2332 18 1570 19 5948 16 75 France 13 2 4 0 14 1 6  5 50 15 36 32 64 12 8 55 24 44 9 57 21 23 20 59 70 France132401416550153632641285524449572123205970 Germany 10 2 3 0 23 1 7  5 60 14 28 27 42 13 11 62 37 59 12 72 19 24 20 52 69 Germany10230231756014282742131162375912721924205269 Italy 8 2 4 0 22 1 5  3 53 17 13 24 82 21 11 57 16 52 10 60 19 25 29 40 66 Italy8240221535317132482211157165210601925294066 Japan 4 2 6 0 21 1 8  3 47 20 17 23 59 9 11 84 27 51 7 56 13 24 22 64 66 Japan42602118347201723599118427517561324226466 Russia 4 3 5 0 13 1 8  2 28 10 34 45 82 9 12 29 30 51 7 37 19 46 11 41 78 Russia43501318228103445829122930517371946114178 South Korea 8 2 4 87 26 1 7  3 60 24 21 28 65 11 6 82 27 55 9 38 15 30 23 64 57 South Korea824872617360242128651168227559381530236457 United Kingdom 5 1 4 0 12 2 7  6 59 10 31 34 77 20 14 78 26 45 13 60 15 17 18 62 74 United Kingdom5140122765910313477201478264513601517186274 United States 9 1 5 0 22 2 6  4 55 18 32 28 86 10 7 56 39 46 12 66 8 19 14 60 75 United States91502226455183228861075639461266819146075  "},{"text":" the leading causes in most countries except for those in sub-Saharan Africa, where HIV/AIDS was the dominant leading cause of death. Self-harm was the most common cause of death for some parts of Asia and Eastern Europe.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Number of Prevalent Cases and Age-Standardized Rate for the Top 10 Global Causes of Years Lived With Disability in Children and Adolescents in the 50 Most Populous Countries by Child and Adolescent Population, Aged 0 to 19, Both Sexes, 2013 (continued) Global Burden of Diseases and Injuries in Children and Adolescents Special Communication Clinical Review & Education   Hemoglobinopathies 1 912 174 (15.0) 4 482 896 (41.9) 53 729 512 (56.8) 16 630 634 (20.3) 1 480 244 (12.7) 8 347 250 (19.1) 3 447 237 (12.2) 4 540 608 (43.4) 2 835 948 (14.0) 843 204 (7.9) 4 400 068 (22.1) 9 701 801 (35.6) 5 687 484 (34.2) 5 650 598 (22.1) 8 473 717 (37.8) 2 619 553 (17.7) 18 102 976 (21.6) 1 637 579 (14.5) 2 337 759 (20.5) 6 972 515 (24.4) 3 989 276 (31.1) Hemoglobinopathies1 912 174 (15.0)4 482 896 (41.9)53 729 512 (56.8)16 630 634 (20.3)1 480 244 (12.7)8 347 250 (19.1)3 447 237 (12.2)4 540 608 (43.4)2 835 948 (14.0)843 204 (7.9)4 400 068 (22.1)9 701 801 (35.6)5 687 484 (34.2)5 650 598 (22.1)8 473 717 (37.8)2 619 553 (17.7)18 102 976 (21.6)1 637 579 (14.5)2 337 759 (20.5)6 972 515 (24.4)3 989 276 (31.1)   Migraine 1 148 806 (8.6) 448 099 (4.9) 4 178 561 (4.9) 6 745 028 (8.2) 915 026 (7.7) 2 098 499 (4.8) 1 971 138 (7.4) 483 857 (4.9) 890 644 (4.4) 974 364 (7.9) 902 967 (4.9) 653 218 (2.7) 1 419 518 (7.8) 1 997 641 (7.5) 602 755 (3.1) 924 021 (6.1) 2 809 268 (3.2) 878 042 (7.7) 446 818 (3.9) 1 477 531 (4.9) 600 865 (4.8) Migraine1 148 806 (8.6)448 099 (4.9)4 178 561 (4.9)6 745 028 (8.2)915 026 (7.7)2 098 499 (4.8)1 971 138 (7.4)483 857 (4.9)890 644 (4.4)974 364 (7.9)902 967 (4.9)653 218 (2.7)1 419 518 (7.8)1 997 641 (7.5)602 755 (3.1)924 021 (6.1)2 809 268 (3.2)878 042 (7.7)446 818 (3.9)1 477 531 (4.9)600 865 (4.8)  Diarrheal Anxiety Diseases Disorders 179 090 (1.5) 286 757 (2.2) 322 986 (2.5) 186 776 (2.1) 1 300 393 (1.2) 1 690 025 (2.0) 1 594 437 (2.0) 1 765 968 (2.1) 191 123 (1.7) 359 244 (3.0) 381 269 (0.9) 463 169 (1.1) 90 226 (0.3) 494 719 (1.9) 170 280 (1.6) 258 739 (2.6) 241 299 (1.2) 672 602 (3.3) 4425 (0.0) 255 656 (2.1) 412 693 (1.9) 490 279 (2.7) 430 098 (1.4) 370 869 (1.6) 84 203 (0.6) 195 711 (1.1) 407 041 (1.7) 734 689 (2.8) 475 153 (1.8) 313 328 (1.6) 6741 (0.0) 390 157 (2.6) 33 152 (0.0) 3 987 614 (4.6) 57 520 (0.5) 230 302 (2.0) 115 015 (1.0) 275 549 (2.4) 348 806 (1.3) 219 648 (0.7) 216 751 (1.6) 335 131 (2.7) Diarrheal AnxietyDiseases Disorders179 090 (1.5) 286 757 (2.2)322 986 (2.5) 186 776 (2.1)1 300 393 (1.2) 1 690 025 (2.0)1 594 437 (2.0) 1 765 968 (2.1)191 123 (1.7) 359 244 (3.0)381 269 (0.9) 463 169 (1.1)90 226 (0.3) 494 719 (1.9)170 280 (1.6) 258 739 (2.6)241 299 (1.2) 672 602 (3.3)4425 (0.0) 255 656 (2.1)412 693 (1.9) 490 279 (2.7)430 098 (1.4) 370 869 (1.6)84 203 (0.6) 195 711 (1.1)407 041 (1.7) 734 689 (2.8)475 153 (1.8) 313 328 (1.6)6741 (0.0) 390 157 (2.6)33 152 (0.0) 3 987 614 (4.6)57 520 (0.5) 230 302 (2.0)115 015 (1.0) 275 549 (2.4)348 806 (1.3) 219 648 (0.7)216 751 (1.6) 335 131 (2.7)  Sense Organ Diseases 693 879 (5.4) 999 215 (9.8) 6 919 968 (7.6) 5 118 624 (6.3) 919 818 (7.9) 3 972 324 (9.1) 1 796 431 (6.4) 758 576 (7.3) 1 726 566 (8.5) 446 216 (4.2) 1 502 186 (7.6) 2 059 415 (7.8) 1 121 922 (6.7) 1 503 149 (5.9) 1 886 161 (8.7) 819 044 (5.5) 4 037 732 (4.8) 736 265 (6.5) 796 519 (7.0) 1 831 238 (6.4) 869 423 (6.8) Sense OrganDiseases693 879 (5.4)999 215 (9.8)6 919 968 (7.6)5 118 624 (6.3)919 818 (7.9)3 972 324 (9.1)1 796 431 (6.4)758 576 (7.3)1 726 566 (8.5)446 216 (4.2)1 502 186 (7.6)2 059 415 (7.8)1 121 922 (6.7)1 503 149 (5.9)1 886 161 (8.7)819 044 (5.5)4 037 732 (4.8)736 265 (6.5)796 519 (7.0)1 831 238 (6.4)869 423 (6.8)  Conduct Disorder 242 823 (1.8) 188 449 (2.1) 1 745 272 (2.1) 1 511 480 (1.8) 276 890 (2.3) 659 048 (1.5) 547 980 (2.1) 263 068 (2.6) 415 093 (2.1) 247 234 (2.1) 473 888 (2.6) 499 204 (2.1) 271 934 (1.5) 680 494 (2.6) 410 578 (2.1) 376 388 (2.5) 1 375 879 (1.6) 235 947 (2.1) 265 702 (2.3) 442 505 (1.5) 338 034 (2.7) ConductDisorder242 823 (1.8)188 449 (2.1)1 745 272 (2.1)1 511 480 (1.8)276 890 (2.3)659 048 (1.5)547 980 (2.1)263 068 (2.6)415 093 (2.1)247 234 (2.1)473 888 (2.6)499 204 (2.1)271 934 (1.5)680 494 (2.6)410 578 (2.1)376 388 (2.5)1 375 879 (1.6)235 947 (2.1)265 702 (2.3)442 505 (1.5)338 034 (2.7)  Low Back and Neck Pain 421 234 (3.2) 111 350 (1.4) 2 477 954 (3.1) 1 469 120 (1.8) 223 803 (1.9) 1 026 651 (2.4) 636 408 (2.4) 264 819 (2.7) 408 048 (2.0) 498 049 (3.8) 473 051 (2.6) 320 849 (1.4) 176 500 (0.9) 873 888 (3.3) 308 970 (1.6) 648 266 (4.2) 3 241 876 (3.7) 198 432 (1.7) 221 679 (1.9) 509 638 (1.7) 190 046 (1.5) Low Backand Neck Pain421 234 (3.2)111 350 (1.4)2 477 954 (3.1)1 469 120 (1.8)223 803 (1.9)1 026 651 (2.4)636 408 (2.4)264 819 (2.7)408 048 (2.0)498 049 (3.8)473 051 (2.6)320 849 (1.4)176 500 (0.9)873 888 (3.3)308 970 (1.6)648 266 (4.2)3 241 876 (3.7)198 432 (1.7)221 679 (1.9)509 638 (1.7)190 046 (1.5) Prevalent Cases, No. (Age-Standardized Rate, %) Iron Deficiency Skin Depressive Anemia Diseases Disorders 3 896 646 (31.0) 3 042 602 (23.2) 135 016 (1.0) 3 522 047 (30.9) 2 410 055 (25.6) 170 336 (2.0) 24 720 332 (24.9) 25 323 874 (29.4) 1 481 373 (1.8) 22 113 446 (27.1) 25 429 536 (30.8) 1 214 347 (1.5) 2 627 255 (22.8) 2 322 444 (19.6) 242 315 (2.0) 11 150 432 (25.4) 9 307 344 (21.3) 275 411 (0.6) 6 090 342 (21.2) 4 833 236 (17.8) 523 996 (2.0) 2 286 151 (21.5) 3 204 233 (32.4) 192 765 (1.9) 5 159 018 (25.5) 5 397 856 (26.7) 348 786 (1.7) 2 875 140 (28.0) 2 955 092 (24.9) 122 304 (0.9) 6 138 748 (30.6) 4 588 169 (24.5) 223 781 (1.2) 6 867 952 (23.8) 7 587 108 (30.1) 751 729 (3.2) 2 218 648 (13.7) 3 950 348 (22.3) 125 973 (0.7) 6 251 246 (24.6) 8 073 130 (30.5) 387 904 (1.5) 3 970 910 (16.1) 4 647 124 (22.2) 622 216 (3.2) 2 966 546 (20.3) 5 018 414 (33.1) 181 497 (1.2) 15 992 132 (19.3) 26 350 414 (30.7) 2 050 206 (2.4) 2 272 136 (20.4) 1 762 122 (15.4) 203 936 (1.7) 1 438 655 (12.6) 2 340 201 (20.4) 224 245 (1.9) 7 160 936 (25.5) 6 063 204 (20.7) 235 859 (0.8) 5 108 383 (39.8) 3 214 463 (25.4) 49 653 (0.4) Prevalent Cases, No. (Age-Standardized Rate, %)Iron Deficiency Skin DepressiveAnemia Diseases Disorders3 896 646 (31.0) 3 042 602 (23.2) 135 016 (1.0)3 522 047 (30.9) 2 410 055 (25.6) 170 336 (2.0)24 720 332 (24.9) 25 323 874 (29.4) 1 481 373 (1.8)22 113 446 (27.1) 25 429 536 (30.8) 1 214 347 (1.5)2 627 255 (22.8) 2 322 444 (19.6) 242 315 (2.0)11 150 432 (25.4) 9 307 344 (21.3) 275 411 (0.6)6 090 342 (21.2) 4 833 236 (17.8) 523 996 (2.0)2 286 151 (21.5) 3 204 233 (32.4) 192 765 (1.9)5 159 018 (25.5) 5 397 856 (26.7) 348 786 (1.7)2 875 140 (28.0) 2 955 092 (24.9) 122 304 (0.9)6 138 748 (30.6) 4 588 169 (24.5) 223 781 (1.2)6 867 952 (23.8) 7 587 108 (30.1) 751 729 (3.2)2 218 648 (13.7) 3 950 348 (22.3) 125 973 (0.7)6 251 246 (24.6) 8 073 130 (30.5) 387 904 (1.5)3 970 910 (16.1) 4 647 124 (22.2) 622 216 (3.2)2 966 546 (20.3) 5 018 414 (33.1) 181 497 (1.2)15 992 132 (19.3) 26 350 414 (30.7) 2 050 206 (2.4)2 272 136 (20.4) 1 762 122 (15.4) 203 936 (1.7)1 438 655 (12.6) 2 340 201 (20.4) 224 245 (1.9)7 160 936 (25.5) 6 063 204 (20.7) 235 859 (0.8)5 108 383 (39.8) 3 214 463 (25.4) 49 653 (0.4)   Location Nepal Niger Nigeria Pakistan Peru Philippines Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sudan Tanzania Thailand Turkey Uganda United Kingdom United States Uzbekistan Venezuela Vietnam Yemen LocationNepalNigerNigeriaPakistanPeruPhilippinesRussiaSaudi ArabiaSouth AfricaSouth KoreaSudanTanzaniaThailandTurkeyUgandaUnited KingdomUnited StatesUzbekistanVenezuelaVietnamYemen  "},{"text":"Copyright 2016 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. Downloaded From: http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/ by a University of British Columbia User on 01/27/2016 6   Changes that are statistically significant (P < .05). Global Burden of Diseases and Injuries in Children and Adolescents Special Communication Clinical Review & Education Global Burden of Diseases and Injuries in Children and AdolescentsSpecial Communication Clinical Review & Education   Median % Median % Median %Median % 1990 2013 Change in Global DALY Change in Global DALY 19902013Change in Global DALYChange in Global DALY   Counts a Rates a Counts aRates a  Communicable, maternal, Noncommunicable Injuries Communicable, maternal,NoncommunicableInjuries  neonatal, and nutritional   neonatal, and nutritional Solid lines connecting the 1990 and 2013 charts indicate increased or    Solid lines connecting the 1990 and 2013 charts indicate increased or unchanged rank; dotted lines, decreased rank; COPD, chronic obstructive    unchanged rank; dotted lines, decreased rank; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; and HIV, human immunodeficiency virus infection.    pulmonary disease; and HIV, human immunodeficiency virus infection. jamapediatrics.com (Reprinted) JAMA Pediatrics Published online January 25, 2016 E15 jamapediatrics.com(Reprinted) JAMA Pediatrics Published online January 25, 2016E15  "},{"text":" Global Burden of Diseases and Injuries in Children and Adolescents Special Communication Clinical Review & Education 1998 to 2005 and 2006 to 2013 were 41.5% and 13.3%, respectively.  "}],"sieverID":"4eef7175-5d60-40d7-b5df-1771e7bb30de","abstract":""}

data/part_2/06198f393f5d213875877cd280460441.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06198f393f5d213875877cd280460441","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c83654a9-a6b7-4e6c-b83d-e7d0f96004e3/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #4300 Contributing Projects: • P1543 -CoP Data-Driven Agronomy Module 2","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"cc0429ab-73e1-4880-a1e1-f19bee0c91a6","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0650c1ff33993cde1399c7198f929745.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0650c1ff33993cde1399c7198f929745","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5bb56a8-e4af-4609-a015-5f7a551b268a/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"• Actores vinculados directa e indirectamente con el instrumento de política regional participaron en el proceso de formulación. • El Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (CAC) considera la estrategia el instrumento clave para fomentar una agricultura más competitiva, inclusiva, sostenible y adaptada al cambio climático. • La articulación de diversas herramientas permitió generar visiones holísticas, plausibles y variadas que robustecieron la estrategia. MENSAJES CLAVE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"PROCESO DE FORMULACIÓN","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"La construcción de la Estrategia Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima (EASAC) para la región del SICA ha sido concebida como un proceso de participación que se formaliza mediante acuerdo del Comité Técnico Regional y arranca como tal en el Grupo Técnico de Cambio Climático y Gestión Integral del Riesgo (GT-CC&GIR) ambas instancias del Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (CAC) en coordinación con los otros grupos técnicos y de la mano de la Secretaría Ejecutiva del CAC (SECAC)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"El proceso de formulación estuvo apoyado por un Grupo Inter-Agencial de organizaciones internacionales conformado por la Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL), el Instituto Interamericano para la Cooperación en la Agricultura (IICA), el Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO), el Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) y la Universidad para la Cooperación Internacional (UCI), entre otros organismos; e incluyó una consulta abierta a la sociedad civil de la región para que hicieran retroalimentación."}]},{"head":"QUE ES SICA?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"El Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (SICA), es el marco institucional de la Integración Regional Centroamericana, constituido en 1991 por los Estados de Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panamá. Posteriormente, se adhirieron como miembros plenos Belice en el año 2000 y, a partir de 2013, la República Dominicana. Proceso de formulación de la Estrategia Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima para la región del Sistema de Integración Centroamericano (EASAC)"}]},{"head":"Taller de escenarios futuros","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"En febrero de 2017 se realizó un segundo taller utilizando la metodología de Escenarios Futuros, la cual contribuye al robustecimiento de procesos de formulación de políticas. La metodología fue desarrollada por CCAFS y es implementada en América Latina por la Universidad para la Cooperación Internacional (UCI) en colaboración con el Instituto Copernicus de la Universidad de Utrecht. Este taller involucró más actores de los diferentes países para nutrir y fortalecer el documento borrador de la Estrategia."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"La metodología incluye la construcción participativa de cuatro escenarios futuros imaginarios pero plausibles y diversos; es decir, historias del futuro contadas en palabras e imágenes. Los escenarios toman en cuenta resultados de modelación socioeconómica y muestran distintas posibles vías de desarrollo de aspectos socioeconómicos, ambientales y políticos de la región, relevantes para el El proceso de construcción de la Estrategia nace en el seno del Consejo de Ministros del CAC, en septiembre de 2015 mediante la propuesta sobre productividad y clima, y la decisión de elaborar una declaración conjunta de los países del SICA en la COP21 sobre la agricultura climáticamente inteligente. El Comité Técnico Regional del CAC asume el liderazgo de la formulación de la EASAC a través del GT-CCGIR en 2016. La principal característica del proceso de formulación es la inclusión de los diversos actores vinculados directa e indirectamente con un instrumento de política regional como este."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"La formulación tuvo las siguientes fases: i) Taller de lineamientos; ii) Taller de escenarios futuros; y iii) Consulta abierta en línea."}]},{"head":"Créditos f","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Taller de lineamientos","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"El taller se llevó a cabo en diciembre de 2016, en San José, Costa Rica. Allí, expertos agropecuarios del GT-CCGIR y otros grupos técnicos del CAC identificaron los ejes y líneas estratégicas, así como las principales acciones que se pueden promover, incentivar y articular a nivel regional para que el sector agropecuario de los países del SICA sea cada vez más sostenible y adaptado al cambio y la variabilidad climática. A partir de este proceso se elaboró un documento que sería luego discutido y robustecido en la siguiente fase de formulación. En este enlace podrá conocer los resultados obtenidos y acuerdos producto del taller."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"sistema agroalimentario de la región bajo los efectos del cambio climático."}]},{"head":"RECOMENDACIONES PARA LA EASAC PRODUCTO DEL TALLER DE ESCENARIOS FUTUROS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"La exploración y el análisis de estos diferentes posibles futuros y las incertidumbres a las que estos podrían conllevar, permitió a los participantes tener una perspectiva más amplia de las circunstancias necesarias para preparar a la región para los retos que cada escenario planteaba. Con base en este análisis, se recomendaron mejoras en la estrategia que aumentaran su posibilidad de éxito. Entre éstos, se destacó la visión a largo plazo y la importancia dada a las áreas protegidas y otras regulaciones ambientales, las cuales ayudarán a proteger las fuentes de agua y otros servicios ecosistémicos."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Un análisis transversal de los escenarios también muestra la necesidad de los pequeños productores de contar con mayor apoyo aún de los gobiernos en la inversión y acceso en tecnología; a la necesidad de la producción de alimentos para un mercado interno (nacional y regional) y a la coordinación y colaboración entre los países de Centroamérica y República Dominicana en la gestión de riesgos agroclimáticos, la producción y el comercio de alimentos, y la gestión del recurso hídrico."}]},{"head":"Consulta abierta en línea","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"El proceso de formulación de la Estrategia terminó con un periodo de consulta abierta en línea dirigida a un amplio público de actores del sector agroalimentario en la región. La consulta abierta de la EASAC se dividió en tres secciones y fue dirigido a toda la sociedad civil haciendo un seguimiento especial a los representantes de los grupos técnicos del CAC. La primera sección hizo referencia a las orientaciones estratégicas, la segunda sección se refiere a la visión de la EASAC y su vinculación con los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) y la última sección hacía referencias a los ejes estratégicos. La consulta fue enviada a aproximadamente 836 personas de los 20 países de la región."}]},{"head":"CUATRO ESCENARIOS FUTUROS PLAUSIBLES Y DIVERSOS DE AGRICULTURA Y SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA EN CENTROAMÉRICA Y REPÚBLICA DOMINICANA EN EL 2050","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"1. Los expertos validaron las líneas estratégicas y medidas sugeridas para los ejes estratégicos cercanos a su área de experticia y formularon recomendaciones de mejora 2. Los participantes crearon cuatro escenarios futuros de Centroamérica y República Dominicana para el año 2030, tanto positivos como negativos, cada uno mostrando diferentes caminos de desarrollo para el sector agroalimentario."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"3. Los diferentes escenarios revelaron incertidumbres que podrían afectar la e cacia de la estrategia en fomentar una agricultura sostenible adaptada al clima en la región. 4. Finalmente, se puso a prueba la resiliencia y e cacia de las medidas contempladas en la EASAC en los diferentes escenarios. Esto resaltaba las medidas más y menos robustas para enfrentar cambios en el entorno. Paso a paso: La EASAC a través de escenarios futuros"}]},{"head":"Revisión final","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"La etapa de formulación cerró con la revisión de las principales instancias técnicas del CAC, dando lugar al proceso de aprobación. El Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (CAC) en reunión celebrada en San José, Costa Rica los días 28 y 29 de junio de 2017 aprobó la Estrategia Sostenible Adaptada al Clima para la región del SICA: 2018-2030 (EASAC), como el instrumento clave para impulsar una agricultura más competitiva, inclusiva y sostenible adaptada a los efectos del cambio climático y de la variabilidad climática, que aumente la productividad mediante la conservación y el uso sostenible y eficiente del agua, de la biodiversidad, del suelo y del bosque, con el fin de garantizar la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional."}]},{"head":"Aprendizajes para la formulación de políticas regionales","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"El proceso de formulación de la EASAC ha generado aprendizajes significativos en la forma de hacer política pública a nivel regional. Tales aprendizajes están alrededor de la participación activa de diversos grupos técnicos en el marco del CAC, el involucramiento de organismos de cooperación y de la sociedad civil que representan los diferentes sectores de la región. Adicionalmente, en términos metodológicos, la articulación de diversas herramientas que permitió generar visiones holísticas, plausibles y variadas que robustecieron un instrumento de política pública regional como la EASAC. Un tema central durante el proceso de formulación fue el reconocimiento de la agricultura como un eje articulador del desarrollo rural, humano y económico en la región, que a pesar de retos clave por los cambios en el clima tiene oportunidades de crecimiento en términos de productividad y resiliencia, reduciendo a su vez el impacto negativo al medio ambiente y mejora las condiciones de seguridad alimentaria en la región."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Para más información sobre el trabajo de CCAFS en América Latina: Ana María Loboguerrero, [email protected] Para más información sobre la formulación participativa de políticas a través de la creación de escenarios futuros: Marieke Veeger, [email protected] Este trabajo fue realizado en colaboración con la Universidad Internacional para la Cooperación (UCI), quien lidera el programa de Escenarios Futuros en América Latina, como parte del Programa de Investigación de CGIAR sobre Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS)."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"El Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), liderado por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), reúne algunos de los mejores investigadores del mundo en la ciencia agrícola, investigación para el desarrollo, las ciencias del clima y de la tierra, para identificar y abordar las interacciones más importantes, las sinergias y disyuntivas entre el cambio climático, la agricultura y la seguridad alimentaria. www.ccafs.cgiar.org."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"CGIAR es una alianza mundial de investigación para un futuro sin hambre. Su labor científica es llevada a cabo por 15 centros CGIAR en cercana colaboración con cientos de organizaciones socias. www.cgiar.org."}]},{"head":"Programa CCAFS América Latina","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Km. 17 "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Recta Cali-Palmira -Palmira, Colombia www.ccafs.cgiar.org/es CCAFS es Liderado por Socio estratégico El Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) desarrolla tecnologías, herramientas y nuevos conocimientos que contribuyen a que los agricultores, especialmente los de escasos recursos, logren una agricultura eco-eficiente, es decir, competitiva y rentable así como sostenible y resiliente. Con su sede principal en Palmira, el CIAT realiza investigación orientada al desarrollo en las regiones tropicales de América Latina, África y Asia. www.ciat.cgiar.org Este trabajo ha sido desarrollado como parte del Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), el cual es llevado a cabo con apoyo de los donantes del Fondo CGIAR y a través de acuerdos bilaterales de financiación. Para detalles por favor visite https://ccafs.cgiar.org/es/donantes. Las opiniones expresadas en este documento no pueden ser tomadas como opiniones oficiales de estas organizaciones. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"66aa2d36-8cfb-4084-acd3-c58cae0b5193","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0684e19103d92fa2b5d7c74e25e1d289","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89e381b9-86e6-47c6-af37-c1644de14908/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":291,"text":"W hen the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) was designing a new program in agricultural biotechnology in 1990, a number of factors framed the Agency's thinking about involvement of the private sector in collaboration with U.S., international, and developing country public research institutions. Primary among these was, and still is, the predominant role of the private sector in biotechnology research. By 1990, private sector investment in agricultural biotechnology research exceeded public research through universities and government research laboratories. Considering this large private investment and commercial interest in biotechnology, collaboration with the private sector suggested a means of accessing both research tools developed by the private sector and of accessing specific technical expertise. Additionally, as part of its planning process, USAID called upon the National Research Council of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences for assistance in identifying broad priorities for consideration in an international biotechnology development program. Among the recommendations, the NRC panel placed equal weight on addressing institutional management issues, particularly the capacity to address issues of intellectual property rights (IPRs) and biosafety, as on research and technology development. Building on this recommendation, USAID designed a program that integrated aspects associated with the dissemination and application of biotechnology, particularly management and technology transfer issues, with biotechnology research and training. Partnership with the private sector, which approaches research management with a commercial or application orientation, could contribute to achieving this goal of closing the gap between research and technology application. Finally, at this time USAID had already gained experience in public-private sector collaboration through its support of the Monsanto-Kenyan Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) program for development of disease-resistant sweet potato. This program illustrated the value of such partnerships in gaining access to technical expertise, as well as to proprietary technologies."},{"index":2,"size":373,"text":"Despite the potential benefits of involving the private sector in international development, it is important to clarify that the private sector will not replace the role of the public sector in research generally, nor in facilitating broad application of biotechnology in developing countries in particular. Further, the goal of such partnerships is not to remake fully public sector research institutions in the mold of the private sector. USAID continues to recognize the strong record and primary objective of public universities in the area of research and training. USAID also recognizes that the private sector will not deliver biotechnology applications for many crops, such as some minor or food security crops, will not address all biotic and abiotic production constraints important in developing countries, nor will it realize commercial markets in all developing countries. The role of public sector research to filling these gaps remains vital. The goal of USAID in supporting collaborations with the private sector is to lever- Finally, in discussing the rationale for publicprivate sector collaboration, one should consider the private sector perspective on partnership with USAID and developing countries. In many cases, philanthropy and good public relations is a factor. In one instance USAID has funded a partnership that holds potential commercial value to the company, involving the characterization of potentially novel Bt strains from Egypt. But generally, short-term commercial benefit is not the principal factor. Companies may, however, have longer-term interests in developing a market relationship with a particular country for other biotechnology-based products. Collaborative research partnerships may assist the private sector in building relationships or an understanding of pathways for market access. Another potential motivation for the private sector is access to genetic resources such as in the aforementioned collaboration in Egypt to characterize potentially novel strains of Bt. This particular collaboration was significant in that the ownership of IPR-related to these Bt strains belonged to the Egyptian partner, and were made available to the company under the terms of a contractual agreement. Whatever the motivation behind private sector participation in such research partnerships, the role of seed funding from USAID appears significant to defraying some of the financial risk for the private sector partner, and encouraging their involvement in the development of biotechnology applications for developing countries."}]},{"head":"Examples of Direct Public-Private Collaboration","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"During the 1990s, USAID has directly supported several public-private sector collaborative research programs, largely through the Agricultural Biotechnology Support Program (ABSP). Led by Michigan State University (MSU), ABSP represents partnerships between a number of U.S. universities, U.S. and developing country companies, the international agricultural research centers (IARCs), and developing country public research institutions (NARS or national agricultural research systems). The project is described in detail by Ives, Maredia, and Erbisch 1999). "}]},{"head":"Institutional Capacity Building","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":303,"text":"Complementing these examples of research collaboration has been ABSP's institutional capacity-building activities in the areas of IPR, technology transfer, and biosafety. Biosafety regulatory and management capacity has been conducted primarily in support of the application of public sector biotechnology research in developing countries. This will not be discussed further here. IPR issues, however, remain associated with the private sector for most developing countries, particularly the private sector in the United States and Europe. Developing awareness and understanding of IPR plays an increasingly important part to facilitating collaborations with the private sector where proprietary research materials or germplasm is involved. ABSP's efforts in IPR have covered both plant variety protection and patent forms of IPR, with the principal aim of increased understanding of and capacity to manage the exchange of proprietary materials, in the context of collaboration with biotechnology or seed companies. This has been approached through workshops, courses, and internships with offices of technology transfer at two ABSP partner universities. To date under the ABSP program, MSU has served as the contractual intermediate on most research agreements between companies and public research institutions in developing countries. In this role, MSU assists both parties in establishing mutually beneficial research terms. However, the longterm goal is to develop the capacity among developing country institutions to negotiate and manage the terms of research agreements independently with the private sector. The role of MSU as an intermediate in the short term, and capacity building efforts in the area of IPR and technology transfer in the longer-term have helped increase the confidence of companies to engage in collaborative research that will involve the exchange of proprietary materials with de-veloping countries. It has also helped developing countries protect their own interests when they contribute germplasm to the collaboration, such as in the Bt work between Egypt and Pioneer Hi-Bred."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"Taking a step beyond an understanding of IPR, some of ABSP's public sector partners are pursuing an institutional model for technology transfer similar to that used by U.S. universities to promote a range of relationships with the private sector. Particularly notable is the interest in transfer of technologies to the local private sector, including seed companies and growers. Both Ministries of Agriculture in Egypt and Indonesia are developing offices of technology transfer to serve as the focal point for handling collaborative research agreements, licensing, and dissemination of technologies for large-scale testing or commercialization. These offices will serve as a means of strengthening the institutional capacity of the ministries' agricultural research system to manage IPR associated with collaboration with the private sector. It will also broaden avenues for dissemination of technologies, beginning to close the gap between research and technology application. ABSP has provided support to development of such offices through training programs, workshops, and the sharing of sample documents and agreements used by MSU's Office of Intellectual Property."}]},{"head":"Constraints to Implementing Public-Private Partnerships","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"Although research collaboration with the private sector has been a valuable complement to USAID's public sector research and training in biotechnology, these new partnerships present challenges to all parties: USAID, NARS, and private sector partners in the United States. The most significant constraint surrounds IPR, due both to the lack of awareness and management capacity among public institutions as well as dissimilarities in the extent of protection afforded by national laws. ABSP's capacity-building efforts to address the former constraint have improved the level of confidence among all parties in the exchange of proprietary materials. However, the absence of patent protection does mean that some companies will not transfer certain technologies or certain crop applications, which might compromise significant commercial interests. This was the case, for example, with an ABSP collaboration between CRIFC in Indonesia and ICI Seeds (Zeneca). Ultimately, an agreement with ICI Seeds (Zeneca) for transfer of the Bt genes or maize transformation technology to CRIFC, for use in Indonesia, could not be reached due to the lack of patent protection and the level of proprietary interest by the company in those technologies. Based on that early experience, ABSP and USAID have taken steps to address IPR concerns up front, and use the resolution of IPR issues as criterion for establishment of such public-private sector collaborations."},{"index":2,"size":187,"text":"Beyond IPR constraints, the three partners -USAID, developing countries, and companiescome together with different cultural perspectives and unfamiliarity with differing institutional approaches. Public research institutions in developing countries may be unaccustomed to negotiating with the private sector, and companies are unfamiliar with the bureaucratic processes and government contractual requirements associated with USAID funding. USAID must also recognize that the goals of the private sector differ from its traditional development partners in the university and nonprofit community. An important factor in resolving some of these differences and in building confidence has been the role of MSU in management of ABSP's publicprivate sector partnerships. MSU assists in bridging the three cultures. The university has had long experience in dealing both with USAID and with developing country partners. Since U.S. government policy changes in the mid 1980s, MSU, like most U.S. universities, has also worked with the private sector through their domestic technology transfer activities. For the private sector, MSU's management and experience defrays some of the risk associated with the unfamiliar partnership. For both USAID and the developing country partners, MSU maintains development objectives and interests at the forefront."}]},{"head":"Benefits from the ABSP Experience","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"The rapid scientific and commercial development of biotechnology poses new challenges to international development organizations. Not only did biotechnology come along at a time of shrink-ing international agricultural research budgets, providing the challenge of expanding the research agenda without reducing existing priorities, but it also presents new policy challenges and a reflection on the role of the public sector. USAID has approached these challenges in part through pursuit of partnerships between developing countries and the private sector. Although the role of the private sector will not replace that of the public sector in realizing the benefits of biotechnology to developing countries, partnerships between the public and private sectors bring broader resources to bear on this goal. Under the ABSP program, developing country scientists have gained access to short-and long-term technical training in company laboratories. It is this access to technical expertise and biotechnology tools that has been the primary benefit of such partnerships. Not inconsequential, however, has been the financial support with which the private sector has matched USAID seed funding. In most cases, USAID funding has gone exclusively to support the expenses of travel and the costs of developing country scientists and not for research costs of the company. While no USAID collaborative projects have been a fully philanthropic exercise for the private sector, as for-profit institutions, they have deeper pockets from which they continue support of research which USAID helped initiate."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Finally, an indirect benefit of public-private sector partnership has been the introduction of a new management and institutional culture to public sector research (NARS) in developing countries. This is a new culture with greater focus on the outcome of research, on technology dissemination, and on working through a diverse set of partners, including the private sector, to extend the application of new technologies to farmers."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"bd2f9092-5302-43b7-92d3-86603e73d7d9","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0691d7b17076221855e42d0620c7ca00","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3e68d22d-30db-4881-a4e4-0d4ef46878f0/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Welcome to yet another edition of the EADD-Uganda news letter."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"The piece provides progress achieved by the dedicated Uganda team. Great strides have so far been made to sensitize and mobilize farmers, studies taken to understand the implementing environment while assessing the project impact at the same time, farmers have been trained and linked to dairy value chain Business Development Services. A number of activities have been rolled out to ensure that we transform the lives of 45,000 small holder farmers. The articles provide a highlight of what we have achieved so far and our focus ahead. We are also privileged to hear from the recipient communities about the benefits realized out of their engagement with EADD."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Over the past period, the country team has weathered storms but risen above the challenge. A lot more is ahead of us but we are more than prepared to make our contribution towards poverty reduction in this country. Review meetings have consistently indicated greater enthusiasm among smallholder farmers to partner with EADD as they forge ahead towards a better living standard. We will be there for them with a hard task of making their lives a little bit better."},{"index":4,"size":195,"text":"As we enter the second year with a lot of backlog from year one, we find ourselves facing a stream of bad and good news. The events of recent months have brought a combination of great hope and perhaps even greater uncertainty to us in EADD. We have been buoyed by new challenges which bring promise of renewed commitment to basic principles of due process of diary value chain. At the same time, the global credit crunch has meant fewer financial resources -from the private sector and communities alike -to contribute equity for at least the next two to three years. I keep on smiling whenever, I hear my colleagues in EADD project contending that EADD is a complex project. Serious socio-economic problems confronting our communities today, must be addressed with very innovative and sustainability strategies. The EADD complexities have principally cultivated a new breed of great strategic thinkers. If we challenge our negative thoughts and do not give them credence and power, we neutralize them. I enjoy interacting with such a proactive team which must ensure EADD initiative maintains its relevance to the communities while demonstrating its complete commitment to the project overall agenda."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"In the midst of the challenges, I take hope in the certainty that the core values built around partnership and collaboration will foster a continued successful creation of systems appropriate to achieve project agendas. In continuing to serve its client community, EADD operations therefore, for the next quarter will require continual updates and training firmly focused on cooperative and human resource development to provide capacity to share best practices and ideas. Mutuality among partners and collaborators will need to remain tick. I believe that if you think positive thoughts and focus yourself on something you want, very often you achieve it. To all of you, best wishes for a wonderful and more fruitful new year 2009."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"Note from the Country Director Note from the Country Director Note from the Country Director Note from the Country Director Heifer Project international Uganda Heifer Project international Uganda Heifer Project international Uganda Heifer Project international Uganda Mr. Patrick Nalere Mr. Patrick Nalere Mr. Patrick Nalere Mr. Patrick Nalere"},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"The project is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) as part of an agricultural development grant designed to boost the yields and incomes of millions of small holder farmers in Africa and other parts of the developing world so that they can lift themselves and their families out of hunger and poverty. EADD envisions to see the lives of 179,000 farmers in East Africa transformed by doubling household dairy income through integrated interventions in dairy production, market access and knowledge application."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"On-farm production is being improved by: increasing the volume of milk produced, improving milk quality and reducing loss through spoilage, and providing access to production inputs through business delivery services."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"Milk production is being increased through artificial insemination (AI) to improve local breeds of dairy cows and through improved animal nutrition."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"Market access is being improved by: developing traditional market hubs (TMs) of business delivery services and chilling plants (CPs) that facilitate market access, linking producers to formal markets through processors, and increasing producers' benefit from traditional markets."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"The project is also enhancing the dairy farmers' understanding of fundamental business practices and ability to access finances."},{"index":12,"size":58,"text":"The project is aiming to accomplish these aims through coordinated, farmer-focused interventions that integrate to develop small holder profit-participation in the dairy value chain. The project is providing extensive training in organization development and dynamics, animal agriculture, business practices, plus other related subjects. Women and youth are particularly being targeted for inclusion in both the benefits and leadership."}]},{"head":"Objectives of EADD","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"These include to: generate information for informed decisionmaking on the dairy value chain and to develop innovative solutions for use of resources that increase income; expand dairy markets and increase market access for smallholder farmers; and sustainably increase dairy productivity and efficiency Key components and benefits of EADD -Uganda"}]},{"head":"• Establishment of CPs","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• Establishment of TMs"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"• The formation of farmer business associations with a range of business services to farmers and traditional traders including AI and animal health/extension services, veterinary drugs, farm equipment and inputs, feed supplies, access to financial services"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• Extensive training and a wealth of knowledge in group dynamics, improved animal husbandry, animal breeding"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• dairy business practices and other related subjects"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• Affordable access to AI services and related products thus improved animal breeds and productivity"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• Improved fodder varieties which will improve animal nutrition and animal health for better milk quality"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• Improved milk production, quality, demand and reduced milk losses"},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• Leveraged farmers' position with traditional traders through collective bargaining and competitive dairy markets thus improved income"}]},{"head":"Project implementation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The project promotes two hub models Chilling-plant hubs (CPs) where typically 2,000 to 5,000 farmers belonging to smaller groups organize as a single dairy farmer business association (DFBA) for the purpose of milk bulking, chilling and transportation."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Traditional-market hubs (TMs) where farmer income is increased through improved traditional milk markets."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"The hub comprises of about 1,000 farmers under a DFBA to attract input services and build business development services (BDS) provider capacity."}]},{"head":"EADD -Uganda Project sites","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"In Uganda, EADDP aims to work with 45,000 families lift themselves out of poverty by developing 10 milk collection hubs with Chilling plants (CPs) where farmers bring raw milk for bulking and chilling before pick-up by commercial dairies. Additionally, 5 traditional market hubs (TMs) will be established where activities will seek to achieve multiple goals including to: provide a range of business services to farmers and traditional traders; leverage the farmers' position with traditional traders through collective bargaining; and improve the demand for quality milk.  "}]},{"head":"By William Ssendagire and Dan Bazira-Heifer International Uganda","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"A fascinating story is told about the humble beginnings of Heifer International. It is a widely known story in Heifer International circles that a wonderful hero and its founder, Dan West in 1944 while working as a relief worker in USA developed a great idea to assist people affected by World War I. His idea was \"not a cup but a cow\" . Dan West and a team of relief workers were supplying aid to people affected by the war. They were giving powdered milk to affected families. He realized that supplying powdered milk was not sustainable but instead supplying the source of milk, the heifers."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Dan West may be long gone but his original idea still lives on. Backed by Heifer International values, the 12 cornerstones 1 for just and sustainable development and acronymed PASSING ON THE GIFTS, holistic and demand-driven approaches, Dan West's original idea has contributed to improvement of livelihoods of more than 300 communities comprising of more than 10 million poor families in 128 countries world wide ."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"The spillover of Heifer International intervention to needy communities in Uganda was through small scale dairy farming when in 1982 the first dairy heifer project under Church of Uganda, Gulu Diocese was supported. Since then, Heifer International Uganda has promoted dairy development using its popular approach of mobilizing Community Based Farmer Groups (CBFGs). Heifer International has worked in Uganda with directly over 23,000 families and indirectly over 1.8 million persons, sharing knowledge and resources and has alleviated human suffering by assisting communities to improve food security, increase household incomes while protecting the environment. Using community based farmer groups, Heifer International assists small holder farmers who are needy and living on 1-5 acre pieces of land to manage quality and high yielding dairy heifers and goats in stalls or cow/goat sheds. The heifers/dairy goats are distributed to individual families constituting a farmers' group."},{"index":4,"size":193,"text":"The farmers' groups come together to address common themes like poverty, malnutrition, environmental degradation, gender inequality and HIV/AIDS. The groups approach Heifer International to loan them the goats and families are mobilized and trained in integrated goat farming. The training covers areas of; farm/home planning, pasture/forage establishment and management, agro-ecological practices, cow/goat shed construction and socio-economic areas such as family nutrition, home hygiene and sanitation and gender equity. Training is on going and extension workers and Heifer staff train and prepare families to plant enough pastures, build cow/goat sheds and adopt agro-ecological practices such as soil and water conservation and tree planting. The use of the group approach has several advantages; easy to train a number of farmers at ago rather than one farmer at a time, use of group pressure to monitor management of the heifers/goats distributed to the group and implementation of the process of the passing on the gifts. In that process, every family trained, prepared and loaned a heifer/ goat (s) has to donate (pass on) to another needy family within the group including passing on knowledge gained through training to others who have not been trained by Heifer."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"To ensure that farmers gain economically from dairy farming business, Heifer trains them on quality marketing and connects them to market linkages in the value chain system. This requires farmers to organize themselves and market as a group rather than individually and this has the advantage of bargaining for better prices for their products (milk, heifers, and goat offspring) and also reduces on transportation costs when moving them from farms to the market. The East African Dairy Development Project (EADDP) come on board to play a vital role in enhancing the marketing of surplus farmers' milk using a hub model."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Heifer Project. needy farmers like the one next to the plant are supported to market their surplus milk."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"EADD Uganda continues to mobilize farmers By Dr. Allan Bisagaya, Livestock Specialist , EADD Uganda"},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"The East Africa Dairy Development (EADD) project aims to move smallholder women, youth and men farmers out of poverty by improving their profit participation in the dairy value chain in the central districts in Uganda. The vision of success for the EADD is that lives of 45,000 households or approx. 252,000 people is transformed by doubling dairy income by year 2010 through integrated interventions in dairy production, market-access and knowledge application."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"In order for EADD Uganda to achieve its vision, the project developed a farmer mobilization strategy in a participatory manner to be able to reach its targeted quota."},{"index":10,"size":39,"text":"The farmer mobilization strategy characterized farmers based on the farmer holdings, previous interaction with Heifer International Uganda or other NGOs like Send A Cow Uganda, farmer trainings received before, and the business the farmers are doing as a group."},{"index":11,"size":67,"text":"Among the strategies used by the project was the highly publicized National Launch of EADD in Uganda in July 2008. Additionally sensitization meetings were conducted at various levels including the district officials, executives of groups, opinion leaders and individual farmers. BDS providers, existing CBOs, churches, ToT trainings in group dynamics and farmer exchange visits to Kenya were also among the various avenues used for sensitization and mobilization."},{"index":12,"size":94,"text":"The key message in the mobilization has been on the Chilling Plant and the Traditional Hub model highlighting entry points for the various stakeholders and encouraging farmers to form cooperative societies/DFBAs. While working with the community EADD has been keen on organizing and strengthening dairy farmers to effectively manage dairy business by including women and youth in the field activities undertaken. Currently after the mobilization, there are 17 women and 9 youth in the leadership positions. The trends for this are positive and it is expected that more will enroll into the EADD activities."},{"index":13,"size":21,"text":"However the mobilization of farmers has not been a rosy affair and has its share of challenges which include among others:"},{"index":14,"size":19,"text":"• It is a process, yet a time consuming activity and does not necessarily produce quick or visible outputs."},{"index":15,"size":33,"text":"• Some of the Coops are still in their infant stages of group development (lack constitution, struggling with leadership, low membership , lack of offices , weak internal systems, etc) to manage finances."},{"index":16,"size":27,"text":"• It requires the workers involved to be sensitively aware of the concerns and feelings of the farmers and to respond to these with respect and patience."},{"index":17,"size":16,"text":"• It requires the agencies involved to hand back power and responsibility to the farmers themselves."},{"index":18,"size":18,"text":"• It can be difficult when the needs expressed by farmers cannot be matched with available external resources."},{"index":19,"size":29,"text":"• It requires a community to be open and available to dialogue -populations that are controlled or coerced by a minority may have difficulty in engaging with external agencies."},{"index":20,"size":30,"text":"As part of development these challenges are expected and to remedy them, EADD employed a competent diverse team that seeks to improve the livelihoods of farmers in the project area."},{"index":21,"size":2,"text":"Farmer Mobilization"},{"index":22,"size":49,"text":"A cross section of participants attending a mobilization meeting in Luweero dairies which currently has a capacity of 6,000 ltrs of milk per day and making products of pasteurized milk, and flavored yoghurt. Farmers also visited St. Jude Projects Busense, Gayaza women's saving scheme and some selected model farmers."},{"index":23,"size":15,"text":"Farmers were able to visit and learn from both small holder and large scale farmers."},{"index":24,"size":51,"text":"The main objectives of the study tour were to learn on the following; How small holder dairy farmers have been mobilized into Cooperative Groups, How volumes of milk are increased and milk spoilage reduced at household level, and How small holder dairy farmers access production inputs through business delivery services (BDS)"},{"index":25,"size":38,"text":"The theme of the exchange visit was \"Okugenda Kulaba,Okudda Kukola\", literally meaning that all participants who participated in the study tour would see, learn, and on coming back, they would put into practice what they saw and learned."},{"index":26,"size":20,"text":"Asked about what they had learnt during the study visit, the farmers were able to enlist the following among others:"},{"index":27,"size":31,"text":"• Compounds can be utilized to grow vegetables (kitchen gardening) instead of children using such big compounds to play various games which are not very productive to the family's well being."},{"index":28,"size":18,"text":"• Locally available resources can be used to achieve high quality yields on relatively small pieces of land."},{"index":29,"size":37,"text":"• Women can also work hard and prosper through farming. A case was taken of Ms. Kiiza of St Jude family project, a learning center coordinated by a woman for many years after death of her husband."},{"index":30,"size":18,"text":"• A small piece of land can be utilized for several family projects through determination and hard work."},{"index":31,"size":19,"text":"• cleanliness of the home and the general surrounding were a key requirement for a successful small holder farmer"},{"index":32,"size":38,"text":"• That keeping of records was not only for business men or office people, but it is vital for each individual home stead to be able to know the daily income and expenditure for planning and saving purposes."},{"index":33,"size":16,"text":"• Unity is strength. Farmers progress more if they work not as individuals but through groups."},{"index":34,"size":87,"text":"Farmers were also introduced to the 5 \"main commandments\" which they should follow to reach sustainable development; The farmers hailed the good cooperation, respect and trust among their host groups of farmers, especially the Gayaza women's saving scheme, which was operated at the village level. The message to learn from this group was clear that \"poverty has no boundaries or religion. It is a sickness which affects all people. Farmer groups should not be discriminatory in their activities because it will result into group conflicts and divisions\"."},{"index":35,"size":71,"text":"The leader of the farmers' delegation, Mr. Edward Ssebuufu was very grateful to EADD for taking the initiative to organize for study tours and bring farmers to practically learn from other farmers and dairy groups like MADDO. \"Following the theme of the study visit, it is therefore expected that all the participants are determined to practice the newly acquired skills and knowledge to increase farm and dairy production\", Said Mr. Ssebuufu."}]},{"head":"Local exchange visit organized for farmers","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"\"I have liked the study tour and the model farmers visited because they were relevant to the subject matter of alleviating poverty of the small holder farmers by working through groups\" said Ms Rose Bukenya, one of the participants of the study tour."}]},{"head":"Farmers learning about improved fodder during the study visit to Masaka","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Cycling to spread the EADD Gospel By Beatrice Bamulesewa Nabwire, M&E/Information Officer, EADD Uganda"},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"As one of the strategies to involve more farmers to participate in the East Africa dairy Development (EADD) Project -Uganda activities, a number of Trainers of Trainers (ToTs) were identified and trained. The ToTs will not only help to train other farmers, but will also help in mobilizing the farmers in the various project areas However, after training and passing out, one major constraint was quickly identified and pointed out by the ToTs. This was the lack of transport means to reach the farmers given the long distances involved. The ToTs requested EADD -Uganda to facilitate them with transport and bicycles were suggested."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"It was not long before their request was granted. \"EADD -Uganda has so far purchased 160 bicycles to be distributed to the ToTs. \"We shall facilitate more ToTs as we continue to identify and train them in all the project sites\" Said Mr. John Musisi, the Organization Development Coordinator who is in charge of training farmers in group dynamics and governance issues Two official bicycles flagging ceremonies were organized in two EADD -Uganda sites. This was at BUBUSI Dairy Cooperative Society in Busunju, Wakiso district (TM site) and at Luweero Dairy Cooperative Society (CP site). Guests at both functions included various district dignitaries, local leaders, development partners and faith based organizations from the districts of Wakiso and Luweero respectively. Particularly for Luweero, the Mayor of Luweero town council, Mr. Moses Sempagama who is also a dairy farmer was in attendance, and he underscored the many benefits from dairy farming. The Archbishop of Luweero Diocese Church of Uganda was also represented."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Of course the ToTs and farmers in attendance had no better words to express their appreciation. Singing and dancing, big smiles and laughter plus ululations every now and then were part of their way of expressing joy."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"In addition to the bicycles given to the ToTs, farmers have already realized other benefits from the EADD -Uganda project including high quality AI and liquid Nitrogen, trainings in group dynamics and governance, experience learning from study tours to successful dairy hubs in Kenya and a variety of improved fodder and legumes for the animals. \"We expect to benefit even more from EADD -Uganda in terms of more farmer trainings, local and external study tours, sourc-ing of milk buyers; and we are very optimistic on acquiring our own chilling plant and milk testing equipment\", said Hajj Muhammad Mubiru, Chairman of Luweero Dairy Coop society. The ToTs pledged to use the bicycles to mobilize and train more farmers."},{"index":6,"size":141,"text":"In his remarks, the Country Project Manager of EADD -Uganda, Mr. William Matovu, emphasized to the farmers and ToTs that dairy farming is a profitable business and that EADD belongs to the farmers. He encouraged them to mobilize more farmers to join the dairy cooperatives. He urged the ToTs to use the bicycles to mobilize and train more farmers and to be role models to other farmers. He also urged them to include the women and youth because they are also a major target of EADD. \"Women bear much responsibility for farm work, contributing up to 80% of food production and some women are house hold heads. The youth share almost similar constraints like women, especially as far as asset ownership is concerned. Developing the capacity of youth is expected to create long term viability in farm management\" said Mr. Matovu."},{"index":7,"size":91,"text":"The chief guest at both functions was none other than the Country Director Heifer Project International-Uganda, Mr. Patrick Nalere. In his address, he said that the causes of poverty among people include idle minds, lack of knowledge and information, and lack of markets. He promised that EADD will try to change the people's mindset and provide knowledge and information through various trainings and interactions. He encouraged the farmers to manage their cows as a dairy business for profitability, and to form or join cooperatives in order to enjoy the related benefits."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"The function was a major news item on major radio and TV stations including the national television (Uganda Broadcasting Cooperation) and newspapers. This is expected to boost the number of farmers joining the cooperatives to participate in EADD-Uganda activities."},{"index":9,"size":6,"text":"Cycling to spread the EADD Gospel"},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"The Country Director Heifer Project International Uganda, Mr. Patrick Nalere, handing over bicycles to ToTs in Luweero while the Country Project Manager EADD Uganda , Mr.William Matovu, looks on (Extreme right)"},{"index":11,"size":55,"text":"In addition to the bicycles given to the ToTs, farmers have already realized other benefits from the EADD -Uganda project including high quality AI and liquid Nitrogen, trainings in group dynamics and governance, experience learning from study tours to successful dairy hubs in Kenya and a variety of improved fodder and legumes for the animals."},{"index":12,"size":24,"text":"Ugandan farmers participate in exchange visit to Kenya More Uganda farmers learn from their Kenya counterparts By Beatrice Bamulesewa Nabwire, M&E/Information Officer, EADD Uganda"},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":"In October 2008, EADD Uganda organized another external farmer exchange visit to Kenya in which a total of 69 farmers selected from EADD-Uganda sites participated in the visit to successful chilling plants and farmers in Kenya."},{"index":14,"size":18,"text":"The farmers visited 2 chilling plant sites; Kinangop (Muki) Dairy Company Ltd and Nyara farmers Dairy Coop Society."}]},{"head":"Farmers' visit to Muki Dairy Company Ltd","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"This is located in North Kinangop, Nyandarua division, Naivasha, central province of Kenya, the farmers learnt many issues related to formation and management of a dairy cooperative, milk collection, handling and quality assurance, joint marketing, and how to source for development support. This is a community based cooperative located in Nyahururu division, Ndaragwa district, central Kenya. The cooperative's activities include milk bulking, Agrovet shop, SACCO, and AI services. While here the farmers learned also about BDS, milk transportation, milk quality and formation of SACCOs offering savings and borrowing to members and some of the major driving factors for farmers to cooperate, some of them being the need for the milk market and the transparency in running the cooperative."}]},{"head":"Farmers' visit to a Model farmer","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"Farmers also visited a successful farmer, Mwalimu Lawrence Njuguna Munywa (MAFAD Farm) of Karua sub-location, Kihara location, Kiambaa division, Kiambu east district, central province of Kenya (Matatu route 107). Mwalimu is a trained teacher who retired after 30years of teaching, and there after undertook courses in animal management, fodder management, calf management and milk processing. Mwalimu started rearing zero gazing animals in 1982 with only 2 cows and through selective breeding; he currently owns 40 cows Holstein Fresians and Jerseys. His story inspired the farmers especially to know that he is able to manage well all these cows under zero grazing at his home in a plot of land of 25 decimals (0.25 acres) in size. He grows the grass for making hay and silage and conserves the grass himself at his home Mwalimu sells some of the milk locally at his home but delivers most of it to the dairy. The local sales help to generate money to run daily activities while money at the dairy is paid to him monthly in bulk. From the milk sales he bought more land, and built modern houses for his 3 sons and a storeyed building where he has put milk processing machines . At Mwalimus's farm, farmers learnt among others:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• New methods of planting napier for the animals which make the napier to grow faster and also in very large quantities"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Planting grass, making silage or hay and storage"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Feeding animals on hay, silage, and other feed supplements including chicken droppings"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• Animal breeding and record keeping"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• Cow defects and how to detect and mange them"},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"At the end of it all, the farmers were very happy for having participated in the exchange visit and conveyed appreciation for they said they had gained a lot of knowledge and had received so many challenging inspirations from the sites they visited. They were very enthusiastic and pledged to put into practice what they had seen and learned."},{"index":8,"size":137,"text":"Some farmers who participated in the exchange visit have started passing on the gained skills and knowledge to other farmers back home. Some of them are also now helping EADD Uganda as farmer trainers Farmers learning how to make silage at MAFAD farm during the exchange visit to Kenya EADD Uganda trains Farmer Trainers not only help to train other farmers, but will also help to create farmer structures at grassroot levels (parishes) that will feed into the larger cooperatives. From this training and future trainings, it is anticipated that there will be an increased outreach to farmers by the AHPs through clinical services at a fee, farmer training and field days in the community, advisory services to farmers, drug shops owned by some AHPs, and regular feedback from the field on activities undertaken by the AHPs."}]},{"head":"EADD Uganda Trains Animal Health Providers","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"In order to enhance the role of AHPs in providing animal health services and on farm checks for milk quality assurance to improve the quality of milk provided to Chilling Plants and processing centers, EADD Uganda plans to organize more refreshers courses in Animal Health and Breeding for the identified AHPs. Some of the AHPs are to be accredited as AI technicians. The workshop was also attended by several partners including ILRI, Heifer Project International Uganda and Kenya, the African Highlands Initiative, research organizations, NGOs, farmers and private companies."}]},{"head":"EADD","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Passing on the Gift of Knowledge for improved fodder By Jane Kugonza, Dissemination Facilitator, EADD Uganda"},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), one of the EADD Uganda implementing partners is working together with other development stakeholders like Namulonge Agricultural research institute and farmers to develop strategies and options for improved animal nutrition. Together with the partners, extension providers, farmer leaders and farmers, a number of farmer trainers have been identified, engaged and trained to train other farmers in improved fodder technologies."},{"index":3,"size":291,"text":"In Mukono, one of EADD Uganda project sites, it is evident that the farmer trainers have picked up with zeal and are already training other farmers. One such successful trainer is Ms Sara Karagi who has been able to train over 30 farmers in a period of two months. She tells her story; \"As a widow, I have multiple tasks to perform in addition to being a farmer trainer. I look after two families, mine and that of my co-wife who died. This is a challenge but I have sacrificed time to train my fellow farmers on how to grow and manage fodder crops to increase milk production from our cows. I am motivated by the fact that being a farmer trainer has made me popular. I meet many people as they pass by my fodder demonstration garden, at church, in women groups and village meetings. I train these informally and my joy comes when I see them appreciate and take on the new fodder technologies to improve their milk production and income. Since I don't pay for the knowledge I receive as a farmer trainer, then I must pass it on as a gift for free. The extension worker Mr. Enock Mukalazi and the EADD staff advise and monitor what I do on my farm. This has encouraged me to improve my feeding practices'' Sarah says that she has faced a few challenges as a farmer trainer including transport limitations. Sometimes she wishes to travel from one village to another or even go to other parishes but being an elderly lady, she can not walk long distances. She also finds a challenge in handling multiple tasks which she has tried to solve by involving other family members to assist her."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Sarah's example shows that using farmer trainers is an effective approach of passing on new farming technologies to many farmers in a relatively short time and in a more cost effective manner. Farmers learn more from fellow farmers whom they easily identify with and whom they believe share similar problems and challenges. If Sarah is able to train 30farmers in two months, it means that she can train 180 farmers in a year."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Passing on the Gift of Knowledge for improved fodder Dissemination Facilitators hold annual workshop "}]},{"head":"By Titus Rekyeraho, Driver, EADD Uganda","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"EADD Uganda is a Heifer project which started in January 2008 to operate in central region (13 districts) in Uganda. With Heifer's mission of eradicating poverty, ending hunger and caring for the earth, the purpose or aim of the project is to add value of the millk, helping farmers to access milk markets, helping farmers to form cooperatives linking producers to formal markets through processors and developing local hubs for increasing producers' benefit from traditional markets and delivery of business services like AI, improved fodder and animal health."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"The benefits EADD being a project that offers support to organized groups; it encourages farmers to form dairy cooperatives and where necessary, facilitates the farmers through this process including recommendations to the ministry of cooperative for registration issues. EADD goes ahead and connects these cooperative farmers to banks for financial support in terms of loan advances. The cooperatives are intended to last for centuries if they are well sustained by the farmers. This implies that EADD helps farmers to pool up their scarce resources to form a strong economic activity, which will make a big impact to the beneficiary communities. Through development of local service hubs and access to business development services such as AI, Agrovets, animal health, and the installation of CPs that facilitate market access by linking farmers to processors, the small holder farmers are developing profit-participation in the diary value chain. These farmers are going to see success way beyond the expiry of the funding years of the project."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Extensive trainings given to the farmers are very vital to ending hunger, eradicating poverty, and even to caring for the environment. This is a very good benefit for the farmers as they acquire knowledge and skills which are very helpful not only to the individual farmers and their families, but also to the community at large who are able to tap into the knowledge."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"EADD acts as a uniting factor as farmers are mobilized in the community of the same locality with the aim of forming cooperatives and making it easy for EADD to train them in various skills like organizational development and governance, group dynamics and resource mobilization among others."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"It is HPI's norm to discourage farmers from being given hand-outs. Farmers are highly encouraged to work hard which is a necessary principle of ending hunger. The farmers are helped as they help themselves for sustainable reasons. This is what EADD is encouraging in dairy farmer cooperatives."},{"index":6,"size":107,"text":"EADD, being implemented in a partnership of international organizations including HPI, TNS, ILRI, ABS-TCM and ICRAF, there are backward and forward linkages as farmers are being connected worldwide. For example, farmers exchange visits where farmers go to the different participating countries, they learn a lot from these visits. A case in point is when farmers from EADD Uganda went for an exchange visit to Kenya CP and traditional hubs where they learnt a lot of things including dairy cooperative management and improved animal husbandry. Actually, after this study visit, some farmers from the pastoral areas of Kiboga have adopted the zero grazing system due to its benefits."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"The self esteem of farmers is also something to mention. Many farmers who participated in the study visit to Kenya have become \"very important and knowledgeable people\" in their communities. It is not un-common to listen to such farmers telling their experiences and giving advice to other farmers and in so doing; they are also spreading the EADD gospel of the benefits."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"Even receiving important visitors like those from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), HPI and other partner headquarters has boosted the status of the communities. Kiboga West is one of such communities where they now talk of themselves as being \"international\" and being known \"internationally\" and \"by one of the most famous development funding foundations (BMGF)\"."}]},{"head":"The Challenges","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The farmers' attitude is very important in implementation of EADD. This is in the sense that if the farmers are not ready to play their roles religiously, EADD can not do everything for them. In the pastoral areas, farmers are slow to change the way they are doing things, including slow adoption of AI and rearing more beneficial breeds in terms of milk production."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"In many societies, women and youth involvement in development activities is discouraged. This is in addition to the fact that the youth and women do not own important resources like land, even cows. Their views on issues do not normally count. This is likely to affect negatively on EADD's effort to see that those categories of people actively participate in the project Over expectation by farmers, and like in many parts of the developing world, farmers always expect to get every thing on a silver platter."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"However, all that mentioned, with experienced and highly skilled and motivated team of staff, I strongly believe that the communities are going to greatly benefit. The cordial relationship between the staff and farmers shows that there is already indentified success by the project to the communities and much to the pride of the implementing staff."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"*Prices are not guaranteed and are subject to change without notice * Prices are only per straw. The inseminator adds his fee, transport/distance to the farm, sheath, glove, lube, liquid nitrogen, communication, and administration to calculate the cost of an artificial insemination service EADD Uganda was also a key player in advocating for the partial lifting of the semen importation ban by the government."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"However, a number of challenges still exist:"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• The current intermittent production of liquid nitrogen in Uganda demoralizes farmers as well as the AI technicians"},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"• The wide spatial distribution of registered dairy hub members who are targeted to receive services is a major challenge."},{"index":8,"size":97,"text":"• The wide use of natural mating bulls is a major challenge in pastoral areas because the farmers in these areas are cultural adherents to bulls. The good news is that the demand for AI services by the farmers is growing by the day. With continued sensitization, training, provision of high quality services, AI refresher courses, bringing services closer to the cows by setting up AI satellite centers (that provide liquid Nitrogen, proven semen, sheath, gloves, tanks, ear tags, ear tag applicators, breeding calendar, cow life cards IDs among others), the benefits will continue to be realized."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"Artificial Insemination (AI), in this respect, is the process of using sperm cells collected from a bull with proven high production and artificially depositing them into the reproductive tract of a cow."},{"index":10,"size":160,"text":"The potential benefits of AI include: The breeder can choose the best males e.g. for milk production for use as parents; It reduces the costs associated with raising and managing the bulls on the farm; it reduces the chances of inbreeding; It reduces the transfer of venereal diseases between bulls and cows because the AI collection process allows for the screening of disease agents and the collected semen is routinely checked for quality; It allows for increased efficiency of bull usage whereby semen collected from a single ejaculate can be diluted and extended to create hundreds of doses; . The semen can be easily transported, allowing multiple females in different geographical locations to be inseminated simultaneously; Semen can be stored for long periods of time; therefore bulls can produce offsprings long after their natural reproductive lives have ended; and AI eliminates accidents and injury that may arise due to the usually relatively larger and aggressive adult bulls than the cows."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"The potential shortcomings of AI include: AI can be a more tedious effort; Bulls instinctively detect the cows that are on heat."},{"index":12,"size":45,"text":"With AI the detection becomes the responsibility of the farmer, where poor detection results in decreased rates of fertility; and The intense genetic selection during AI may lead to decreased variation in the cows population and therefore the need to balance between selection and variation."},{"index":13,"size":17,"text":"Artificial Insemination for improved animal breeds 029AY07649_Baltimore 029HO10241_Hess 029HO11054_Accent 029HO11413_Fearless 029AY07649_Baltimore Daughter 029HO10241_HESS461 029HO11054_Accent 029HO11413_Fearless 029JE03274_GUNNER 029JE03274_GUNNER_3Quarters"}]},{"head":"Bulls-Pictorial","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Cows Breeds-Pictorial"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"By Dr. Mugisa Kihire William, EADD Uganda"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The words Strategy and Marketing shall be defined right away before we embark on talking about strategic marketing."},{"index":4,"size":192,"text":"The word, Strategy rightly belongs to the military lexique, and is defined as a plan of war or plan of battle, believed to have originated from the Chinese author, Sun Tzu who called it the 'art of war'. This envisages the attainment of positions, postures and other advantages and putting into action the ways and means for the partial or total destruction of the enemy. And, supreme excellence in war consists in breaking the enemy's resistance without fighting, or without firing a single shot! One becomes an enemy when all hope is lost for a negotiated end of a conflict or issue, and war is declared (where force and deception are the cardinal principles), and as they say, in war as in love, all is fair! It therefore follows that to end a state of war one needs to restore hope to the hopeless! A strategy is the assembly in a coherent and efficient manner of actions and decisions that support the choice of the ways and means that have to be implemented, and the proper allocation of all resources necessary for the partial or total destruction / overcoming of the competition."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"It goes without saying that a strategy is multi-faceted, and there is not one universal strategy that is there for everyone to replicate. Instead there exists a mosaic of all possibilities and many ways how these are adapted to the myriad of situations that present themselves or are orchestrated to elaborate particular strategies."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"In elaborating a strategy, Strengths are built upon, Weaknesses are addressed, Opportunities are exploited and Threats are nipped in the bud or extinguished."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"A good strategy has three basic purposes; 1. It must be a record of analysis, so that the logic behind every action can be checked. This is precisely because the strategy has to be feasible, consistent and show likely consequences. 2. It should show soundness of approach so that one can visualize how specific actions go from one to another in a flowing manner. 3."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"It must be able to attract empathy, sympathy and support from other stakeholders so that the end result or impact is achieved cost-effectively."},{"index":9,"size":311,"text":"Marketing on the other hand is the whole business seen from the point of view of the customer/ consumer. (Peter Drucker). Marketing involves the exchange of value for value and therefore there has to be a buyer, a seller and the product (goods, services or ideas) at an agreed exchange or perceived value. To be able to satisfy needs and wants of the buyers and sellers it is imperative for one to understand that buyers pay for benefits that products have: These are SAFETY, PERFORMANCE, APPEAL, COMFORT, ECONOMY and DURABILITY. The marketing environment (socio-political) must enable certain factors to be operative for a good market to exist. At least seven items need to be mastered for a good market to exist are: (4Ps) Product, Place, Promotion, Price, and (2Cs) Customers and Competition, and Risk management. Successful marketing operations are those that are effective at rendering customer satisfaction and achieving competitive advantage; they are also those who concomitantly excel in efficiently allocating resources and integrating their functional actions. Good marketing is doing the right thing so excellently that the customer can come to you and say 'That is great. I am satisfied with your product!' Doing the right thing excellently, the first time and all the time for the customer is efficient marketing. Therefore the most important internal asset of an organization is its human resource, while the most important external asset is its customers. To implement any strategy one needs a complement of highly motivated staff that goes to efficiently service the customer base, defend the market share and grow the business. That way profits and other benefits begin to be realized sustainably. The human resource must be right if the best strategy is to get off the drawing board. Execution or best implementation is thus attained if the human resource is fit for the job. The reverse is also true."},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"Every successful enterprise elaborating a marketing strategy is well advised to have some unique qualities and merits. A closer look at, and study of, the major success stories the world over have revealed these handy tools as they are herebelow described and there is no earthly reason why they should not work for you."},{"index":11,"size":153,"text":"1. There is Visibility. 'Seeing' is believing; Enterprises, which invest in visibility, are considered serious and are, so to speak, announcing their intentions to any or all doubting Thomases their capacity to perform a good job or to fight the good fight! In any case there is the adage that the apparel proclaims the man! If you want to be portrayed as a royal you must dress like a king, and a king who does not dress like a royal will be considered a fluke. Is it not true that a candle should never be covered by a basket? To be visible to both your customers (to inspire confidence in them), and to the competition (to create in them the fear of the Lord) is a smart move. This is achieved through presence and such items as uniforms and other apparel, advertisements of visual nature like television, printed materials, billboards, banners, packaging etc."},{"index":12,"size":148,"text":"2. A good warrior must remain in a permanent state of urgency. This allows the strategy to keep on course without losing its steam. An enterprise should therefore take a stance that her enemies (the competition) are wide-awake even in the dead of the night, all the year round to maintain and exceed a competitive edge. The motto for Scouts of \"Always Be Prepared\" is spot on. This helps to avoid the so-called ambushes that have wrecked havoc on not so few organizations that are found napping. The urgency in an enterprise is to be found at all stages of its operations, beginning with the time 'Think Tanks' are employed in the elaboration of the strategy and a vision is pronounced, the mission declared, the purpose internalized and the objectives stated to the stage of implementing and execution of the activities to achieve results and attain organizational goals."},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"From the Expert: Strategic Marketing"},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"Notes on Strategic Marketing (cont'd)"},{"index":15,"size":5,"text":"Caption describing picture or graphic."},{"index":16,"size":28,"text":"The stated objectives must be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-bound. Efficiency (doing the right thing right, the first time and all the time) makes the whole difference."},{"index":17,"size":41,"text":"Being busy per se is easy. You only need to be busy, expend precious energy, but have no work done! A permanent state of urgency also entails efficiency. This calls for support supervision, monitoring and evaluation including operational research and feedback."},{"index":18,"size":145,"text":"3. There is the need to seek and acquire continuous feedback on what is being planned and implemented. This serves as a safety valve or audit trail for the whole system. All situations are temporary and the only permanent constant is change. An enterprise must have the means of adapting to sudden changes or else it dies. It is NOT enough to manage change! The strategy should include actions that orchestrate change. That way the competition is left to cope with the new situation on the ground or perish. A robust system of monitoring and evaluation must be operative at all levels of the strategy. This can be conducted by in-house human resource or by hired hands. The acquisition of information or research matter for the enterprise can be passive or active; Overt or covert. It is wise to use all these ways and means."},{"index":19,"size":102,"text":"4. A good warrior should be able to induce a generic effect. This means that other stakeholders can be inspired to copy and apply the example you have set. What may have began as a small idea snowballs into something to reckon with, and with wide ranging generic effects. From then on the warrior has a fifth column in areas not yet reached physically. This translates into reduced costs and effort. Examples of inducing a generic effect include the use of advocacy (Information, Education and Communication), pedagogy, oratory, and networking with stakeholders, advertising and publicity, investing in public affairs and personnel relations."},{"index":20,"size":123,"text":"5. It is imperative that a good warrior enterprise should have an Identity Mark that sets her from the rest or stand apart from the crowd. This feature helps you to get noticed and not to be confused with fakes, copies or clones. In the business world there will always be those whose strategy is to fool the unsuspecting customers to buy that which is not up to specifications of the real thing. An identification mark should preferably be backed by the force of law to significantly reduce these craftsmen to manageable level. It is advisable to Gazette such Identity Mark. This Identity Mark also reduces the hassle the customers would have to go through to easily identify and get what they want."},{"index":21,"size":14,"text":"6. There is the fact that the price of your products must be protected."},{"index":22,"size":77,"text":"Prices have to be protected if profits are to be realized. The shareholders will always expect to enhance the worth of their investments. The revenue generated from the operations should always soar above the costs, in order for a reasonable return on investment to be realized. Price is a major compliment of the revenue in any serious organization. The real dan-ger of a price war is mutually assured destruction! It should therefore be avoided like the plague."},{"index":23,"size":98,"text":"7. The marketing strategist should erect barriers (against competition) at the entry into the market place, while reserving for self exit strategies! It is a necessity that once a competitive advantage has been obtained it should be protected, kept and where possible enhanced. These barriers can take the form of legal framework e.g. exclusivity clauses, physical placements or even cartels. Buy-outs, hostile takeovers, some mergers and conglomerates are some of the business examples where the winner wants to keep out the competition. Alternatively, you help the competition to exit the market place. The end result is the same."}]},{"head":"It is well advised to have moral superiority over your competition","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"If you can position yourself as morally superior to the competition you will have a field day in the market place. A well functioning public affairs and personnel relations department will deliver this much sought-after goodie. Goodies will also come with prestigious research and development of your products (or a meticulous application of the copy and apply stratagem); and a customer friendly human resource supporting these products auger well in establishing moral superiority. It translates into credibility and trust that a quality service will be dispensed at a moment's notice. The marketing function will have to determine the market segment and target market which currently utilize the product and decide how to operate and when to do so. Once this target market is defined the activities of penetrating it (or excluding others from it) can then be elaborated and implemented. Various strategies focusing on market share and return on investment can then be put into action to achieve measurable results."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"The mode of product manufacture and fabrication provide a fertile ground for research and development. This will reveal the technological level reached and the capacity of change or the lack of it. High levels of technological advancement will place a major hurdle for those with lower levels. The history of the spear and gunpowder is clear testimony of what happens when low tech and high tech systems meet for a clash."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Once a product is manufactured it should reach where it is required to satisfy customer needs. This calls for an efficient distribution system that includes a robust network of distributors and agents, a functional supply chain management system and a concerted promotional campaign. While excellent promotion brings the people to the products, an efficient delivery and distribution system brings the products to the people (Logistics of the supply chain e.g. storage, packaging and shipping)."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"The volume of purchases is another area marketing research should encompass in order to achieve development of a market segment or niche. This is because revenue is a function of volume of purchases, and turnover and rate of turnover are significant determinants of the robustness of an enterprise. Different pack sizes will yield different rates of turnover. For example because of low purchasing power of the customer a small pack size may be amenable to his pocket and allow him to be captured among the customer base. Similarly, more distributors can be accessed if their aggregate level of purchases does not expose the enterprise to un-necessary risk. The reverse is true for those who do not have the capacity to maneuver."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"The nature and composition of the clientele should be given serious consideration when conducting research and developing new products or finding new uses for existing products. It is important that cognizance be made of the different buying behavior of the different age groups, social strata, and socio-cultural setups among the clientele. Peer pressure has long been recognized as an important element in behavior change. So is the sense of belonging that is important for nation formation and building. This survey should also reveal the people with the final decision to buy; the people who are lobbyists and assist in influencing the decision to buy; and the so-called \"china eggs\" with no capacity whatsoever of ever delivering any results."},{"index":6,"size":77,"text":"Knowing the nature and composition of the clientele is one thing. Locating them by geographical or spatial distribution is another equally important function of any serious R&D effort of a marketing nature. This will lead to their identification, isolation and then looking for the best means of delivering to them the goods and services. This is what is referred to, in political speak, as getting nearer to the people or being able to work at the grassroots."},{"index":7,"size":195,"text":"The product itself should merit serious attention when it comes to R&D efforts. Indeed many people associate most R&D matters to the product attributes. The position of the product in the matrix of product portfolio is of utmost importance, precisely because without knowing this one merely helps the competition to devour that product and it has led many enterprises to collapse without trace. The results of the research in this area will reveal whether the product is a cash cow, rising star, question mark or dead weight of the enterprise. Arising from this will be decisions of milking the product in case it is a cash cow; investing in the product in case of a rising star; further development or wait and see for the question mark product; and outright divestiture for the dead weight product. Analysis of data from marketing research will guide an enterprise on whether or not to proliferate the products in a particular niche or to do selective branding and promotion. Whereas a description has been made for one product, the same logic is applicable to a range of one product (e.g. different packs, or different dosages) or several of them."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"These are the different types of Enterprises existing in everyday life:"},{"index":9,"size":65,"text":"• Those that do not understand what is happening around • Those that demand to know what is happening • Those that contemplate on the events that happen • Those that understand the events happening • Those that provoke the events that happen It is now up to you to choose where you belong, and where you aspire to move! Notes on Strategic Marketing (cont'd)"},{"index":10,"size":266,"text":"cium intakes may reduce high levels of bad cholesterol in the blood, and increase low levels of good cholesterol both of which are known risk factors for cardiovascular disease. 4. Reduced obesity. Contrary to popular belief people who consume milk and dairy foods are likely to be slimmer than those who do not. 5. Reduced Type 2 diabetes. Regular consumption of low fat dairy products can help to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes, which has been a long standing problem in adults, and is becoming increasingly common in children and adolescents. It is thought that this effect may be due to the combined effects of many beneficial nutrients found 6. Reduced risk of cancer. Increased intake of milk has a protective effect on risk of both colorectal and breast cancer. Calcium and a naturally occurring fat in dairy products known as Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) have been suggested as protective components in colon cancer. 7. Hydration. In order to remain adequately hydrated, it is recommended that we consume 6-8 cups of fluid each day. Milk is an excellent choice of fluid as it not only re-hydrates the body, but provides a host of beneficial nutrients and protects the teeth at the same time! The efficient production and harvest of high quality milk is the goal of most dairy farmers. High quality milk is visually appealing, free of adulteration and meets specific quality standards for somatic cell count (SCC), and bacteria. Producers of high quality milk know that a consistent method of pre-milking udder hygiene and the uniform attachment of properly milking methods are important."},{"index":11,"size":59,"text":"According to History, cows being milked were recorded as far back as 9000 B.C. In Uganda, cattle keeping has been a crucial activity for some communities and milk has played a big role in the diets of people. But of course there has been and there are problems in producing good quality milk at all levels of value chain."},{"index":12,"size":56,"text":"Production of high quality milk is the concern of almost all people, whether they are the direct consumers of the dairy products or they derive a living from the dairy industry through direct employment or otherwise. Distributors -large and retail, milk and milk product processors, dairy cooperatives, state regulatory departments, veterinarians, and dairymen are all concerned."},{"index":13,"size":69,"text":"Over the years, modern technology has rectified some of milk quality problems and today a wide array of safe, wholesome dairy products are available for consumers. However, some of these are still not yet guaranteed for the local consumers due to lack of equipment/facilities and the technical know-how. It is for such reason that EADD is promoting products and services that are aimed at ensuring high milk quality production."},{"index":14,"size":12,"text":"EADD conducts training on Milk Production, Handling and Quality Did You Know............?"},{"index":15,"size":8,"text":"By Beatrice Bamulesewa Nabwire, M&E/Information Officer, EADD Uganda"},{"index":16,"size":82,"text":"Dairy foods are naturally nutrient-rich providing many essential and non-essential nutrients. Including dairy foods in your diet contributes greatly to your nutritional intake, health and status. Milk is one of the most nutritionally complete foods. It is a naturally good provider of essential nutrients, vitamins and minerals for growth, development and maintenance of the body. Relatively small quantities of milk can provide a significant proportion of daily nutrient requirements for all age groups making it nutrient rich relative to its energy content."},{"index":17,"size":18,"text":"In addition to its contribution to nutrient intake, increased milk consumption is also linked numerous health benefits including:"},{"index":18,"size":28,"text":"1. Healthy bone and teeth. Milk and dairy products are providers of calcium, phosphorous, magnesium and protein, are all essential for healthy bone and teeth growth and development."},{"index":19,"size":37,"text":"2. Reduced high blood pressure. Consuming 2 portions of dairy each day, along with 5 portions of fruit and vegetables as part of a low salt diet can reduce high blood pressure in both adults and children. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"A cross section of participants attending a mobilization meeting in Kiboga I S S U E 2 Local exchange visit organized for farmers By John Musisi, Organization Development Coordinator, EADD Uganda HPI-EADD organized a local study visit from 23 rd -26 th February 2009 for 36 farmers selected from Luweero, Kiboga and BUBUSI cooperative societies to tour successful dairy farmer groups and model farmers in Masaka district. The farmers visited Masaka Diocesan Development Organization (MADDO) "},{"text":"1. Once you decide to do something, start right away and do it with determination, never giving up 2. Always believe that you will succeed 3. Share your achievements and or knowledge with others 4. Put your trust in God and dedicate yourself to Him. Don't be discouraged by what others say 5. Start with whatever you have and improve it later "},{"text":" Farmers were also able to learn how the Kinangop Dairy Company Ltd expanded to form other businesses which include: Muki Farmers' Co-operative Society; Muki Savings & Credit Co-operative Society Ltd; and Muki Investment Co-operative Society and how all the four societies are managed separately but with a common board members and administration At Muki Farmers' Co-operative Society, farmers gained more experience in dairy cooperatives, milk transportation, and business Development Services (BDS) access. The farmers also learnt about the other businesses owned and run by Muki Farmers' Co-operative Society including; Muki Savings & Credit Co-operative Society Ltd which has 3 sections; Front Office Savings Activities (FOSA)offering competitive banking services to members and non -members; Savings & Loans -offering savings and business loan services and Microfinance -offering small loans to farmer groups. Muki Investment Co-operative Society, is also owned by farmers through buying of shares. It bought tractors to transport milk from distant places and also constructed a building to offer rent services to Muki farmers' coop and Muki savings and credit coop plus other tenants Farmers' visit to Nyara Dairy farmers Coop "},{"text":"Farmers Animal Health Providers By Dr. Bisagaya Allan, Livestock Specialist, EADD Uganda The East Africa Dairy Development (EADD) Uganda is working with Dairy Farmers' Business Associations (DFBAs)/ Cooperative societies to enhance provision of Animal Healthcare services with the aim of sustaining production and quality of milk through improved animal health care, breeding and nutrition in order to achieve the project goal of transforming the lives of 45,000 families by doubling their household dairy incomes through integrated interventions in dairy production. In November 2008, EADD Uganda organized a 4 days residential training workshop in Animal Health and breeding that attracted Animal Health Providers (AHPs) from the EADD project area. The training was aimed at refreshing knowledge on Animal Health and Breeding in the context of EADD, establishing foster linkages through a network of AHPs who offer routine animal health services including Artificial Insemination (AI), simple emergency services that improve milk monitoring & quality practices, and enhancing the role of AHPs in providing on-farm checks for milk quality assurance to improve the quality of milk provided to Chilling Plants and processing centers. The training was co-facilitated by staff from EADD, National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) and Regulatory staff from the Dairy Development Authority (DDA). "},{"text":" Uganda will seek opportunities of working and fostering linkages with other development partners like NGOs (Send A Cow, Uganda-SAC-U & World Vision), Production Departments of the Local Governments including National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) who have farmer groups that can be encouraged by the AHPs to join the DFBAs near them and enjoy the benefits of cooperative movement while increasing their clientele base. Participants during AHP training EADD Uganda trains Farmer Trainers By Beatrice Bamulesewa Nabwire, M&E/Information Officer, EADD Uganda HPI -EADD Uganda is working to organize and strengthen 45,000 farmer families to effectively manage dairy businesses. In relation to this, a number of activities are being implemented including supporting farmers to form register, and strengthen Dairy Farmers' Business Associations (DFBAs)/ Cooperative societies, engaging and training farmers in group dynamics and governance, engaging and training the youth and women, as well as making sure that women and youth participate in leadership positions. As one of the strategies to reach and involve more farmers in the EADD project activities, a number of Trainers of Trainers (ToTs) were identified and trained in group dynamics and governance skills. It is expected that each ToT will reach out on average to about 50 farmers by sensitizing and mobilizing them in the various project areas. The ToTs will A cross section of participants during a ToT training in MADDO IICRAF Dissemination Facilitators hold annual workshop By Jane Kugonza, Dissemination Facilitator, EADD Uganda ICRAF technical staff from Rwanda, Uganda and Kenya who are involved in EADD implementation held their first annual workshop on 20-23rd January in Kampala. The purpose of the workshop was to review 2008 field activities and map the way forward in ICRAF's mandate. ICRAF, as one the implementing partners of EADD is responsible for promoting the adoption of high value fodder/ feeds for increased milk production. The workshop involved identifying challenges and constraints, planning and strategizing for 2009 and celebrating the 2008 achievements which include: Completion of reconnaissance survey which identified the main problems faced by farmers and possible solutions; Completion of the stakeholders inventory scope of work, dissemination role in EADD and the support they require; Training of 262 volunteer farmer trainers and Establishment of 198 demonstrations in the three countries Participants agreed on the activity plans for 2009 to include training of farmer trainers, monitoring and expansion of demonstration plots, facilitating adoption of high value feed, production of IEC and training materials, and conducting research on feeding systems and dissemination pathways. "},{"text":"A demonstration plot of Mucuna and calliandra belonging to Mr. Edward Munyira in Mukono District Workshop participants outside Ridar Hotel in Mukono, Uganda EADD-Uganda; The Way I See It…... E A D D U G A N DA N E W S L E T T E R EADD-Uganda; The Way I See It…... "},{"text":"• A.I training of fresh inseminators still faces a major challenge. Training and certification in artificial insemination course has traditionally been carried out by the government's parastatal, NAGRC & DB. EADD Uganda is trying as much as possible to work with the Makerere University's Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in lobbying for the training and accreditation of AI technicians. "},{"text":" Source:The Dairy Council; http://www.milk.co.uk/page.aspx?intPageID=73EADD Uganda conducts milk quality training workshopBy Alexis Carboni Mugabi, Business Advisor, EADD Uganda "},{"text":" 3. Reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. High cal-Participants during the milk quality training workshop One of the participants demonstrates how an alcohol works to test for milk quality during the milk quality training workshop E A D D U G A N DA N E W S L E T T E R Dairy Facts "},{"text":" About the East Africa Dairy Development Project (EADD)  "},{"text":" Artificial Insemination for Improved Animal breedsThrough EADD Uganda Cows continue to get pregnant again and again……... ABS-TCM is at the fore front of making sure that the productivity of cows increases and is sustained in EADD. ABS-TCM is providing improved animal genetics through the use of artificial insemination (AI) plus other related services. Since June 2008, over 2,000 artificial inseminations have been realized in EADD Uganda project areas. Other activities implemented during this period include among others: identifying and training more AI technicians, equipping the technicians and other service providers with AI kits, setting up and backstopping AI centers, AI farmer sensitization meetings, selling AI straws and distribution of Liquid Nitrogen. SHORT NAME CODE PARENTAGE PTA MILK+ Calving Ease (%) Litres/305 days M + Breed Average Ltrs/day EADD SEMEN STRAW PRICE (UGX) SHORT NAME CODEPARENTAGEPTA MILK+Calving Ease (%)Litres/305 daysM + Breed Average Ltrs/dayEADD SEMEN STRAW PRICE (UGX) HOLSTEIN        HOLSTEIN Fearless-ET 29HO11413 Magna-ET x Faith 1498 9 11,562.73 37.91 8,500.00 Fearless-ET29HO11413 Magna-ET x Faith1498911,562.7337.918,500.00   Decision-ET x      Decision-ET x Hess-ET 29HO10241 Hush-ET 959 6 11,317.73 37.11 8,000.00 Hess-ET29HO10241Hush-ET959611,317.7337.118,000.00   Hunter Orion x Abi-      Hunter Orion x Abi- Accent-ET 29HO11054 lene 757 8 11,225.91 36.81 8,000.00 Accent-ET29HO11054lene757811,225.9136.818,000.00   Elton Duraham-ET x      Elton Duraham-ET x Shockey 29H011430 Stormcathy -89 8 10,841.36 35.55 7,500.00 Shockey29H011430Stormcathy-89810,841.3635.557,500.00   Addison-ET x Flor-      Addison-ET x Flor-   ence-ET      ence-ET Treasure-ET 29HO10717  398 10 11,062.73 36.27 7,500.00 Treasure-ET29HO107173981011,062.7336.277,500.00 JERSEY        JERSEY Gunner-ET 29JE3274 Lemvig x Barber-ET 185  7,268.64 23.83 7,500.00 Gunner-ET29JE3274 Lemvig x Barber-ET1857,268.6423.837,500.00 Napoleon-P 29JE3277 Declo x Nora-P 346  7,341.82 24.07 8,000.00 Napoleon-P29JE3277 Declo x Nora-P3467,341.8224.078,000.00 AYRSHIRE        AYRSHIRE   Pardner-ET x J. Bon-      Pardner-ET x J. Bon- Baltimore 29AY7649 nie 255  7,852.73 25.75 8,000.00 Baltimore29AY7649nie2557,852.7325.758,000.00 GUERNSEY        GUERNSEY Delta 94GU0951 Royal x Tom Dee 261  7,503.43 24.6 7,500.00 Delta94GU0951 Royal x Tom Dee2617,503.4324.67,500.00 Breed Averages (02/05): Holstein (lb) 23,940; Ayrshire 17,021; Guernsey 16,433; Jersey 15,806   Breed Averages (02/05): Holstein (lb) 23,940; Ayrshire 17,021; Guernsey 16,433; Jersey 15,806 Last Updated October 20, 2008      Last Updated October 20, 2008  "},{"text":" Others have added, \"Copy and Apply\" as well, to avoid re-inventing the wheel).The following paragraphs describe tested and proved areas a strategist should consider when confronting the competition, and for attaining the competitive edge that is crucial for the success of an enterprise. If you know the competition and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred marketing battles. If you know yourself but not the competition, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the competition nor yourself, you will succumb in every battle. The level of strength or weakness at each level will determine whether you have an opportunity or there is a threat being posed. Research and Development budgets have been increasing for successful enterprises the world over and it is now no longer a question of whether or not to conduct R&D, but rather when and how. Below is the list of what to do R&D on and where, in an atmosphere of a business setup. AN ENTERPRISE SHOULD INVEST IN RESEARCH AN ENTERPRISE SHOULD INVEST IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN ORDER TO KEEP COM- AND DEVELOPMENT IN ORDER TO KEEP COM- PETITIVE. ( PETITIVE. ( 9. A warrior has to fight with full conviction and de- 9. A warrior has to fight with full conviction and de- rive pleasure out of it. rive pleasure out of it. Derive pleasure from a fight? Yes, indeed, if you are fighting Derive pleasure from a fight? Yes, indeed, if you are fighting what you believe is a good fight. It is the fight in the dog, and what you believe is a good fight. It is the fight in the dog, and NOT the dog in the fight! This calls for internalizing the mis- NOT the dog in the fight! This calls for internalizing the mis- sion, purpose and objectives of the enterprise. It is at this level sion, purpose and objectives of the enterprise. It is at this level of commitment that innovations and creative inventions are of commitment that innovations and creative inventions are elaborated and implemented. For the sake of pleasure, nothing elaborated and implemented. For the sake of pleasure, nothing can stop you save for dropping dead! The work of morale can stop you save for dropping dead! The work of morale boosters is hereby noted. Four examples will suffice to illus- boosters is hereby noted. Four examples will suffice to illus- trate this point: trate this point: 'The Struggle continues. The Victory is ours. We stand 'The Struggle continues. The Victory is ours. We stand to lose nothing, but our chains', (by Mao Tse Tung the to lose nothing, but our chains', (by Mao Tse Tung the Chinese). Chinese). 'We want War; either we win or they lose'. (Makerere 'We want War; either we win or they lose'. (Makerere University students) University students) 'I love this game,' (CNN advert for Basketball enthusiasts) 'I love this game,' (CNN advert for Basketball enthusiasts) And And 'Image is nothing, Obey your thirst!' (Coca Cola advert). 'Image is nothing, Obey your thirst!' (Coca Cola advert). (Continued on next page) (Continued on next page)  "}],"sieverID":"50235a2d-d42d-4bb6-8e0b-05fc86f1a8e6","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06b285dff698f6edaad51414faac4c2c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/45440a08-4b9e-44b0-8d91-f62beda5e946/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Storage Insects on Yam Chips and Their Traditional Management in Northern Benin","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"In economic terms, yams (Dioscorea spp.) are the world's fourth most important tuber crop after potatoes, cassava, and sweet potatoes [1]. They are cultivated in most tropical countries but especially in West Africa, where over 95% of the world's output is produced [1,2]. They are the main source of carbohydrate for millions of people. In West Africa, many yam species are cultivated but the African domesticates known as the Guinea yams (D. cayenensis Lam.-D. rotundata Poir. complex) are, however, the most important, most preferred, and widely planted [3]."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"In Benin, the fourth yam-producing country behind Nigeria, Ivory Coast, and Ghana, yam is among the most important food crops [1] and has economic and sociocultural importance [4]. Yam is seasonal and the fresh tubers are highly perishable. Postharvest losses are very high, ranging from 30% to 85% of the total production [4]. In order to overcome this high perishability of the tubers and the irregularity of its availability throughout the year, yams are traditionally processed into dried chips or cossettes [5][6][7], hence reinforcing food security [7]. Unfortunately, yam chips are often severely attacked by insects, which sometimes reduce whole yam stocks into powder in very few months [8,9]. Very little 2"},{"index":3,"size":268,"text":"The Scientific World Journal research attention has been given to storage insects attack on yam chips and traditional management practices in Benin. Gnonlonfin et al. [10] reported the existence of many species of insects but focused their study mainly on their population's dynamics in stored yams chips. Consequently, the diversity of the insect species in the yam chips producing zone is still unknown, and farmers' perception of the importance of insect damages in the stocks has never been assessed. Traditional management practices (including the storage structures) used to prevent or control insect infestations have also not been documented. Yam chips are produced from tubers of single-harvest varieties, locally known as \"Kokoro\" characterized by their numerous small-sized tubers. Within Kokoro yams, many varieties of different agronomic and technological characteristics exist [11] but the yam chips producers' variety preference or selection criteria have never been studied. Knowledge of farmers' selection criteria will be useful in designing concrete breeding programmes that could facilitate the adoption of improved varieties [12]. We report in this paper a survey conducted in the most important yam chips producing zone of Benin in order to (i) identify and prioritise the constraints related to the production of yam chips in Benin and farmers' propositions for overcoming these constraints, (ii) document farmers' perceptions about insect pests on stored yam chips and traditional management practices, (iii) assess the diversity and the importance of the storage insects species in the most important yam chips production zone of Benin, (iv) Identify and prioritize the producers' variety preference or selection criteria across study zones and ethnic groups for popularization and breeding purposes."}]},{"head":"Material and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Area.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"The study was conducted in five districts (Djougou, Copargo, Ouaké, Bassila, and Tchaourou) of the Departments of Donga and Borgou in northern Benin. These districts are known to be the major yam chips production zones of Benin [11,13]. The inhabitants are members of seven ethnic groups (Figure 1; Table 1) (Ani, Bariba, Lokpa, Nago, Peulh, Taneka, and Yom) and have a very long tradition in processing Kokoro yam tubers into chips or cossettes (Figure 2). The departments of Donga and Borgou are located in a semiarid agroecological zone characterized by unpredictable and irregular rainfall (800-1300 mm/year) with only one rainy season (May to October) and a dry season lasting for more than 5 months sometimes [14]. Mean annual temperatures range from 26 ∘ C to 28 ∘ C and may exceptionally reach 35 ∘ C [15,16]. Yam production in this area is intensive and essentially based on Kokoro yams [13], which have very variable yields from one season to another due to climatic hazards [13]."}]},{"head":"Site Selection and Survey.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Twenty-five villages (Table 1; Figure 1) were randomly selected throughout the study area and its ethnic zones for the survey. Data were collected from the different sites during expeditions through the application of Participatory Research Appraisal tools and techniques such as granary visits, direct observation, focus group discussions, and individual interviews using a questionnaire and the help of translators from each area following Dansi et al. [12]."},{"index":2,"size":292,"text":"In each site, local farmers' associations were involved in the study to facilitate the identification of the households to survey and the data collection. Within villages, 10 to 12 households were randomly selected for individual interviews using the transect method described by Dansi et al. [17]. In each household, the interviewee (head of household or his wife or one of his wives in case of polygamy) was selected by mutual agreement with the hosting couple according to Christinck et al. [18]. Apart from the socioeconomic data such as age, gender, and educational level of the interviewees, data collected included the farmers' perceptions of the constraints of yam chips production, the cossette storage structures and practices, the importance of damages caused by insects, the time of the infestation, the farmers' knowledge of the insect species, the traditional management practices on the infested stocks, and the farmers' preference criteria of kokoro varieties used in the production of the chips. Preference criteria of kokoro varieties were identified and prioritized using the matrix scoring technique described by Defoer et al. [19], Adoukonou-Sagbadja et al. [20], and Dansi et al. [12]. In each village, samples (500 g) of infested yam chips were collected directly from two to three randomly selected yam chips storage structures following Mendesil et al. [21] and Koradaa et al. [22]. Initial weights of the samples to be collected were taken using the numerical balance (model SF-400). Infested samples collected were preserved in plastic containers with perforated lids to allow for ventilation. With the aid of a plant taxonomist at the national herbarium of the University of Abomey-Calavi, insecticides and/or insect repulsive plants  used in processing reported by interviewees we sampled and their scientific names were determined using the analytical flora of Benin [16]."}]},{"head":"Incubation of the Samples and Isolation and Identification","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"of the Insects. The labeled plastic containers containing the samples of the infested chips were incubated for three months under laboratory conditions at temperature of 25-27 ∘ C and 70%-80% relative humidity, following the method described by Eze et al. [23]. After the incubation period, the samples were broken into particles of less than 0.5 cm using a hand mortar and the insects were recovered through a 0.25 mm nylon net sieve [24]. Recovered insects were counted and conserved in a flask containing 70% alcohol for safeguarding and identification. Species' identification was done at the Biodiversity Center of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA-Benin)."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Data were analyzed through descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, etc.) to generate summaries and tables at different (villages, individuals) levels using SAS software [25]."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Characteristics of the Respondents.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The respondents were in majority (98%) women. Sixty-three (63%) are illiterate and 47% attended primary school only. Their ages varied from 17 to 60 years with an average of 37 years. In all the households surveyed, yam chips were produced for either home consumption and for the market (95.2% of the respondents) or for home consumption only (4.8%)."}]},{"head":"Constraints of Yam Chips","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Production. Six constraints (Table 2) related to yam chips production in Benin were recorded. They were all directly or indirectly linked to the storage of the chips. Among them, damages due to storage insects were the most important (63.9% of responses), followed by insufficiency of insect-resistant varieties (16.7% of responses) and the lack of natural human health preserving insecticides (10.2% of responses). The other three constraints (lack of organised markets, low availability of fresh kokoro yam tubers, and the lack of appropriate and specific storage structures) were of very low importance (only 1.1% to 4.5% of responses). The majority of the yam chips producers (72.12%) estimated at 40%-60% the importance of the damage caused by the storage insects on the yam ships (Figure 2(a)). This however depends on the variety used, the conservation structure and the drying level of the chips."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"For the great majority (92.94%) of the respondents, the infestation of the cossettes in stock occurred during the first two months (Figure 2(b)). In order to minimize these constraints, yam chips producers proposed six key solutions (Table 3) including diversification of good storage insectresistant kokoro yam (30.2% of responses), development of a natural human health preserving insecticides (24.2% of responses), enhancement of the production of kokoro yam (21.2% of responses), and development of fast drying areas for the yam chips (19.5% of responses)."}]},{"head":"Farmers' Knowledge of the Insect Pests Damaging Yam","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Chips in Stocks and Diversity Assessment. In the study area, all the storage insects were traditionally classified in a single group named Benonkpé in Ani, Kokolibo in Nago, Doridji in Peulh, Gbénénoukokonou in Bariba, Dresse in Yom, and Poucasse in Lokpa and Taneka. All these six vernacular names literally mean beetles. Farmers reported that these beetles act by penetrating the chips and drastically reducing their internal parts into powdery waste (Figure 3). Although interviewees recognized storage insects as major constraint in yam chips production, only 47% of them were able to differentiate some species. The few respondents who attempted to identify yam chips insect pests based their identification mainly on the colour (45.12% of responses) and the relative size (32.18% of responses) of the insects and on the symptoms of the damage they caused (22.7% of responses)."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"The diversity analysis conducted on the total of 78 samples collected and incubated revealed 12 species of insects belonging to four orders (Table 3) which are Coleoptera  (eight species), Hemiptera (two species), Hymenoptera (one species), and Psocoptera (undetermined species). Species of the order of Coleoptera were the most numerous and the most represented in the samples. On average 223 insects of the order Coleoptera were counted by 500 g of yam chips against 11.4 for all the other orders put together (Table 4). Among the species identified Dinoderus porcellus Lesne was the most represented. It was found in 97.44% of the collected samples and was also the most abundant in all the samples in which it was found (Table 4). This was followed by the species Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), detected in 52.56% of the samples (Table 4). The other species were found in only 2 to 10 samples out of the 78 samples collected and in Xylocoris flavipes was found in 12.82% of the samples and appeared to be the most abundant predator."}]},{"head":"Traditional Yam Chips Storage Systems and Duration of the Conservation.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"In all the households surveyed, yam chips were stored inside houses and rooms in various containers. The great majority (97.77%) of producers used maize bags (made with synthetic materials) of various sizes as containers, depending on the quantity of chips to be conserved. Only few producers (2.23%) preferred to store in large-sized and hermetically closed plastic buckets, jars, or barrels to prevent insect infestations. No specific structure was dedicated to storage of yam chips. Interviewees reported that storage period varied from 1 to 13 months with an average of 8 months. For 49.82%, 31.97%, and 18.21% of the respondents, storage duration of yam chips varied between 1 and 5 months, 5 and 10 months, and 10 and 15 months, respectively."}]},{"head":"Traditional Control Systems of Yam Chips Storage Insects","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":298,"text":"Pests. Under traditional storage conditions, interviewees used seven strategies to reduce losses due to insects (Table 5). Among those, the most important were regular inspection and exposure of chips to sunlight to repel insects (35.93% of responses), use of insect-resistant varieties (26.80% of responses), and use of insecticide and/or insect's repulsive plants during preparation (26.45% of responses). The other strategies such as shaking of the yam chips to remove insects along powdery waste, use of insecticides, treatment with pepper powder, and minimising frequent opening of storage structures to avoid entrance of the insects were poorly used (Table 5). According to interviewees, severely infested stocks of yam chips were sold (66.17% of responses), used for home consumption only (24.54% of responses), or simply thrown away (9.29% of responses). The study revealed that eight species of plant were used to prevent infestation of the yam chips or to control insect pests (Table 6). Among these species, three (Bridelia ferruginea, Blighia sapida, and Khaya senegalensis) were reported to be insecticide while four (Piliostigma thonningii, Lophira lanceolata, Tectona grandis, and Sorghum bicolor) were said to be dyes and insect repulsive (Table 6). Cassava leaves were also used during the parboiling to harden the chips. Piliostigma thonningii and Sorghum bicolor were known and used across all the ethnic groups while the other species apart from Tectona grandis were each used in only one ethnic group. The number and types of species of plants varied from one ethnic group to another. Yom and Peulh used only two species of plant, Lokpa and Ani used four species, and Nago used five. For the different plant species identified, the plant parts (leaves or bark) used, the application or treatment methods (infusion or fumigation), and the frequencies of utilization across ethnic groups are summarized in Table 6."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Throughout the study zone, 37 kokoro yam cultivars used to produce chips were listed as tolerant to storage insects. The number of cultivars reported varies across ethnic areas. Eight cultivars were reported with the Nago, Bariba, and Lokpa, The Scientific World Journal seven with the Yom, four with the Taneka, and only two with the Ani (Table 7). In each ethnic area, certain cultivars were more common. With the Nago ethnic group, Oguidigbo, Adakada, Tabané, and Omonya were the most important while with the Bariba ethnic group, the most listed cultivars were Otoukpannan, Tchakatchaka, and Yakanougo (Table 6)."}]},{"head":"Farmer's Preferences Criteria for Kokoro Yam Cultivars for","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"Chips Production. Throughout the study zone, kokoro yam cultivars, used for chips production, were selected among the existing diversity based on eight criteria. Among them, the quality of the paste made with the flour, the storage aptitude of the chips, and the quality of the Wassa-Wassa (local couscous made with yam chips' flour) were the most important and represent altogether 74.08% of the responses (Table 8). The number and importance of the criteria also varied across ethnic groups. With the Nago and the Peulh, storage aptitude was the most important criterion while with the other ethnic groups the quality of the paste came at the first position (Table 8). The quality of Wassa-Wassa, which was the third most important criterion among the Lokpa, Ani and Yom people, was not even mentioned by the Bariba people. Similarly, the fast drying quality of the cultivars, which was important to the Nago, the Taneka, and the Ani, was not listed among the Peulh people and had very low values with the other ethnic groups. While all the eight criteria were listed by the Lokpa ethnic group, all but one was recorded with the Taneka and the Yom and only four were identified with the Peulh (Table 8)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"The respondents were in majority women. This can be explained by the fact that in all ethnic groups of the study area, women were the sole processors of kokoro yam tubers into chips. The few males interviewed responded on behalf of their wives, who gave way to them out of respect. The culture of the people was also evident in the yam production system where tasks had been traditionally divided according to gender. Men were in charge of the most important activities in terms of labour requirements, while foods processing and transformation of the yam tubers into chips, among other activities, were devoted to women [4]. According to Bricas and Vernier [26], the commercialization of yam chips is by far more economically profitable than the one of fresh tubers. This could justify the importance that women in the study area gave to commercialization as a means of substantially improving their household income. Among the constraints related to yam chips production in the study area, damages caused by storage insects stood out as the most important. Similar results were reported by Osuji [27] and Adedire and Gbaye [28] in Nigeria. The importance of the damages raised by the respondents is key indicator of the urgent necessity to develop control strategies against the storage insects."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Sun drying of infested chips was the major method used by farmers to control these insect pests. This method, which is the oldest known technique of conservation of the agroalimentary products, also presents several disadvantages. Chalal et al. [29] reported that sun drying directly exposes the products to dust and to ultraviolet rays which can cause the deterioration of food vitamins. Among the solutions proposed by farmers were diversification of good storage insect-resistant kokoro yams and development of natural human health preserving insecticides. These two propositions, which call the attention of plant geneticist and breeders on one hand and industrial chemists on the other, indicate that producers are very concerned about their health. The numerous cases of food poisoning that were associated with the use of cotton insecticides on yam chips recorded these last years in the country and which led to the death of many persons may have contributed to this health consciousness. In Nigeria, Adedoyin et al. [30] and Adeleke [31] also reported poisoning due to the consumption of yam flour (treated with insecticide) in some families in Ilorin and Kano."},{"index":3,"size":398,"text":"Our study revealed that in the different samples of infested yam chips collected and analyzed, Dinoderus porcellus was the most represented. This species which is known to be mostly associated with dried yams [32] has already been reported as the most important pest of stored yam chips in Nigeria [27,28,32]. Dinoderus porcellus particularly infests well-dried chips [27,28]. Therefore, it is possible that the few samples, in which it was absent, were not well dried or had relatively higher moisture contents. The presence of Psocoptera spp., Carpophilus dimidiatus, and Carpophilus Binotatus in the samples without Dinoderus porcellus supports this hypothesis as they are known as insects associated with wet food products [33]. Tribolium castaneum and Psocoptera spp. were also found in not negligible number of the samples. The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, is a common and one of the most important stored product pests associated with a wide range of durable commodities (barley, bran, cacao, ginger, maize, millet, cassava chips, nutmeg, peanut, pepper, rice, sorghum, etc.) and food-processing facilities worldwide [34][35][36] were also found. Its presence in the samples examined is not surprising as it has already been reported by Vernier et al. [9], Soldati et al. [37], and Oni and Omoniyi [32]. In some yam chips samples collected outside our study area, Vernier et al. [9,38] and Gnonlonfin et al. [10] identified five other species which were not found in our studies. These included Dinoderus bifoveolatus (Wollaston), Palorus subdepressus (Wollaston), Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), C. quadricollis (Guérin-Méneville), Gnatocerus maxillosus (F.), and Prostephanus truncatus. In order to have an exhaustive list of all the stored-products insect pests associated with yam chips in Benin and map their geographical distribution, further studies need to be conducted by including the remaining part of the country. A good knowledge of the diversity of the species will be of great utility for the yam breeders who may like to select kokoro cultivars producing tubers that are tolerant to storage insect pests. For example, The Laboratory of Agricultural Biodiversity and Tropical Plant Breeding of the University of Abomey-Calavi (Benin) and the Global Crop Diversity Trust (Rome, Italy) are currently introducing yam chips technology to the arid zone of the department of Atakora (far northwest of Benin), where the environment is quite suitable for fast drying of the chips. To succeed, however, it will be necessary to reckon with kokoro cultivars tolerant to storage insect pests."},{"index":4,"size":204,"text":"To control insect pests and diseases in crops, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is recommended [39]. IPM promotes biological control based on the use of the natural enemies of pests (predators and parasitoids) and the genetic control through growing of pest and disease tolerant or resistant cultivars [40]. Among the natural enemies encountered in the infested yam chips, Xylocoris flavipes is known as an effective polyphagous predator of eggs, larvae and chrysalis of coleopteran insects [41]. This natural enemy is also a predator of larvae of T. castaneum [42] and is frequently associated with the insects of cereals stocks [43]. According to Helbig [44], X. flavipes has some interesting biological characteristics that make it a potential control agent of storage insect pests. Unfortunately, it was reported that X. flavipes only eliminates populations of small-sized insects, but not larger insects or insects with internal feeding such as D. porcellus [45]. A. biannulipes on the other hand (Montrouzier & Signoret) is known as a predator of the large-sized storage insect pests including L. serricorne (F.) and Tribolium castaneum [46][47][48]. A biological control program, combining these predators, will be useful in eliminating various types of insects and will help control the insect pests' complex associated with yam chips."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"It appeared from our study that yam chips producers also used diverse plants to protect chips against insect attacks. Phytochemical studies conducted by Dumaine et al. [49] revealed that none of the four plant species (L. lanceolata, T. grandis, P. thonningii, and B. ferruginea) used in the study areas has insecticidal or insect repulsing effects. However, Akinpelu and Obuotor [50] found that P. thonningii bark extract has a bactericidal activity which is also important for improving the sanitary conditions of the chips. Among the plants used, Blighia sapida, Bridelia ferruginea, and Khaya senegalensis are even believed, and rightly so, to have insecticide properties by the Nago, the Ani, and the Bariba people (Table 6). In fact, the bark extract of K. senegalensis has been"},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"The Scientific World Journal proved to be antifungal [51], antibacterial [52,53], and insect antifeedant [54]. Mitchell and Ahmad [55] reported that B. sapida has acaricide and insecticide properties. Similarly it has been shown that all the fruit components (skin, aril and granulates, oil) of this plant have repulsive properties against stock insects such as Callosobruchus maculatus, Cryptolestes ferrugineus, T. castaneum, and S. zeamais [55][56][57][58]. Experiments should be conducted to assess the effects of the extract of these three species on insect pests that damage stored yam chips."},{"index":7,"size":381,"text":"Chips producers reported that the importance of the damages is a function of the yam cultivars used and listed 37 kokoro yam landraces producing tubers rarely attacked by the storage insect pests. Due to the existence of numerous synonymies in farmer-named yam cultivars [11], these listed landraces may not all correspond to 37 different genotypes. Therefore, agromorphological characterization coupled with molecular analysis should be carried out to identify duplicates and establish the equivalence between recorded names following Tamiru et al. [59] and Kombo et al. [60]. Moreover, and as recommended by Vernier et al. [38], it will be also important to assess by a well-elaborated trial the effectiveness of the tolerance of the chips derived from the tubers of these varieties to storage insect pests. The use of resistant varieties remains the most economically profitable and the best healthy method of combating chips storage insect pests. Because of this, kokoro yams in the chips production zone should be strengthened with more high yielding cultivars that are suitable for chips and resistant to storage insect pests. According to Dansi et al. [11], such cultivars exist in the traditional agriculture and could be identified through participatory evaluation. Within the existing diversity, cultivars to be used for the chips are selected based on diverse criteria, among which those related to the quality of the foods (Wassa-Wassa; paste) made with the yam chips flour and the technological characteristics of the chips are the most important (66.66% of the responses). This result is expected because in Benin, chips are only made and used for food purposes. In the preference criteria identified, aspects related to conservation come in second position indicating that producers really give particular importance to insect damages. The variation of the preference criteria noted across ethnic groups is frequent and has been already reported in many crops such as cowpea [61], banana and plantain [62], maize [63], telf [64], sorghum [65], yam [11], and even fonio [12]. The fast drying criteria importantly raised by the Nago, the Taneka, and the Ani ethnic groups should be seriously considered as it influences the hygienic quality of the chips and their market value. Nago, Taneka, and Ani people mostly produced chips for economic purposes through commercialization. One understands therefore how important fast drying could be to them."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"This study has allowed us to identify several constraints that hamper yam chips production in northern Benin. Attacks by storage insects were the major constraints identified. Yam chips were infested by various insects, of which the most important was Dinoderus porcellus. Several plants are traditionally used to fight these insects. Following farmers' requests, efforts should be directed towards diversification of good kokoro cultivars which are tolerant to storage insects. In this framework and to identify such cultivars, we recommend the participatory evaluation of existing kokoro yam, the identification of duplicates, and clarification of synonymies and the assessment of the tolerance of the chips manufactured with tubers produced by the identified varieties."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Map of Benin showing the geographical position of the surveyed villages. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Farmers' perception of (a) storage loss due to stored yam chips insect pests, (b) the period of infestation of the yam chips. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Yam chips with insect infestation in Benin. "},{"text":"Table 1 : Administrative localisation of the ethnic areas and sites surveyed. N ∘ Ethnic areas Districts Number of sites Selected villages N ∘Ethnic areasDistrictsNumber of sitesSelected villages 1 Y o m D j o u g o u 6 D éwa, Alfapara, Pélébina, Mone, Gangamou, Dangoussar 1Y o mD j o u g o u6D éwa, Alfapara, Pélébina, Mone, Gangamou, Dangoussar 2 Lokpa Djougou 4 Ouarlgou, Yarakéou, Pohomto, Niagba-kabia 2LokpaDjougou4Ouarlgou, Yarakéou, Pohomto, Niagba-kabia 3 Ani Bassila 2 Penessoulou, Saramanga 3AniBassila2Penessoulou, Saramanga 4 Nago Bassila 7 Modogui, Ouanou, Papané, Agramarou, Koko, Agbassa, Wari-Maro 4NagoBassila7Modogui, Ouanou, Papané, Agramarou, Koko, Agbassa, Wari-Maro 5 Taneka Copargo 3 Kataban, Setrah, Foungou 5TanekaCopargo3Kataban, Setrah, Foungou 6 Bariba Tchaourou 2 Woria, Badékparou 6BaribaTchaourou2Woria, Badékparou 7 Peulh Tchaourou 1 Gakpenou 7PeulhTchaourou1Gakpenou  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Yam chips production constraints in Benin. Constraints Percentage of responses ConstraintsPercentage of responses Damages caused by storage insects 63.9 Damages caused by storage insects63.9 Insufficiency of insect-resistant varieties 16.7 Insufficiency of insect-resistant varieties16.7 Lack of natural human health preserving insecticides 10.2 Lack of natural human health preserving insecticides10.2 Lack of appropriate and specific storage structures 4.5 Lack of appropriate and specific storage structures4.5 Insufficient availability of fresh kokoro yam tubers 3.6 Insufficient availability of fresh kokoro yam tubers3.6 Lack of organised markets 1.1 Lack of organised markets1.1  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Solutions for the constraints and their importance as proposed by the interviewees in the study area. Solutions Importance (% of responses) SolutionsImportance (% of responses) Diversification of good storage insect-resistant kokoro yam 30.2 Diversification of good storage insect-resistant kokoro yam30.2 Development of a natural human health preserving insecticides 24.2 Development of a natural human health preserving insecticides24.2 Enhancement of the production of kokoro yam 21.2 Enhancement of the production of kokoro yam21.2 Development of fast drying areas for the yam chips 19.5 Development of fast drying areas for the yam chips19.5 Development of efficient and specific yam chips storage structures 3.3 Development of efficient and specific yam chips storage structures3.3 Establishment of a well-organised yam chips good market 1.6 Establishment of a well-organised yam chips good market1.6  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Results of the samples incubated at the laboratory showing the species of insects used and their relative abundance. Types of insects Infested samples (%) Average count for 500 g Percentage of abundance (500 g) Rank Types of insectsInfested samples (%)Average count for 500 gPercentage of abundance (500 g)Rank Dinoderus porcellus 76 (97.44) 208.72 89.03 1 Dinoderus porcellus76 (97.44)208.7289.031 Psocoptera spp. 19 (24.36) 8.83 3.77 2 Psocoptera spp.19 (24.36)8.833.772 Tribolium castaneum 41 (52.56) 6.12 2.61 3 Tribolium castaneum41 (52.56)6.122.613 Lasioderma serricorne 4 (5.13) 3.3 1.41 4 Lasioderma serricorne4 (5.13)3.31.414 Sitophilus zeamais 10 (12.82) 2.57 1.09 5 Sitophilus zeamais10 (12.82)2.571.095 Xylocoris flavipes 10 (12.82) 2.46 1.05 6 Xylocoris flavipes10 (12.82)2.461.056 Cryptolestes pusillus 10 (12.82) 1.26 0.54 7 Cryptolestes pusillus10 (12.82)1.260.547 Carpophilus dimidiatus 7 (8.97) 0.85 0.36 8 Carpophilus dimidiatus7 (8.97)0.850.368 Teretrius nigrescens 5 (6.41) 0.13 0.05 9 Teretrius nigrescens5 (6.41)0.130.059 Carpophilus binotatus 3 (3.85) 0.09 0.04 10 Carpophilus binotatus3 (3.85)0.090.0410 Alloeocranum biannulipes 5 (6.41) 0.09 0.04 11 Alloeocranum biannulipes5 (6.41)0.090.0411 Dinarmus basalis 2 (2.56) 0.03 0.01 12 Dinarmus basalis2 (2.56)0.030.0112  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Farmers' management practices for the control of yam chips insect pests. Management practices Importance (% of responses) Management practicesImportance (% of responses) Exposure of the infested yam chips to sun 35.93 Exposure of the infested yam chips to sun35.93 Use of insect-resistant varieties 26.80 Use of insect-resistant varieties26.80 Use of insecticide and/or insect's repulsive plants during preparation 26.45 Use of insecticide and/or insect's repulsive plants during preparation26.45 Sifting of yam chips to remove insects along powdery waste 8.59 Sifting of yam chips to remove insects along powdery waste8.59 Use of insecticides 1.12 Use of insecticides1.12 Treatment with pepper powder 0.74 Treatment with pepper powder0.74 Minimising frequent opening of storage structures to avoid entrance of the insects 0.37 Minimising frequent opening of storage structures to avoid entrance of the insects0.37  "},{"text":"Table 6 : List of plants used to protect yam chips against storage insect pests and their utilisation methods. Species Part used Role Method of application Percentage of farmers using the plants across ethnic groups Peulh Nago Ani Taneka Bariba Lokpa Yom SpeciesPart usedRoleMethod of applicationPercentage of farmers using the plants across ethnic groups Peulh Nago Ani Taneka Bariba Lokpa Yom Piliostigma thonningii Leaf/bark Dye Infusion 42.86 19.40 15 30.30 16.67 26.47 30.30 Piliostigma thonningii Leaf/barkDyeInfusion42.86 19.401530.3016.6726.47 30.30 Lophira lanceolata Leaf Dye Infusion - 7.46 - - - - - Lophira lanceolataLeafDyeInfusion-7.46----- Blighia sapida Leaf Insecticide Infusion - 5.97 - - - - - Blighia sapidaLeafInsecticideInfusion-5.97----- Bridelia ferruginea Leaf/bark Insecticide Infusion - - 5 - - - - Bridelia ferrugineaLeaf/barkInsecticideInfusion--5---- Khaya senegalensis Bark Insecticide Fumigate - - - - 11.11 - - Khaya senegalensisBarkInsecticideFumigate----11.11-- Tectona grandis Leaf Dye Infusion - 19.40 5 12.12 - 14.71 - Tectona grandisLeafDyeInfusion-19.40512.12-14.71- Manihot esculentus Leaf Hardening of the yam chips Infusion - - - - - 2.94 - Manihot esculentusLeafHardening of the yam chipsInfusion-----2.94- Sorghum bicolor Stem/oil cakes Dye Infusion 57.14 47.77 75 57.58 72.22 55.88 69.70 Sorghum bicolorStem/oil cakesDyeInfusion57.1447.777557.5872.2255.88 69.70  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Kokoro yam cultivars tolerant to storage insect pests and their importance across ethnic areas. Ethnic areas Insect-resistant varieties Importance (number of farmers) Ethnic areasInsect-resistant varietiesImportance (number of farmers) Ani Demkpenai 14 AniDemkpenai14  Awanawou 11 Awanawou11  Otoukpannan 18 Otoukpannan18  Tchakatchaka 16 Tchakatchaka16  Yakanougo 15 Yakanougo15 Bariba Omonya 8 BaribaOmonya8  Singor 6 Singor6  Ankakorouwoura 1 Ankakorouwoura1  Gaboubaba 1 Gaboubaba1  Kourakourogouroko 1 Kourakourogouroko1  Azowi 17 Azowi17  Iootchra 14 Iootchra14  Moghoun 12 Moghoun12 Lokpa Kounto 10 LokpaKounto10  Kparokoumè 8 Kparokoumè8  Soprova 6 Soprova6  Tougbana 4 Tougbana4  Tédoman 1 Tédoman1  Oguidigbo 54 Oguidigbo54  Adakada 45 Adakada45  Tabané 4 1 Tabané4 1 Nago Hounbonon 33 NagoHounbonon33  Kokorogbambe 26 Kokorogbambe26  Kokorolakolako 18 Kokorolakolako18  Kokoroagbalè 1 3 Kokoroagbalè1 3  Adjawoungbo 5 Adjawoungbo5  Atawouraï 2 7 Atawouraï2 7 Taneka Souwoukou 19 TanekaSouwoukou19  Gréé 7 Gréé7  Djèssoumè 4 Djèssoumè4  Koutonouman 51 Koutonouman51  Biboï 4 4 Biboï4 4 Yom Assinakpeina 39 YomAssinakpeina39  Adjôgba 17 Adjôgba17  Mouhame 3 Mouhame3  Ayè 2 Ayè2  Satchila 2 Satchila2  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Famer's preference criteria of good kokoro yam cultivar for chips production in the study area and across ethnic groups. Preferences criteria Study area (% of responses) Nago Peulh Ethnic groups (% of responses) Bariba Taneka Lokpa Yom Ani Preferences criteriaStudy area (% of responses)NagoPeulhEthnic groups (% of responses) Bariba Taneka LokpaYomAni Quality of the paste 35.62 23.03 21.43 41.38 38.15 31.25 35.65 32.14 Quality of the paste35.6223.0321.4341.3838.1531.2535.6532.14 Storage aptitude of the chips 26.5 31.99 57.14 37.93 24.5 23.96 22.61 28.57 Storage aptitude of the chips26.531.9957.1437.9324.523.9622.6128.57 Quality of Wassa-Wassa 11.96 4.11 7.14 0 3.54 22.92 13.04 17.86 Quality of Wassa-Wassa11.964.117.1403.5422.9213.0417.86 Colour of the paste 9.67 12.33 14.29 13.79 2.7 6.25 13.04 3.57 Colour of the paste9.6712.3314.2913.792.76.2513.043.57 Flour richness of the yam chips 3.05 2.74 - - 7.9 7.29 0 - Flour richness of the yam chips3.052.74--7.97.290- Crushing facility of the chips 1.02 - - - 2.6 2.08 0.87 - Crushing facility of the chips1.02---2.62.080.87- Taste of the paste 4.83 - - 3.45 - 5.21 10.44 3.57 Taste of the paste4.83--3.45-5.2110.443.57 Fast drying 7.35 25.8 - 3.45 20.61 1.04 4.35 14.29 Fast drying7.3525.8-3.4520.611.044.3514.29  "}],"sieverID":"8a6470ee-a347-4e81-ab12-512f465f52d8","abstract":"Twenty-five villages of Northern Benin were surveyed to identify the constraints of yam chips production, assess the diversity of storage insects on yam chips, and document farmers' perception of their impacts on the stocks and their traditional management practices. Damages due to storage insects (63.9% of responses) and insufficiency of insect-resistant varieties (16.7% of responses) were the major constraints of yam chips production. Twelve insect pest species were identified among which Dinoderus porcellus Lesne (Coleoptera, Bostrichidae) was by far the most important and the most distributed (97.44% of the samples). Three predators (Teretrius nigrescens Lewis, Xylocoris flavipes Reuter, and Alloeocranum biannulipes Montrouzier & Signoret) and one parasitoid (Dinarmus basalis Rondani) all Coleoptera, Bostrichidae were also identified. The most important traditional practices used to control or prevent insect attack in yam chips were documented and the producers' preference criteria for yam cultivars used to produce chips were identified and prioritized. To further promote the production of yam chips, diversification of insect-resistant yam varieties, conception, and use of health-protective natural insecticides and popularization of modern storage structures were proposed."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06e8d009e1173bd0ecf59a18b74f8078","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0dd627d8-3a83-4a72-8329-c27be4758596/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"CO-DESIGNING INCLUSIVE LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT PLANS TO TRANSFORM AGRIFOOD SYSTEMS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"In recent years, the concept of landscape has gained significant attention in developmental research and environmental conservation. Pressure on the natural resources of a landscape in Sub-Saharan Africa from deforestation (FAO, 2020), land degradation (UNCCD, 2017), poor water management (Giordano et al., 2012), unsustainable mining (Hilson, 2012), wildlife poaching, and climate change (IPCC, 2014) is increasing due to human and naturally induced factors. The agrifood system is not able to use the huge potential of the landscape to feed its increasing population with these changes. The main challenge is the misconception in the practice and approach of landscape management. The current practices by development agencies are only focused on natural resource development neglecting the inclusivity of socio-ecological and participatory concepts (Reed et al., 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"A wide range of different terms and concepts have been used to refer to natural resource management in the landscape. For   (Karrasch et al., 2017). The socio-ecological landscape management approach is currently gaining wide acceptance because of its inclusivity through the integration of social and ecological systems and its codesign approach through a participatory concept. The inclusivity and co-design approach is highly relevant in agrifood systems because it promotes collaboration among stakeholders, innovation of interventions, resilience to risks, sustainability of resources, and community satisfaction."}]},{"head":"Glossary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Inclusive landscape management: is the integration of social and ecological systems, local participation, and sustainable resource use within landscapes by the local government and/or other implementers."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Landscape: is a physical boundary such as watersheds or any administrative boundary that recognizes the interconnection between resource systems and people."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Resource Systems: The combination of environmental assets and land management practices within a designated territory, such as farmland or agroforestry zones."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Resource Units: These are specific components within a resource system, like individual crops, livestock, or water bodies, and their spatialtemporal availability."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Governance System: The institutional structure overseeing resource management, involving government agencies and traditional bodies."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Users: Individuals or entities utilizing land and water resources for livelihoods or other purposes.  "}]},{"head":"Regional or Local","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Co-design Pathways for ILM","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"The pathway is to co-design adaptive inclusive (socio-ecological) landscape management plans that are one health-sensitive, promote sustainable intensification, and are embedded in local and national governance systems. In the co-design process, the objectives are developing an appropriate landscape management plan in which ecosystem functions, social processes, and land management are coupled and integrated within the existing government system. This coupling process is defined as socio-ecological or inclusive landscape management. In the inclusive landscape management plan (ILMP), the socio-ecological system comprises a resource system, resource units, a governance system, and users. The process in the co-design step includes consideration of current situations and alternative scenarios defined based on sustainable intensification (SI) domains and indicators: productivity, economic, social, human well-being, and environment (Musumba et al., 2017). Here institution is included as the sixth element. The domains are used by regional or local experts and researchers to define current situations and future scenarios. The design process (Figure 1), defined in the steps below, is iterative, incorporating the perspectives of all stakeholders, piloting, and learning through monitoring, and evaluation."}]},{"head":"Steps in Co-designing Landscape Management Plan","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Step 1: Narrative Development The first step is to define adaptive socio-ecological landscape management, called the development of the narrative. It is a general goal and principle, without spatial dimensions, to design inclusive landscape management to improve the current state. It discusses the sustainability of the current situation/condition of land management in defined landscapes and outlines future land management with identified stakeholders in the targeted landscape. This process needs a space for action that should be selected and defined with local stakeholders where there is a socioecological landscape challenge, where the local government and communities need a solution for proper land and water resource management to improve food, income, and nutrition, and where the local government can integrate into its plan. The knowledge broker (researcher) provides information on the current state of the landscape and its socio-ecological system based on secondary information. Finally, the key stakeholders define a target landscape with a narrative."}]},{"head":"Step 2: Resource Unit Assessment","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"After locating the specific sites, competing resource systems are identified for the boundary where the landscape is defined. Regional or local expert groups from respective resource systems within the selected landscape should be established. The experts who manage the competing land uses are important not to miss. In addition, any socially excluded or marginalized group should be part of this group to get representation. Local experts with the guidance of researchers will create inventories of critical land use elements and ecosystem services. Indicators for subsequent evaluations will also be established during this phase using the sustainable intensification (SI) domains and indicators (Musumba et al., 2017). Any existing available tools such as Drivers-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR, Atampugre et al., 2022) without neglecting the consideration of Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI), citizen science, and earth observatory such as remote sensing and modeling through multi-criteria decision support system (e.g. for water risk assessment) are helpful in co-establishing the status and progress of landscape management."}]},{"head":"In the DPSIR process, stakeholder meetings, semi-structured interviews to understand current land management practices, or focus group discussions with specific sectors on specific topics including gender and socially excluded groups could be done and help to define the narrative by identifying the status of the landscape for each domain of sustainable intensification.","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"With the assistance of remote sensing (RS) and water resources decision support system (WRDSS), the identification of resource systems and resource units such as a list of land use elements in the targeted landscape (e.g., cultivated land, forestry, mining land, flood areas) helps to quantify current states. Here it is better to focus on a list of land use elements supposed to change or manage their spatial extension between the current and proposed scenarios. Water resources decision support systems assist in identifying water risk areas or ecological assessments for agrifood systems so that expert groups get information to make decisions.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Likewise, a list of locally relevant ecosystem services could be listed with regional experts. In this step, indicators useful for later step evaluation shall be defined based on the needed ecosystem service outputs. Citizen scientists (CS) could be engaged to collect information on important ecosystem services such as water quantity, water quality, biodiversity, and others. The citizens will inform the expert group about the status of the ecosystem with the support of a knowledge broker."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Designed by: Mirja Michalscheck"}]},{"head":"Step 3: Co-design for Visualization and Documentation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"In the third step, the expert group will be in action through a series of workshops to propose a plan for a mid-or long-term period that includes strategies, resources, responsibilities, and finances with the facilitation of researchers or other knowledge brokers. The engagement starts with a briefing of current challenges under each SI domain from step 2 through the researcher, and citizens. Then users and stakeholders will start defining their corresponding objectives or goals. If the listing of challenges is too many, users can be made to rank the most important challenges and focus on a few of the challenges to do the plan. This process can be done with multi-stage workshops such as starting only with users (with due consideration of GESI) at the grassroots first and then doing a second workshop with expert groups. In this step, art-based illustrations (or spatial mapping) of the proposed interventions in the landscape support the imagination of the plan and simplify the understanding of complex issues. The expert groups will do a map of the current situation (preferably in step 2) and do another spatial map for the future based on the proposed future plan. Based on the visualization of the current land uses and alternative landscape management scenarios from various groups of stakeholders, the final plan is produced. The final plan constitutes an illustration map with implementation millstones, the timeline of actions, collaboration and partnership identifications, capacity-building strategies, and conflict resolution mechanisms."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Step 4: Pilot and Validation Some technological and innovation bundles identified during the co-design planning process in step 3 will undergo pilot testing, followed by a comprehensive co-validation process to assess applicability and effectiveness. In the fourth step, the co-validation process involves evaluation of the showcase of what works where, and what is continuously improved to satisfy the needs of local communities. Step 5: Impact Evaluation In the fifth step, the piloted interventions, and the process of ILMP would systematically be evaluated using a sustainable intensification (SI) framework to capture any improvements in the different sets of socio-ecological objectives set during step 2. In addition, feedback mechanisms would be arranged through multistakeholder discussion groups, farmers' field and exchange visits, and farmer-tofarmer learning events."}]},{"head":"As part of the TAFS-WCA initiative, the following innovation bundles are piloted Farmers Led Irrigation Development, Farming Systems, Black Soldier Fly, and Flood Early Warning decision support tools).","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Step 6: Scaling Out","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The last step consists of scaling out the process and interventions. The scaling out is a complex process that extends the ILMP action to the wider landscape from the perspective of an inclusive, sustainable development plan to ensure the regular upkeep of a landscape and to guide and harmonize new changes brought about by social, economic, and environmental processes. The scaling out strategies starts with the key process of involving the local government as a facilitator from the onset, continuous engagement of key stakeholders, and presentation of the co-design process at the local and national level. For scaling any intervention bundles from the plan, any existing approach such as participatory innovation platforms, adaptive scaling strategies, a multi-sectoral platform, or food system accelerator challenge could be followed based on the type of innovation or technologies."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"This framework aims to offer a cohesive and actionable roadmap for the inclusive, adaptive management of socio-ecological landscapes, aligning with TAFS-WCA's overarching goals of sustainable and resilient agrifood systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" This technical note aims to explain a framework that outlines the inclusive landscape management plans by local governments and other implementers. It was developed based on the work ofKarrasch et al., (2017) and as adapted in (or developed for) the CGIAR Initiative on West and Central African Food Systems Transformation (TAFS-WCA). "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Iterative inclusive landscape management planning process to co-design land management plans "},{"text":"Experts: Stakeholders  including user representatives, socially excluded including user representatives, socially excluded groups and governance skilled in fostering groups and governance skilled in fostering collaborative landscape planning. collaborative landscape planning. Researchers: Act as knowledge brokers, Researchers: Act as knowledge brokers, disseminating valuable information on land disseminating valuable information on land management, indigenous wisdom, and ecosystem management, indigenous wisdom, and ecosystem services to support evidence-based decision- services to support evidence-based decision- making by local and national actors. making by local and national actors.  "}],"sieverID":"1f6ff274-f74c-4ff9-a4b6-0f73ce439bb7","abstract":"Acknowledgements: This work was carried out under the CGIAR Initiative on West and Central African Food Systems Transformation, which is grateful for the support of CGIAR Trust Fund contributors (www.cgiar.org/funders). To learn more about this and other initiatives in the CGIAR research portfolio, visit https://www.cgiar.org/research/cgiar-portfolio/. The authors also acknowledge the invaluable contributions of all officials and organizations who provided information used for this report.Disclaimer: This publication has been prepared as an output of the CGIAR Initiative on West and Central African Food Systems Transformation (TAFS-WCA) and has not been independently peer reviewed. Responsibility for editing, proofreading, and layout, opinions expressed and any possible errors lies with the authors and not the institutions involved. The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on maps do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by IWMI, CGIAR, our partner institutions, or donors."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"074c6c244066738594f0269b41abcbe3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/901e6c9d-5a10-4555-bbfc-c061deba1e1b/retrieve"},"pageCount":33,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"ABSTRACT","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"One of the options for the development of family farming is to promote access to different markets (national or international). Related to this, various contributions in relation to the analysis of the development problems of rural markets highlight two fundamental aspects that must be faced: the few opportunities in local markets and the limited access to more dynamic markets with competitive products."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"The dynamism of the markets constitutes the main axis of economic development. Accessing the market and its benefits depends on the competitive capacity of individuals and their environments (territories). Competitive capacity is manifested in the ability to meet the demands of the markets. The latter refer, for example, to the norms and standards of quality, homogeneity, consistency, volume, continuity (in supply), health, safety, guarantees of quality and origin (certifications, seals, designations of origin) and compliance with commitments."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"In the high Andes, the elements to make this process of promoting viable markets are based on: i) the construction of networks and alliances: the sustainability of an intervention model is based on the construction of networks and alliances involved in development at different levels; ii) programmatic articulation: between the various components and objectives, it constitutes a condition for the sustainability of the processes and results (this has its expression at the level of the same population in which multisectoral interventions converge); iii) territorial development: the intervention is planned on the basis of the territory, understood as the organized, complex and living set of economic, social and cultural relations of civil society and the State. Special attention should be paid to promoting the participation of women in different activities."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"One of the objectives of Perumin Inspira is aimed at strengthening capabilities. Entrepreneurs value strengthening their capabilities to better take advantage of all these business opportunities. A second point has to do with taking as a basis the development of innovations that generate value in products. A third point comes from the fact that the ventures seek to promote development at the local and regional level. They are ventures that are in the same areas that can interact in different contexts and demonstrate that if it is possible to promote businesses at a local and regional level, they take advantage of opportunities and generate a kind of ecosystem that allows interaction with different public and private actors in vulnerable areas such as high Andes."}]},{"head":"AgriLAC Resiliente","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Technical Report"}]},{"head":"INTRODUCCION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"En los espacios rurales predomina la denominada agricultura familiar que es una forma de vida de las familias rurales para gestionar la producción agrícola, forestal, pesquera, acuícola y artesanal, entre otras actividades. En términos generales, varios factores influyen en el desarrollo exitoso de la agricultura familiar, entre estos se encuentran: las condiciones agroecológicas y demográficas, las características territoriales, el entorno normativo, el acceso a los mercados, a la tierra y a los recursos naturales, a la tecnología y a los servicios de asistencia técnica. En el Perú, según los datos del último Censo Nacional Agropecuario (2012), la Agricultura Familiar representa el 97% del total de los más de 2.2 millones de unidades agropecuarias y en algunas regiones del país, esta tasa asciende a casi el 100%."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Una de las opciones para el desarrollo de la agricultura familiar es promover el acceso a los diferentes mercados (nacionales o internacionales). Relacionados con esto, diversos aportes en relación al análisis de la problemática de desarrollo de los mercados rurales destacan dos aspectos fundamentales que se deben afrontar: las escasas oportunidades de los mercados locales y el limitado acceso a mercados más dinámicos con productos competitivos."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Uno de los aspectos que caracteriza a las poblaciones rurales pobres es el predominio de la producción en pequeña escala. Por ello, la capacidad competitiva de los pequeños productores rurales se constituye en un elemento clave para potenciar el impacto en ingresos y pobreza de las inversiones."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"El dinamismo de los mercados constituye el principal eje del desarrollo económico. Acceder al mercado y a sus beneficios depende de la capacidad competitiva de los individuos y de sus entornos (territorios). La capacidad competitiva se hace manifiesta en la capacidad de cumplir con las exigencias de los mercados. Estas últimas se refieren, por ejemplo, a las normas y estándares de calidad, homogeneidad, consistencia, volumen, continuidad (en el abastecimiento), sanidad, inocuidad, garantías de calidad y origen (certificaciones, sellos, denominaciones de origen) y cumplimiento de compromisos."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Cuanto más pobre es la población más compleja es la diversidad de factores limitantes para competir en mercados más exigentes. La capacidad competitiva, en esencia, se refiere a la capacidad de diferenciarse de los competidores agregando al producto (o servicio) atributos valorados por los consumidores. El análisis de la cadena de valor identifica los procesos, actores claves, potencialidades (ventajas comparativas y competitivas) y limitaciones locales existentes para agregación de valor."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Los factores que determinan la capacidad competitiva pueden ser de naturaleza individual, social, tecnológica, económica e institucional:"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":" Individuales: nivel de educación, capacidades de gestión, negociación, técnico productivas;"},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":" Sociales: redes de articulación y de cooperación, nivel de confianza entre actores locales, alianzas estratégicas;  Tecnológicos: investigación y desarrollo;"},{"index":9,"size":67,"text":" Económicos: infraestructura económica (infraestructura vial, comunicaciones, telecomunicaciones, riego y energía); acceso a financiamiento, acceso a servicios de apoyo públicos y privados (asistencia técnica, capacitación, información, provisión de insumos, procesamiento, distribución, almacenamiento, empaque);  Institucionales: marco jurídico (reglas de juego: leyes, reglamentos, ordenanzas), sistema de justicia, acceso a información, cultura (valores y normas de comportamiento de las organizaciones) y políticas públicas de promoción al desarrollo de mercados."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"En este contexto, el presente documento presenta una alternativa para identificar y potenciar iniciativas de negocios en espacios rurales que se basan en el desarrollo de innovaciones y el desarrollo de emprendimientos en base a la agrobiodiversidad."}]},{"head":"LOS ESPACIOS RURALES COMO UNA POSIBILIDAD PARA EL DESARROLLO DE NEGOCIOS SOSTENIBLES","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"2.1."}]},{"head":"Los espacios rurales como zonas de intervención","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"El Perú tiene muchos desafíos en términos de desarrollo, calidad de vida, equidad e inclusión. A pesar del auge económico, todavía existen desbalances territoriales y sectoriales. La pobreza todavía es un problema que se debe afrontar. A fines de 2021, la tasa de pobreza en el Perú era de 25.9 por ciento, un nivel comparable con el de 2012. La pobreza extrema se mantuvo en 4.1 por ciento, igual que la tasa de 2015. En términos absolutos, esto significa que, en 2021, había 8.6 millones de personas pobres, mientras que en 2019 solo había 6.6 millones (comparado con 8.3 millones en 2011). La tasa de pobreza es ahora más alta en casi todas las regiones del país. En 2021, uno de cada cuatro peruanos era pobre, pero un análisis geográfico muestra diferencias en todo el país. En la sierra norte y central, las tasas de pobreza ascendieron a 42 por ciento y 32 por ciento, respectivamente, mientras que en la costa central y sur la tasa fue de alrededor del 17 por ciento. En Lima fue de 25 por ciento. Además, en todas las áreas, excepto en la sierra norte, la tasa de pobreza fue más alta en 2021 que en 2019."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Sin embargo, los espacios rurales no sólo deben verse con problemas de pobreza, sino que hay que darle una mirada en función a su gran potencial de oportunidades de generación de ingresos y empleo, mediante la puesta en valor de su potencial productivo."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"En general, en estos espacios se desarrolla una economía rural con alta predominancia de pequeñas unidades agropecuarias manejadas por individuos con una baja dotación de capital humano y/o gerencial. Otro tema que caracteriza a los productores de estas zonas es que tienen un acceso muy limitado a servicios productivos e infraestructura económica. Diversos estudios muestran que a los productores de la sierra rural les es muy difícil obtener servicios tales como los de información comercial y tecnológica relevante, la comercialización de sus productos, la obtención de crédito, entre otras."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"En los espacios rurales existen, desde el punto de vista económico, diversos grupos sociales que son presentados en el siguiente esquema."}]},{"head":"Figura 01. Los diferentes tipos de grupos rurales","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"En el centro están las ciudades intermedias y los pequeños empresarios que allí residen, con el mayor ingreso, vinculación al mercado y especialización. En el segundo circulo, se encuentran los pequeños productores rurales, establecidos sobre todo en los valles y cerca de las vías de comunicación mayores (carreteras asfaltadas, caminos provinciales), y ampliamente vinculados al mercado de bienes. En el tercer círculo, están los campesinos ubicados en las comunidades con caminos rurales o trochas, vinculados de manera importante al mercado. Finalmente, existe otro grupo de comunidades campesinas, aquellas sin vías de transporte o con vías de muy mala calidad (sólo trochas carrozables, largas distancias y tiempo de recorrido, posiblemente no operativas en épocas de lluvias), grupo que está poco vinculado al mercado. En teoría las diferentes acciones que se promueven en esta región deben tomar en cuenta el tipo de población objetivo con la que se trabajará."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"En estos territorios existen ejemplos de diversos proyectos de desarrollo que promueven (o promovieron) actividades productivas y que aplican un enfoque que prioriza la generación de productos que se orientan al mercado, como un criterio de sostenibilidad y contribuir a través de la articulación comercial al incremento de los ingresos de las economías familiares. La mayor parte de ellos se orientan a promover el aprovechamiento del potencial de los cultivos andinos 1 ."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Tomando como referencia estas experiencias, se puede resumir de la siguiente manera la forma de trabajo de los diferentes proyectos en su fomento de actividades productivas en las zonas rurales: i) identificar mercados en los cuáles exista una demanda específica para los productos de los pequeños productores; ii) identificar las características de las respuestas de oferta (en cantidad y calidad) para esas demandas identificadas; iii) Identificar las demandas y ofertas de servicios requeridos en la producción, comercialización y organización, para que la respuesta de oferta se adecue a la demanda del producto final (en cantidad, calidad y distribución de márgenes comerciales); iv) identificar potenciales alianzas institucionales para el mejor aprovechamiento de las oportunidades productivas promovidas."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"En el instrumento que se describe más adelante se toma en cuenta estas características para identificar y potenciar emprendimientos rurales con potencial de impacto y sostenibilidad."}]},{"head":"Elementos para promover el desarrollo productivo y comercial en espacios rurales","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Luego de muchos años de experimentar con intervenciones públicas y privadas de desarrollo rural orientadas desde la oferta, en muchas zonas del país se han diseñado y puesto en práctica en las últimas dos décadas diversos proyectos que han estado orientados desde la demanda. Este enfoque surge a raíz de cambios en la concepción de políticas de fomento al desarrollo generando un nuevo consenso que reemplaza, paulatinamente, al anterior, que apostaba por estrategias diseñadas a partir de estructuras centralizadas de la administración pública."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Sin embargo, la experiencia de los últimos años también indica que existe la necesidad de mirar el espacio rural (y particularmente la sierra y selva) como un todo o de manera integral."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Esta integralidad tiene varias dimensiones; por un lado, es importante reconocer que el espacio rural a desarrollar tiene elementos geográficos comunes articulados entre sí por alguna dotación de infraestructura pública, lo que limita o potencia sus posibilidades de desarrollo. La necesidad de establecer políticas que miren a estos espacios, ya sean cuencas o corredores económicos, es central (si se quieren aprovechar sus sinergias). Esto obliga a mirar no sólo el ámbito rural sino también las ciudades intermedias y centros poblados que circundan los espacios."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"De otro lado, es necesario tomar en cuenta la pluriactividad de este espacio. Como se sabe, el papel de las actividades rurales no agrícolas ha venido ganando importancia, absorbiendo una parte importante y creciente del empleo y los ingresos rurales."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Las acciones referidas a la generación de ingresos pasan por orientarse a la organización de cadenas productivas como estrategia para promover la competitividad, la promoción de acuerdos comerciales entre empresa privada y organizaciones de productores, el desarrollo de mercados de asistencia técnica local con participación de técnicos locales, programas de capacitación y entrenamiento para el desarrollo de negocios y sistemas de información de mercado para la toma de decisiones."},{"index":6,"size":105,"text":"Para el fortalecimiento de la sociedad civil y gestión local, se deben desarrollar programas de comunicación para el cambio de enfoque en relación al aprovechamiento de las oportunidades de desarrollo. Para fortalecer el capital social, se deben aprovechar las experiencias de organización y gestión, el desarrollo de planes comunales articulados al presupuesto participativo. Para aumentar la presencia efectiva del Estado en estas áreas, se debe promover el fortalecimiento del marco institucional a nivel local (programas de sensibilización y fortalecimiento de gobiernos locales, programas de capacitación para el diseño y gestión del presupuesto participativo, diseño e implementación de fondos concursables para el cofinanciamiento de iniciativas locales)."},{"index":7,"size":116,"text":"Asimismo, se debe fortalecer la provisión de servicios sociales de calidad, teniendo como referencia el fomento al acceso a servicios de salud y educación de alta calidad, la organización y capacitación para la gestión de sistemas de agua y saneamiento y sistema de información para la priorización de servicios de salud y educación. Es necesario promover la coordinación de las diversas intervenciones a nivel local, regional y nacional, para la incidencia política, el intercambio de experiencias y para mejor coordinación a nivel local de los procesos promovidos. Las actividades deben ejecutarse en asocio con Municipalidades, universidades locales y regionales, proyectos sectoriales (caminos rurales, SENASA, FONCODES), ministerios sectoriales (Agricultura, Salud, MIMDES), diversas ONG locales y empresa privada."},{"index":8,"size":134,"text":"Los elementos para darle viabilidad a este proceso de promover la sierra se basan en: i) la construcción de redes y alianzas: la sostenibilidad de un modelo de intervención se sustenta en la construcción de redes y alianzas involucrados en el desarrollo a diferentes niveles; ii) la articulación programática: entre los diversos componentes y objetivos, constituye una condición para la sostenibilidad de los procesos y resultados (esto tiene su expresión a nivel de una misma población en la que confluyen intervenciones multisectoriales); iii) el desarrollo territorial: la intervención se planifica sobre la base del territorio, entendido como el conjunto organizado, complejo y vivo de relaciones económicas, sociales y culturales de la sociedad civil y del Estado. Se debe prestar especial atención a la promoción de la participación de las mujeres en las diferentes actividades."},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"La Figura 02 resume un modelo de intervención, donde es claro que atacar el problema en los espacios rurales tiene diversas dimensiones que deben ser abordadas de manera simultánea (aunque en el presente análisis se enfatizan los aspectos económicos ligados a la generación de ingresos):"},{"index":10,"size":45,"text":"Figura 02. Modelo de intervención para el desarrollo económico en espacios rurales En el instrumento que se describe en el presente documento se priorizan las acciones ligadas al acceso competitivo a mercados de productos y servicios y fortalecer las capacidades para aprovechar oportunidades de negocios."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"Familias tienen acceso competitivo a mercados de Fortalecimiento y sensibilización de gobiernos locales"}]},{"head":"Reducción de la pobreza","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Aprovechamiento de los recursos","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fortalecimiento de la organización comunal (local)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Fortalecimiento de instituciones locales para la coordinación de intervenciones en servicios sociales"}]},{"head":"Incremento de Ingresos","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mejora en Servicios Sociales","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Acciones interinstitucionales coordinadas local, regional y nacionalmente"}]},{"head":"Fortalecimiento de Sociedad Civil y","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Gestión Local, Regional y Nacional Familias adoptan conductas diferentes para aprovechar oportunidades de negocios"}]},{"head":"EL INSTRUMENTO: PERUMIN INSPIRA","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Perumin","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"PERUMIN Convención Minera -desde 1954 a la fecha -se ha constituido como uno de los eventos mineros más importantes del mundo, donde se analiza la problemática que afronta la industria minera peruana, compartiendo soluciones efectivas para afrontar sus enormes retos y desafíos. Complementa la actividad académica una Exhibición Tecnológica Minera -EXTEMIN que congrega a empresas nacionales e internacionales de más de 70 rubros comerciales que han generado un intercambio comercial sin precedentes."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"El 2023, la edición de PERUMIN 36 siguió consolidando el objetivo de convertirse en un referente mundial de innovación, ciencia, tecnología y educación, que explora los desafíos y las oportunidades que la minería y otras industrias traen, y resolverlos con herramientas digitales y basadas en el conocimiento para contribuir al crecimiento del Perú y de la región. En este enlace se puede encontrar más información sobre la Edición de Perumin 36 Convención Minera: https://perumin.com/perumin36/public/es."}]},{"head":"Perumin Inspira","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"La minería representó alrededor del 15% del PBI por acción propia de la industria y por su efecto multiplicador en otros sectores, lo cual demuestra su importancia en el territorio nacional. La industria extractiva tiene un claro potencial de ser un actor generador y fortalecedor de emprendimientos sociales en zonas, en su mayoría rurales, donde actualmente no se tiene mayor incidencia, teniendo en cuenta que la pobreza monetaria, acrecentada por la pandemia, alcanzó el 39.7% en las zonas rurales en el 2021. A ello, se suman otras cifras alarmantes como:"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":" Los mayores niveles de pobreza se registraron en la sierra rural (44.3%).  48.4% de anemia en niños de 6 a 35 meses en zonas rurales."}]},{"head":"","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"El 77.8% de los establecimientos de primer nivel de atención tiene una capacidad instalada inadecuada e infraestructura precaria.  Un 70% de la población no cuenta con agua gestionada de forma segura, y 579,500 refugiados y migrantes en el país tienen necesidades de agua, saneamiento e higiene.  75.3% de la población tiene un empleo informal, y la tasa de desempleo en el 2020 alcanzó un 7.4% a nivel nacional.  67% de los desastres que ocurren en el territorio nacional están relacionados al cambio climático."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"En el marco de la Convención Minera Perumin se promueve PERUMIN Inspira que busca promover el desarrollo sostenible en la sierra y ceja de selva del Perú y contribuir con la agenda de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) de las Naciones Unidas."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"De manera particular, PERUMIN Inspira es un premio dirigido a emprendimientos sociales con impacto en la disminución de brechas sociales y económicas, que contribuyan al desarrollo sostenible de las poblaciones que se encuentran en la sierra (a partir de los 500 m.s.n.m) y ceja de selva del país, y que mantiene los siguientes objetivos:"},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":" Identificar la mayor diversidad de emprendimientos sociales a nivel nacional que respondan a los siguientes Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) de las Naciones Unidas: ODS 1 Fin de la pobreza, ODS 2 Hambre cero, ODS 3 Salud y bienestar, ODS 5 Igualdad de género, ODS 6 Agua limpia y saneamiento, ODS 8 Trabajo decente y crecimiento económico, ODS 12 Producción y consumos responsables y ODS 13 Acción por el clima, y que estén haciendo frente a los problemas sociales más relevantes para el desarrollo de la sierra y ceja de selva del Perú.  Aportar al cumplimiento de las ODS al 2030 desde el sector privado, sector académico y de investigación, con el objetivo de mejorar las condiciones de vida de las comunidades vulnerables del país."}]},{"head":"","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Reconocer a los emprendimientos sociales que destaquen por ser innovadores, escalables y sostenibles, y junto con ellos promover una cultura de gestión y medición de impacto social en este tipo de iniciativas."}]},{"head":"","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Posicionar el emprendimiento como herramienta de cambio social, acercando historias de emprendedores que hoy ejercen su derecho de transformar su entorno, y con él, nuestro país."}]},{"head":"","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Consolidar un ecosistema de alianzas estratégicas para el apoyo al emprendimiento social y ambiental en la sierra y ceja de selva, especialmente en zonas de influencia minera, buscando que sea enriquecido cada año con una red de actores comprometidos con el crecimiento y multiplicación de este tipo de iniciativas."}]},{"head":"","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Brindar un espacio de colaboración y aprendizaje que desafíe a los emprendedores a resolver, de la mano de los mejores mentores y especialistas, los principales retos que enfrentan sus organizaciones."}]},{"head":"Proceso de selección","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"El proceso comprender diversas etapas que se describen a continuación:"}]},{"head":"Bases del concurso","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Se discutió y elaboró un documento que contenía las bases del concurso. Se puede consultar en la página web correspondiente: https://perumin.com/perumin36/public/es/inspira. Se incluyen tanto los aspectos técnicos como administrativos que deben cumplir las experiencias que potencialmente se postularían a Perumin Inspira 2023."}]},{"head":"Marco Institucional de Perumin Inspira","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"PERUMIN Inspira es impulsado por el Instituto de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú en alianza con el CIP Agrilac, y gestionado por Kunan."},{"index":2,"size":242,"text":" El Instituto de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú -IIMP es una asociación privada sin fines de lucro fundada en el año 1943, cuyo objetivo es el de articular esfuerzos con organizaciones privadas y públicas para contribuir a la generación de espacios de diálogo en donde se planteen acciones que permitan el tan anhelado desarrollo sostenible del país.  Kunan es la plataforma de impulso al ecosistema de emprendimiento social y ambiental de Perú, y la unidad de emprendimiento social y ambiental de Perú Sostenible. Cuenta con una red de más de 350 emprendimientos sociales y ambientales conocida como la Red Kunan y mantiene cuatro ejes de acción enfocados en la dinamización y fortalecimiento del ecosistema de emprendimiento social, incluyendo cuatro ediciones del premio anual \"Desafío Kunan\".  CGIAR, la mayor red global de investigación agroalimentaria, busca transformar los sistemas alimentarios, terrestres y acuáticos ante el contexto climático actual, para asegurar el futuro sin hambre. Una de las iniciativas que se implementa en el Perú se denomina Agrilac Resiliente, que se plantea el objetivo de aumentar la resiliencia, sostenibilidad y actores agroalimentarios de América Latina y el Caribe equipándolos mejor para satisfacer las necesidades urgentes de seguridad alimentaria, reducir las amenazas climáticas, estabilizar las comunidades vulnerables a los conflictos y reducir la emigración. Agrilac Resiliente se implementa en el marco de agroecosistemas, paisajes y cadenas de valor sostenibles y de bajas emisiones en los siguientes países: Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia, México, y Perú."}]},{"head":"Categorías del concurso","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"A. Categoría \"Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto\""},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Categoría que reconoce a emprendimientos sociales en ejecución, es decir, que se encuentren activos y realizando actividades que involucren a su público beneficiario objetivo (clientes o usuarios) al menos desde 6 meses antes de iniciada la postulación."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Los emprendimientos sociales deben presentar y sustentar un componente de innovación, impacto y actividades comerciales a clientes distintos a la empresa extractiva, con el fin de sostener la actividad del emprendimiento. Se reconocieron tres emprendimientos sociales ganadores de la Categoría \"Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto\"."}]},{"head":"B. Reconocimiento especial CIP Agrilac","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Reconocimiento especial para aquellos postulantes a la categoría de \"Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto\" que cumplan con los requisitos adicionales que son mencionados más adelante."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"En esta edición se reconoció un emprendimiento social ganador del Reconocimiento Especial CIP Agrilac."}]},{"head":"Perfil del postulante","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"La convocatoria se orientó a Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto activos, con operación y/o impacto en la sierra y ceja de selva del Perú, según corresponda. Estos deben cumplir con los siguientes requisitos generales:"},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":" Deben ser emprendimientos sociales activos, que respondan a la siguiente definición: \"Iniciativas, con o sin fines de lucro, que tienen la misión de contribuir a la solución de problemáticas sociales críticas, a través de un modelo de negocio que permita la potencial auto sostenibilidad con la comercialización de productos y/o servicios.\"  Su impacto debe estar enfocado en la sierra (a partir de los 500 m.s.n.m.) y/o ceja de selva de nuestro país. No es necesario que la sede administrativa se encuentre en las zonas en mención.  Su impacto debe responder a cualquiera de los siguientes Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS):"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":" ODS 1 Fin de la pobreza A. Categoría \"Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto\""},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":" El emprendimiento social debe estar ubicado en la sierra y/o ceja de selva del Perú a mínimo 500 m.s.n.m. No es necesario que la sede administrativa se encuentre en las zonas en mención."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":" Debe contar con un modelo de negocio en marcha que contribuya a la solución de la problemática identificada. Es decir, se debe haber validado el impacto del mismo ofreciendo un resultado medible generado en su población beneficiaria."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":" Se aceptan postulaciones de emprendimientos que se encuentran en ejecución y activos, es decir, están realizando actividades que involucren a su público beneficiario objetivo (clientes y/o usuarios) en el presente año y que hayan sido implementados por un plazo de al menos 6 meses antes del cierre de postulaciones al premio."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":" El Emprendimiento de Alto Impacto debe ser presentado por los socios o co-fundadores del proyecto."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":" Pueden presentar y sustentar el impacto de sus primeras intervenciones."},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":" Pueden presentar y sustentar sus primeras actividades comerciales, con el fin de sostener la actividad del emprendimiento."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":" Pueden presentar y sustentar un componente de innovación en su modelo."},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":" Tienen operaciones en territorio peruano."}]},{"head":"B. Reconocimiento especial CIP Agrilac","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":" El emprendimiento social debe estar ubicado en la sierra y/o ceja de selva del Perú. No es necesario que la sede administrativa se encuentre en las zonas en mención.  El emprendimiento de alto impacto debe tener experiencias relacionadas con cadenas de valor que incrementen su competitividad a través de innovaciones tecnológicas o de gestión en los sistemas agroalimentarios. Los productos o servicios agropecuarios seleccionados pueden enfocarse en el uso de la biodiversidad, la mejora de la seguridad alimentaria y de los sistemas agroalimentarios andinos con fines de generación de ingresos. Las iniciativas seleccionadas deben indicar cuál es su contribución en mejorar las condiciones de vida de la población local y si esto reduce la migración a la selva en particular, o hacia otras zonas del país.  El emprendimiento de alto impacto debe tener experiencias que se orienten a generar inversiones de promoción, fomento, mejoramiento, acondicionamiento, rehabilitación y/o ampliación de iniciativa de turismo, mercadeo de otros productos o servicios del bosque no contemplados anteriormente que contribuyan a su manejo, aprovechamiento, valor agregado y comercialización.  El emprendimiento de alto impacto cuenta con instituciones aliadas (públicas y/o privadas) que complementarán la intervención.  El emprendimiento de alto impacto debe estar relacionado con alguno de los siguientes Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible: ODS 1 Fin de la pobreza, ODS 2 Hambre cero, ODS 5 Igualdad de género, ODS 12 Producción y consumos responsables y ODS 13 Acción por el clima."}]},{"head":"Criterios de evaluación","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Se han planteado los siguientes criterios de evaluación: "}]},{"head":"INNOVACIÓN (25%)","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"La solución propuesta para el problema identificado es más efectiva, más eficiente, más sostenible o más justa que las soluciones existentes actualmente."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"1) La solución propuesta no es nueva."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"2) La solución propuesta es nueva y mejora algunas características de soluciones existentes. 3) La solución propuesta es nueva y mejora muchos aspectos de soluciones existentes. 4) La solución propuesta es nueva y cambia por completo el panorama del problema abordado."}]},{"head":"IMPACTO (20%)","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"El posible impacto de la solución propuesta está descrito y sustentado mediante indicadores concretos. Se debe tener en cuenta que el impacto no son los resultados directos de la solución propuesta, sino las consecuencias de dichos resultados para el bienestar de los ciudadanos."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"1) El potencial de impacto no está descrito."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"2) El potencial de impacto está descrito, pero no sustentado mediante indicadores concretos. 3) El potencial de impacto está descrito y sustentado mediante indicadores concretos. 4) El potencial de impacto es alto, está descrito y sustentado mediante indicadores concretos. Podría mejorar la vida a una cantidad importante de ciudadanos y está debidamente sustentado."}]},{"head":"MODELO DE","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"NEGOCIO","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"SOSTENIBLE (15%)","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Presenta un modelo de generación de recursos para cubrir sus costos y generar excedentes (económicos o humanos) que garanticen la mejora continua de la propuesta."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"1) No presenta un modelo de generación de recursos para llevar a cabo sus actividades. 2) El modelo de generación de recursos tiene características que ponen en riesgo su sostenibilidad 3) El modelo de generación de recursos es sostenible y se proyecta al futuro identificando riesgos y oportunidades. 4) El modelo de generación de recursos es sostenible, muestra potencial de crecimiento futuro y empodera a su público objetivo generando capacidades."}]},{"head":"ESCALABILIDAD Y REPLICABILIDAD (10%)","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"La primera se refiere a la presencia de un plan de crecimiento y expansión en el corto, mediano y largo plazo."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Mientras que la segunda, se refiere a la medida en que la iniciativa puede ser replicada en otras regiones del país o en otros países 1) No presenta plan de crecimiento y no se evidencia potencial para ser replicable. 2) Hace referencia a un plan de crecimiento con indicadores vagos o poco claros y la replicabilidad genera dudas. 3) Presenta un plan de crecimiento con algunos indicadores claros y se evidencia potencial para ser replicable en casos específicos. 4) Presenta un plan de crecimiento, se han identificado indicadores claros, y muestra un gran potencial para ser replicada en otros contextos."}]},{"head":"EQUIPO (10%)","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Presenta un liderazgo claro y un capital humano alineado al objetivo y con roles definidos."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"1) Es el único miembro y/o no cuenta con aliados."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"2) Cuenta con un equipo, pero no identifica aliados."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"3) Cuenta con un equipo multidisciplinario que ya ha trabajado al menos una vez juntos e identifica aliados. 4) Existe una comunidad, adicional al equipo multidisciplinario, que ha mostrado interés en la iniciativa."}]},{"head":"Tabla 01. Criterios de evaluación de los emprendimiento de Perumin Inspira 2023","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Aquellos proyectos a ser considerados para el Reconocimiento Especial CIP Agrilac, deberán evidenciar, además de los criterios generales mencionados anteriormente, lo siguiente:"},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":" Valoración de la biodiversidad: La solución propuesta valora la biodiversidad como factor clave en su desarrollo e impacto. Entendiendo por biodiversidad \"la amplia variedad de seres vivos sobre la tierra y los patrones naturales que lo conforman, resultado de miles de millones de años de evolución según procesos naturales y también de la influencia creciente de las actividades del ser humano\" (Convenio de Diversidad Biológica)."}]},{"head":"Incentivos a los ganadores","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"La edición 2023 de Perumin Inspira se planteó tener un total de cuatro (04) ganadores: tres (03) correspondientes a la Categoría \"Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto\" y uno (01) correspondiente al Reconocimiento Especial CIP Agrilac."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Se consideró poner a disposición de los ganadores el soporte integral que orientaba a ayudarlos a seguir avanzando en el desarrollo de sus emprendimientos."}]},{"head":"A todos los participantes:","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":" Ficha de retroalimentación de un panel de expertos."}]},{"head":"A los finalistas:","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":" Asistencia Técnica de parte del Instituto de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú, en alianza con el CIP Agrilac y Kunan; que se llevará a cabo durante los talleres de capacitación (bootcamp), los cuales se realizarán el mes de agosto y septiembre en formato virtual, previos a la final."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":" Difusión de los emprendimientos entre los participantes del evento PERUMIN 36 y público externo desde los medios digitales de la Convención Minera y de Kunan."}]},{"head":"Ganadores de categoría \"Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto\":","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Se tendrán tres (03) ganadores de la Categoría \"Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto\", los cuales se llevarán:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":" 15 mil soles de capital semilla, gracias a Minera PODEROSA, ORICA y Moquegua Crece de Angloamerican, para cada ganador."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":" Acompañamiento técnico digital gracias a Incubadora de Negocios KAMAN de la Universidad Católica San Pablo (UCSP) para ambos ganadores."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":" Sesiones de mentoría gracias a ADN Partners para ambos ganadores."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":" 10 horas de asesoría legal gracias a Benites, Vargas & Ugaz Abogados para cada uno de los ganadores."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":" Acceso a talleres virtuales, visitas a laboratorios de innovación, asesorías y difusión por parte de Tecsup."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":" Promoción de la articulación con sector privado que trabajen en la zona de influencia minera donde se genera la actividad de impacto o que se pueda replicar en la zona de influencia de un actor interesado."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":" Difusión con los participantes de PERUMIN y público externo desde medios y redes aliadas."}]},{"head":"Ganador del reconocimiento especial \"CIP Agrilac\":","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Se tendrá un ganador del Reconocimiento Especial CIP Agrilac, el cual se llevará:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":" Reforzamiento de capacidades a través de cursos internacionales de innovación y desarrollo en instituciones de alto prestigio y experiencia, hasta por un valor de 2,000 dólares americanos (USD)."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":" Integración con la iniciativa del CGIAR AgriLAC Resiliente, en diversos centros internacionales para el intercambio de información a través de sus redes virtuales."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":" Difusión entre los participantes de PERUMIN 36, desde medios y redes aliadas."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":" Posibilidad de publicar la experiencia del ganador en una revista especializada."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":" Acompañamiento técnico digital gracias a Incubadora de Negocios KAMAN de la Universidad Católica San Pablo (UCSP)."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":" Acompañamiento técnico digital gracias a ADN Partners."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":" 10 horas de asesoría legal gracias a Benites, Vargas & Ugaz Abogados."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":" Acceso a talleres virtuales, visitas a laboratorios de innovación, asesorías y difusión por parte de Tecsup."}]},{"head":"Convocatoria y Difusión","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Las instituciones promotoras realizaron el lanzamiento del concurso en Abril 2023 y se realizó una amplia difusión a diferentes niveles (entrevistas, artículos, redes sociales, entre otros). En el Anexo 1, se puede ver una muestra de las diferentes publicaciones realizadas al respecto y en el siguiente cuadro un resumen de las herramientas utilizadas."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Figura 03. Herramientas de difusión de la edición 2023 de Perumin Inspira."}]},{"head":"Comité Técnico y selección de 10 finalistas","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Se conformó un panel de 24 expertos en emprendimiento e innovación que se desempeñan en el sector público, privado, sociedad civil y academia, que tuvieron a su cargo la tarea de evaluar las postulaciones y seleccionar a los finalistas de PERUMIN Inspira 2023. En el Anexo 2, se encuentra la lista de expertos que colaboraron este año. "}]},{"head":"Elaboradas por Llorente y","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Cuenca en coordinación con Kunan y el IIMP para compar�r con medios a nivel nacional ."}]},{"head":"Ejemplo Nota de Prensa","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Para este trabajo los miembros del Comité pudieron contar con las Fichas de Evaluación y una Guía de Evaluación. Cada emprendimiento fue evaluado hasta por tres miembros del Comité para cruzar criterios y se tuvo una reunión final para elegir a los 10 finalistas."}]},{"head":"Bootcamp (fortalecimiento de capacidades)","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Los 10 finalistas accedieron a un programa de fortalecimiento sus emprendimientos en diferentes temáticas y entrenarlos con miras a su participación en el proceso final de selección a realizarse en Arequipa (en el marco de Perumin 2023)."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Los temas que se impartieron fueron los siguientes:  "}]},{"head":"Jurado y selección final","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Para el proceso final se conformó un Jurado de 5 personas: Karen Gutierrez (Incubadora de negocios de la Universidad Católica San Pablo -KAMAN), Jimena Sologuren (Minera Poderosa), Dario Zegarra (Instituto de Ingenieros de Minas Perú/Antamina), Pamela Antolioni (Hub de Innovación Minera del Perú), Cristina Fonseca (Centro Internacional de la Papa)."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"En un evento público realizado en Arequipa (Perumin 2023) cada uno de los 10 finalistas presentó un Pitch de 05 minutos, y posteriormente respondieron entre 01 a 02 preguntas del jurado en un espacio de 05 minutos."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Al finalizar las presentaciones, el jurado deliberó y escogió a los ganadores. En la evaluación se consideraron no solo los criterios de evaluación (que se describieron anteriormente), sino que también se tomó en cuenta la evaluación de la participación e involucramiento de cada finalista en el proceso de preparación del premio (bootcamp de preparación)."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"En la parte final, el Jurado tuvo una deliberación para analizar, discutir y elegir a los ganadores de la categoría Emprendimientos de Alto Impacto y el Reconocimiento Especial CIP Agrilac Resiliente. Se tuvo como materiales la evaluación de desempeño de cada finalista en el bootcamp y la ficha de calificación con los criterios de evaluación."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"En Perumin Inspira 2023, se recibieron 136 postulaciones que comprenden 16 regiones del país, 30% con impacto a más de 3000 m.s.n.m y 80% de los postulantes considera que el emprendimiento puede ser replicado en otro contexto. Para ir la base de datos de postulaciones, click AQUÍ. Las regiones representadas son las siguientes: Ancash, Apurímac, Arequipa, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huancavelica, Huánuco, Junín, La Libertad, Lambayeque, Lima, Moquegua, Piura, Puno, Pasco y San Martín."}]},{"head":"Finalistas CIP Agrilac Resiliente","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Dentro de la Categoría CIP Agrilac Resiliente, 5 emprendimientos estuvieron entre los 10 finalistas, los cuáles son reseñados a continuación\""}]},{"head":"Inspirall","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Es una empresa Biotecnológica que actualmente genera Productos de Alto Valor Nutricional en sistemas sostenibles (Raceway abiertos, CSTR & FBR) en la costa (Piura, Tacna), sierra (Huancavelica) y selva (Pucallpa) del Perú. En los últimos tres años han desarrollado invernaderos inteligentes de producción en tiempo real y tienen un registro de Patente para optimizar la bioconversión de gases nocivos a oxigeno ante INDECOPI (Expediente: 002273-2017/DIN). Asimismo, han realizado extracción de principios activos (aminoácidos esenciales fortificado, antioxidantes) para la industria acuícola y pesquera, además son parte de aliados estratégicos con Universidades de prestigio y empresas privadas con el fin de hacer sinergias con fondos concursables no reembolsable nacionales e internacionales para generar nuevas propuestas de innovación y alto impacto socio-ambiental."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"A la fecha Inspirall S.A.C. ha desarrollado proyectos con el PNIPA (cultivo de Cushuro en Sierra y Hatchery de Espirulina en invernadero y laboratorio); además, se ganó fondos de Startup Perú para combatir la anemia con la Espirulina en colegios ubicados en varias regiones y se articuló una extensión de proyecto con la Municipalidad de Lima."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Ha creado un modelo de desarrollo económico que lucha contra la anemia y pobreza rural nacional. Se orientan a la producción y comercialización de productos sanos y alimentos fortificados a base de microalgas y tecnologías similares y cuenta con aliados estratégicos como la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM) para la generación de nuevos productos y soluciones ambientales."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Figura 06. Ficha informativa del emprendimiento \"Inspirall\" con el puntaje de calificación como finalista de Perumin Inspira 2023."}]},{"head":"Inspirall Moquegua","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Transformando el sector e industria agro con prototipos acuicolas a base de microalgas que se pueden escalar en la costa, sierra y selva. Nace con una transferencia tecnologica, tiene un programa anemiacero y termina con la venta en el mercado."}]},{"head":"13.80","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Beneficiarios 25 familias agropecuarias de la Zona de Aruntaya . No cuentan con acceso a oportunidades economicas de valor en la región obligandolos a migrar a las ciudades."}]},{"head":"Obj etiv os con PERUMIN Inspira","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Expandir la red de aliados, conectar con entidades del ecosistema y mejorar indicadores para beneficiar a los pobladores más vulnerables del Perú y el mundo."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"25 al 29 de septiembre, Arequipa"}]},{"head":"Nostoc","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"NOSTOC es un emprendimiento cusqueño que introduce al mercado un producto innovador, gominolas nutraceuticas a base de nostoc sphaericum (llullucha), recolectadas por comunidades cusqueñas alto andinas, con el fin de combatir la desnutrición y anemia infantil en nuestro país."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Actualmente es una empresa autofinanciada que se muestra al mercado todavía mediante canales tradicionales, como ferias y visitas a comunidades. Piensan ingresar a una etapa de ampliación de escala de la producción (tomando como base la innovación de gominolas) y ampliar su acceso a diversos mercados y con replicabilidad en todo el Perú. Asimismo, se busca difundir la innovación a nivel de las comunidades altoandinas para le mejora de sus procesos de cosecha de llullucha, con el objetivo de contribuir a disminuir los índices de anemia infantil en todo el Perú revalorando esta producción (llullucha)."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"El equipo está compuesto por mujeres cusqueñas profesionales, que están comprometidas con construir un mejor país, más justo, con más oportunidades y sin anemia. Su lema es \"Por +100000 niños sin anemia\". Indican que Nostoc tiene potencial para llegar a miles de niños en el Perú y trabajarán con EMBAJADORES NOSTOC, convocando voluntarios que empoderen a sus comunidades (ya que la llullucha crece a más de 3 mil m.s.n.m) e implementando laboratorios para su producción. Su visión implica la transferencia de tecnologías limpias para que las comunidades altoandinas mejoren sus procesos de cosecha con la llullucha y puedan generar mayores ingresos."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Figura 07. Ficha informativa del emprendimiento \"Nostoc\" con el puntaje de calificación como finalista de Perumin Inspira 2023."}]},{"head":"NOSTOC Cusco","index":56,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"11.63","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"NOSTOC busca reaprovechar el valor proteico, calcio y hierro de la llullucha para combatir la anemia en niños de zonas alto andinas a través de gomitas nutraceuticas y empoderar comunidades para generar producción sostenible de la llullucha."}]},{"head":"Beneficiarios","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Niños entre 2 a 5 de comunidades alto andinas."}]},{"head":"Obj etiv os con PERUMIN Inspira","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Avanzar en investigación científica con la producción de gomitas antianemia, establecer contactos valiosos en la industria y recibir asesoramiento ."}]},{"head":"Café Orígenes","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Café Orígenes es una cooperativa constituida en 2022 que cuenta con 60 familias productoras de café de especialidad del Valle de Lacco en Calca, Cusco. Su objetivo principal es mejorar la calidad de vida de las familias campesinas a través de la venta de café en mercados nacionales e internacionales."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Las 60 familias están ubicadas en las tres comunidades campesinas de Umapata, Mendosayoc, y Juihuay. Solo Umapata tiene parcial acceso a una carretera, y en algunos tramos deben llevar su café en el lomo de una mula hasta el fin de la carretera. La mayoría tiene que transportar el café más de dos horas en caminos de mucha pendiente para llegar a un punto central de acopio. Debido a este aislamiento geográfico donde no hay señal para celulares, tienen poca capacidad de negociación con los comerciantes de la zona aceptando precios que no reconocen la alto calidad de su producto."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"En ese contexto, se han organizado para acceder a los mercados lucrativos con un modelo cooperativo que les permite negociar con mayor ventaja en los diversos mercados y acceder a asistencia técnica de instituciones públicas y privadas. Han desarrollado y se han insertado al mercado con su marca Café Orígenes que trasmite el concepto de producción sostenible y con cultura local."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Figura 08. Ficha informativa del emprendimiento \"Café Origenes\" con el puntaje de calificación como finalista de Perumin Inspira 2023."}]},{"head":"Café Orígenes","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Cusco Los productores de café en el Valle de Lacco, región de Cusco, afrontan grandes desafíos para lograr medios de vida sostenibles. Café Orígenes proporciona las herramientas para brindarle sostenibilidad a la producción de café y su comercialización."}]},{"head":"11.38","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Beneficiarios 60 familias de las Centros Poblados de Mendosayoc, JuyHuay y Umapata que no cuentan con acceso a servicios ni carreteras (Umapata es el único centro con acceso vehícular)."}]},{"head":"Obj etiv os con PERUMIN Inspira","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Crear una comunidad para abordar problemáticas de los pequeños productores mediante el intercambio de experiencias, obtener apoyo logístico, clientes y financistas para escalar el impacto."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"25 al 29 de septiembre, Arequipa"}]},{"head":"Waru","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Inversiones Qosqo Perú con su marca Waru es un emprendimiento social que busca mejorar la calidad de vida con salud alimentaria de poblaciones vulnerables de Cusco, buscando beneficiar a los productores altoandinos de quinua, cañihua, kiwicha y maíz de donde se adquiere la producción a precios de acuerdo a la calidad. Se desarrolla valor agregado, mediante la extrusión, aprovechando y conservando los nutrientes de los granos hasta en un 95 % Responden a una situación con altos índices de desnutrición y anemia se que se evidencia en las zonas rurales (07 niños de 10 se ven afectados) y en zonas urbanas (hasta 04 de 10 niños se ven afectados). Han introducido a diversos mercados cuatro presentaciones de productos extruidos siendo Super Warumix H el producto principal, que es un cereal extruido de granos andinos con alto contenido de hierro heminico (sangre bovina deshidratada). Han establecido alianzas comerciales directas con 18 municipalidades de diferentes distritos del Cusco."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Figura 09. Ficha informativa del emprendimiento \"Waru\" con el puntaje de calificación como finalista de Perumin Inspira 2023."}]},{"head":"Inversiones Qosqo","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Cusco Elaboración de productos ricos en hierro heminico que permite la lucha contra la anemia y la desnutrición, revalorando los granos andinos de cereales de granos andinos"}]},{"head":"Beneficiarios","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Niños con bajos niveles de nutrición desecadenando cuadros de anemia desde los 06 meses hasta los 36 meses a más"}]},{"head":"Obj etiv os con PERUMIN Inspira","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Financiamiento para continuar con la investigación."}]},{"head":"Hortalizas del Colca","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"La baja productividad de la agricultura en los centros poblados del Colca genera dependencia económica e Inseguridad alimentaria en las mujeres y en las familias del poblado, y en ese contexto el emprendimiento busca implementar módulos acuapónicos para la producción de hortalizas y crianza de truchas. Asimismo, facilitar el acceso a diversos mercados con productos de calidad. Se busca empoderar a las mujeres y generar nuevos puestos de trabajo para contribuir a la generación de ingresos y mejorar su seguridad alimentaria."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Se utiliza la tecnología acuapónica y la disponibilidad de ojos de agua para producir hortalizas naturales y truchas. Se logra producir hortalizas sin el uso de nutrientes procesados. La estrategia de crecimiento busca la implementación de módulos pilotos para el entrenamiento de las familias agricultoras que cuenten con ojos de agua. Actualmente, el emprendimiento cuenta con un alcance de 40 mujeres beneficiadas."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Figura 10. Ficha informativa del emprendimiento \"Hortalizas del Colca\" con el puntaje de calificación como finalista de Perumin Inspira 2023."}]},{"head":"Características de los Finalistas CIP Agrilac Resiliente","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"El siguiente cuadro resumen las características generales de los emprendimientos finalistas que se identificaron en la versión 2023 de Perumin Inspira."}]},{"head":"Hortalizas Del Colca","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Arequipa"}]},{"head":"11.33","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Hortalizas Del Colca, primeramente nació para garantizar la seguridad alimentaria de niños y ancianos del CP Lago del Colca Chichas en el distrito de Callalli, provincia de Caylloma, Arequipa, y para crear puestos de trabajo digno para sus madres. "}]},{"head":"Obj etiv os con PERUMIN Inspira","index":72,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Asesoría comercial para mejorar la visibilidad de su emprendimiento social sostenible y beneficiar a las poblaciones más vulnerables de la sierra peruana. Apuntan a un modelo de inclusión comercial, donde el beneficiario es el proveedor de la materia prima."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Se orientan a la comercialización con programas sociales con diferentes municipalidades y público horizontal (amplio)."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Corto Plazo: comercializar el producto en Cusco mediante el sello Allin Kausay."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Mediano Plazo: se busca lograr el posicionamiento de la marca en los mercados nacionales con una base en la economía circular."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"A largo plazo: acceder a mercados internacionales."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Financiamiento para continuar con la investigación."}]},{"head":"Beneficiarios directos: 3000 personas","index":73,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Hortali zas del","index":74,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Colca","index":75,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Los módulos acuapónicos desarrollados utilizan tecnología de punta que permite automatizar casi el 100% de la producción y facilita que las mujeres lo manejen de manera eficiente. E. Valoración: Responde significativamente al criterio de \"relevancia del problema\", e \"innovación\", al estar orientado la superación de la anemia infantil con la generación de un subproducto de la especie lacustre: Nostoc Sphaericum (llullucha, cushuro), bajo la formulación de golosina: \"gomitas\", rica en hierro, proteínas y calcio. Asimismo, se orienta a revalorizar la biodiversidad, y la preservación del cultivo con prácticas amigables al medio ambiente, contribuye a la mitigación del cambio climático con la captura significativa de CO2. Actuales beneficiarios, familias de dos comunidades de las provincias de Cusco y Espinar, Región Cusco."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Mayor información sobre esta experiencia se puede encontrar en los siguientes enlaces: https://cipotato.org/es/blog-es/perumin-inspira-2023-identifican-emprendimientos-agregan-valor-agrobiodiversidad/ "}]},{"head":"F. Galeria fotográfica","index":76,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONES","index":77,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"De manera general, uno de los objetivos de Perumin Inspira se orienta al fortalecimiento de capacidades. Los emprendedores valoran como una de las cosas fundamentales el sus capacidades para aprovechar de mejor manera todas estas oportunidades de negocio. Un segundo punto tiene que ver con tomar como base el desarrollo de innovaciones que generen valor en los productos. Un tercer punto viene por el lado que los emprendimientos buscan promover un desarrollo a nivel local y regional. Son emprendimientos que están en las mismas zonas que pueden interactuar en diferentes contextos y demuestran que si es posible promover negocios a nivel local y regional, aprovechan las oportunidades y generar una especie de ecosistema que permite interactuar con diferentes actores públicos y privados."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Se pueden mencionar algunas de las características de los emprendimientos identificados este año y que tienen elementos muy interesantes:"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"i) Se orientan a valorar la agrobiodiversidad y contribuyen a la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional; ii)"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Generan valor agregado (desarrollo de productos procesados; iii)"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Identifican como una característica diferencial el aporte a la nutrición y salud; iv) Son promovidos por jóvenes; v)"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"La mayoría son productos que ya pasaron la etapa de prototipos; vi)"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"Generan empleo a nivel local; vii)"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"Se enmarcan dentro de los ODS; viii)"},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"Se articulan con ecosistemas de innovación a nivel local dinamizando procesos de investigación y desarrollo en territorios; ix)"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"Contribuyen a la mitigación del impacto del cambio climático."},{"index":11,"size":115,"text":"En los emprendimientos identificados el concepto de innovación es clave, para crear valor, desarrollo y empleo en las poblaciones de las regiones. Se ha internalizado el concepto que la innovación es la que crea valor, la innovación es la que genera oportunidades de desarrollo, de trabajo, de empleo y es un punto importante para sustentar este tipo de iniciativas. Para potenciar estos procesos se deben promover acciones para el fortalecimiento de capacidades que permita aprovechar de mejor manera todas estas oportunidades de negocio. Finalmente, estas experiencias promueven el desarrollo a nivel local y regional, dado que se encuentran en los mismos territorios y están demostrando que si es posible aprovechar las ventajas competitivas que poseen."},{"index":12,"size":10,"text":"En este marco se aplican diversos conceptos de manera práctica:"},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"• Alternativas muy concretas que necesitan escalamiento (la visibilidad del concurso le brinda esa posibilidad) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ODS 8 Trabajo decente y crecimiento económico  ODS 12 Producción y consumos responsables  ODS 13 Acción por el clima Asimismo, deberán responder a los siguientes requisitos específicos: "},{"text":" 25 al 29 de septiembre, ArequipaEn la etapa de convocatoria se trabajó de manera colabora�va para lograr generar interés en la audiencia a través de: "},{"text":"Figura 04 . Figura 04. Talleres virtuales para el fortalecimiento de capacidades de los finalistas de Perumin Inspira 2023. "},{"text":"Beneficiarios 40 familias del CP Lago del Colca Chichas, 40 familias del distrito de Yanque (en proceso) "},{"text":"Foto 01 : Presentación de NOSTOC en el evento final en Arequipa Foto 02: Promoción del producto en ferias locales y regionales Foto 03: Producto desarrollado Foto 04: El cushuro está disponible en las lagunas altoandinas. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" El problema abordado está referido al desarrollo del país, pero no es relevante o prioritario.3) El problema abordado es relevante o prioritario y limita las posibilidades de desarrollo de un grupo social. 4) El problema abordado es relevante y prioritario y limita o elimina las posibilidades de desarrollo de más de un grupo social. Criterio Descripción Puntaje CriterioDescripciónPuntaje 1. RELEVANCIA DEL El problema que busca resolver el 1) No aborda un problema referido al desarrollo o bienestar 1. RELEVANCIA DELEl problema que busca resolver el1) No aborda un problema referido al desarrollo o bienestar PROBLEMA (20%) emprendimiento es relevante o social. PROBLEMA (20%)emprendimiento es relevante osocial.  prioritario para el desarrollo del país. 2) prioritario para el desarrollo del país.2)  Se consideran los ODS de Naciones  Se consideran los ODS de Naciones  Unidas como temáticas relevantes para  Unidas como temáticas relevantes para  el desarrollo del país. El problema a  el desarrollo del país. El problema a  resolver limita las posibilidades de  resolver limita las posibilidades de  bienestar y desarrollo.  bienestar y desarrollo.  "},{"text":"4.3. Emprendimiento ganador de la Categoría CIP Agrilac Resiliente Emprendimiento Ganador de AgriLac Resiliente: NOSTOC Tabla 02. Características básicas de los emprendimientos finalistas del Premio Especial CIP Agrilac Resiliente Nely Soledad Huaypuna Huaylla. ([email protected]) B. Propósito: Reaprovechar el valor proteico, calcio y hierro de la llullucha para combatir la anemia en niños de zonas altoandinas, con gomitas nutracéuticas y empoderar comunidades para generar producción sostenible de la llullucha. Buscar apoyo para la investigación científica; desarrollo tecnológico; transferencia de innovación a las comunidades y redes de contacto. Ganador del Emprendimiento de Hutl Prize Unsaac, Hult Prize Bogotá, 10 mejores emprendimientos Hult Prize Global 2021 -Reto \"Food for Good, transforming food into a vehicle for change\". C. ODS: 1. Pobreza,  C. ODS:1. Pobreza,  2. Hambre Cero,  2. Hambre Cero,  13. Acción contra el clima  13. Acción contra el clima D. Antecedentes:  D. Antecedentes:  Trabajan con un modelo de Corto Plazo: terminar de Asesoría comercial, Trabajan con un modelo deCorto Plazo: terminar deAsesoría comercial,  inclusión comercial. Se busca implementar un tercer módulo para hacer más inclusión comercial. Se buscaimplementar un tercer módulopara hacer más  acceder a mercados de en el distrito de Yanque. visibles los acceder a mercados deen el distrito de Yanque.visibles los  comercio justo. Se ofrece a la venta módulos acuapónicos, servicios como las capacitaciones para sustentar de manera técnica la producción y venta de hortalizas y truchas. Mediano Plazo: implementar 6 módulos con municipios locales que quieren abastecer a sus comedores populares. Largo Plazo: Instalar módulos en otras regiones fuera de Arequipa. beneficios de nuestro emprendimiento social. Beneficiarios directos: 150 personas comercio justo. Se ofrece a la venta módulos acuapónicos, servicios como las capacitaciones para sustentar de manera técnica la producción y venta de hortalizas y truchas.Mediano Plazo: implementar 6 módulos con municipios locales que quieren abastecer a sus comedores populares. Largo Plazo: Instalar módulos en otras regiones fuera de Arequipa.beneficios de nuestro emprendimiento social. Beneficiarios directos: 150 personas  "}],"sieverID":"d062db74-95ed-4d38-85e0-db37a107b68e","abstract":"Las publicaciones del CIP contribuyen con información importante sobre el desarrollo para el dominio público. Los lectores están autorizados a citar o reproducir este material en sus propias publicaciones. Se solicita respetar los derechos de autor del CIP y enviar una copia de la publicación donde se realizó la cita o publicó el material al Departamento de Comunicaciones, a la dirección que se indica abajo."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0787b32cc6b524b554135110ade7d9c5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da5dfc9b-187b-4219-97c5-c10bb4886e9f/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Índice de tablas y figuras","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agradecimientos","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Este documento fue construido luego del curso virtual sobre genética y rotación de agroquímicos, donde se evidenció la necesidad de un documento accesible que sintetice los principales conceptos y brinde apoyo en la toma de decisiones al momento de usar agroquímicos para un mejor control de plagas."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Queremos manifestar nuestro agradecimiento a todos los participantes del curso virtual y, en especial, a Hugo Guevara, quien compartió sus conocimientos y experiencias desarrolladas durante su vida profesional, lo que hizo posible este documento."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Agradecemos también a Carmen Castillo, del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP); y a Claudio Velasco y Nancy Panchi, del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), por su apoyo en la coordinación y desarrollo del curso virtual, así como por la revisión de este documento."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"La participación del CIP en esta publicación es parte del programa global de investigación del CGIAR en Raíces, Tubérculos y Banana (CRP-RTB) en el marco del proyecto \"Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima: generando sinergias entre los saberes locales y científicos para lograr resiliencia y capacidad adaptativa en los altos Andes\", coordinado por el Centro Internacional de la Papa con el financiamiento de la Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (AECID), que financió el curso virtual y el tiraje de este documento."}]},{"head":"Presentación","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"En este documento se analizan aspectos relacionados con el uso eficiente de agroquímicos; está dirigido a técnicos extensionistas de instituciones públicas, privadas, estudiantes de carreras agropecuarias y personas relacionadas con la actividad agrícola."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Este documento presenta un compendio de los contenidos técnicos y prácticos impartidos en el curso virtual sobre genética de agroquímicos, conceptos básicos para un mejor uso, realizado entre el 9 y el 25 de junio de 2020. Tiene como objetivo dar a conocer, a los usuarios, las características específicas de los agroquímicos para realizar un control eficiente de plagas y ser una fuente de consulta a la hora de tomar decisiones sobre ese tema. Se basa en recomendaciones técnicas avaladas científicamente a nivel global que previenen la resistencia de las plagas a los insecticidas."}]},{"head":"Introducción","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"El uso de agroquímicos a nivel mundial se incrementa cada año a pesar de los esfuerzos de las autoridades para restringir el uso de ingredientes activos (IA) de alto riesgo para la salud humana y de alto impacto para el ambiente."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"El esfuerzo de la industria de protección de cultivos, a nivel global, desarrolla opciones orgánicas y biológicas; sin embargo, el incremento de la demanda de productos agrícolas, debido al crecimiento exponencial de la población, ha permitido que, junto al mal uso de agroquímicos, las poblaciones de plagas adquieran resistencia, activando genes que permiten acortar sus ciclos de vida, incrementar el número de individuos más fuertes y desarrollar mecanismos de defensa como protecciones de quitina, exoesqueletos, ceras, entre otros, que otorgan mayor resistencia al control químico."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Ecuador no es una excepción a esta tendencia. De manera periódica, la autoridad competente revisa y restringe ingredientes activos. Por su parte, las nuevas opciones de control son lanzadas al mercado con reducida velocidad, debido al costo y tiempo que requiere la producción de nuevos ingredientes activos o modos de acción."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"Se puede dimensionar la necesidad de conocer a fondo las características fisicoquímicas y el potencial de las opciones que tenemos disponibles para realizar el control de plagas, utilizando criterios técnicos como el modo y mecanismo de acción de los pesticidas, el pH ideal de uso, cantidad de ingrediente activo por hectárea (ha) en función de los hábitos del blanco biológico y los factores climáticos, principalmente temperatura y humedad relativa, que tienen mayor impacto en la multiplicación de plagas."}]},{"head":"Manejo de agroquímicos y rotación para el control de plagas 1. Propiedades fisicoquímicas de un agroquímico","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Para comprender de mejor forma el funcionamiento de un plaguicida en el control de malezas, insectos plaga, hongos fitopatógenos, nematodos, bacterias, entre otros, es necesario conocer sus propiedades fisicoquímicas."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Las propiedades fisicoquímicas (tales como solubilidad, coeficiente de partición Octanol/agua (Kow), peso molecular, pH, coeficiente de adsorción en el suelo (Koc), constante de disociación ácida (pKa), presión de vapor, entre otras) son los índices que más información práctica nos muestran y determinan la entrada al interior de la planta, su velocidad de movimiento, comportamiento en el suelo, las posibilidades de mezcla, actividad en el medio ambiente, y otros aspectos relacionados."}]},{"head":"Solubilidad","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"La solubilidad en agua es una medida que determina la máxima concentración de un plaguicida a disolverse en un litro de agua; por lo general, tiene valores que van de 1 a 1 000 000 ppm (partes por millón). Los valores de solubilidad en agua reportados para los compuestos son determinados en experimentos de laboratorio a temperaturas entre 20 a 25 ºC."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"La solubilidad de un compuesto determina la posibilidad de entrada de un plaguicida a través de las hojas de la planta; también define el tipo de formulación del ingrediente activo. De acuerdo con este parámetro, los agroquímicos pueden ser:"},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"y Solubles en agua (hidrosolubles) y Solubles en grasas o aceites (liposolubles) y Baja solubilidad en agua, o en grasas y aceites y Solubles en agua, grasas y aceites Por lo general, los productos hidrosolubles penetran fácilmente a través de la cutícula de las hojas y tienen alta capacidad de movilización en la planta, por lo que las posibilidades de acumularse en el cuerpo humano o la cadena alimenticia son bajas. Los productos hidrosolubles generalmente son formulados como concentrados o líquidos solubles (SL). Esta característica está más relacionada con herbicidas y fungicidas. Para insecticidas, varía por razones de minimizar la fitotoxicidad o por aspectos de comercialización. Se consideran insecticidas hidrosolubles: cyromazine, thiamethoxam, metomil, entre otros (Zhang, 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"La solubilidad en grasas o aceites se refiere a la capacidad de un compuesto de disolverse en un solvente orgánico no polar (grasas o aceites). En la medida que esta afinidad por las grasas o los aceites es más alta, el producto se considera liposoluble. En general, un producto liposoluble penetra con dificultad la cutícula de la hoja y se puede quedar adherido a la misma. También este tipo de producto tiene menores posibilidades de movilización en las plantas y presenta más riesgo de acumularse en el cuerpo humano o la cadena alimenticia, sin que ello ocurra en la práctica para la mayoría de los casos. La formulación básica para este tipo de compuesto es la de concentrado emulsionable (EC). Se consideran insecticidas liposolubles: profenofos, lufenuron, lambdacihalotrina, abamectina, clorpirifos y piretroides en general."}]},{"head":"Partición octanol/agua (Kow)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Es una ecuación matemática que relaciona, en el numerador, la afinidad del producto por las grasas o aceites; y, en el denominador, la afinidad por el agua."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"-Cuando el valor de la fracción es 1, el ingrediente activo presenta una similar afinidad por las grasas o aceites y por el agua. -Cuando el valor es mayor a 1, el ingrediente activo incrementa su carácter liposoluble. -Cuando el valor está por debajo de 1, el ingrediente activo presenta mayor carácter hidrosoluble."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Nivel de sistemicidad de un ingrediente activo."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"A medida que el valor de Kow es más bajo, el producto presenta mayor sistemicidad y alcanza mayor movimiento dentro de la planta. Por el contrario, en la medida que el Kow es más alto, el producto es menos sistémico y móvil."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"Asimismo, cuando el valor de Kow es más alto, el riesgo de acumulación es mayor, incluso la posibilidad de acumulación en el tejido graso de los animales y de los seres humanos."},{"index":6,"size":115,"text":"Los pesticidas son ampliamente utilizados en la agricultura para controlar malezas, plagas y enfermedades. El control exitoso depende de que el compuesto llegue al sitio objetivo dentro del organismo después de la aplicación por rociado a la planta o al suelo. Esto está influenciado por una variedad de factores fisiológicos y ambientales. Uno de estos factores es la absorción en el tejido foliar y las raíces, y el movimiento posterior a través de la planta. La absorción y la translocación (y el metabolismo) pueden afectar la velocidad y la persistencia de la acción, la selectividad de los cultivos y el espectro de malezas, por lo que comprender estos problemas es de gran importancia (Zhang, 2018). "}]},{"head":"pH","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Se refiere a la concentración de iones H+ en una solución y determina su grado de acidez o alcalinidad. Presenta valores entre 1 y 14. Cuando una solución presenta valores de pH de 1 a 6, se considera que es ácida; mientras que, cuando los valores se encuentran entre 8 y 14, se considera que es alcalina; el valor 7 se refiere a la neutralidad."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Tabla 2. Índices de peso molecular de ingredientes activos. El pH de un compuesto determina:"},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"-La vía por donde se podría movilizar: xilema o floema. Por lo general, los productos de pH alcalino-sistémicos se movilizan por el xilema, mientras que los productos ácido-sistémicos inicialmente tienen un cierto movimiento por el xilema, pero finalmente terminan moviéndose por el floema. Los productos de pH neutro se pueden mover tanto por el xilema como por el floema, y se los considera estables y uniformes."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"-El comportamiento de un producto al ser diluido en aguas ácidas o alcalinas."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"-La compatibilidad física al ser mezclados con otros productos en el tanque de aspersión y el valor de pH del agua al que se debería trabajar dicha mezcla (Hock, 2007)."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Figura 2. Diagrama de corte transversal de una hoja."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"Fuente: Pesticides modes of action, Pest Management, 2019"}]},{"head":"a. Coeficiente de adsorción (Koc)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"El coeficiente de adsorción es una medida de la tendencia de un compuesto orgánico a ser adsorbido (retenido) por el suelo o los sedimentos suspendidos en el agua."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"El valor de Koc es específico para cada plaguicida y es muy independiente de las propiedades del suelo. Los valores de Koc van desde 1 hasta 10 000 000 ppm."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Un Koc elevado significa que el plaguicida se fija con firmeza a la arcilla, en la materia orgánica o los coloides del suelo, por lo que poca cantidad del compuesto se moverá por lixiviación a las aguas subterráneas o los acuíferos. También significa que dicho compuesto tendrá poca capacidad para ejercer una actividad de control de malezas, insectos plaga u hongos, si se realizara una aplicación al suelo."}]},{"head":"b. Presión de vapor","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Es una medida de la volatilidad de una sustancia química en estado puro; además, es un determinante importante de la velocidad de volatilización al aire desde el suelo o cuerpos de agua superficiales. A mayor presión de vapor, mayor posibilidad de volatilización."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"La presión de vapor varía en función de la temperatura: es mayor si se incrementa la temperatura, y disminuye cuando la temperatura decrece. Por lo general, los valores de presión de vapor de los plaguicidas son determinados experimentalmente en un laboratorio a 25 ºC."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"La presión de vapor se expresa utilizando una variedad de unidades como los pascales (Pa), milímetros de mercurio (mm de Hg), libras por pulgada cuadrada (lb/pul 2 ) y atmósferas (atm). La unidad del sistema internacional de presión de vapor es el pascal o el milipascal (mPa). 1 000 milipascales equivalen a 1 pascal."}]},{"head":"c o n t e n i d o t é c n i c o -g e n é t i c a d e a g r o q u í m i c o s","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Se considera que, cuando el valor de presión de vapor de una sustancia es mayor a 1 milipascal, tiene potencial para volatilizarse, como se ve en las siguientes tablas. "}]},{"head":"c. Peso molecular","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Es un número que indica cuántas veces mayor es la masa de una molécula de una sustancia con respecto a la unidad de masa atómica. Se determina sumando las masas atómicas relativas de los elementos cuyos átomos constituyen una molécula de dicha sustancia."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"El peso molecular de un ingrediente activo determina la velocidad del movimiento en una planta. A mayor peso molecular, más lento es el transporte de ese compuesto a través de los tejidos conductores xilema y floema (Zhang, 2018). Por el contrario, a medida que el compuesto tiene una menor masa molecular, más rápido es transportado dentro de la planta y mayores posibilidades tiene de detener el daño de un hongo o un insecto en el tejido vegetal o más rápido aparecerán los síntomas de daño ocasionados por un herbicida; sin embargo, en esa misma medida, también tendrá más posibilidades de producir daño al cultivo, ya que este tendrá menor tiempo para detoxificar al compuesto."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"-Menor a 100: Muy rápida movilización -Entre 100 y 300:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Rápida movilización -Entre 300 y 400:"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"Moderada velocidad de movilización. -Entre 400 y 600:"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Lenta movilización -Mayor a 600:"},{"index":7,"size":118,"text":"Muy lenta movilización En resumen, podemos concluir que los principales índices que permiten identificar con precisión las características de uso y funcionalidad de los agroquímicos son las detalladas a continuación: Una vez descritos los conceptos de los principales índices, podemos interpretar información específica de la naturaleza y uso correcto de cada ingrediente, de tal forma que podamos elegir una opción adecuada. A continuación, se describe información de varios insecticidas, de forma que podamos determinar cuáles serían las ideales para el control de insectos masticadores de hojas: Teniendo presente que la solubilidad en grasas, ligada a un Kow alto, nos dan información de buena adherencia a las hojas, podemos concluir que, para este ejemplo, deltametrina es la mejor opción."},{"index":8,"size":81,"text":"La búsqueda de la información de los índices es muy sencilla, basta con colocar en el buscador \"Kow de …\" más el nombre del ingrediente ejemplo imidacloprid: \"Kow de imidacloprid\" y aparecerán varios enlaces con el valor del índice de sistemia Kow, expresado como su logaritmo: log Kow y el valor del ingrediente: 0,57 que, en este caso, es el valor Kow de imidacloprid. De esta misma forma, podemos encontrar los valores de los demás índices descritos en la guía técnica."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"Otra fuente muy práctica y segura es el índice de la web de la Universidad de Hertfordshire, en su Base de Datos de Propiedades de Pesticidas PPDB (https://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/), base en la cual es posible encontrar una de las más completas fuentes de índices de agroquímicos registrados a nivel mundial."}]},{"head":"Modo y mecanismo de acción","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"En términos generales, el uso de fungicidas, insecticidas y herbicidas requiere el análisis desde la óptica del modo y mecanismo de acción para prolongar la efectividad de estos ingredientes activos y evitar problemas de resistencia en control de plagas."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"La revisión de modos y mecanismos de acción permite agrupar los ingredientes activos considerando el efecto bioquímico en la plaga, y un factor principal es identificar patrones de resistencia cruzada entre los ingredientes activos aplicados tanto en mezclas (preparadas o de tanque) como en rotación. Esta forma de considerar las opciones de control químico es aceptable para minimizar el riesgo de desarrollar resistencia."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"Estas estrategias son válidas para todos los ingredientes activos con sitio de acción específicos y en situaciones donde hay necesidad de adaptarse a un cambio por reducción en la sensibilidad (eficacia). La reducción del número de aplicaciones por año es otra herramienta importante para el manejo antiresistencia. Una combinación de un número limitado de ciclos de aplicación, rotación y uso de mezclas permitirá usar todas las herramientas disponibles para el manejo de resistencia. El uso de medidas eficientes de manejo integrado de enfermedades, en paralelo con programas de fumigación de ingredientes activos, variedades resistentes, medidas de control biológico y buenas prácticas agrícolas, disminuirá la presión de selección y, por tanto, el riesgo de resistencia."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Los conceptos de modo y mecanismo de acción se explican de forma resumida:"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"y Modo de acción: cómo actúa un IA en la planta. y Mecanismo de acción: cómo actúa un IA en la plaga."}]},{"head":"Modo de acción","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"El modo de acción está relacionado con la forma a través de la cual el ingrediente activo se encuentre disponible para alcanzar a la plaga. Los IA pueden ser sistémicos; estos tienen la capacidad de penetrar en la planta y desplazarse dentro de esta por los haces vasculares (xilema y floema), y son recomendados para el control de insectos plaga chupadores y hongos en etapa de penetración de estructuras al interior de la hoja. Otros IA solo tienen la capacidad de penetrar la cutícula de las superficies foliares (efecto translaminar) y son recomendados contra insectos con aparato bucal masticador y de hábitos defoliadores, minadores o barrenadores."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"De acuerdo con el modo de acción, podemos clasificar a los insecticidas como de contacto, ingestión e inhalación, según el Comité de Acción de Resistencia de Insecticidas (IRAC, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Acción por contacto","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Estos insecticidas tienen la capacidad de penetrar a través de los tarsos u órganos de los sentidos y de las membranas intersegmentales. Algunos ejemplos son: organofosforados, carbamatos y piretroides, entre otros."}]},{"head":"Acción por ingestión","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Estos insecticidas penetran al cuerpo por el tracto digestivo, al ingerir alimentos contaminados con el insecticida. Estos compuestos tienen la capacidad de atravesar la pared intestinal y llegar a la hemolinfa. Ejemplos son: benzoilureas y Bacillus thuringiensis, entre otros."}]},{"head":"Acción por inhalación","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Los insecticidas que actúan por inhalación penetran al insecto vía traqueal hasta los estigmas. Normalmente son compuestos con presiones de vapor altas, capaces de gasificarse a temperaturas elevadas. Como ejemplo tenemos los organofosforados."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Un mismo insecticida puede tener la capacidad de actuar por las tres vías de penetración descritas anteriormente, como es el caso de organofosforados y carbamatos. Otros solo actúan por ingestión, como ocurre con la mayoría de los inhibidores de síntesis de quitina o las formulaciones de Bacillus thuringiensis."}]},{"head":"Mecanismos de acción","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"De acuerdo con el mecanismo de acción, podemos clasificar a los insecticidas como neurotóxicos, bloqueadores de la respiración, reguladores de crecimiento y biológicos."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Para el caso de fungicidas, el enfoque del mecanismo de acción es el punto (objetivo) de acción dentro de la célula del hongo; por ejemplo: núcleo, vacuolas, mitocondrias, membrana, entre otros organelos, como señala el Comité de Acción de Resistencia de Insecticidas (IRAC, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Sistema nervioso central","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Dentro de este grupo está la mayoría de los insecticidas utilizados actualmente para la represión de insectos plagas en todas las áreas agrícolas del mundo."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"El sistema nervioso central de un insecto es una compleja red de células nerviosas o sensoriales que forman ganglios, en donde se procesa la respuesta a los estímulos y se controlan hormonas, temperatura corporal, apetito y movimiento en general."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Las células del sistema nervioso poseen subestructuras especializadas (dendrita y axón) para manejar diferentes aspectos del procesamiento de la información. Las dendritas reciben señales del medio ambiente y las transportan en forma de impulsos eléctricos. La sinapsis se da cuando los impulsos nerviosos son transmitidos del axón de una célula a la dendrita de la próxima célula (IRAC, 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Las células que intervienen en la transmisión de impulsos nerviosos están separadas por una hendidura de unos 30 nanómetros (la millonésima parte de un milímetro); para pasar por esta hendidura, se cuenta con la ayuda de diferentes compuestos químicos llamados neurotransmisores como la acetilcolina (Ach) que es un éster del ácido acético y colina."},{"index":5,"size":114,"text":"Cuando el impulso eléctrico llega a la hendidura sináptica, estimula unas vesículas al final del axón que contienen el neurotransmisor acetilcolina que es liberado y se va a unir a los receptores nicotínicos de acetilcolina en la siguiente célula, abriendo el canal sodio y permitiendo el flujo del impulso eléctrico para continuar su viaje. Una vez que la acetilcolina ha cumplido con su función, la enzima acetilcolinesterasa (AchE), que está en la hendidura sináptica, rompe la acetilcolina en dos compuestos: colina y ácido acético. Estos compuestos son reabsorbidos por la célula presináptica. Al eliminarse la acetilcolina de la célula postsináptica, esta vuelve a su estado de reposo y cesa la transmisión del impulso eléctrico."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"Hay muchos otros neurotransmisores y cada uno tiene su mecanismo específico de síntesis, recepción e inactivación. Desde el punto de vista del control de insectos plagas, otros neurotransmisores importantes son el ácido gamma aminobutírico (GABA), glutamato, y octopamina (IRAC, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Organofosforados y carbamatos","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Los insecticidas organofosforados y carbamatos son inhibidores de la síntesis de la enzima acetilcolinesterasa. Al no estar presente esta enzima, la acetilcolina no es transformada en colina y ácido acético; por lo tanto, los canales del ion sodio (Na+) permanecen abiertos, lo que genera que el impulso eléctrico sea permanente, produciendo excitación general y convulsiones al sistema muscular el cual, una vez agotada su reserva energética, entra en parálisis llevando al insecto a la postración (fatiga neuromuscular) y, finalmente, a la muerte."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Debido a la forma tan específica con la que actúan y el tiempo que tienen en el mercado, estos grupos químicos han desarrollado resistencia a varios tipos de plagas y, de acuerdo con observaciones realizas con respecto a Bactericera Cockerelli, aceleran la oviposición cuando se aplican solos, en rotación un grupo seguido del otro, o en mezcla. Por este motivo, se recomienda mezclarlos o alternarlos con otros grupos químicos como spinosines, fenilpyrazoles, piretroides, benzoilureas, entre otros."}]},{"head":"Piretroides","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Los piretroides actúan a nivel del axón sobre canales Na+. La molécula del compuesto se fija al canal, dejándolo abierto por un lapso mayor. Los piretroides producen cambios de permeabilidad en la membrana a nivel del axón a los iones sodio y potasio. Este mecanismo genera bloqueo del impulso eléctrico, parálisis y la muerte del insecto."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Al igual que organofosforados y carbamatos, son un grupo de alto riesgo de resistencia, principalmente cuando son aplicados solos; motivo por el cual se sugiere aplicarlos siempre en mezcla con otro mecanismo de acción."}]},{"head":"Spinosines","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Conformado por varios factores o metabolitos obtenidos a través de un proceso de fermentación del actinomiceto Sacharopolispora spinosa."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Los spinosines se acoplan (a través de un sistema de proteínas) a los receptores nicotínicos de acetilcolina, activándolos y permitiendo el flujo del ion sodio al interior de la célula postsináptica. Las células nerviosas activan el sistema muscular, produciendo síntomas como extensión de las patas, contracciones y temblores involuntarios, batir de alas, parálisis y, finalmente, la muerte del insecto."}]},{"head":"Fenilpyrazoles","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"En contraste con los receptores de acetilcolina, los cuales son activadores de canales sodio, los receptores GABA y los receptores del inhibidor glutamato activan canales que permiten a los iones cloruro, cargados negativamente, fluir al interior de las células. El flujo al interior de la célula de las cargas negativas (iones cloruro) inhibe la actividad de las neuronas y contrarrestan la acción de los neurotransmisores que la excitan, como la Ach."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Insecticidas, como fipronil, bloquean los canales cloruro (cierran canales cloruros) activados por GABA, resultando en una sobreexcitación generalizada del sistema nervioso, lo que genera fatiga neuromuscular."}]},{"head":"Avermectinas y milbemectinas","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Este tipo de compuestos estimulan la liberación presináptica del neurotransmisor inhibitorio GABA en el axón y potencializan la fijación de este en los receptores postsinápticos. De esta forma, inhiben la transmisión de señales (impulsos eléctricos) a las uniones neuromusculares mediante el mismo mecanismo de amplificación de la acción del GABA; o sea, dejan abiertos los canales cloruros por más tiempo. El resultado de este efecto es la paralización y muerte de los insectos."}]},{"head":"Neonicotinoides","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"El imidacloprid se une a los receptores nicotínicos de acetilcolina de la membrana postsináptica, cumpliendo la misma función del neurotransmisor acetilcolina (que activa canales Na+) pero, a diferencia de este, no puede ser degradado por la enzima acetilcolinesterasa. Esto genera una transmisión permanente del impulso eléctrico que lleva al insecto a la muerte por fatiga neuromuscular (IRAC, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Figura 5. Insecticidas que actúan en sistema nervioso."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Fuente: Insecticide Resistance Action Committee, IRAC Publications, 2019."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Uno de factores a tomar en cuenta, en el control de plagas que se vuelven persistentes, es que la mayoría de los ingredientes activos que se encuentran disponibles, ya sea por existir mayor cantidad de registros o incluso por tener menor costo por hectárea (ha), son los insecticidas que actúan en sistema nervioso; motivo por el cual, tomar en cuenta otros puntos de acción como el respiratorio, efectos sobre la muda, entre otros, incrementa la eficacia en la rotación y disminuye la carga química a ser utilizada (IRAC, 2020). "}]},{"head":"Actúan en respiración","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Todas las células necesitan energía, la cual es obtenida de los carbohidratos, grasas y aminoácidos de los alimentos. La energía de los alimentos se usa para hacer un intermediario rico en energía llamado adenosintrifosfato (ATP), el cual proporciona energía directamente a muchos procesos celulares. La conversión de la energía de los alimentos a energía ATP ocurre en estructuras especializadas, en el interior de las células, llamadas mitocondrias. Estas pequeñas estructuras membranosas tienen una cadena de enzimas que capturan la energía química liberada por la oxidación, cuidadosamente controlada de carbohidratos, grasas y aminoácidos. Debido a que el oxígeno molecular es usado en esta oxidación, el proceso se conoce como respiración mitocondrial."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"La energía química liberada por la oxidación se usa para bombear positivamente iones hidrógeno (H+) hacia el exterior circundante de la célula, dejando negativo el interior de la mitocondria. La energía contenida en los alimentos es, por tanto, almacenada temporalmente en forma de un voltaje a través de la membrana mitocondrial. Una enzima en dicha membrana, la ATP sintetasa, puede permitir a los iones H+ regresar al interior de la célula, usando la energía liberada por la neutralización de la carga resultante para sintetizar moléculas de ATP (IRAC, 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Resumiendo, en la respiración mitocondrial, la energía liberada por oxidación de los carbohidratos, grasas y aminoácidos derivados de la comida es capturada por la cadena respiratoria en forma de un gradiente de H+. Esta energía es normalmente usada por la ATP sintetasa para sintetizar ATP desde ADP y fosfato inorgánico."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Los insecticidas que afectan el metabolismo de la energía se conocen como bloqueadores de la respiración. A continuación, se los describe."}]},{"head":"Inhibidores de enzimas mitocondriales","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Varios insecticidas, principalmente identificados como acaricidas, por ejemplo, diafentiuron, son inhibidores mitocondriales de ATP sintetasa y afectan el metabolismo y la función de proteínas."}]},{"head":"Pirroles (chlorfenapir)","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Otro grupo de insecticidas llamados desacopladores son únicos porque no actúan mediante una proteína específica. Tienen la habilidad para lanzar protones a través de las membranas, eliminando el gradiente H+ y liberando su energía en forma de calor."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"En ausencia de un gradiente de protones, la enzima ATP sintetasa actúa en forma invertida y rápidamente hidroliza el ATP disponible, conduciendo a una rápida parálisis y a la muerte del insecto. Los desacopladores incluyen los insecticidas chlorfenapir, entre otros."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"El uso de este grupo de insecticidas es muy útil para evitar resistencia, debido a su punto de acción diferente a sistema nervioso, motivo por el cual resulta muy eficiente incluirlos en la rotación, ya que se obtiene un mejor control, en menor tiempo y con menor carga química. Un buen ejemplo del uso de este grupo de insecticidas para el control de Bactericera cockerelli es el uso de diafentiuron y chlorfenapir (IRAC, 2020). "}]},{"head":"Insecticidas reguladores de crecimiento","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Los insecticidas reguladores de crecimiento afectan el desarrollo del insecto, interfiriendo en procesos vitales de la metamorfosis. Generalmente, son compuestos de bajo impacto ambiental y se caracterizan porque actúan solamente por ingestión."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Dentro de este grupo, tenemos los inhibidores de síntesis de quitina, los simuladores de la hormona ecdisona y los que afectan a estadios juveniles (estadios ninfales). A continuación, se describe el mecanismo de acción de cada uno de estos compuestos."}]},{"head":"Inhibidores de síntesis de quitina","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"El constituyente más común de la cutícula del insecto es la quitina. La cutícula determina la forma y apariencia del animal, constituye el exoesqueleto, y es la barrera protectora entre los sistemas fisiológicos internos y el medio ambiente circundante."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"La quitina se encuentra abundantemente en la endocutícula, es responsable de la flexibilidad y elasticidad y de la extensibilidad de la cutícula. La exocutícula proporciona la rigidez de las partes duras como la cápsula cefálica. La epicutícula es la responsable de la impermeabilidad, impide que el insecto pierda agua por evaporación; esta parte posee una estructura compleja, su naturaleza varía en los diferentes insectos."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"Durante el proceso de muda del insecto, la formación de la nueva cutícula representa un proceso complejo que, si se perturba, puede resultar en la deformación o muerte. Este es el punto donde actúan los inhibidores de la síntesis de la quitina, interfiriendo con la deposición de quitina, según el Comité de Acción de Resistencia a Insecticidas (IRAC, 2020). Cuando el insecto ha ingerido el compuesto, la cutícula del nuevo instar se distorsiona y se debilita, por lo que no puede soportar la presión interna durante el proceso de muda o ecdisis. Tampoco puede dar suficiente soporte a los músculos involucrados en el proceso; esto resulta en la inhabilidad para deshacerse de la piel vieja debido a la falta de rigidez del exoesqueleto, llevando al insecto a la muerte durante un corto tiempo después de la muda."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Los principales síntomas son: la distorsión de la endocutícula, que ocasiona la ruptura de la cutícula y exudación de los fluidos internos del cuerpo; y, que la larva se vuelve de color oscuro debido a la oxidación de la hemolinfa exudada."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"En los insectos, la quitina puede ser sintetizada a partir de la glucosa. Los insecticidas inhibidores de síntesis de quitina actúan directamente en algún sitio en la ruta de la glucosa a la formación y deposición de la quitina. Se sugiere que la incorporación de glucosa o glucosamina en la quitina es bloqueada por este tipo de insecticidas, afectando directamente la enzima"}]},{"head":"Simuladores de la hormona ecdisona.","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"El desarrollo y el crecimiento de los insectos están controlados por la actividad cíclica de las células neurosecretoras del cerebro; la hormona producida activa la glándula toráxica, órgano que segrega la hormona de la muda, la ecdisona, para inducir una sucesión de mudas."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Los simuladores de hormona ecdisoma son insecticidas que actúan selectivamente sobre lepidópteros, imitando la función de la hormona ecdisona (20-hidroxiecdisona); de esta forma, inician una muda prematura que resulta letal. El activo del insecticida es rápidamente absorbido y se moviliza del sistema gástrico a la hemolinfa de la larva."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Una vez en la hemolinfa, la molécula se enlaza fuertemente con la proteína receptora de la ecdisona, la cual, al ser activada, inicia el proceso de la muda."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Una vez que el insecticida se enlaza con el receptor de ecdisona, las larvas dejan de alimentarse y se produce una nueva cutícula deforme debajo de la vieja cutícula. La larva, al no poder deshacerse de su vieja cutícula, muere de deshidratación y hambre."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"Las diacylhydrazinas conforman el grupo más desarrollado para el control de plagas agrícolas con insecticidas como methoxyfenozide y tebufenozide."}]},{"head":"Hormonas juveniles","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Otra hormona involucrada en el desarrollo de los insectos es la hormona juvenil, la cual está presente en todos los cambios de instar excepto en la última muda; o sea cuando, el insecto llega a su estado adulto. El ingrediente activo piriproxifen es un simulador sintético de esta hormona."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"La hormona juvenil, que es un terpeno, se encarga de conservar los rasgos juveniles del insecto y, prácticamente, es la que controla la metamorfosis. Las larvas o pupas que son controladas con esta clase de insecticidas no pueden completar su metamorfosis y/o no son capaces de reproducirse en su estado adulto."}]},{"head":"Insecticidas con mecanismo de acción desconocido","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Este grupo de insecticidas son de gran utilidad en vista de que permiten disminuir el riesgo de resistencia, según el Comité de Acción de Resistencia a Insecticidas (IRAC, 2020). Se indica, además, que ayuda a la efectividad de los controles si se evita el uso de aplicaciones \"en bloque\" o aplicar en repetidas ocasiones los insecticidas con el mismo mecanismo de acción, principalmente aquellos grupos químicos que actúan en sistema nervioso. Esta estrategia permite, incluso, disminuir el número de aplicaciones, debido a que las defensas de los insectos no logran identificar el sitio específico en el que son atacados, motivo por el cual los IA que se usan con mayor frecuencia tienen mejor efecto y se \"desgastan\" con menor velocidad (IRAC, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"Generalmente, los insecticidas con mecanismo de acción desconocido se caracterizan por no tener un rápido efecto; sin embargo, la duración de su efecto es muy significativo (por ser, en la mayoría de los casos, insecticidas de contacto), siendo otro de sus beneficios la afectación de los ciclos de las plagas, que generan la muerte de adultos, larvas y huevos. Este tipo de insecticidas permiten disminuir el impacto en el ambiente, ya que se disminuye la carga química y también el costo de la rotación de pesticidas para el agricultor. Los grupos 'UN', 'UNE', 'UNF' y 'UNM' son una excepción, pues no contienen compuestos que actúen sobre un punto de acción común y, por lo tanto, la alternancia de compuestos dentro del grupo estaría permitida."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Luego de revisar los diferentes grupos químicos, se concluye que las rotaciones de ingredientes activos con diferentes grupos químicos y mecanismos de acción son una recomendación sostenible en el manejo de resistencia a insecticidas (MRI), lo que minimiza la perdida de sensibilidad o eficacia para cada grupo químico."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Las estrategias del MRI tienen como objetivo prevenir o retrasar la evolución de resistencias a los insecticidas, o ayudar a que una población de insectos, en la que ha aparecido resistencia, retome su susceptibilidad (IRAC, 2020). "}]},{"head":"Tipos de formulaciones","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"El tipo de formulación tiene correlación sobre la eficacia biológica de las materias activas y, por consiguiente, sobre los residuos en alimentos y sobre el medio ambiente. A continuación, se detallan las principales ventajas e inconvenientes de las formulaciones más utilizadas (Bruce, 2001)."}]},{"head":"Polvos mojables (WP)","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Permiten la posibilidad de formulación a elevadas concentraciones, bajo riesgo de inflamabilidad, adaptables a todo tipo de materia activa, tamaño de partículas medio, buen reparto sobre la superficie a tratar, sin problemas de almacenamiento y con buen costo."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Entre sus inconvenientes está la dificultad de pesar la cantidad que debe transferirse al tanque y el peligro de formación de nube de polvo durante la preparación."}]},{"head":"Polvos solubles (SP)","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Esta formulación, a diferencia de los polvos mojables, no necesita agitación constante, no deja residuos, no es abrasivos y no tiene problemas al abrir la bolsa. La principal diferencia radica en que no manchan el follaje."}]},{"head":"Concentrado soluble o solución líquida (SL)","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Es un tipo de formulación con baja probabilidad de generar fitotoxicidad. Permite medir con facilidad, debido a que es líquido y permite mezclar, de forma rápida, en el tanque de solución. Como inconvenientes destaca que es aplicable solo a materias activas solubles en agua, riesgo de cristalización y rotura de embalajes por el frío."}]},{"head":"Líquidos miscibles en aceite (OL)","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Este tipo de formulación permite concentrar una gran cantidad de materia activa y, debido a la presencia de solventes afines al tipo de formulación, puede facilitar la penetración de la materia activa a través de la superficie de los vegetales. Como inconvenientes están que solo puede aplicarse con plaguicidas liposolubles, los mismos que pueden generar mayor fitotoxicidad, son inflamables, sensibles al frío durante el almacenamiento y tienen costo elevado."}]},{"head":"Gránulos dispersables en agua (WG/GDA)","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Son de fácil manipulación con ausencia de polvo, poco riesgo en almacenamiento y compatibles con muchos tipos de plaguicidas. Sin embargo, tienen dificultad de formulación, generalmente no alcanzan la capacidad de mezcla de las suspensiones concentradas, y tienen un costo mayor a los polvos mojables y solubles."}]},{"head":"Suspensiones concentradas (SC)","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Permiten facilidad de manipulación, concentración elevada de materia activa, ausencia de disolventes inflamables, ausencia de polvo, mantenimiento en suspensión elevado dado el pequeño tamaño de partícula (2-5 micras), buena estabilidad, y mojabilidad de las superficies de los vegetales. Sus inconvenientes son la formulación difícil de obtener que puede plantear problemas de precio elevado, y ciertos inconvenientes de mezclas con aceites."}]},{"head":"Microcápsulas en suspensión (ZC)","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Es una formulación moderna, que permite concentrar los IA en concentraciones superiores con respecto a cualquiera de las formulaciones líquidas. Otra característica muy importante es que permiten liberar, de forma lenta, uno de los IA en vista que uno de los dos ingredientes que vienen en mezcla se encuentra como suspensión concentrada y el otro se encuentra como microcápsulas en medio de la suspensión. Esta formulación no causa fitotoxicidad, tienen pH neutro y baja toxicidad para la salud humana (Bruce, 2001)."}]},{"head":"Cantidad de ingrediente activo por hectárea","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Este es un factor muy importante a considerar al momento de realizar una recomendación en vista de que puede ser motivo de error el dosificar en base a la dosis referencia de la cantidad de agua en centímetros cúbicos (cc) por litro (l), o dosis por tanque (de 200 l) como una de las referencias más frecuentes en Ecuador."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"La cantidad de agua de la solución en la que se preparan los agroquímicos varía considerablemente de acuerdo con el cultivo; incluso en un mismo cultivo, puede variar de acuerdo con la etapa de desarrollo fenológico del mismo. Como ejemplo se detallan volúmenes de agua por hectárea (ha), usados en varios cultivos:"},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Papa 600 litros, rosas 1500 litros, arroz 200 litros, cacao litros, sandía 600 litros, piña 4000 litros, mango 400 litros, banano 20 litros. En el cuadro previo, podemos visualizar valores mínimos y máximos de ingrediente activo (IA) por hectárea; en la tercera columna se encuentra el promedio entre el máximo y el mínimo. La cuarta columna indica la cantidad de IA que contiene el producto comercial (registro en Ecuador)."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"Usar la relación de dosificación sobre la base de la cantidad de IA promedio por ha resulta mucho más seguro al momento de realizar una recomendación, principalmente cuando la incidencia y/o severidad se encuentran en el umbral de importancia económica. El uso del rango bajo o menor a la media de la cantidad de IA se recomienda únicamente cuando la incidencia es baja (al inicio del ataque de la plaga). Como ejemplo, se analiza la mezcla de fipronil + thiamethoxam: Figura 6. Ejemplo de revisión de cantidad de ingrediente activo por ha."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"En esta imagen, podemos analizar un ejemplo de una mezcla de dos ingredientes. Según la dosis recomendada en la etiqueta (250 cc/ha), y tomando en cuenta la cantidad de IA promedio, en el caso de thiamethoxam se encuentra adecuado, mientras que en el caso de fipronil se encuentra un porcentaje más bajo del promedio, motivo por el cual es muy probable que la eficacia del producto no sea la esperada o que se genere resistencia en un tiempo relativamente corto."}]},{"head":"Rotaciones","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Una vez revisados varios conceptos que nos permiten tener una perspectiva más amplia del uso de los agroquímicos, el siguiente paso es elaborar una propuesta de rotación para el control de insectos."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"Al tratarse de un cultivo de papa, y tomando en cuenta el rango de precipitaciones indicado, tenemos presente que, en el caso hipotético en el que arrancamos la siembra en el mes de mayo y con un ciclo estimado de 6 meses, los meses de julio y agosto deberían ser los más complejos para el control de plagas debido a que, en términos generales, los ciclos poblacionales de los insectos se aceleran e incrementan en los meses con menor precipitación, como son, en este ejemplo, julio y agosto. La correlación de baja humedad relativa y picos de población altos nos permiten identificar que, justamente en estos meses, debemos usar las herramientas de control más alto o de choque para evitar que este acelerado incremento en la población de insectos tenga como consecuencia una importante pérdida en la producción. Otra de las acciones relevantes de este ejemplo de rotación es el uso de I.A. como las Ryanodinas (Chlorantraniliprole, Cyantraniliprole que tienen como característica positiva los días de permanencia en la hoja. Todos estos conceptos técnicos aplicados en campo y teniendo presente el costo de la rotación, permiten obtener resultados significativos al momento de la cosecha."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Tabla 13. Ejemplo de rotación para control de plagas en el cultivo de papa En este ejemplo de rotación, se observa el uso de IA que no son tan frecuentes; sin embargo, alternar mecanismos de acción que no actúan en sistema nervioso tiene como objetivo potencializar la sinergia de este mecanismo de acción de tal forma que sirva para reducir poblaciones y controlar la plaga con el menor tiempo y costo posibles."}]},{"head":"Ingrediente activo","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"A continuación, se detallan algunos ejemplos de ingredientes activos menos frecuentes en rotaciones para el control de insectos con aparato bucal chupador. En varios ensayos en campo en diferentes zonas del Ecuador en las que se encontró presencia de B. cockerelli, la inclusión de al menos dos ingredientes que afecten en la muda y un ingrediente que actúe en el sistema respiratorio permite obtener incrementos de control de 12 al 18 %."}]},{"head":"Anexos","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Anexo1.-Curriculum de la capacitación virtual de genética de pesticidas | Programa de Manejo y Rotación "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Tabla 1 . 6 Figura 1 .Figura 3 . Figura 1. Rangos de índice Kow .....................................................................................8 Tabla 2. Índices de peso molecular de ingredientes activos .......................................9 Figura 2. Diagrama de corte transversal de una hoja ................................................ Tabla 3. Rango de índice de presión de vapor de ingredientes activos .................... Tabla 4. Índices de presión de vapor de ingredientes activos ................................... Figura 3. Rangos de peso molecular .......................................................................... Tabla 5. Índices de peso molecular de ingredientes activos ..................................... "},{"text":"Figura 4 .Figura 6 . Figura 4. Resumen de funciones e índices de agroquímicos .................................... Tabla 6. Índices de ingredientes activos..................................................................... Figura 5. Insecticidas que actúan en sistema nervioso ............................................ Tabla 7. Insecticidas que actúan en sistema nervioso .............................................. Tabla 8. Insecticidas que actúan en sistema respiratorio ......................................... Tabla 9. Insecticidas que actúan en la muda del insecto (reguladores de crecimiento). ................................................................................ Tabla 10. Insecticidas con mecanismo de acción desconocido ............................... Tabla 11. Mecanismos de acción de los insecticidas ................................................ Tabla 12. Mecanismos de acción de los insecticidas ................................................ Figura 6. Ejemplo de revisión de cantidad de I.A. por hectárea................................ Figura 7. Número de aplicaciones vs. condiciones de humedad relativa. ............... Tabla 13. Ejemplo de rotación. Control de plagas en cultivo de papa ...................... Imagen 8. Rotación Bactericera cockerelli. Ingredientes poco frecuentes en el papa ............................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figura 1 . Figura 1. Rangos de índice Kow y rangos de sistemia. Muestra cuándo un IA es muy móvil, moderadamente móvil o no móvil. "},{"text":"Figura 4 . Figura 4. Resumen de las funciones e índices de agroquímicos. "},{"text":"Figura 7 . Figura 7. Número de aplicaciones vs. condiciones de humedad relativa "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Tabla 1. Índices de solubilidad de ingredientes activos. Producto Sol. Agua (ppm) Sol. Grasas (ppm) Formulación ProductoSol. Agua (ppm)Sol. Grasas (ppm)Formulación Bipiridilos 700 000 Insoluble SL Bipiridilos700 000InsolubleSL Mandipropamid 4,2 212 250 SC Mandipropamid4,2212 250SC Propamocarb 1 005 000 Moderada SL Propamocarb1 005 000ModeradaSL Piretroides 0,005 -2,1 Muy solubles EC Piretroides0,005 -2,1Muy solublesEC Benzoilureas 0,0057 -0,06 6 600 -46 000 EC Benzoilureas0,0057 -0,066 600 -46 000EC Avermectinas 0,0007 Muy solubles EC Avermectinas0,0007Muy solublesEC Triazoles 0,01 -156 Muy solubles EC Triazoles0,01 -156Muy solublesEC Etilenbisditiocarbamatos 6 10 SC -WP Etilenbisditiocarbamatos610SC -WP Clorotalonil 0,081 5 SC -WP Clorotalonil0,0815SC -WP  "},{"text":"Estabilidad de ingredientes activos en diferentes pH NOMBRE TÉCNICO TIEMPO DE DESCOMPOSICIÓN DEL 50% DEL PRODUCTO TIPO  Dodine No compatible con cal o Clorotalonil Fungicida DodineNo compatible con cal o ClorotalonilFungicida Etefon Óptimo en un pH de 3 Fitorregulador EtefonÓptimo en un pH de 3Fitorregulador Alfacipermtrina Tiene hidrólisis bajo condiciones alcalinas Insecticida Alfacipermtrina Tiene hidrólisis bajo condiciones alcalinasInsecticida Fluazifop-Butil Estable en un pH neutral Herbicida Fluazifop-Butil Estable en un pH neutralHerbicida Acefato Ác. Giberelico Malation Amitraz Metomilo Metribuzin Atrazina (s) Cobre Oxicloruro pH 9 (16 días) No debe ser combinado con materiales alcalinos Óptimo en un pH de 5 a 6 pH 3 (35 días) pH 6 (1,26 horas) pH 9,1 pérdida del 5% en 6 horas. Estable solo en agua ligeramente ácida 6 pH 7,1 (15 horas) Sin efecto pH 5,1 (35 horas) Lenta descomposición en condiciones alcalinas Óptima efectividad en un pH 6,5/7 Fitorregulador Insecticida Insecticida Insecticida Acaricida Herbicida Herbicida Fungicida Acefato Ác. Giberelico Malation Amitraz Metomilo Metribuzin Atrazina (s) Cobre OxicloruropH 9 (16 días) No debe ser combinado con materiales alcalinos Óptimo en un pH de 5 a 6 pH 3 (35 días) pH 6 (1,26 horas) pH 9,1 pérdida del 5% en 6 horas. Estable solo en agua ligeramente ácida 6 pH 7,1 (15 horas) Sin efecto pH 5,1 (35 horas) Lenta descomposición en condiciones alcalinas Óptima efectividad en un pH 6,5/7Fitorregulador Insecticida Insecticida Insecticida Acaricida Herbicida Herbicida Fungicida Bacillus T. Oxifluorfen Incompatible en pH alcalinos. Óptimo en un pH de 5 a 7 Insecticida Estable en pH neutro Herbicida Bacillus T. OxifluorfenIncompatible en pH alcalinos. Óptimo en un pH de 5 a 7 Insecticida Estable en pH neutro Herbicida Benalaxil Paracuat Estable en un medio ácido o neutro Estable excepto en condiciones alcalinas. Fungicida Herbicida Benalaxil ParacuatEstable en un medio ácido o neutro Estable excepto en condiciones alcalinas.Fungicida Herbicida Benomilo pH 7 (12 minutos) Óptimo en un pH 5,5/6,5 Fungicida BenomilopH 7 (12 minutos) Óptimo en un pH 5,5/6,5Fungicida Permetrin pH 6 (6-8 minutos) Estable en un pH de 5 a 6 Insecticida PermetrinpH 6 (6-8 minutos) Estable en un pH de 5 a 6Insecticida Bentazone pH 5,6 (sobre 30 horas) Sufre hidrólisis en condiciones alcalinas Herbicida BentazonepH 5,6 (sobre 30 horas) Sufre hidrólisis en condiciones alcalinasHerbicida Bromoxinil Propargita Expuesto a hidrólisis por encima de un pH de 7 pH 9 (1 día) Herbicida Acaricida Bromoxinil PropargitaExpuesto a hidrólisis por encima de un pH de 7 pH 9 (1 día)Herbicida Acaricida Captan pH 10 (12 minutos) pH 6 (3 días) Fungicida CaptanpH 10 (12 minutos) pH 6 (3 días)Fungicida  pH 4 (4 horas) pH 3 (7 días)  pH 4 (4 horas) pH 3 (7 días) Terbufos Estable en un pH 5,5/6,5 Hidroliza bajo condiciones alcalinas Insecticida- TerbufosEstable en un pH 5,5/6,5 Hidroliza bajo condiciones alcalinasInsecticida- Clorpirifos pH 10 (7 días), estable en soluciones neutras y Insecticida Nematicida ClorpirifospH 10 (7 días), estable en soluciones neutras yInsecticida Nematicida Triadimefon ligeramente ácidas Estable en un pH de 4 a 5 Fungicida Triadimefonligeramente ácidas Estable en un pH de 4 a 5Fungicida Clortalonil Fuente: Effect of water pH on Pesticide Efficacy. ISHS Acta Horticulture, 2007 pH 7 (12 minutos) Fungicida Clortalonil Fuente: Effect of water pH on Pesticide Efficacy. ISHS Acta Horticulture, 2007 pH 7 (12 minutos)Fungicida  pH 6 (6-8 horas)  pH 6 (6-8 horas) Cipermetrin pH 9 (35 horas), más estable en solución ácida Insecticida CipermetrinpH 9 (35 horas), más estable en solución ácidaInsecticida Diazinon pH 9 (136 días) Insecticida DiazinonpH 9 (136 días)Insecticida  pH 7,5 (185 días)  pH 7,5 (185 días)  pH 5 (31 días)  pH 5 (31 días)  Más estable cerca del neutro  Más estable cerca del neutro Dicamba Estable en un pH de 5 a 6 Herbicida DicambaEstable en un pH de 5 a 6Herbicida Dicofol Estable en un pH de 5,5 a 6 Acaricida DicofolEstable en un pH de 5,5 a 6Acaricida Dimetoato pH 9 (48 minutos) Insecticida DimetoatopH 9 (48 minutos)Insecticida  pH 6 (32 horas)  pH 6 (32 horas)  pH 4 (21 horas)  pH 4 (21 horas) Diuron Estable en un pH neutro Herbicida DiuronEstable en un pH neutroHerbicida  "},{"text":"Tabla 3 . Rango de índice de presión de vapor de ingredientes activos Volatilidad Presión de vapor (mPa) VolatilidadPresión de vapor (mPa) Muy baja < 0,1  Muy baja< 0,1 Baja 0,1 -0,9  Baja0,1 -0,9 Moderada 1 -10  Moderada1 -10 Alta 10 -100  Alta10 -100 Muy alta > 100  Muy alta> 100 Ingrediente A. Presión de Vapor Volatilidad Ingrediente A.Presión de VaporVolatilidad Metsulfuron metil 0,00000011 Muy baja Metsulfuron metil0,00000011Muy baja Bispiribac sodio 0,0000055 Muy baja Bispiribac sodio0,0000055Muy baja Glifosato 0,0021 Muy baja Glifosato0,0021Muy baja Paraquat 0,01 Muy baja Paraquat0,01Muy baja Atrazina 0,039 Muy baja Atrazina0,039Muy baja Ametrina 0,365 Baja Ametrina0,365Baja Pendimetalin 1,94 Moderada Pendimetalin1,94Moderada Alacloro 2,9 Moderada Alacloro2,9Moderada Clomazone 19,2 Alta Clomazone19,2Alta  "},{"text":" Tabla 11. Mecanismos de acción de los insecticidas Sulfoxaflor. Ciflumetofén  Aceite de Cydia Sulfoxaflor.CiflumetofénAceite deCydia Flupiradifurona   naranja. pomonella Flupiradifuronanaranja.pomonella Sistema nervioso Triflumezopyrim Respiración Reguladores de Ciromazina. crecimiento Acción (Mezcla de desconocida terpenoides Sistema GV (aislados digestivo V15, V22, Sistema nervioso TriflumezopyrimRespiraciónReguladores de Ciromazina. crecimientoAcción (Mezcla de desconocida terpenoidesSistema GV (aislados digestivo V15, V22,    QRD 460). Mexicano y QRD 460).Mexicano y Benfuracarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, carbosulfan, methiocarb, methomyl, oxamyl, pirimicarb, Bensultap, cartap hydrochloride, thiocyclam, thiosultap-sodium Diafenthiuron Bifenazato. Clofentezín, hexitiazox. Metoxifenocida, tebufenocida. Fluoruro de sulfurilo. Aceites de parafina. Maltodextrina. Tierra de diatomeas. Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (cepa AM65-52), R5), Helicoverpa armigera NPV (cepa HearNPV-BV0003). Benfuracarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, carbosulfan, methiocarb, methomyl, oxamyl, pirimicarb, Bensultap, cartap hydrochloride, thiocyclam, thiosultap-sodiumDiafenthiuron Bifenazato.Clofentezín, hexitiazox. Metoxifenocida, tebufenocida.Fluoruro de sulfurilo. Aceites de parafina. Maltodextrina. Tierra de diatomeas.Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (cepa AM65-52), R5), Helicoverpa armigera NPV (cepa HearNPV-BV0003). thiodicarb Acrinathrin,  Spirodiclofén, Beauveria Bacillus Spodoptera thiodicarb Acrinathrin,Spirodiclofén,BeauveriaBacillus Spodoptera Acephate, cadusafos, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, bifenthrin, beta-cyfluthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, gamma-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, dimethoate, alpha-cypermethrin, malathion, zeta-cypermethrin, pirimiphos-methyl, deltamethrin, profenofos fenvalerate, Azocyclotin, Cyhexatin, Fenbutatin Fenazaquín, oxide fenpiroximato, piridabén, tebufenpirad. spiromesifén, spirotetramat. Diflubenzurón, lufenurón, triflumurón. bassiana Dazomet, (cepas ATCC metam. 74040, GHA), Lecanicillium muscarium (antes Verticillium lecani) (cepa Ve6), thuringiensis subsp. aizawai (cepas GC-91, ABTS-1857), littoralis NPV (cepa SpliNPV-BV0005). Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Acephate, cadusafos, chlorpyrifos, diazinon, bifenthrin, beta-cyfluthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, gamma-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, dimethoate, alpha-cypermethrin, malathion, zeta-cypermethrin, pirimiphos-methyl, deltamethrin, profenofos fenvalerate,Azocyclotin, Cyhexatin, Fenbutatin Fenazaquín, oxide fenpiroximato, piridabén, tebufenpirad.spiromesifén, spirotetramat. Diflubenzurón, lufenurón, triflumurón.bassiana Dazomet, (cepas ATCC metam. 74040, GHA), Lecanicillium muscarium (antes Verticillium lecani) (cepa Ve6),thuringiensis subsp. aizawai (cepas GC-91, ABTS-1857), littoralis NPV (cepa SpliNPV-BV0005). Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. Organochlorines permethrin. Propargite  Azadiractín. Paecilomyces kurstaki Organochlorines permethrin.PropargiteAzadiractín. Paecilomyceskurstaki chlordane, Piretrinas.  Fenoxicarb. fumosoroseus (cepas ABTS- chlordane, Piretrinas.Fenoxicarb.fumosoroseus(cepas ABTS- endosulfan (Fiproles) ethiprole, fipronil Spinetoram, spinosad. Pimetrozina. 12D Fosfuro Al, fosfuro Mg Tetradifon Etoxazol. Azufre. (Isaria fumosorosea) (cepa FE 9901), Metarhizium 351, EG 2348, PB-54, SA-11, SA-12), Bacillus endosulfan (Fiproles) ethiprole, fipronil Spinetoram, spinosad. Pimetrozina.12D Fosfuro Al, fosfuro Mg TetradifonEtoxazol.Azufre. (Isaria fumosorosea) (cepa FE 9901), Metarhizium351, EG 2348, PB-54, SA-11, SA-12), Bacillus Abamectina, emamectina, Amitraz Chlorfenapyr, DNOC, Piriproxifen Polisulfuro de calcio. anisopliae var. anisopliaea thuringiensis subsp. Abamectina, emamectina, AmitrazChlorfenapyr, DNOC,PiriproxifenPolisulfuro de calcio. anisopliae var. anisopliaeathuringiensis subsp. milbemectina. Indoxacarb. clotianidina, Acetamiprid, Metaflumizona. Sulfluramid Acequinocil.  (cepa F52). de ácidos Sales potásicas tenebrionis (cepa NB 176). milbemectina. Indoxacarb. clotianidina, Acetamiprid, Metaflumizona.Sulfluramid Acequinocil.(cepa F52). de ácidos Sales potásicastenebrionis (cepa NB 176). imidacloprid, tiacloprid, Ciantraniliprol, clorantraniliprol.  Buprofezín. grasos vegetales.  imidacloprid, tiacloprid, Ciantraniliprol, clorantraniliprol.Buprofezín.grasos vegetales. tiametoxam. Dinotefuran Flonicamid.     tiametoxam. Dinotefuran Flonicamid. Fuente: Comité de Acción de Resistencia a Insecticidas (IRAC). MoA Workgroup, 2019.  Fuente: Comité de Acción de Resistencia a Insecticidas (IRAC). MoA Workgroup, 2019.  "},{"text":"Mecanismo de acción Modo de acción  Metomil Degrada acetil colinesterasa Sistémico MetomilDegrada acetil colinesterasaSistémico Lufenuron Inhibe muda de larva a adulto (Lepidópteros) Contacto LufenuronInhibe muda de larva a adulto (Lepidópteros)Contacto Fipronil Actúa en el cloro Translaminar FipronilActúa en el cloroTranslaminar Pyridalyl Mecanismo desconocido Contacto PyridalylMecanismo desconocidoContacto Clorpirifos Inhibe acetil colinesterasa Contacto ClorpirifosInhibe acetil colinesterasaContacto Sulfoxaflor Bloquea receptores nicotínicos Sistémico SulfoxaflorBloquea receptores nicotínicosSistémico Indoxacarb Actúa en el sodio y potasio Contacto IndoxacarbActúa en el sodio y potasioContacto Abamectina Actúa en el cloro Translaminar AbamectinaActúa en el cloroTranslaminar Spinosad Modula los receptores nicotínicos Contacto SpinosadModula los receptores nicotínicosContacto Piriproxifen Inhibe la muda de larva a adulto Contacto PiriproxifenInhibe la muda de larva a adultoContacto Lambdacihalotrin Actúa en sodio Contacto LambdacihalotrinActúa en sodioContacto Spirotetramat Actúa en respiración Translaminar SpirotetramatActúa en respiraciónTranslaminar Xiantraniliprole Actúa en calcio Contacto XiantraniliproleActúa en calcioContacto  "}],"sieverID":"9bb076f5-979f-4908-9d43-fef2bfa6a8cb","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07acd973d50b2b0d10e9b770ec00aa3b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6bf3d8d8-4e0d-459a-a509-439ff37575a0/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Actualmente las relaciones entre todos estos factores y la manera cómo interactúan no están bien entendidas, como tampoco lo están las ventajas y desventajas de las diferentes respuestas frente el cambio climático. Para desarrollar soluciones prácticas para la agricultura frente al cambio climático, necesitamos integrar conocimientos acerca del cambio climático, la agricultura y la seguridad alimentaria de una manera significativa e innovadora."}]},{"head":"Una Alianza Mundial de Investigación","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Ninguna institución de investigación puede resolver por sí sola estos problemas tan cruciales. El Programa de Investigación de CGIAR sobre Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS, por sus siglas en inglés) aborda el creciente reto del calentamiento global y la disminución de la seguridad alimentaria en las prácticas agrícolas, mediante una colaboración estratégica entre CGIAR y la Asociación Científica del Sistema Tierra (ESSP, por sus siglas en inglés)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Liderado por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), CCAFS está colaborando con todos los 15 centros que integran el Consorcio CGIAR, los Programas de Investigación de CGIAR y una extensa gama de socios."}]},{"head":"Temas y Áreas de Investigación","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"CCAFS está estructurado en torno a cuatro temas globales estrechamente interrelacionados, con actividades en las regiones de África Occidental, África Oriental, América Latina, Asia Meridional y el Sureste Asiático:"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Tema 1: Adaptación al cambio climático progresivo Tema 2: Adaptación por medio del manejo del riesgo climático Tema 3: Mitigación del cambio climático en pro de la población de escasos recursos Tema 4: Integración para el proceso de toma de decisiones"}]},{"head":"Objetivos del Programa","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Los objetivos del programa CCAFS son: • Identificar y evaluar prácticas de mitigación y adaptación en pro de la población de escasos recursos, tecnologías y políticas para los sistemas alimentarios, la capacidad adaptativa y los medios de vida en las zonas rurales. • Proporcionar un diagnóstico y análisis que garanticen la inclusión de la agricultura en las políticas en materia de cambio climático, y la inclusión de los temas climáticos en las políticas agrícolas, desde el nivel subnacional hasta el nivel mundial de manera que genere beneficios para la población rural de escasos recursos."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Una Nueva Forma de Trabajar CCAFS reúne a los mejores investigadores del mundo en el campo de las ciencias agrícolas, la investigación para el desarrollo, la ciencia climática y la ciencia del sistema Tierra para identificar y abordar las interacciones, sinergias y concesiones más importantes entre el cambio climático, la agricultura y la seguridad alimentaria. CCAFS también incluye la participación de agricultores, formuladores de políticas, donantes y otros actores directos, e integra sus conocimientos y necesidades en las herramientas y las iniciativas que se desarrollan."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"La investigación en CCAFS es llevada a cabo por grupos de trabajo de socios con habilidades y experticias complementarias, instituciones similares de norte y sur, incluidas colaboraciones sur-sur. Esta nueva forma de trabajar busca ampliar el diálogo entre la ciencia y la política."}]},{"head":"Formas de Trabajar","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"CCAFS pone en práctica los conocimientos reuniendo a actores directos de los mundos de la ciencia y la política. El Programa está comprometido en poner ampliamente disponibles y accesibles los resultados y los datos científicos para colegas investigadores, formuladores de políticas y público en general. "}]},{"head":"Recursos Claves","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Sitio Web y Blog del CCAFS Actualizado   "},{"text":"blog La Red de Conocimientos sobre Adaptación y Mitigación (AMKN, por su sigla en inglés) es una plataforma que utiliza mapas para compartir datos y conocimientos sobre la mitigación y la adaptación de la agricultura. http://amkn.org Boletín electrónico AgClim Letters Editorial mensual que destaca nuevas e interesantes investigaciones sobre agricultura, alimentación y cambio climático, con relevancia en temas de políticas. Suscríbase ingresando a www.ccafs.cgiar.org/sign-up  "}],"sieverID":"e5deb545-da42-4754-8d81-33cf6a9dc430","abstract":"y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) busca promover un mundo con mayor seguridad alimentaria a través de esfuerzos científicos que contribuyan tanto a una agricultura sostenible y a mejorar los medios de vida, como a la adaptación al cambio climático y la conservación de los recursos naturales y los servicios ambientales.El Reto de la Agricultura y la Seguridad Alimentaria El cambio climático es una amenaza sin precedentes para la seguridad alimentaria de cientos de millones de personas que dependen de la agricultura de pequeña escala para su sustento. El cambio climático afecta la agricultura y la seguridad alimentaria, y asimismo la agricultura y el manejo de los recursos naturales afectan al sistema climático. Estas relaciones complejas y dinámicas también se ven influenciadas por políticas económicas, conflictos políticos y otros factores como la propagación de enfermedades infecciosas."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07e2a6923d6519e2b83292cef0b27374","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ddaefe2c-61b6-4c29-b7fe-0e082c73d4f9/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #2460 Contributing Projects: • P341 -Policy engagement to build awareness of opportunities in informal markets","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"920a7afb-ed55-40db-b28c-57ad3f03cca2","abstract":""}

data/part_2/081d3ef4b194f8b646c5c6b19478918f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"081d3ef4b194f8b646c5c6b19478918f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dee1e64d-5c8f-4a2d-96a5-17fc28c793aa/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"The Concept of Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) and its Implications for Developing Evaluation Methods","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Agriculture in developing countries faces a huge challenge. In the next 50 years the number of people living in the world's poorer countries will increase from 5 billion to nearly 8 billion (Population Reference Bureau, 2001). Moreover, per capita food consumption needs to increase to adequately feed the 1.1 billion underfed people in the world (Gardner and Halweil, 2000). This means that in 2050 farmers will need to produce at least 50% more food from a natural resource base that is already damaged by human activity to the point where further degradation could have devastating implications for human development and the welfare of all species (World Bank, 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":345,"text":"The Green Revolution is widely credited with having averted a similar crisis when large-scale famines were predicted to threaten Asia in the 1970s and 1980s. The research component of the Green Revolution was largely based on the genetic improvement of a few commodity crops to enhance their productivity and improve their resistance to pests and diseases. The gains were largely confined to areas of high agricultural potential, and they often benefited the more prosperous farmers. In many cases, this research yielded large production gains at the expense of soil degradation, water, biodiversity, and non-cultivated land (Sayer and Campbell, 2001). A second Green Revolution is now needed. However, the situation today is dramatically different from when the first Green Revolution began and different research and development approaches are required. Old, top-down ways of working, in which international agricultural research centres (IARCs) see themselves as the main sources of agricultural innovations that are transferred to national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES) and downward to farmers, are no longer valid (Biggs, 1990;Clark, 1995). There is now a much more sophisticated understanding of how rural development occurs, which recognises that innovation has multiple sources and results from the action of a broad network of actors, of which IARCs and NARES are just a part (Hall et al., 2003a). Research is now seen as part of a collective effort to create new technical and social options that rely more on local knowledge and less on a 'one size fits all' application of simple technologies and chemical inputs. Hence, working in partnerships has become much more important, as has grassroots participation of farmers and their organisations (Hall et al., 2002). A second important area of change is that farmers are increasingly exposed to global markets, and while the information and communication revolution offers exciting opportunities for them to benefit, it also threatens to create a 'digital divide' between rural and urban areas (Malecki, 2003). Over all, IARCs and NARES need to become much more nimble and responsive in the face of an ever-faster rate of change (Watts et al., 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"Integrated natural resource management (INRM) 1 is an attempt to build a new agricultural research and development paradigm to meet the challenges and opportunities outlined above. Campbell et al. (2001) define INRM as \"a conscious process of incorporating the multiple aspects of natural resource use (be they bio-physical, socio-political or economic) into a system of sustainable management to meet the production goals of farmers and other direct users (food security, profitability, risk aversion) as well as the goals of the wider community (poverty alleviation, welfare of future generations, environmental conservation)\". Campbell et al. (2001) go on to say that evaluation has a crucial role in helping to build and support INRM. The objective of this chapter is to investigate the types of evaluation that are needed to build and support INRM."}]},{"head":"Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"INRM has grown out of farming systems research (FSR), which had its heyday in the mid-1980s and then all but disappeared from the list of research programmes by the early 1990s (Ravnborg, 1992). This was because FSR attempted, just as INRM is attempting today, to carry out research with complicated technologies in complex settings."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Research on complex agricultural systems is difficult because of the multiple scales of interaction and response within and between physical and social subsystems, uncertainty, long time lags, and multiple stakeholders who often have contrasting objectives and activities (Campbell et al., 2001)."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Early FSR failed because by engaging with this complexity it was criticised for generating excessive amounts of data, being very costly to conduct, and yielding few results of immediate practical value. The other major cause of the failure of FSR was a lack of understanding of the role of farmers and other stakeholders in technology development (Röling, 1988;McCown, 2001). In many instances, researchers conducted their experiments in farmers' fields but failed to interact sufficiently with the farmers themselves; in other words, they continued their traditional research methods only this time outside the experimental station. The participation of private firms, consumers and farmer associations in the planning and execution of research was almost nil."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"Early FSR learnt from its mistakes, evolved, and INRM is a result of this process. The term INRM was first coined in 1996 by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) system, a coalition of 15 international research centres (CGIAR/TAC, 1998). INRM moved to centre stage in the CGIAR as a result of the 3 rd CGIAR Systemwide External Review (CGIAR/TAC, 1998) recognising that a paradigm shift had occurred in 'best practice' NRM, in which 'hard' reductionist science was being tempered by 'softer' more holistic approaches. Specifically, the review identified a move from classical agronomy to ecological sciences, from the static analysis of isolated issues to systems' dynamics, from top-down to participatory approaches, and from factor-oriented management to integrated management. The CGIAR subsequently set up a task force to coordinate work on INRM (CIFOR, 1999 [The Bilderberg Consensus])."},{"index":5,"size":248,"text":"One of the major outputs of the INRM initiative has been a special edition of the electronic journal Conservation Ecology, describing INRM concepts and practice. In a synthesis paper, Sayer and Campbell (2001) flesh out the definition given above, which emerges as a road map of how institutions might modify their way of doing business rather than by a set of tried and trusted approaches already in use. The guiding perspective of 'best practice' INRM is that standardised, generally applicable technologies or truths are unlikely because small-scale producers generally have multiple objectives, and achieving change involves the interplay of multiple stakeholders. Rather, research efforts should be directed at improving the capacity of agroecological systems to adapt to changes and to continuously supply a flow of products and services on which poor people depend, i.e. to improve systems' 'adaptive capacities'. In practice this means helping farmers and other managers of natural resources to acquire the skills and technologies to better control their resources, i.e. improving their 'adaptive management' abilities (Holling et al., 1998;Hagmann and Chuma, 2002). INRM's way of working is to develop practical, local solutions in partnership with farmers together with an array of local and international partners. In deriving the solutions the best science is blended with local and specialised technological knowledge. The underlying principles learned in the local process can then be an ingredient used to develop solutions for similar conditions in different locations and environments. Sayer and Campbell (2001) describe five key elements of INRM."}]},{"head":"Learning together for change","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"INRM must be based upon a continuous dialogue, negotiation and deliberation amongst stakeholders. Like jazz -NRM needs constant improvisation, so that each band member knows the weaknesses and strengths of the other players and that they all learn how to play together. Researchers cannot therefore remain exclusively outside: they need to engage themselves in action research to develop appropriate solutions together with resource users. In this process researchers and resource users: 1. define subsystems; 2. reflect and negotiate on future scenarios; 3. take action; and 4. evaluate and adapt attitudes, processes, technologies and practices. This learning cycle is the basis of resource management that can evolve."}]},{"head":"Multiple scales of analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"INRM attempts to integrate research efforts across spatial and temporal scales. This is because ecological and social processes are taking place over different time scales ranging from minutes to decades (Fresco and Kroonenberg, 1992). Slow-changing variables operate as restrictions to the dynamics of more rapidly-cycling processes. At the same time, fast changing variables affect the dynamics of the slow changing processes. As the system evolves, the dynamics of the different variables may experience sudden changes that reorganise the system. Usually these changes arise when the system reaches specific thresholds. In these reorganisation points, it is impossible to predict how the system will self-organise (Nicolis and Prigogine, 1989). Understanding a system, rather than just describing it, usually requires studying that system together with the other systems with which it interacts. Systems modelling is a practical approach to deal with variables that change more slowly than the length of a project. Modelling can also help farmers and other natural resource managers explore different scenarios, identify preferred ones, and then negotiate how to achieve them (van Noordwijk et al., 2001)."}]},{"head":"Plausible promises","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"INRM needs to maintain a practical problem-solving approach that delivers tangible outputs. There needs to be some motivation for farmers to want to work together with researchers to develop technologies and processes. This motivation comes from ideas and technologies that make a 'plausible promise' to farmers of being of benefit to them. Working together builds trust and leads to further learning, from which other possibilities flow. Monitoring and evaluation and impact assessment can help identify and improve what is working effectively."}]},{"head":"Scaling out and up","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"INRM runs the risk of being criticised for only producing local solutions. However, if natural resource systems are characterised adequately, for example, according to exogenous drivers as in the IITA Benchmark Area Approach, 2 then INRM can yield results that have application across broad ecoregional domains. While most INRM technologies cannot be scaled-out, INRM technologies together with the learning processes that allow rural people to identify and adapt new opportunities to their environments can be scaled-out. INRM recognises a difference between scaling-out where an innovation spreads from farmer to farmer, community to community, within the same stakeholder groups, and scaling-up which is an institutional expansion from grassroots organisations to policy makers, donors, development institutions, and other stakeholders key to building an enabling environment for change (Douthwaite et al., 2003a). The two are linked: scalingout occurs faster if INRM projects plan and invest in engaging with stakeholders who can help promote project outputs and create an enabling environment for them."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Iterative learning cycles that take place in participatory technology development processes can also help create an enabling environment through interaction, negotiation and co-learning amongst different stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Evaluation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Evaluation is key to adaptive management because it provides the real-time feedback necessary for constant improvisation in implementing INRM projects, and for learning and improving the performance of those involved. Evaluation also provides data for further negotiation between stakeholders, and for resource-allocation decisions. Stakeholders should agree on plausible strategies on how research will contribute to developmental change and then undertake regular monitoring of the implementation of these strategies to feed into the learning cycle. Success criteria and indicators, agreed early on in a project, are the basis for impact assessment and negotiation amongst stakeholders for resource-allocation decisions."},{"index":2,"size":336,"text":"The discussion so far shows that INRM is based on a paradigm that is better able to cope with complexity than the top-down conceptual framework which underpinned much of the IARCs and NARES earlier successes with plant breeding. 3 New paradigms require new ways of looking at the world and new conceptual models for understanding it. These conceptual frameworks are important because they influence the ways that research and development interventions are conceptualised, planned and implemented. The authors contend that INRM would be well served by adopting an Innovation Systems (ISs) perspective, and that this perspective will help clarify the needs and roles for evaluation in INRM. The ISs framework has a long track record, has been widely adopted outside of agriculture, and is based on evolutionary economics (Nelson and Winter, 1983), institutional economics (Freeman, 1987), and stochastic processes and theories of complexity (Rycroft and Kash, 1999;Ekboir, 2003). The ISs framework has also been employed successfully in the analysis of post-harvest systems in South Asia (e.g. Hall et al., 2003b) and is providing the conceptual framework for the emergent Institutional Learning and Change (ILAC) Initiative in the CGIAR (Watts et al., 2003). The ILAC Initiative is being supported by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the Rockefeller Foundation and the German Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ) and Bundesministerium für Wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ). It was born out of a frustration that conventional evaluation methods used in the CGIAR were not supporting the learning and change needed for the CGIAR centres to adapt to an ever-faster changing world. In explaining Rockefeller's support for the ILAC Initiative, Peter Matlon of the Rockefeller Foundation said: \"There is an urgent need for impact assessment and evaluation to play more self-critical learning roles. Impact assessment studies need to begin to address more systematically and rigourously the -'why?' questions -that is, not only what works, but also what doesn't, under what circumstances and, most importantly, what are the drivers that determine success or failure\" (Mackay and Horton, 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"The types of development practice, including evaluation practice, being proposed by the ILAC Initiative (Watts et al., 2003) are fully consistent with those required by INRM, as shown in Table 14.1."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"At its simplest, an innovation system has three elements (Watts et al., 2003): 1. the groups of organisations and individuals involved in the generation, diffusion, adaptation and use of new knowledge; 2. the interactive learning that occurs when organisations engage in generation, diffusion, adaptation and use of new knowledge, and the way this leads to new products and processes -i.e. innovation; and 3. the institutions that govern how these interactions and processes take place. The reason it is believed that the framework is relevant to INRM is that both see innovation as an inherently complex process undertaken by a network of actors. Both also recognise innovation as a social process, involving interactive 'learning by doing' in which innovations and the institutions (norms, expectations, ways of organising) co-evolve. As a result innovation, including rural innovation, is an inherently unpredictable, non-linear process. This conclusion has profound implications for all types of evaluation, considered below."}]},{"head":"Evaluation Appropriate for INRM","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"The term evaluation covers a huge area of enquiry and can fulfil many purposes. Patton (1997) identifies three main uses for evaluation findings which are: 1. judge merit or worth; 2. generate knowledge; and 3. improve projects and programs. Traditionally, evaluation carried out in both national and international agricultural research has focussed on 1 and 2, that is judging merit and generating knowledge. Cost-benefit analysis, audits, showing accountability to donors and quality control are all activities that fall under the former while extrapolating principles about what work, theory building and policy making all result from the latter. While these types of evaluation are still necessary for INRM, much more emphasis needs to be placed on evaluation aimed at improving projects and programs. This type of evaluation focuses on stimulating learning about what is working and what is not, and as a result helps improve the management of projects and programs. In INRM, this evaluation needs to serve the learning needs of all the stakeholders involved, from farmers to researchers. Traditionally, the learning from evaluations has been assimilated by the agricultural economists who made these evaluations, and the information written up in journals that are inaccessible to nonspecialists."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"As well as having many uses, evaluation can occur at different stages in the project cycle, and beyond. In the past, evaluation in agricultural research has focussed on ex-ante impact assessment to set priorities, and ex-post impact assessment to attribute and quantify impacts. Little emphasis has been put on the evaluation that INRM most needs, which is within project cycles supporting the learning of all stakeholders and supporting adaptive project management. This is also the type of evaluation that the ILAC Initiative is urging the CGIAR to adopt in order to support the institutional learning and change necessary for CGIAR centres to adapt to the changing environments in which they work (Watts et al., 2003). Evaluation carried out within the project cycle is examined followed by the types of ex-ante and ex-post evaluations and evaluation of scientists needed for successful INRM."}]},{"head":"Evaluation that supports learning","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":515,"text":"Evaluation that occurs within the project cycle is usually called monitoring and evaluation (M&E). For INRM M&E is not only the method of generating this data, but it also includes the processes by which stakeholders learn and negotiate based on evaluation findings. There is a growing consensus in the literature that the M&E needed to fulfil this need should be derived from an agreed vision of the large-scale development goals to which the project intends to contribute, and the outcomes the project can help achieve. Outcomes are desired changes that indicate progress towards achieving the development goals, in other words, smaller-scale goals towards which a project can contribute. While outcomes are within the sphere of influence of a project they nearly always depend on the contributions of other actors and may be influenced by unexpected or uncontrollable factors (Campbell et al., 2001;Earl et al., 2001;Douthwaite et al., 2003a;Sayer and Campbell, 2001;Springer-Heinze et al., 2003). Douthwaite et al. (2003a) have developed an approach to M&E which uses these ideas, and is called Impact Pathway Evaluation (IPE). IPE builds on GTZ's experience in project M&E. Another development agency and donor, the British Department for International Development (DFID) has recently requested some of its research programmes to provide impact pathways (Christopher Floyd, December 2003, personal communication). In this approach the stakeholders involved in a project agree on an impact pathway, which is a hierarchy of outcomes that contribute to a development goal, or goals. IPE borrows heavily from Program Theory Evaluation from the field of Evaluation (Funnel, 2000). Figure 14.1 shows an example of an impact pathway for an integrated weed control project in northern Nigeria. Shaded boxes in the figure represent outcomes that are within the sphere of influence of the project, although that influence decreases as the corresponding numbers increase. The impact pathway shows how these outcomes are expected to contribute to attaining the large-scale development goal of improved livelihoods. M&E in the project was done to determine attainment of the outcomes in the shaded boxes using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) (Scoones, 1998). The impact pathway helped guide and frame the M&E, and helped in the selection of success criteria and indicators. For example, for the intended outcome 'farmers modify and innovate', one of  the success criteria chosen was 'participating farmers make changes that improve the technology for them, they continue with these improvements and promote and pass them on to others'. The indicators included percentages of: 1. farmers who had made modifications; 2. had kept them; and 3. had passed them on to others. In general, criteria, indicators and the impact pathway itself can change during a project, based on learning. Getting stakeholders together to agree on the impact pathway helps create a common understanding of what the project is trying to achieve, and this makes achieving impact more likely. All stakeholders should also be involved in designing the monitoring system and collecting data that serves their information needs. However, all information required cannot be collected through participatory approaches (Campbell et al., 2001) and other extractive methods, such as structured questionnaires, are sometimes needed."},{"index":2,"size":256,"text":"IPE shares many similarities with Outcome Mapping, developed over the last 5 years by the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC) (Earl et al., 2001). In Outcome Mapping, the outcomes are changes in people's behaviour. Outcome Mapping is based on individual projects and organisations documenting their contribution to developmental change, rather than attempting to quantify their impact in terms of rate of return to investment. IDRC sees the quantification of impact as detrimental to learning and adaptive management because the drive to claim credit interferes with the creation of knowledge. Instead, Outcome Mapping argues that donors should make recipients accountable for demonstrating that they are progressing towards impact and improving effectiveness, not for developmental impact itself, which in any case nearly always occurs well after a project has finished. Hence, in Outcome Mapping there is a change in emphasis in evaluation on helping to improve, rather than prove, on helping to understand rather than to report, and on creating knowledge rather than taking credit. In this shift to accountability for learning, impact assessment ceases to be an attempt to attribute and quantify based on often inappropriate economic models, and becomes more like making a legal case, built on evidence from many sources. Douthwaite et al. (2003a) make a similar argument, which, interestingly draws on the experience of GTZ in Germany, who, like IDRC in Canada, is a project implementer. Douthwaite et al. (2003a) argue that plausible ex-post impact assessment needs to describe the innovation processes that took place and therefore good M&E information is a pre-requisite."}]},{"head":"Ex-post impact assessment","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":313,"text":"Based on the arguments in the last section it is believed that the emphasis for ex-post impact assessment should be placed on: 1. the processes of knowledge generation and diffusion; 2. the creation of organisational capabilities, i.e. the collective ability to develop appropriate solutions to identified problems; and 3. the emergence and evolution of innovation networks (Guba and Lincoln, 1989). However, donors will still need to demonstrate to their own constituencies that money spent has contributed to development. It is argued that ex-post impact assessment for INRM needs to be different from conventional impact assessment of agricultural research that is largely based on the use of inappropriate economic models (Hall et al., 2002). These approaches attempt to relate changes in impact indicators to research investments. Ekboir (2003) states that this is valid only if an implicit assumption is true: that the link between indicators and investments dominates all other relationships that influence the impact indicators. Ekboir (2003) goes on to say that this is only true for minor improvements along stable technological paths, such as breeding improved germplasm for commercial irrigated production systems. Such an assumption is not likely to be valid for much of INRM research. Hence, rather than try to attribute impact using 'heroic' assumptions, ex-post impact assessment in INRM should focus on establishing which development changes (e.g. poverty alleviation) have taken place, and building a case based on a variety of different information sources which show that the project made a contribution. Box 14.1 gives an example of the unpredictability, time-lags and interactions of stakeholders in a rural innovation process. In this example, because zero tillage interacted with traditional seed improvement research, macroeconomic policies, commercial policies of herbicide producers and an institutional innovation (the farmers' associations), it is impossible to say what percentage of the impact can be attributed to research, which is what conventional impact assessment attempts to do."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Box 14.1. Real-life problems in attribution of impact (from Ekboir and Parellada, 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay have enjoyed a six-fold increase in the production of grains since the 1970s. This increase came about as a result of farmers adopting three different technologies: soyabeans in the late-1960s, zero tillage in the 1990s, and improved cereals and oilseeds germplasm since the early 1970s. The adoption was triggered not only by the availability of new technologies but also by public policy changes and private firms' commercial strategies. The impact of technologies, policies and commercial strategies cannot be separated because without zero tillage, the impact of improved germplasm would have been very small, since zero tillage was necessary to stop soil erosion and improve water management. At the same time, new and improved germplasm increased the profitability of zero tillage, fostering adoption. But adoption of zero tillage only became technically feasible with the development of glyphosate and economically feasible when it became substantially cheaper in the early 1990s. 4 Finally, the liberalisation policies introduced in the late 1980s and early 1990s forced farmers to look for new technologies in order to reduce costs."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"The zero tillage innovation itself was developed despite terracing being identified by the overwhelming majority of researchers in the late 1960s as the most promising solution to the problems of soil erosion caused by soyabean cultivation. Zero-tillage systems were eventually developed by a network of agents. This included agrochemical companies, a few public-sector researchers, farmers and agricultural machinery manufacturers. A key component of zero tillage's success was promotion by associations of farmers that also included researchers and private companies. These associations were created in the late 1980s with support from agrochemical companies."},{"index":5,"size":669,"text":"To build plausible impact cases, INRM needs to quantify and describe verifiable developmental changes to which it has contributed. These impacts can occur at a variety of spatial and temporal scales and can be contextspecific. Campbell et al. (2001) suggest an approach based on the use criteria and indicators, which can be selected with the help of the 'impact pathway' or 'outcome map'. Campbell et al. (2001) suggest that the SLF can also guide indicator selection because with the recognition of five capital asset types SLF helps avoid disciplinary bias. Moreover, SLF has been vigorously debated in the literature and is widely understood. However, each of these capital assets may require measurement of several variables, which makes it difficult in practice to identify few proxies that can be monitored over time. Campbell et al. (2001) suggest five different approaches to amalgamating indicators to give an integrated account of change. These are: 1. simple additive indices; 2. combining indicators derived using principal component analysis; 3. two-dimensional plots of variables derived by principal component analysis; 4. radar plots of changes in the five livelihood capitals; and 5. the use of canonical correlation to combine indicators across scales. Depending on the approach used, combining indicators within and across each of the capital assets can create several practical problems. Campbell et al. (2001) discuss the pros and cons in the application of the different approaches for aggregating indicators and give examples for each of these approaches. We illustrate here only the application of the radar diagram approach. Figure 14.2 shows a radar plot of the impact of micro-credit schemes on the five capitals in Chivi district in South Zimbabwe. Campbell et al. (2001) indicate that the data was generated from a decision support system where the impacts seem to have been simulated with and without the micro-credit scheme. For each of the capital assets, a proxy variable was selected: 1. physical capital, percentage of households with `improved roofing' (income generated from activities sponsored by the micro-credit scheme are often used to improve household assets); 2. financial capital, percentage of households achieving a `high' level of savings; 3. natural capital, percentage of households taking measures to improve the fertility of their fields; 4. social capital, percentage of households adhering to community-based rules and 5. human capital, percentage of committees exposed to, and practicing, improved methods of organisation. The radar plot is very effective at quickly communicating that micro-credit is strongly correlated with improvements in social capital, followed by natural capital, and rather less on financial, physical and human capital. Clearly, an assessment that looked only at the effect of micro credit on financial capital, which on the face of it would appear reasonable, would miss a large part of the impact. However, it will be useful to note that attribution of the changes shown in the radar diagram to the credit intervention cannot be made unless the experiment has a proper counterfactual. Simulation models (as was done for this example) or statistical techniques can be used to test the attribution problem. Campbell et al. (2001) state that simulation modelling is a particularly important tool for impact assessment in INRM because it can help predict outcomes in the complex systems in which INRM works. Complex adaptive systems theory helps to put some bounds on the predictive powers of simulation modelling in INRM by establishing that complex adaptive processes evolve by the interaction of trends and random events, subject to the initial conditions. Processes evolve through a succession of many small variations interrupted by rare catastrophic mutations. The mutations can be triggered by small changes in any variable and then spread through the system. Even though it is possible to model the probability distribution of the changes, it is impossible to predict whether the next change will be small or catastrophic. Even though limited predictability of major trends is possible, random events may derail these predictions. Additional information can reduce, but not eliminate, the uncertainty which increases with the time horizon considered (Dixit and Pindyck, 1994)."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"However, irrespective of the accuracy of predictions made, simulation modelling is an important learning tool (Twomlow et al., 2003). It provides a suitable framework by which to understand the consequences of changes in the components of a system in both the long and short terms, on a range of scales. Moreover, simulation modelling can be applied in a participatory mode by using it to generate a number of likely scenarios that can provide useful discussion points between researchers and farmers. Simulation modelling can also provide an effective and efficient framework for extrapolating research findings and the understanding of system processes to other sites and management conditions (Foti et al., 2002)."}]},{"head":"Ex-ante impact assessment and priority setting","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":402,"text":"One of the main reasons for carrying out ex-ante impact assessment has been to guide priority setting. The ISs recognition of the indeterminate and complex nature of innovation suggests that ex-ante impact assessment can only recognise technological trends once they have emerged (Rycroft and Kash, 1999). While most of the returns to research will come from research on existing technological trends, these returns will eventually fall unless new trends emerge. Ex-ante impact assessment can only give some estimates for simple projects along established research and market lines. But even in these cases, the intrinsically random nature of the process means that ex-ante projections of impact will probably be wrong and should only be used for priority setting with caution. Greater emphasis should be given to two complementary approaches. Firstly, researchers must be allowed to spend some of their time exploring new areas and ideas beyond those prescribed by ex-ante impact assessment. Knowledge-management literature suggests this should be as much as 20% (von Kreog et al., 2000). Secondly, a research institution can build a consensus with its major stakeholders on strategic areas where its resources should be concentrated using technology foresight methods. According to Georghiou (1996) technology foresight involves \"systematic attempts to look into the longer-term future of science, the economy, the environment and society with a view to identifying the emerging generic technologies and underpinning areas of strategic research likely to yield the greatest economic and social benefits\". Technology foresight approaches include the Delphi method and scenario building. The Delphi method is a technique used to arrive at a group position on an issue under investigation and consists of a series of repeated interrogations, usually by means of questionnaires, of a group of individuals whose opinions or judgments are of interest. After the initial interrogation of each individual, each subsequent interrogation is accompanied by information usually presented anonymously about the preceding round of replies. The individual is thus encouraged to reconsider and, if appropriate, to change his/her previous reply in the light of replies provided by other members of the group. After two or three rounds, the group position is determined by averaging (Ziglio, 1996). Scenario building is often used in industry by companies like Shell to develop a number of possible situations and then work back from those futures to establish how credible they are, and how the organisation would respond or change if they came true (van der Heijden, 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"Even though particular outcomes cannot be predicted with certainty, it is possible to identify factors that will, with high probability, affect the chances of success or failure. Among these factors, probably the three most important are: 1. the information flows within individual institutions; 2. information flows within the innovation network; and 3. the patterns of collaboration among agents. Institutions with more horizontal information flows are able to adapt faster to changing environments and to identify earlier emerging commercial and technological opportunities (von Kreog et al., 2000). Strong information flows enable each agent to understand the capabilities and needs of other agents and what they are doing. Collaboration patterns determine the collective capabilities of the network (Dosi et al., 2000). Close collaboration brings together the capabilities of the individual agents and helps to fuse them into collective capabilities. In this way, the network can undertake more complex and extensive activities."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"Once research projects have begun, the M&E described above can help to modify priorities and identify new areas of research. Early identification of farmer adoption/non-adoption and modification allows the research process to be adapted and allows new priority areas for research to be set. For example, M&E carried out by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Malawi and Zimbabwe found that limited access to inorganic fertilisers and improved legume seeds meant that there was little adoption/adaptation of soil fertility management interventions (Dimes et al., 2004;Twomlow et al., 2004). This helped to focus research onto short-term solutions that carry little risk or require only limited investment, and those that require enabling environments to be developed, thus encouraging households to make a major change in the way they allocate the resources they are willing to invest."}]},{"head":"Evaluation of scientists","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"The INRM paradigm and ISs view have profound implications for the evaluation of NRM scientists. Given the dynamic and unpredictable nature of innovation and the difficulties of attributing impact, scientist evaluation should focus on their contribution to achieving the outcomes specified in Outcome Mapping or Impact Pathway Analysis rather than on achieving development impact itself. The production of research outputs, such as publications, varietal releases, methodologies and tools, are necessary but not sufficient for achieving research outcomes. Researchers should also be assessed in relation to external qualitative assessments of research programmes. A third area of assessment should be in relation to behaviour known to foster innovation, such as participation in innovation networks, collaboration with colleagues, and knowledge sharing (Huffman and Just, 2000). These assessments should form part of an incentive scheme that also includes enforcement of quality standards and adequate salaries and funding."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":274,"text":"In this chapter it has been shown that INRM is the result of an evolution of learning from experience that began with FSR in the early 1970s. INRM is an approach to research and development that builds the capacity of farmers and other natural resource managers to manage change in sustainable ways. The evolution of thinking in INRM has mirrored similar advances in the understanding of research, development and innovation processes, one of which is the ISs framework from the fields of evolutionary and institutional economics. Both INRM and the ISs view acknowledge that rural innovation is an inherently indeterminate and complex process, involving the interactions and co-learning of a network of actors, of which farmers and researchers are just two. The ISs view has some important implications for the evaluation for INRM. The focus of evaluation needs to shift from being about accountability and public awareness to supporting learning and adaptive management of all the stakeholders involved in a project. Specifically, more emphasis should be placed in the use of evaluation to improve, rather than prove, on helping to understand rather than to report, and on creating knowledge rather than taking credit. In this shift towards accountability for learning, ex-post impact assessment ceases to be an attempt to quantify an intervention's impact based on inappropriate economic models. Instead it becomes a rational argument, built like a legal case using evidence from many sources that an intervention contributed to developmental impact. The overall developmental impacts, for example, reduction in poverty, should be quantified but not as an intervention's contribution to that impact, unless the link between the intervention and the impact dominates all others."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"In this chapter it is argued that a key source of the evidence needed for impact assessment is the monitoring and evaluation carried out within the project cycle, which also provides the real-time information necessary to facilitate the adaptive management of all stakeholders necessary for successful INRM. To be most effective M&E should be based on a shared view amongst the stakeholders of the outcomes they expect the project to contribute, and how these outcomes contribute to larger-scale developmental impact. This shared view should be recorded as an 'outcome map' or 'impact pathway' that then helps frame the M&E, and the selection of criteria and indicators. Good M&E will identify and describe incipient processes of knowledge generation and diffusion, the emergence and evolution of innovation networks, and the creation of organisational capabilities. The job of the impact assessor at some time in the future is to convincingly show how these incipient processes and capabilities grew and contributed to wider-scale development changes that occurred in the project area. In this chapter a number of methods of measuring, describing and understanding these development changes including the SLF, simulation modelling and various approaches of combining indicators to give an integrative picture have been reviewed."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Finally, evaluation appropriate for INRM is very different from the conventional evaluation practice in many IARCs and NARES. Whether INRM-type evaluation becomes more common will depend largely on donors making IARCs and NARES accountable, not for impact in unrealistically short time-periods, but accountable for learning, adapting and achieving outcomes that are known to contribute to development. The signs are positive. IDRC, GTZ and DFID have started to make the change, not just for INRM but for all types of integrated development projects. The CGIAR Institutional Learning and Change Initiative, supported by IFAD, The Rockefeller Foundation and GTZ and BMZ, is recommending evaluation techniques that support learning and change, and are fully consistent with those outlined in this chapter."}]},{"head":"Endnotes","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"1 INRM is assumed to include all efforts in integrated genetic resource management. As such, at ICRISAT, INRM is now referred to as IGNRM to make this linkage more explicit. 2 The IITA Benchmark Approach conducts research in a characterized benchmark area that contains within it farming system dynamics and diversity that is representative of a portion of a wider agroecological zone. The benchmark areas are characterized in terms of population density and access to markets (Douthwaite et al., 2003b)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"©CAB INTERNATIONAL 2004 . Natural Resource Management in Agriculture: Methods for Assessing Economic and Environmental Impacts (eds B. Shiferaw, H.A. Freeman and S.M. Swinton) 321 "},{"text":"Fig. 14 . 1 . Fig. 14.1. Example of an impact pathway for an integrated weed (Striga hermonthica) control (ISC) project in northern Nigeria. The impact pathway is potentially applicable for other INRM research projects. "},{"text":"Fig. 14 Fig.14.2. A radar plot showing the effect of a micro-credit scheme on the five livelihood capitals in Chivi, Zimbabwe(Campbell et al., 2001). "},{"text":"Table 14 . 1. The shifts and expanded options in development practice, including evaluation practice, implied by an Innovation Systems perspective(Watts et al., 2003). Evaluation From Expanded to include EvaluationFromExpanded to include Paradigm of and for Things People Paradigm of and forThingsPeople Orientation and power Top-down Bottom-up Orientation and powerTop-downBottom-up Key words Planning Participation Key wordsPlanningParticipation Modes/approaches Standardised Diverse Modes/approachesStandardisedDiverse  Linear Complex LinearComplex  Reductionist Systems ReductionistSystems Conditions Controlled Uncontrolled (able) ConditionsControlledUncontrolled (able)  Stable Dynamic StableDynamic  Predictable Unpredictable PredictableUnpredictable Research mode Experimental Constructivist Research modeExperimentalConstructivist Learning Ex-post Continuous LearningEx-postContinuous Roles Teacher Facilitator RolesTeacherFacilitator  Supervisor Coach SupervisorCoach  External evaluator Evaluation facilitator External evaluatorEvaluation facilitator Outcomes Products and infrastructure Processes and capability OutcomesProducts and infrastructureProcesses and capability Valued behaviours Rigourous/objective Critical self-reflection. Valued behavioursRigourous/objectiveCritical self-reflection. Dominant professions Agricultural scientists and economists All Dominant professionsAgricultural scientists and economistsAll Patterns of change Predetermined/prescriptive Evolutionary Patterns of changePredetermined/prescriptiveEvolutionary Characteristic Logframes and external review Action research, CharacteristicLogframes and external reviewAction research, management tools  participatory review management toolsparticipatory review   and reflection and reflection Main purpose Accountability and control Learning and improvement Main purposeAccountability and controlLearning and improvement of evaluation   of evaluation Accountability to Donors and peers All stakeholders, Accountability toDonors and peersAll stakeholders,   especially the poor especially the poor Vision of capacity Build capacity of others Develop own capacity Vision of capacityBuild capacity of othersDevelop own capacity development   development Treatment of failure Buried or punished Valued as a learning Treatment of failureBuried or punishedValued as a learning opportunity   opportunity Consequences of failure Cataclysmic Continuous programme Consequences of failureCataclysmicContinuous programme readjustment   readjustment  "},{"text":" The impact pathway is potentially applicable for other INRM research projects.  Improved livelihoods  Improved livelihoods  amongst farmers suffering  amongst farmers suffering  from Striga in Africa  from Striga in Africa Enabling policy environment created 8. Community livelihood Eventual wider adoption Enabling policy environment created8. Community livelihoodEventual wider adoption  improvements  improvements Changes in  Changes in Changes inChanges in knowledge and 7. Adopting farmers enjoy knowledge knowledge and7. Adopting farmers enjoyknowledge attitudes of higher and more stable and attitudes attitudes ofhigher and more stableand attitudes stakeholders incomes of farmers stakeholdersincomesof farmers 5. Stakeholders 4. Adoption of technologies 6. Adoption in 5. Stakeholders4. Adoption of technologies6. Adoption in learn of ISC and changes in practice other villages learn of ISCand changes in practiceother villages 3. Farmers modify and Iterations of 2. Changes in farmers' 3. Farmers modify andIterations of2. Changes in farmers' innovate learning cycle attitudes and perceptions innovatelearning cycleattitudes and perceptions  1. Improved knowledge of  1. Improved knowledge of  farmers  farmers  On-farm research to adapt  On-farm research to adapt  and validate integrated  and validate integrated  Striga control (ISC) options,  Striga control (ISC) options,  namely:  namely:  Striga tolerant maize  Striga tolerant maize  Legume trap crop  Legume trap crop  Crop rotation  Crop rotation  Closer plant spacing  Closer plant spacing  Use of organic and  Use of organic and  inorganic fertiliser  inorganic fertiliser  Seed cleaning  Seed cleaning Source: Douthwaite et al., 2003   Source: Douthwaite et al., 2003  "}],"sieverID":"e90294c3-8ea5-4339-a96a-eb1993a994d8","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"083db061c3864f9e24f6982ced406399","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ac32f5ab-79cc-4f6c-bcff-e563bf7681d8/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Wamama Pamoja: Empowering women through agriculture and income generation to enhance household nutrition in Busia, Western Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Implications for East Africa","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"\"When women are empowered and can claim their rights and access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices economies grow, food security is enhanced and prospects are improved for current and future generations\". Michelle Bachelet -Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of UN Women 1"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"• Research shows that 70% of agricultural work on small scale farms is done by women, yet their productivity is stifled due to inequitable access to productive resources and services as compared to men. 2"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Building the capacity of women to produce a variety of nutrient-rich foods utilizing advanced methods would increase household and community food and nutrition security."}]},{"head":"Project Implementation/Intervention Design","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"WPM has established a demonstration plot where extension workers from the Ministry of Agriculture and research institutions come to teach the women different methods of growing food crops in a healthy and sustainable way. In addition to food crops, WPM also raise rabbits, dairy cows and indigenous chicken for a varied diet and as a source of income."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"WPM received financial and technical support from Women and Girls Empowerment, a Dutch non-governmental organization, to buy raw groundnut (peanuts) and simsim (sesame seeds) and start the production of their very own brand of sesame seed-peanut butter mixture."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Women living in resource-poor settings in Kenya are at high risk of malnutrition because the diets they consume lack diversity despite Western Kenya being rich in agricultural biodiversity. On average, women consume only four out of the ten recommended food groups, while small children consume three out of seven. Stunting is a serious problem -28% of children are affected. Different forms of malnutrition also exist in the caregivers -8% are underweight while 18% are overweight with 7% classed as obese."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Wamama Pamoja (Mothers Together) Municipality (WPM) Women's Group is a group of marginalized women -living with HIV/AIDS, handicapped, widowed or orphaned-in Busia County, Kenya working towards improving household nutrition by:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• integrating biodiversity for food and nutrition into household gardens for dietary diversity"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• producing and selling homemade nutrition-rich sesame seed and peanut butter mixture for income generation"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• building entrepreneurial capacity of fellow women around Busia County."}]},{"head":"Aim of Approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"1. To build the capacity of women and self-help groups to practice home gardening technologies, such as mandala and keyhole gardens (permaculture circular, raised garden beds), and sustainably grow and utilize an array of nutritious local foods."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"2. To foster an enabling market environment to better promote local nutritious crops and link smallholders to markets."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"3. To influence current government sector policies to integrate nutrition-sensitive objectives into their programmes, thus enabling smallholder farmers and vulnerable individuals, such as WPM, to gain further support for their home grown products, advance living standards, and improve community health."}]},{"head":"Progress Outcomes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Through micro-finance schemes, financial and technical support from local government and nongovernmental organizations, Wamama Pamoja women have been able to introduce more variety to home gardens and purchase and process peanut and sesame seed into a butter mixture."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Bioversity International is working with entrepreneurial farmers in Busia County to enhance the enabling environment to better promote local nutritious crops and link smallholders to markets. With support from the Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition (BFN) Project, Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), the Departments of Agriculture, Health and Education and Sustainable Income Generating Investment (SINGI) community-based organization, progress is being made in promoting local nutrition-sensitive policies that would enable smallholder farmers and vulnerable individuals, such as WPM Women Group, to further develop their sesame seed and peanut butter initiative."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"BFN pilot studies are underway to build smallholder farmers' capacity in the sustainable production of nutrient-rich crops and strengthen their capacity to respond to market demands for these crops from institutional markets, such as local schools and clinics."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Contact Information:"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Alessandra Grasso [email protected] Wamama Pamoja Municipality. A.Grasso/Bioversity"}]},{"head":"Constraints & Challenges","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Current challenges that prevent market penetration for WPM Peanut Butter Mixture are: i) inadequate technical and human capacity; ii) limited funds and iii) high quality and food safety standards that need to be met. Building capacity, fostering demand for nutritious local foods and integrating nutrition-sensitive objectives in current government sector policies would also enhance the capacity of smallholder farmers and vulnerable individuals, such as WPM Women's Group, to better respond to market demands. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Peanut Butter Mixture is rich in proteins, healthy fats, minerals and vitamins, and could do wonders for school-aged children.   right). A.Grasso/Bioversity right). A.Grasso/Bioversity  and and  left left  (front (front  Gardens Gardens  Mandala Mandala mixture. A.Grasso/Bioversity  mixture. A.Grasso/Bioversity butter  butter Simsim peanut  Simsim peanut processing. A.Grasso/Bioversity  processing. A.Grasso/Bioversity to  to prior  prior Simsim (Sesame seeds) credit: A.Grasso/Bioversity Simsim (Sesame seeds)credit: A.Grasso/Bioversity  Photo Photo  "}],"sieverID":"9d67661e-9111-4a68-85fc-98b4ef875108","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08a942436af6796238cd2f9fcf4c257c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3c9e524-6049-45fc-babb-26b00c3232b9/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Study #2347 Contributing Projects: • P1590 -Enabling institutions and policies for sustainable climate change governance in agriculture • P255 -[Regional Program Leader] WA: Regional/National synthesis, engagement and support","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• Conducive agricultural policy environment "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Due to low awareness of stakeholders, the implementation of the CSA Action Plan and CSA Investment Framework is low (19% of studied districts). The effectiveness of the CSA Action Plan and CSA Investment Framework depends on the number of target beneficiaries, budget allocation and funds mobilized. Multipurpose policy instruments are critical for bringing about a conducive environment to address climate change and related risks. Increasing awareness of the CSA Action Plan is a key pathway to enhance its usage, implementation and effectiveness across scales. To enable effective use of the CSA Investment Framework, there is a need to enhance the capacity of key stakeholders on the development of bankable proposals This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:20 (GMT+0) Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets: SRF 2022/2030 targets: • # of more farm households have adopted improved varieties, breeds or trees • # of more farm households have adopted improved varieties, breeds or trees • # of people, of which 50% are women, assisted to exit poverty • # of people, of which 50% are women, assisted to exit poverty Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • National • National Country(ies): Country(ies): • Ghana • Ghana Comments: <Not Defined> Comments: <Not Defined> 1 1  "}],"sieverID":"73e4948d-c117-4f00-a6de-4419f32dbaf0","abstract":""}

data/part_2/08a9ca3d56593ca7303f4b62bb3bb916.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08a9ca3d56593ca7303f4b62bb3bb916","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/WOR138.pdf"},"pageCount":38,"title":"Synthesis of IWMI Work in Nepal","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Working Papers","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The publications in this series record the work and thinking of IWMI researchers, and knowledge that the Institute's scientific management feels is worthy of documenting. This series will ensure that scientific data and other information gathered or prepared as a part of the research work of the Institute are recorded and referenced. Working Papers could include project reports, case studies, conference or workshop proceedings, discussion papers or reports on progress of research, country-specific research reports, monographs, etc. Working Papers may be copublished, by IWMI and partner organizations."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi. org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment."}]},{"head":"About IWMI","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"IWMI's mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources."}]},{"head":"Executive Summary","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"The International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the then International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), began its activities in Nepal in 1986 under a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMGN), now the Government of Nepal (GoN). The primary objective of this was to undertake research in irrigation management and strengthen the research capability of concerned government agencies. Research on Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS) helped to develop appropriate mechanisms for providing support to enhance their performance. The research highlighted the importance of the users' role in irrigation management, which paved the way for initiation of participatory irrigation management (PIM) in Agency-Managed Irrigation Systems (AMIS). The formation of Water User's Associations (WUA) and the inclusion of women in it, introduction of the irrigation service fee (ISF), and the increased role of users in operation and maintenance were the major policy reforms that were introduced."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"The studies in groundwater aimed at policy reforms by exploring the possibilities of introducing community managed electricity distribution to increase smallholders' access to groundwater irrigation through electrically operated small pumps. The river basin studies helped to facilitate formulation of a Water Resources Strategy of the GoN for integrated planning and management of water resources at basin scale, with appropriate institutional mechanisms and suggesting processes for its formation through follow-up action research."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The development of appropriate tools for studies on irrigation management, river basin, gender, institutions, and guidelines for research on FMIS and AMIS were the methodological contribution of the collaborative research. The involvement of local researchers gave them an opportunity to enhance their research skills and help strengthen the institutional capabilities of the agencies concerned."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"HMGN, now the GoN, established a Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) in 1981 with a mandate to provide policy advice to the government on water and energy development. In 1985, the Ford Foundation (FF) provided grant assistance to WECS for the establishment of a planning and research unit in the WECS. It also allocated funds for research to IIMI, now IWMI, to provide technical support to WECS. In January 1986, WECS and IIMI signed a MOU. The objective of the IIMI-Nepal (Pradhan Forthcoming) program at that time was to:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Promote and strengthen irrigation research capability in Nepal, and"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Undertake research activities in FMIS in Nepal."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"IWMI has the mandate to work in cooperation with scientific departments, government agencies, NGOs and universities of Nepal, in accordance with the strategies, policies and priorities of IWMI and the GoN. In 1989, IWMI signed a MOU with the Department of Irrigation (DoI), with the objective \"to strengthen the efficient and effective utilization of the already developed irrigation and water resources potential in Nepal\" (MOU 1994). IWMI activity in Nepal is directed by the Consultative Committee, chaired by the Director General (DG) of the DoI."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"In retrospect, IWMI's research activities in Nepal can be grouped into the following categories:"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT)"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• Water management in river basins "}]},{"head":"IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT TRANSFER Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"The first collaborative research (1986)(1987)(1988)(1989) was carried out in the Indrawati Basin in the east of Kathmandu Valley. The action research enabled the development of both 'physical' and 'social' capital of the irrigation system and prepared for government support to the FMIS in Nepal, which, until then, were not receiving any kind of government support. The main activities carried out under this research agenda was the rapid assessment of FMIS to provide agency support, resource survey on availability of water and potential for expansion, farmer to farmer training (Rao and Abeywickrema 1992), physical structure improvement and promotion of PIM in FMIS (Pradhan Forthcoming). IIMI was also involved in evaluation of the process and performance of FMIS financed by the Agricultural Development Bank Nepal (ADBN) through a package of technical know-how, finance and institutional arrangement for the development of irrigation systems for small farmers. During this time a major reorganization of the irrigation sector was taking place in Nepal through a merger of the Farm Irrigation and Water Utilization Division (FIWUD) of the Department of Agriculture (DoA) and small irrigation of less than 50 hectares (ha) of the then Ministry of Panchayat and Local Development to DoI, which was made the sole agency for the development of the irrigation sector."}]},{"head":"Banganga Irrigation System","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"In 1992, the GoN engaged in the management transfer programs of agency managed irrigation systems in accordance with Nepal's Irrigation Policy. The policy was to transfer all irrigation systems that were irrigating up to 2,000 ha in the plains and 500 ha in the hills to farmers -or by giving joint management of these systems to the DoI and farmers -to make these systems more productive and sustainable. Understanding the intricacies of the management transfer and learning lessons for future interventions was important for the DoI."},{"index":2,"size":191,"text":"IIMI received funding support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to undertake performance improvement of 6,000 ha through PIM in the Banganga Irrigation System (BIS) in Western Nepal. IIMI's activities focused on the improvement of water distribution and organizing irrigation users for operation and maintenance at tertiary canals and field channels (IWMI 2000). Farmers were encouraged to form WUAs. The agency officials of the BIS prepared a water allocation and distribution schedule in consultation with WUAs. Farmers were also encouraged to collect a fee for Operation and Maintenance (O&M), which reduced the O&M cost to the DoI. The major achievement of the project was to initiate dialogue between the DoI and the farmer for management transfer, and to form a task force to prepare national guidelines on policy for participatory irrigation (IIMI 1992). IIMI was organizing the WUA for IMT in branch canals, which was encouraging but there was also concern that the DoI might not be able to sustain this work as it had to complete organization of the WUA for the entire system. Therefore, it was requested that IIMI work be continued for the entire system."}]},{"head":"West Gandak Irrigation System","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"The project manager of the BIS, who was transferred to the West Gandak Irrigation System (WGIS), introduced innovative ideas in farmer organization, water allocation and distribution, and operation and maintenance of the irrigation systems (Pradhan Forthcoming). IIMI also carried out action research on the management transfer of this System, which has a command area of 8,700 ha and is in the western part of Nepal. The management transfer study focused on assessment of agricultural productivity, documentation of management transfer -outlining the processes followed in the formation of WUAs, introduction of training of farmers on the development of rules and regulations for resource mobilization, record keeping and O&M. The farmers from West Gandak were brought to nearby FMIS to learn the share system in allocation and distribution of water and labor mobilization according to the shares which they could introduce later in their system (Mishra and Molden 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"The Farmers' condition to support the turnover was the availability of water and the tailenders were in front to demand for turnover, as they expected easy access to water after IMT. Conflict resolution was one of the main activities of the committee. The study concluded that, in general, agricultural productivity has increased (Samad et al. 1999;Mishra and Molden 1996) in sites where IMT was introduced, which is due to rehabilitation and improved management brought about by IMT. However, it was difficult to attribute all these gains to IMT as other factors such as climatic variations may have also contributed. Another important observation made by the farmers' representative was on the farmers' resource mobilization, which was encouraging compared to the previous situation, where resource contribution was not tied to service delivery (Yadav 1998). In one of the transferred irrigation systems, the majority of farmers claimed that management has improved and felt that it made it easier to get assistance from the WUAs in transferred units as compared to getting the assistance from the agency in non-transferred units (Samad et al. 1999)."},{"index":3,"size":182,"text":"An interesting observation made during study on ISF (Sijapati and Prasad 1998) was the lack of legal backup for collection and spending of the resources by farmers, which was identified as a major constraint. The study also found that the collection was far below the required amount for O&M, although the contribution from the government towards maintenance had decreased; The study concluded that this could affect the sustainability of agricultural production in the long-run due to underinvestment; and warned that this situation may lead to the cycle of rehabilitationdecline-rehabilitation and will not be helpful in reducing government expenditure in the long-run. This was substantiated later by IWMI field observations in the WGIS, which was in a deteriorating state due to weak management and awaiting rehabilitation. The lessons learned from the study, which are still valid, suggest that there is a need to identify an alternative mode of IMT taking into account the failures in the past that had to be overcome to achieve the desired result, especially in the case of ISF and O&M for operation of the irrigation systems in future."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"IIMI was intensively involved in documenting the management transfer processes in the Banganga and West Gandak irrigation systems. The Institute, in partnership with the Research and Technology Development Branch (RTDB) of DoI, was also involved in organizing studies in other irrigation systems to understand the various aspects of the IMTP. The study findings from the IMT project, in general, is presented in the following paragraphs."},{"index":5,"size":165,"text":"The documentation of the rehabilitation process, institutional development process and posttransfer support was also carried out under the IMT project. The aim of this was to get a clearer picture of irrigation management practices and WUA dynamics at local level. The study was carried out in collaboration with the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Rampur Campus, through their students who stayed at villages for extended periods during three years and carried out documentation in great detail on WUA meetings, elections, decision-making patterns and organization of canal maintenance (Shukla et al. 1998). The study pointed out the high degree of local party politics involved during the election process of WUAs and IMT. This was especially the case where there was absence of strong leadership in the community. This had adverse effects on the smooth functioning of the WUA, and later on it was found that in one scheme the WUA almost became defunct because of political intolerance among functionaries and representatives in the WUA."},{"index":6,"size":232,"text":"Rehabilitation processes indicated that the strategies, scope of work, cost sharing and implementation of rehabilitation vary greatly from project to project and also the outcome. Generally, it was assumed that the accountability of contractors to the WUA, joint inspection of the work by government officials and farmers, and completion of work to their satisfaction would ensure greater chances of success. However, the reality was more complex. For example, management turnover of West Gandak, Khageri and Panchakanya were initiated at the same time. Khageri and Panchakanya with a command area of 3,900 and 600 ha in the central part of the country followed the same elaborate procedures based on the assumptions mentioned above. Still, results measured in terms of farmer satisfaction and WUA effectiveness was very different (ibid). It was found that strong leadership of one person in Panchakanya resulted in a well-functioning WUA, while the absence of such leadership in West Gandak resulted in a high interference by local politics and personal gains in awarding contracts in rehabilitation works. Thus, it was evident that strong leadership was more important than the rehabilitation process and creating an environment for the emergence of strong leadership was challenging for the success of rehabilitation. The differences in the success of IMT could also be attributed to the size of the irrigation schemes. In comparison, the WGIS is much larger than the Khageri and Panchakanya irrigation systems."},{"index":7,"size":93,"text":"The study on institutional development processes (Upadhyaya 1999) observed that the effectiveness of WUAs in carrying out irrigation management tasks varied across the irrigation systems, which pointed to the scope of improvement in areas of O&M, ISF collection, empowerment and governance. But it concluded that the functional status of WUAs is reasonable to good in systems where institutional development processes preceded the management transfer compared to systems where rehabilitation and institutional development were taken together. In essence, management transfers to an effective WUA will result in better performance of the transferred irrigation schemes."},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"The research study identified areas for post-transfer support by analyzing the performance of various WUAs which have just begun to manage irrigation systems; found a great variability in the effectiveness of WUAs; and made suggestions for building-up the institutional capacity of WUAs through a responsive need-based approach. Another important area the study identified for support was in agricultural extension; financial services and technical engineering services. It also suggested that revisions be made on policy and regulations for the effective functioning of WUAs. Two important policy recommendations were made:"},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"• The agency should identify specific and measurable indicators of IMT to enable its evaluation later on, which was not very clear when it was implemented; and"},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"• The government should provide adequate resources and WUAs should also strive to collect fees from farmers to strengthen the institutional capabilities of WUAs."},{"index":11,"size":146,"text":"The research on IMT in Nepal was also part of IIMI's ongoing program to assess the impacts of IMT in various countries of the world at that time. A comparative analysis of management transfer in six countries including Nepal (Frederiksen and Vissia 1998) indicated that comprehensive legislative provisions need to be enacted before service transfer. The study also emphasized the role of local beneficiaries and local entities besides the Central Government, especially for O&M, as only the government can play the role of regulator for providing water services. The comparative study was valuable in providing policy recommendations on the roles that entities could play at various levels -from central to the local level -and also suggested guidelines for management transfer. It also suggested various aspects for consideration in management transfer such as drainage, water rights, and future availability of water for irrigation and other uses (ibid)."},{"index":12,"size":85,"text":"IIMI's assessment of IMTP in Nepal concluded that government expenditure on IMTP reduced government budget transfer for O&M. However, in the WGIS, irrigation cash cost to the farmer was found to be higher in the tertiary canal transferred to the farmers than that of the canal not transferred to the farmers. But water allocation and distribution was much fairer in IMT schemes compared to before (Samad 2002). In the case of groundwater, the pumping charges in IMT schemes were higher than that of non-IMT schemes."},{"index":13,"size":123,"text":"One study in irrigation management focusing on public-private partnerships and equity issue was carried out by IWMI in the Andhikhola Irrigation and Hydel project. The study looked at the processes by which the land redistribution to the landless and marginal farmers was made, and whether it was 'pro-poor' and addressed social equity as envisaged or not. The study observed that the land and water distribution to the poor was a positive step towards achieving social equity. However, the benefit to the poor could have been enhanced had it been effectively implemented. The lack of representation of the poor in the planning and decision-making committees for land and water distribution was identified as the main reason for this situation (van Etten et al. 2002)."}]},{"head":"WATER MANAGEMENT IN RIVER BASINS Indrawati River Basin","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The study funded by FF was carried out in collaboration with the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) in the Indrawati River Basin from 1999 to 2002. At this time, the government was in the process of preparing a Water Resources Strategy and needed field level information on integrated water resources management (IWRM). Therefore, the main objective of this study was 'to generate key information and recommendations for integrated water resource development and management strategies that combine the objectives of productivity, equity and resource conservation' (IWMI 2001)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"This study was exploratory in nature. The selection of this basin was done in consultation with the WECS. The selection of the basin was also appropriate for the study, as a major water transfer project -the Melamchi Water Supply Project (MWSP) -to Kathmandu Valley was being implemented by the GoN. Therefore, the study could also assess the likely implications of water transfers on other water uses in the basin."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"The study focused on assessment of the resource base; water accounting; process documentation of Melamchi Water Supply Project; inclusion and exclusion process; and formal and informal institutional arrangements (Bhattarai et al. 2002). All the studies were jointly carried out by IWMI researchers, engineers from WECS and the DoI. A steering committee chaired by the secretary of the WECS was formed to guide the study. The studies made some important observations in the following areas:"}]},{"head":"Water Accounting","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Water accounting is a procedure followed to account for the use and productivity of water resources, based on a water balance approach. It classifies outflows from a water balance domain (basin/ irrigation project/irrigation field) into various categories, to provide information on the quantity of water depleted by various uses (Molden and Sakthivadivel 1999). From the water accounting result, it has been observed that the basin on the whole is open, whereas the subbasin and its tributaries may be closed or closing. The study indicated the potential of increasing water productivity and also cautioned that further withdrawals of water may have other adverse effects on the social and environmental fronts in the long run. The study was skeptical of the MWSP for not taking into account agriculture and other uses, while proposing for maintaining a minimum flow of 0.4 cubic meters (m3) of water for aquatic life (Mishra and Shilpakar 2001)."}]},{"head":"Institutions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The study observed that strict rules and formal organization for water allocation had not been developed yet due to sufficient water availability and the customary practices, which governs the allocation norms. Therefore, the conflict among water users was less pronounced. The customary practices guaranteed the right of the users, where irrigation received first priority over other uses."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"However, competition for the use of water has been increasing in recent times due to the development of electricity and irrigation projects including the MWSP. The growing competition among various sectors may create more stress on the present institutional mechanisms for allocation and conflict resolution. This could facilitate the emergence of formal institutional arrangements to buffer the shocks brought on by new projects."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The study found that the Village Development Committees (VDCs) and District Development Committees (DDCs) were contributing to the development of electricity projects. It was observed that the DDC was seeking a bigger role in water resources development, which it thought was still inadequate considering its role in other development sectors in the district (Pant 2001)."}]},{"head":"Melamchi Process Documentation Research (MPDR)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The process documentation research of MWSP indicated that there was minimal involvement of the local communities in the decision-making process of the project and they were less informed of the impacts of the Inter-Basin Water Transfer (IBWT). They were skeptical of the water availability for various activities after the planned diversion of water to Kathmandu Valley. This was also largely due to inadequate interaction between project officials and local stakeholders, and inadequate sharing of information by officials of the MWSP (Devkota 2001)."}]},{"head":"Inclusion and Exclusion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The study showed that new water-related projects were being implemented in the basin utilizing the same source of water, and rights of the prior appropriators are encroached without giving them any form of compensation. In particular, this is already problematic in the case of Ghatta 1 owners and mill owners. Lack of established rules and regulations for water allocation, distribution, and O&M, especially during the lean season (March-June), was the major reason for this."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"One of the important observations made was the compulsory contribution of cash or labor during the development of new water projects, which was detrimental for the exclusion of poor and marginal households who do not have the resources (cash) to contribute. In most of the cases, village leaders and the rich people did benefit from new water projects, as they initiated the project because of their good linkages with the government officials. The poor and socially deprived farmers were excluded because their interest was not sufficiently represented in decisionmaking processes (Upadhyaya 2001), their inclusion in irrigation projects has reduced poverty in participating households and had also secured water rights for the future generation."}]},{"head":"East Rapti River Basin","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Another important basin level water management study was carried out from 2000 to 2002 -with funding from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) -in the East Rapti River Basin in the central region (IWMI 2003a). This was part of a regional study in five (China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Philippines and Nepal) countries with an objective of: 'Understanding various facets of basin level water management practices and providing recommendation on policies and institutional innovations to increase productivity through improved basin management' (Molden 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"This was a participatory action research emphasizing on the stakeholder consultation processes. The socioeconomic, water accounting and institutional analysis were the main components of the study. The purpose of the study was to also prepare the action plan for the basin. However, it could not happen due to a low level of participation from the stakeholders (Bandaragoda 2005)."}]},{"head":"Water Accounting","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The major findings of the study showed that the East Rapti River Basin was an open basin, and agriculture was the main user with seasonal and temporal variations in water availability across the basin. This led to competition between water uses, which was contributing to inter-sectoral conflicts (irrigation users and the Chitwan National Park; irrigation users and industrial establishments; and the Park and fishermen) due to increasing water demands. This was attributed largely to the lack of clear-cut policies on securing water use rights, water licensing and pricing, surface water and groundwater use, and water quality regulations, which are guided by sectoral policies of various ministries. This was a barrier for a holistic approach which was necessary for the emergence of institution for IWRM."}]},{"head":"Institutions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Findings of the study observed that legislations were not sufficient for facilitating the creation of new basin level institutions, and regulatory framework were required for water allocation and sharing, participation of private sector, on water rights, pollution control and environment management, water pricing and cost recovery, and groundwater. Therefore, water users were following both customary practices and legal provisions as specified in the Water Resources Act (WRA) of 1992, but the provisions of the Water Resources Regulations of 1993 -for formation of users' organizations, district water resources committees, licensing for the use of water resources, and committees for resolution of disputes -are not enforced or implemented properly at the local level."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Another issue of major concern was the lack of harmony between the related laws (Water Resources Act, 1992;Drinking Water Regulation, 2055(1999); Irrigation Regulation, 2056Regulation, (2000)); and Local Self-Government Act (LSGA), 2055 (1999), which dealt with comprehensive legislation on water resources development, utilization and conservation. These laws have prescribed a set of separate and contradictory procedures with regard to licensing, constitution of users' groups, dispute settlement mechanisms and a committee for fixing tariffs and show a certain amount of incongruity."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"The study recommended that the preferable option would be the consolidation of the Water Resources Regulations of 1993, with all conflicting provisions found in various regulations relating to licensing fees, registration of WUAs, irrigation, drinking water service fees and dispute settlement mechanisms. While doing so, it is necessary to amend the Irrigation Regulation, 2056 (2000) so as to make District Water Resources Committees responsible for registration of WUAs. Likewise, the LSGA and Regulations need additional provisions under which DDCs, VDCs and municipalities are also required to get a license for proposed/planned drinking water and irrigation projects, leaving the service delivery and implementation functions to them."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"The study concluded that although statutory laws have been promulgated and amended over the last 30 years, many of the activities related to water rights in the water sector are still based on customary rights. As Nepal's population grows, water stresses will be felt frequently and conflicts on water use will also be more frequent. Since water resources development is an integral part of the national economic growth strategy, there will be new investments in infrastructure that will require trade-offs and/or compensation to existing users. This means that the legal framework for water use in Nepal must address these emerging issues and it must be able to facilitate a transition from customary rights to statutory rights (Bandaragoda 2005). In addition to the legal framework, there must be an improvement in the enforcement of statutory laws and regulations."}]},{"head":"Assessment of Environment Flows","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"The development of a hydrology-based methodology for environmental water allocations (Smakhtin and Shilpakar 2005) was the first study of its kind in Nepal, which aimed to bring attention to the need of considering environmental flow requirements in national water planning. The study developed a new method to estimate such requirements, using the readily available hydrological daily time series data. It also suggested a simple technique by which hydrological data for environmental flow assessments can be generated for ungauged sites. The East Rapti River was selected for the study because of its high conservational importance (e.g., Chitwan National Park). The follow-up study (Smakhtin et al. 2006) also tested other simple methods of environmental flow assessment in the East Rapti River Basin. These studies advocated the preemptive approach for conservation of aquatic environment in Nepal, i.e., setting environmental thresholds for use of river water before the major development started in a basin."}]},{"head":"Other Studies","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The study carried out in collaboration with IAAS on the effects of small-scale irrigation to improve household level food production in the buffer zone indicated that small-scale irrigation played an important role for the food security of the household and the investment in it needed to continue (Adhikari and Pant 2003). The action research on dialogue on water and food among concerned stakeholders in the East Rapti River Basin helped facilitate the interaction among users and other stakeholders for better management of water and other natural resources in the basin."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"IWMI and the National Agricultural Research Council, Nepal, has conducted soil erosion management action research in one of the watersheds in the central region of the country. The purpose of this study was to look at the on-site effects of erosion and its potential off-site impacts in relation to erosion and land use, and erosion and catchment size (Maglinao and Leslie 2001). The first phase of the study was successful. However, Nepal was not included in the latter phase of the study. Thus, testing and further improvement of the technology could not be carried out. The focus was to identify mechanisms for the evolvement of institutions for Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) at basin level. This was a participatory action research, in which the stakeholders at community, district and national level participated at various stages of the research. The major findings of the study are presented below."}]},{"head":"Begnas","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Legal, Policy and Institutional Review","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"One of the important activities of the research was to understand congruence and divergence in the legal, policy and institutional provisions for the integrated management of resources at the catchment level. The review found that the provisions do not take into account the holistic approach in resource management and suggested that various reforms be included in them with focus on water, forest and local governance issues. This study also pointed towards the lack of harmony in the existing laws and reinforced the findings of the institutional study carried out in the East Rapti River Basin. This was indicative of the slow reform process and the reluctance of the government to incorporate necessary changes in the existing provisions suggested by previous studies. The study pointed out that INRM is the coordination and complimentarity in government policy, legal and institutional provisions, and among the agencies involved in resource management from the central to the local level (Pant 2009). The study suggested that existing interrelations and dependencies among them at various levels need to be recognized."}]},{"head":"Assessment of Resource Base","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"The assessment of the resource base in the study area was important in knowing the availability, access and use of resources. There was a wide gap between the upstream and downstream users with respect to access to resources. The access to productive resources was constrained for upstream users due to the limited agricultural land and underdeveloped traditional irrigation systems. The important resource for upstream users was the community managed forest, but they have not been able to derive optimum benefits from it due to lack of its economic value. However, this has contributed to the availability of water downstream where fishers and irrigation user groups are deriving benefit. The existing inequality in benefit sharing from natural resources among the upstream and downstream users was identified as one of the major constraints in INRM (Parajuli and Sharma 2009)."}]},{"head":"Platform Formation","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Keeping in mind the findings from the field study and the outcome of the consultation with the stakeholders at various levels, the project facilitated the formation of a 'Platform' of the stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"\"Platform is a venue where resource users and stakeholders are brought together to discuss the issues related to resource management and it is believed that this process will contribute to the users and other stakeholders' understanding and thinking on integrated resource management\" (Pant and Shrestha 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"'Platform' was formed to facilitate the integrated management of natural resources at subbasin/catchment level, as envisaged in the Water Resources Strategy (2002). Interactions between the platform officials and the concerned officials to share the outcome of the action research were organized at local, district and central level along with the formation of the platform."}]},{"head":"SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"A study on poverty-focused smallholder water management practices was carried out in Nepal in 2001 with funding from the UK Department for International Development (DFID). The study focused on assessing the field situation of the micro-irrigation technology -the drip irrigation in the hills of Nepal and its viability for expansion in future -implemented by the International Development Enterprises (IDE)/Nepal. The purpose of this study was: \"to create an elaborate knowledge base which will allow one to assess the success or otherwise of the drip irrigation innovation besides facilitating development of practical mechanisms for promoting the innovation in smallholders water management units for improving their livelihoods\" (RITI Consultants 2001)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"The study looked at the adoption of drip irrigation technology in the hills of Nepal and gathered farmers' perception towards it through the household survey. The findings of the study were encouraging for the expansion of drip irrigation technology, as farmers have started deriving cash income from the production and sales of vegetables. However, it also pointed out that access to the market and the price of vegetables are the main constraints preventing farmers from adopting this technology (Kalu 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"By improving on the single-use drip irrigation technology, since 2003 IDE, Nepal, has been introducing Multiple Use Schemes (MUS), which also provided drinking water. Thus, the water supplied was for both domestic (household) and productive (irrigation) use. IWMI carried out a study of nine MUS schemes in 2004 with an objective: \"to assess the users' perception on the adoption of multiple use scheme (MUS) technology and household benefit in terms of time saving and income\" (IWMI 2003c)."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"The study documented that the users' response, and also the benefit, varied across the system. These variations were due to the differences in types of technological interventions, price differences of vegetables and vegetable seed, market access, and availability of technical support (Pant et al. 2006). The study recommended that a catchment approach be used for the development of MUS. Also, the IWMI-led MUS project, funded by the CPWF, had documentation and promotion of MUS activities that were carried out in Nepal in partnership with IDE, Nepal."}]},{"head":"GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The first study on groundwater was on the groundwater-energy nexus in 2002, which looked at the historical perspective of groundwater development in Nepal along with types of energy used in groundwater extraction. The study highlighted the importance of electricity for expansion of groundwater and drew attention towards the unavailability of electricity, which was the constraining factor for groundwater extraction and agricultural development in the Terai (southern plain area in Nepal). The study also pointed out that the diesel-operated pumps were not cost-effective for small and marginal farmers, and these were being used as insurance against the untimely rain. Therefore, the study recommended expansion of the rural electricity network and removal of the 'minimum demand charge' for electricity operated pumps to promote groundwater development (Joshi et al. 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Under funding from the IWMI-TATA groundwater program, a survey on the socioeconomic and ecological implications of groundwater irrigation in the Terai of Nepal was carried out in 2003 to gain a broader understanding of its groundwater development status. Like the previous study, this also concluded that installation of the shallow tubewell was beyond the reach of the small and marginal farmers (less than 0.5 ha of land) due to the high cost of diesel pumps and its fuel (Pant and Belbase 2003). Later on a study in the eastern part of the Terai of Nepal revealed that wherever there was access to electricity, farmers were encouraged to install small pumps and this increased their access to irrigation (Kansakar et al. 2009). Thus, the study recommended policy reform to facilitate the electricity extension in the Terai to increase small farmers' access to groundwater irrigation."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"A comparative study of irrigation water costs in relation to the use of diesel in some states of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Terai of Nepal showed that farmers in Nepal are in a disadvantageous position in using groundwater due to the increasing diesel costs. The farm gate price of rice is low in relation to the cost of the diesel used to produce it, and farmers are reluctant to use diesel pumps even though they are primarily used by all farmers in the Terai. The consequence of this is that there is a shrinking water market due to the rising cost of water (Shah et al. 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":191,"text":"The government policy of involving the community in the distribution of electricity for domestic use in the rural areas in Nepal has been successful in reducing the cost of distribution, collection of tariffs and controlling the non-technical losses. IWMI carried out a study to document the community based electricity management experiences to explore its application for the promotion of tubewell irrigation, as earlier studies had indicated that unavailability of electricity was the major constraint for expansion of groundwater development. The study concluded that the organization of users could be entrusted for the distribution of electricity in tubewell irrigated areas. The study made recommendations to promote users' participation in community managed electricity distribution in the Terai, tax exemption to users' cooperatives and explicit provisions for sharing of the distribution network between agriculture and industrial use to avoid conflict between them. These provisions will help groundwater expansion in the Terai and increase smallholders' access to groundwater irrigation and strengthen the community organization for electricity distribution. This study also identified that expansion of the electricity network in the rural areas as being the main constraint for expansion of tubewell irrigation (Shilpakar and Pant 2004)."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"A training-cum-research programme was organized under the Groundwater Governance Project funded by the CPWF. The primary focus of the study was to train mid-level managers on the theoretical and practical aspects of groundwater issues to equip them for policy level decision making at a later stage. Similarly, the training for high officials focused on providing them with knowledge on various aspects of groundwater management in developing and developed countries. Both junior and senior officials participated in the programme and benefited from it."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"A scoping study of wastewater quality, treatment and its use in Kathmandu Valley was also carried out by a MSc intern from Colorado University to understand the wastewater practices in urban areas. The study found that wastewater use in all three municipalities in Kathmandu Valley, although on a small-scale, was mainly used for vegetable production (Rutkowski et al. 2007)."}]},{"head":"GENDER AND IRRIGATION","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"IWMI research on the gender aspect of irrigation was pioneering at a time when the role of gender in irrigation management had not been explored and was poorly understood. An important study on the gender role in irrigation management was carried out in WGIS, where the researchers found that the there was a need to increase women's role in decision-making processes (van Etten et al. 1999). The action research also took steps to encourage the participation of women at different levels of the WUA, and has increased the number of women in subcommittees of the WUA. It was also observed that women irrigators, although significant in number, have to compete to irrigate their field with men and they were placed in a disadvantageous position (van Koppen et al. 2001;van Koppen 2001). The study suggested capacity building for women and increasing their role in decision-making through their representation in the WUA."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"Later on IWMI also carried out a study on the gender role in smallholder irrigation. Women's involvement in smallholder irrigation was significant as the technology was simple, most of these irrigations were close to the households and suitable for small-scale vegetable farming. The study on drip irrigation (Upadhyaya et al. 2005) revealed that this has a positive impact on women, as the time used for fetching water has reduced due to the development of nearby water sources and has encouraged vegetable production. Consequently, there has been a positive impact on the household food and nutritional intake. Likewise, an assessment carried out by the IWMI-Nepal, on the implementation of Multiple Use Schemes (MUS) for IDE/Nepal (Pant et al. 2006), revealed that women were empowered due to their access to the cash income from vegetable farming, exposure to training and outside contact."}]},{"head":"IMPACT OF IWMI'S WORK IN NEPAL","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"From the discussion above on the types of projects, their focus and major findings, it is clear that each of the projects had some impact. Some of the projects were successful in contributing to policy reforms. However, some of the recommendations did not have the desired level of impact at policy level, as these were not mandatory for the agencies to implement. Nevertheless, given the thrust of the project, each of them had a major impact in one of the following areas."}]},{"head":"• Policy contributions • Methodology development and its application • Institutional strengthening and capacity building","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Policy Contributions","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The study on FMIS, IMTP and river basin studies had focused on helping agencies in the formulation, amendment and implementation of the policies. The contributions from these studies to government agencies were largely dependent on government policies at that time and uptake of the findings of the study. For example, the irrigation management and river basin studies had coincided with government policy changes. In most of the cases, the impact of studies carried out by IIMI was constrained by their duration, as rightly pointed out in the following paragraphs."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"\"IIMI research is on a 'project' mode for a period of three to five years and has to be discontinued at project implementation phase due to lack of donor funding. This was not helpful to look at the output and impact phase of the project. Therefore, the programme mode of operation would be useful to the project mode\" (Rao and Abeywickrema 1992)."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"All the studies in Nepal were also carried out in the project mode. However, the policy implications are mixed from project to project. Generally, the research carried out was effective in influencing policy changes, but due to lack of follow-up support they were not very successful at implementation stage of the projects. The policy contributions of studies carried out by IWMI in Nepal are presented in the following paragraphs."}]},{"head":"Irrigation Management Transfer","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"IIMI's involvement in the beginning (in 1988) helped understand the dynamics of FMIS and created awareness of its importance to the government and donor officials. At that time, a major policy reform -from a project approach to sector approach -in irrigation and assistance to FMIS was being discussed. IWMI's collaborative research with national partners made policy contributions on developing mechanisms for assistance to FMIS; helped to develop a participatory approach in irrigation management; and improvement in O&M in public sector irrigation systems in Nepal. During this period, the study on large-scale FMIS in Western Nepal contributed towards making policymakers aware of the dynamics of the functioning of such schemes. The findings of the study were helpful in designing the WUA for Rajapur Irrigation System in West Nepal (funded by ADB, Manila) and other agency managed irrigation systems."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"An assessment of the IIMI program in Nepal from 1986-1992 (Rao and Abeywickrema 1992) identified three major areas of contributions:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Policy contribution to system turnover and participatory management • Efforts at institution building and management development"}]},{"head":"• Strengthening national capacity for irrigation research","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The assessment pointed out that studies on FMIS had influenced policymaking on the role of WUAs in the effective management of AMIS, which was not participatory."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Contribution to policy was also made by providing input in the development of Irrigation Master Plan (Yoder et al. 1988) and also being a member in the Task Force on the invitation of the government for the preparation of 7th Five Year Plan of Nepal. Likewise, IWMI was requested for its input on the draft Irrigation Regulation 2056 (2000) of Nepal. Suggestions were provided by a group of IWMI researchers and research findings, suggestions and recommendations from the IMTP study were reflected in the Irrigation Regulation 2056 (2000) in the following areas (Pradhan Forthcoming):"},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• The government's facilitating and supporting role for capacity building and strengthening of WUAs, fixing of ISF, its collection and investment, and joint performance monitoring for O&M after management transfer."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• The government's regulatory role for water quality control, environmental protection and security of water rights."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"The IMTP project helped establish the IWMI-Nepal Consultative Committee, chaired by the Director General, DoI, with representation from an interdisciplinary group of people from various governmental and non-governmental organizations and universities. Later on this committee became permanent and is supposed to meet regularly every year to guide the IWMI-Nepal work."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"Some of the policy recommendations on IMT were to make the main committee more responsible for the management of irrigation systems, sufficient mobilization of the cash and labor resources for O&M and enforcing the rules (Mishra and Molden 1996). The policy impact of these recommendations is, however, mixed as all these have not been implemented by the government. For example, government policies on the users' role on asset management (ibid) is still not clear, which was one of the recommendations of the study, as it was important to delineate the roles and responsibilities of users and the agency."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"A policy level workshop on Management Transfer (MT) (Pant et al. 1992) was organized to look at the impact of the IMT project. There was some skepticism with regards to the sustaining of the irrigation system due to withdrawal of financial support given by the DoI and inadequate capacity of the WUA to raise the resources. The workshop also identified issues central to the participatory management as follows (ibid):"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• Farmers' unawareness of policies, laws on water resources, and water rights are not explicitly recognized by DoI."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"• Involvement of farmers and National Agricultural and Research Extension Systems (NARES) in research and data collection."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"• Farmers' participation should also be during the planning and construction stages and not only after the construction."},{"index":11,"size":52,"text":"The gender study in this project contributed to policy by making a certain percentage of women users' representation in the WUA mandatory in irrigation policy. This has helped to increase women's role in decision making of both FMIS and AMIS. This was a major policy reform which is being practiced till now."},{"index":12,"size":92,"text":"The ISF study on government policies, institutions and irrigation financing modalities with focus on the farmers' ability to bear the irrigation financing vis-à-vis cost of production and the market price of the output (Small et al. 1986(Small et al. , 1989;;Martin et al. 1989;Prasad et al. 1998) were important to the government in preparing guidelines and policies relating to cost recovery mechanisms. The impact, however, is not visible due to the government's inability to enforce the guidelines through appropriate policy interventions with adequate legal provisions due to the lack of political commitment."}]},{"head":"Water Management in River Basins","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The research in the Indrawati Basin was able to generate increased interest among the planners and decision makers on developing appropriate institutional mechanisms for the river basin, as the conceptual basis for river basin planning was evolving in Nepal at that time. Comments/suggestions were also provided by a group of IWMI researchers on the draft Water Resources Strategy. The research findings, suggestions, and recommendations of the study were reflected in the Water Resources Strategy, 2002, of GoN (GoN 2002), mainly in following areas:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• The River Basin is regarded as a unit for water resource planning and management of IWRM in Water Resource Strategy."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• The Water Resources Strategy has visualized formation of subbasin and basin committees for basin planning."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Likewise a policy workshop on IWRM in the River Basin was organized in Kathmandu, Nepal, in March 2001 (Kayastha et al. 2001), where the member of the Planning Commission, Executive Secretary and Director of WECS, higher officials from various ministries, NGOs, and consultants participated. The findings of the study were presented to the professionals and were appreciated by policymakers as timely for formulation of the Water Resource Strategy (Kayastha et al. 2001)."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"The policy contribution of the East Rapti River Basin study was the ministerial level workshop held in Bangkok comprising participants from five countries to exchange ideas and views on river basin management. This was jointly organized by IWMI and United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) at the conclusion of the five countries' institutional study (Bandaragoda 2005). The minister along with high level officials from Nepal participated in the workshop. Since, Nepal had just drafted the Water Resources Strategy with a focus on IWRM, the workshop was a learning experience for the delegates from Nepal on the experiences of other countries on water management at basin scale."}]},{"head":"Groundwater Management","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The studies on groundwater management were able to raise awareness on groundwater issues among the policymakers, but did not have a visible impact on government policies, as the government at present does not have a separate groundwater policy for the country. Also, most of the studies were of an exploratory nature with very limited objectives and lacking in-depth analysis to influence government policies. The expansion of these studies would be helpful for policymaking in the future, as the government is in process of formulating a separate groundwater policy. However, the training of high level officials on groundwater was helpful in strengthening their capacity through field research and exposure visits."}]},{"head":"Methodology Development and Its Application","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Irrigation Management Transfer","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The first project -action research on FMIS was the first of its kind in the water sector in Nepal. Therefore, the methodology developed in this project was of great importance to the water sector in Nepal. The methodology development and its application in the following three areas from this project were important contributions to studies in the water sector (Pradhan Forthcoming)."}]},{"head":"• Development of Checklist for Rapid Appraisal of Irrigation","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• The basis of cost calculation for administrative and rehabilitation costs"}]},{"head":"• Initiation of process documentation research","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The Checklist for Rapid Appraisal for pre-feasibility study of irrigation systems was adopted by other consultants and donors such as Sir MacDonald and Partners Ltd., in association with MacDonald Agriculture Services Ltd., and East Consult. Likewise, two donor agencies, Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV) and International Labour Organization (ILO), adopted the same modalities for cost calculation in their irrigation projects in the Mechi and Dhaulagiri Zone, respectively. IIMI's work during this period also included studies for the donors which enabled them to look for alternative strategies for rehabilitation of FMIS. One such study was the Rapid Appraisal of FMIS in the Kailali District carried out for the World Bank (Pradhan Forthcoming)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"IIMI's work on this project also provided a basis for development of the Nepal Irrigation Database by Indiana University in collaboration with IAAS (ibid). A seminar on field-to-farmer organized by IIMI and IAAS (Pradhan 1994) helped look into the issues of different methods of data collection, and IIMI encouraged collaboration with academics both within and outside Nepal which had a positive impact in enriching the knowledge base on FMIS."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"The development and application of participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools (Gosselink et al. 1995;Gosselink and Strosser 1995) in gaining a clear understanding of the role of irrigation on local livelihood strategies, by taking into account gender and other social characteristics, to analyze the relationship between the irrigation performance and livelihood from farmers' perspectives, was an important methodological contribution for the study of irrigation systems in Nepal. This is because the information from selected FMIS in three districts of Nepal was also included in the study. One of the weaknesses of the PRA/Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) was that it raised the expectation of farmers for receiving support for their irrigation system, which was not coming (ibid)."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"IIMI was also asked for the process documentation of implementation of the Rajapur Irrigation project in west Nepal and this was also the first study of its kind. The study has influenced the design of the project in relation to water rights, type of organization and resource mobilization based on the discussions held with the farmers (Pradhan Forthcoming)."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"Some other methodological contributions from the study of irrigation systems were the development of methods for the inventory of FMIS outlining the steps from selection of sites to data collection and analysis by involving farmers (Yoder 1994;IIMI 1994), and emphasizing the importance of farmers' participation and learning from them. Therefore, the representative of farmers' group from the successful irrigation organization presented the papers in the workshop, which was also attended by policymakers (Pradhan et al. 1992). The purpose was to facilitate interaction between the farmers and the agency officials and to strengthen the NGOs capability to enable them to participate in interventions according to the needs of the agency and project consultant."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"IIMI applied the methodology of process documentation through the IMTP research project by conducting an extensive documentation of the management transfer of irrigation systems with focus on technical and socio-institutional aspects. The documentation was important in providing insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the processes of management transfer, and in suggesting the corrective measures required in future management transfers. Besides, the data gathered during the process documentation served as a benchmark for future comparisons."}]},{"head":"Water Management in River Basins","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Another important methodological contribution was on the development of the methodology for river basin study and its application through basin level studies in the Indrawati River Basin, which was also the first of its kind in the water management sector in Nepal. The study took the river basin as a unit and identified major components for the study, which provided a framework for future studies. The impact of this study was the application of the same framework for the study on 'Development of Effective Water Management Institutions in East Rapti'. This has enabled time saving and provided an opportunity to test the rigor of the methodology developed for river basin study. Likewise, the methodology developed for estimation of environmental flow allocations in East Rapti is also an important contribution for basin level study. The model used in this study would be beneficial for application in studies of other river basins as well."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The action research in the Begnas River Basin in western Nepal was carried out to operationalize the subbasin level committee as envisaged in the Water Resources Strategy, 2002, of the GoN (Pant and Scott 2005). The study organized the 'platform' of the concerned stakeholders for the management of resources in the basin. The methodological contribution was documentation of the processes and steps followed in the formation of the 'platform' of stakeholders, and are important in organizing subbasin and basin level committees by the government in other basins when the National Water Plan ( 2005) is fully implemented (Pant and Shrestha 2009). The application of this process in other river basins is yet to be made to observe if it is replicable in a different physical, technical and socioeconomic environment."}]},{"head":"Gender and Irrigation","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Similarly, the application of a framework for gender study (Zwarteveen 1997;van Koppen et al. 2001), smallholder irrigation (Upadhyaya et al. 2005;Pant et al. 2006) and livelihood coping strategies (Lamichhane 2008) provides a framework for study on the role of gender in irrigation management."}]},{"head":"Institutional Strengthening and Capacity Building","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"One of the objectives of the IWMI program in Nepal was to strengthen the research capability of the Nepali researchers. IWMI research in Nepal was carried out by IWMI researchers, local researchers, WECS and DoI engineers, University teachers and students with inputs from the IWMI researchers at the office headquarters. Their involvement in IWMI research work was a form of on-the-job training due to knowledge sharing between the local and international researchers. This has helped in local capacity building in the following ways:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• Enhancing the knowledge base."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"• Developing research skills."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• Exposure to various research tools and methodologies used by IWMI, especially in crosscountry studies."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"• Familiarization with crosscutting issues."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Contacts with IWMI's national and international staff."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Better access to IWMI's research findings and publications."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• Paper presentation and participation in national, regional and international workshops."},{"index":9,"size":95,"text":"Given IWMI's mandate to strengthen the national capacity by working with the national institutes, the Institute interacted frequently with officials and academics who were involved or interested in the water sector of Nepal, even though it was working mainly with the DoI and WECS. IWMI provided an opportunity for government officials and other researchers to make exposure visits locally to enable them to understand the ground situation of water management based on the reality of the field. Under various projects, the government officials also received training, which was helpful in strengthening their knowledge and skills."},{"index":10,"size":89,"text":"Strengthening of WECS capabilities through studies on FMIS and collaborative research work was an important contribution on human resource development (Rao and Abeywickrema 1992). Part of the research grant provided for the IMTP study was allocated directly to the RTDB of DoI, IAAS, under the Tribhuvan University, and WECS for its capacity building activities. Likewise, a research grant was allocated to WECS for its institutional strengthening from the river basin study carried out in Indrawati. Some of the important work leading to institutional strengthening of DoI was as follows:"},{"index":11,"size":23,"text":"• Input to DoI in establishing a monitoring and evaluation system based on three performance datasets: agricultural performance, operational performance, and maintenance performance."},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"• Increased awareness about the need for post-transfer support in management transferred systems has led to inclusion of more articulated post-transfer support extending arrangements in IMT agreements between the WUAs and the agency."},{"index":13,"size":72,"text":"Students from Tribhuvan University and universities outside Nepal were supported in conducting research for their master's thesis. This helped in building local capability as well. Likewise, the opportunities to IWMI staff from other countries to be involved in the research work in Nepal have enhanced their knowledge base on various aspects, helped develop international contacts, fostered their research capacities and contributed toward understanding cross-country scenarios and views on IWMI's areas of interest."},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"IWMI also provided an opportunity for foreign students to work as interns, which was helpful in knowledge transfer and strengthening their knowledge through experience of working with IWMI researchers in the developing countries."}]},{"head":"CHALLENGES AND STRATEGY FOR IWMI'S WORK","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Challenges","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"At the beginning of IWMI activities in Nepal the main thrust was on research on FMIS. Earlier work laid the foundation for research activities in Nepal and was highly appreciated. IWMI generated funding on its own for research activities in Nepal, as the GoN did not allocate separate funding for the IWMI-Nepal program. Not being a consulting firm, it did not compete for consultancy work under various projects in Nepal. The only way it could generate funds was through donors by writing proposals. The writing of proposals and getting it funded is a long process and used to sometimes take up to 2 to 3 years. Therefore, lack of a perennial source of funding has an impact on implementing long term projects in Nepal. The situation improved from the mid-1990s and three projects were implemented successively."},{"index":2,"size":200,"text":"Due to the internal conflict since 1998, the security environment in the country was not conducive for field research activities. IWMI's office was not closed but smaller activities, as part of regional and global projects, were implemented until funding for the three-year project under the CPWF was made available in 2005. At present the major challenge for IWMI in Nepal is to strengthen its activities in a self-sustained way by increasing the level of funding. Raising adequate resources for increased activities is important in this respect. IWMI is mainly working with two of the government agencies -WECS and DoI. Their expectation always is that IWMI should generate necessary funding for research in their priority areas, as government expenditure for research activities is minimal. Since IWMI would not be able to carry out all the research anticipated by these government agencies, caution should be maintained in not raising their expectations, which, if not fulfilled, could negatively influence the relationship with them. At the same time, it is also necessary for IWMI to maintain a minimum level of activity that is appreciated by the partner agency, where it has office. At present, this is also a challenge for IWMI activities in Nepal."}]},{"head":"Strategy","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The objective of IWMI's work in Nepal should be to strengthen the efficient and effective utilization of the already developed irrigation and water resources potential in Nepal through the establishment of joint activities between relevant organizations of the government, NARES, academic institutions, NGOs and IWMI. IWMI's research-based knowledge places it in a position to provide key information and analysis relevant for water sector policy development and effective project implementation as envisaged in GoN's Water Resources Strategy (GoN 2002) andNational Water Plan (GoN 2005). IWMI has a comparative advantage in achieving this objective due to its long-term involvement in Nepal's water sector."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• IWMI can use its expertize and research experience gained in several countries, particularly in the Asian region, and combine them with local knowledge generated in Nepal; and"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• IWMI is able to follow and provide timely inputs on key water management issues."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"Nepal is actively engaged in several water resource development and management projects, the success of which often depends on getting the right blend of technical, institutional, and management inputs. IWMI can provide project support by supplying objective reviews of the implementation process and results, and give recommendations on how these can be carried out better. IWMI has a policy to involve key partners and stakeholders in the design and implementation of research activities, which could be further strengthened. Opportunities to implement action research studies on the effect of climate change on water management and water management at basin-scale with selected partners should be explored, which will bring researchers and practitioners more closely together in order to test, and where necessary, to modify research hypotheses, in operational conditions."},{"index":5,"size":119,"text":"Since the beginning of its work in Nepal, IWMI, has made important and effective relationships with two of the government agencies. The recent reorganization of the government has split the Ministry of Water Resources into two -Ministry of Irrigation and Ministry of Energy. Therefore, IWMI will have to establish its relationship with the new ministry as well, and they are the lead agencies in the water sector of the country and any policy influence has to be initiated through these agencies. IWMI is working with a range of partners (NARES, universities, INGOs, Community Based Organizations), besides the two government agencies. The relationship with these agencies is based on collaborative research, research support (MSc and PhD Students) and knowledge sharing."},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"It is expected that a range of relationships will develop with the strengthening of the activities and that can be expanded to establish further relationships with other INGOs in the region. In Nepal, as elsewhere, NGOs and INGO's continue to play an important role in the water sector. IWMI has recognized the additional capacity of such organizations to be able to disseminate research findings through field projects. The IWMI-Nepal Consultative Committee is well established and provides an effective mechanism for regular communication between IWMI researchers, practitioners and other researchers that IWMI's research supports."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"IWMI's collaboration with government agencies and other institutions helped design research-based policy reform in the water management sector of Nepal. The development of mechanisms to provide assistance to FMIS and introduction of a participatory approach in irrigation management were the major policy contributions in earlier research which made policymakers aware of the need for improvements in public sector irrigation systems in Nepal. The most visible policy change was the initiation of management transfer processes in AMIS. The formation of WUAs, introduction of ISF and trainings on various aspects of irrigation management helped strengthen their role in O&M of irrigation systems. The impact, however, is mixed, as smaller irrigation systems are doing well and larger systems are not. All the recommendations of the research findings, however, were not implemented, leading to some confusion on the roles and responsibilities of users and the agency. The collaborative research led to the recognition of women's role in decision making of both FMIS and AMIS by ensuring their representation in the WUA. This was a major policy reform in irrigation management."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"The studies on groundwater were important in suggesting policy reforms for expansion of groundwater in the Terai of Nepal. The focus was on exploring the possibilities of organizing users for electricity distribution for the expansion of groundwater irrigation in the Terai. This was necessary to increase smallholder's access to groundwater irrigation through electrically operated small pumps, as diesel operated engines were too expensive for them. The research recommendations have not been implemented yet due to lack of a proper groundwater policy. The river basin studies were carried out at a time when the government was embarking on IWRM. The studies suggested policy reform in the planning and management of water resources at basin-scale by taking a holistic approach, and it suggested for appropriate institutional mechanisms, which were adopted in the Water Resources Strategy of the government. A follow-up action research on the processes through which the river basin committees are formed was carried out and is expected to assist in the implementation of the National Water Plan of the government."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"IWMI's collaborative research with various partners was helpful in developing methodologies for studies on irrigation management, basin, gender and institutions. The development of PRA tools, intervention criteria for supporting FMIS, users' participation in research, and process documentation of research methods provides guidelines for research on FMIS and AMIS. As all the collaborative research was conducted with local partners, the institutional strengthening and capacity building of the participating agencies has been an integral part of the research undertaking. Development of research skills, institutionalizing research activity in government agencies and learning from the research across and between the regions has enhanced the knowledge base of both national and international researchers."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Overall, challenges exist to sustain IWMI activities in Nepal, and strategically it is important to strengthen and expand IWMI's partnerships for future activities in Nepal."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Basin IWMI, in collaboration with national and international partners, conducted action research entitled 'Resource Management for Sustainable Livelihood' in the Begnas Basin in West Nepal and Hillaugad of Uttaranchal in India from March 2003 to September 2008, with funding from the Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The objective of the study was: \"To contribute to the livelihood enhancement of natural resource users by scaling up water and forest management practices in an integrated way based on the better understanding of existing community-based strategies\" (IWMI 2003b). "}],"sieverID":"9ac534f4-045b-4556-9399-5e3f2df07f0e","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"090aa262b6de901092d9638b5f2d9df2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/84cde4a4-b46d-4d99-a199-ebda9c341a61/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Africa RISING in Ethiopian highlands is a research for development project that focus on system interventions in the crop-and-livestock mixed farming system in four big regions (Amhara, Oromia, Tigray and SNNPR). The project understands the need for engaging various research and development partners in addressing system interventions. For this the project established and support innovation platforms at field sites for cooperation and co-learning. The platforms are supported to facilitate meaningful and effective interactions that prioritize, guide, and evaluate the various research and development processes specific to the sites. The platforms started helping connect farmers to profitable and efficient value chains for the main commodities. The members of the platforms are contributing in designing, implementing, evaluating project activities and disseminate and communicate research findings though regular meetings and farmers field days."}]},{"head":"Innovation platforms and farmer research groups","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Innovation platforms (IPs) have been formed at all the research sites. The platforms aim to nurture linkages among farming communities, the Africa RISING research teams and other public and private actors working in the areas. They work at three levels:"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"1. At woreda (district) level, strategic IPs support kebele platforms and farmer research groups."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"They bring together stakeholders to support wider adoption of innovations. 2. At kebele level, operational platforms oversee local research activities, foster integration among the farmer research groups, and promote alignment of local on-farm research with district priorities. 3. Farmer research groups are like innovation clusters. They involve all farmers who are active around specific clusters of research activities -such as forage production, water delivery or varietal improvement. The roles of these groups are expected to expand to promote scaling of innovation to wider groups of farmers."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Regular IP meetings are held at strategic and operational level for sharing and communicating research findings. This report shares one of the strategic IP meeting that was organized in one of the project sites called Lemo woreda, SNNPR."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"The second strategic IP meeting was held on 19 th Feb 2015 in Hosanna, the capital of the woreda. The focus of the meeting was to share the findings of the action research carried out by Africa RISING project and its partners in 2014 to local partners for potential scaling up. "}]},{"head":"Objectives of the meeting","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The meeting was organized for learning and sharing through communicating research findings undertaken in Lemo woreda and collecting feedbacks and comments"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"To share roles and responsibilities among platform members for scaling out/up of innovations from last year interventions by Africa RISING and its partners"},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The meeting was started by welcoming and introducing the day agenda by Workineh Dubale. Workineh addressed in his speech that the meeting aims to communicate and update the progress of the Africa RISING supported research activities in Lemo woreda and share research findings to stakeholders. He encouraged active participation by all IP members to exchange knowledge as well as contribute to taking the innovation to scale."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"The chairman of Lemo woreda seleme strategic IP, Ato Belayneh Osire, officially opened the meeting by addressing the importance of the platform for the stakeholders to share and learn based on evidences generated. He encouraged participants to participate and benefit most out of it."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Ashenafi was facilitating the whole day meeting and he introduced the agenda and invited participants to speed networking. All participants stand from their chairs and walk in the meeting venue and look for new persons to introduce themselves. It was fun and ice breaker for all participants to start the meeting.   Discussion through questions and answers"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Questions and comments raised on IP and communication tools presented:"},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"-Is the farmers participated only in one research/FRG? -The communication tools presented are for experts but can we have tools that can be used by farmers in local languages? -It would be good if the reports of the IP meetings can be distributed to all IP members Reflections from presenters:"},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"The Africa RISING site coordinator briefly introduced the day's agenda right after opening remark was made by Belay Osere , Woreda Office of Agriculture, delegate and then participants speednetworked to get to know one another."},{"index":9,"size":88,"text":"Discussion points captured: Q1. I see many of the presented activities are more of an extension than research. Clarify this for me. How much is transparent and participatory is the research process? Ans1. Africa RISING does action research. We do an adaptation research mostly on existing technologies. We more focus on innovative research activities than new inventions. We are using this innovation platform as a vehicle to engaged different stakeholders in a participatory way. We also have different forms of research evaluation where local partners are actively involved."},{"index":10,"size":80,"text":"Q2. EAIR (Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research) has done an extensive research on forage trees and has recommended different forage trees for highlands and low lands of Ethiopia. Why didn't Africa RISING want to consider them; why only treelucern? Ans2. Apart from tree Lucerne we are also working on Oats and vetch, crop residue management as far as animal feed is concerned. We preferred to do a stepwise intensification whereby we would see other highland forage trees in the future."},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"Q3. In integrated research approach tradeoff is an important component. Do we do any trade of analysis?"},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"Ans3. We have trade of analysis in the oat and vetch research but we would definitely consider this more in future plans."},{"index":13,"size":125,"text":"Q4. It was mentioned that water shortage is an identified problem in one of the kebeles, do Africa RISING has any plan to deal with it? Which communication tools among the presented are being implemented now? Is the sheep disease problem mentioned is specific to AR sheep or all sheep in the area? Ans4. We are not using every communication tools so far but we are using field days, exchange visits and IP meetings, and charts and flipcharts as part of these events. We are doing some activities on water. Ground water potential study is conducted in collaboration with experts from Ministry of Water and Energy; Motorized Water pump demonstration is being done and experience visit on small water wale irrigation in Angacha was held."},{"index":14,"size":18,"text":"Q5. Sheep disease problem is mainly related with feeding. Are farms are convinced to participate in the intervention?"},{"index":15,"size":183,"text":"Ans5. The disease is mostly related with poor management in our assessment. There is a problem in providing sheep for free which affected sense of ownership.  Ashebir also presented another research activities done on decentralized system for communitybased seed production and extension provision. He presented the community seed production activities done for Faba Bean, potato, wheat and barley that covered 2500 m2 on 6 (six) model farmers field. The research activities also include 4-6 training session to equip farmers with techniques from planting up to harvesting the seeds using farmers' field school approach. The research activities also introduced different storage facilities for Faba bean and potato to help farmers store the seeds by keeping its quality. Ashebir shared the llessons learned and challenges faced. He said that farmers' participation in testing technologies in Lemo was found high. Farmers' selection through a big community meeting was not successful in terms of getting the right farmers with criteria set for each protocol which Africa RISING should improve in the future. Asheber Kifle's from CIP and Biyensa Gurmesa's from CIAT responses to some of the questions:"},{"index":16,"size":513,"text":"-From individual to group community seed multiplication can be increased as there are examples from other sites which shows also that individual farmers can do the seed multiplication with minimum quality -Average production of the wheat used was a national one. The national average and the result obtained in lemo is not that much far from the national one. -I have to check the figures which may be type error but the yield of the two sites gained are similar not the same figure. -When shall we meet the seed demand of the community? Are we waiting for the nation seed multiplication centre to meet as we have seen that their capacity to supply is far from the demands of the community? Should we use other opportunities too like we have been trying to work with individual farmers who have the capacity to do it? -With all the capacity building activities through FFS we have done our best to make sure that the seed multiplication activities was done that meets the minimum seed quality -Resource reach farmers was only used for the community seed production and the reason for this is that the seed multiplication activities require resource reach farmers to allocate good land and labor to be able to manage the production as well as also have access to storage facilities for the seed produced. -Farmers demand on potato and other crops are also high than only focusing on wheat we should support them. -Potato: there was a germination problem during transporting that farmers have witnessed and this is a lesson that we should consider for the future. -Local farmers produce wheat about 23 quintals per hectare while the research shows up maximum of 38 quintals per hectare. This is what CIAT research shows. -ATA-Ethiosis: they are validating their data and not yet reached their final conclusion and it is controversial. We have used the blank recommendation as a base. -Cost benefit analysis is underway and the result that CIAT shared is not yet the final. The final paper and presentation will be shared when CIAT completed the research activities.  Enhancing the productivity of enset through integrated disease and pest management approach Zerihun Yemata is a research from AARC who specialized on enset and he is also a national coordinator for enset research activities. He made his presentation with very illustrative pictures of enset and its different uses. Zerihun mentioned that the research is being undertaken in collaboration with Wachamo University which is a member of the Lemo IP. He first give a good background of Enset and its importance for different uses. He explained that despite the importance of enset there are biotic and abiotic production constraints that farmers are facing. He also stressed there are opportunities in farming enset of which the indigenous knowledge that exists among the farmers and rich biodiversity of enset were mentioned. Zerihun explained that there are five research questions that the Africa RISING supported research is trying to address in Lemo which all aims to improve the livelihood of enset farming communities through integrated management."},{"index":17,"size":128,"text":"The status of the research as Zerihun explained is that one activity which is a baseline study was accomplished out of five interrelated activities that the research planned to undertake in Lemo. He shared some of the preliminary findings obtained from the survey mainly through focus group discussion. According to the finding the production and the productivity of enset was decreased because of diseases. He shared the next enset research activities that includes studies on existing enset production system that will try to address its diverse uses, gender, livestock integration and value chain analysis. The other activities mentioned on the presentation include the development part of the research which is introduction of disease tolerance verities and community based integrated disease and pest management and he completed his presentation."}]},{"head":"Discussion on enset research presentation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The platform members were very much interested on enset research and they have been discussing that the research idea was born during the first IP meeting and it was remembered that the IP chairman Belayneh Osire was the one who raised the issue. Platform members have a strong feeling that they own the research and raised a question related to increase their involvement in the research. This discussion part takes much of the time than others."}]},{"head":"Questions raised:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"-What is the level of the AARC to involve other local institutions? -What is the source of the disease for Enset? -What is new about this research compared to other Enset research? -Research has been done for the last 20 years on Enset and there is no solution to the disease that is affecting Enset? -Why lowland is affected by disease? -Enset and livestock? How you are going to address this? -Soil fertility might be an issue because of lack of nutrient that will be a cause for diseases?"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Responses from Zerihun:"},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"-Wachamo University was there during the planning but there is less information how Hawasaa University was selected to be part of the research. Zerihun said that they would love to involve partners from IP members mainly Wachamo University to share roles and work together. He requested Workineh to organize a short meeting between WCU and AARC to do the rest of Enset research activities together. -Genetic engineering -fermentation work started and result is coming soon."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"-The problem is also labour of women that enset consumes -it is manual and need to be mechanized but no one is working on it. This is a big gap and maybe he was suggesting if Wachamo University can work on this part to fill the gap. -Participatory Variety Selection (PVS) will be implemented in both ekebeles-selection of varsities from widely distributed enset production -to select a good variety that will resist diseases and provide good yield -Medicine is not cost effective and we should mobilize farmers to manage and office of agriculture to work on this -The reason for free grazing is affecting still human being so the reason for the disease break out is human being."}]},{"head":"Brief on monitoring and evaluation tools for IPs","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Elias Damtew (ILRI) briefed the participants about the purpose of the tools to quantify the platforms impact against its purpose. Following the brief he introduced one of the tool called \"stakeholder interaction\" and explained how each organization represented as IP member should fill. Elias mentioned that the data collected from each organization within IP will help to do stakeholder linkage matrix that will show the intensity of the actor's linkage. He also mentioned that this will be used as a baseline information to measure in time IP's contribution in changing the nature and tightness of actors linkage. Elias distributed the tool for each organization and support them to fill the data."}]},{"head":"Closing session:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Ashenafi (facilitator) requested participants to reflect on the day meeting and the following participants highlighted their feedbacks as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"-Zerihun -Enset Researcher-activity was not seen fully so needs to be arranged-capacity building is need to be in place. -planning meeting -interesting feedbacks to motivate us to work hard -A farmer-explained it is interesting that we have seen at Tigray for increasing production -AARC-Director-my expectation was met more than I expect -I gained a lot of knowledge and have seen what I can worked? Time manament -also particiapnts -presentation can be shared in advance for full participation -about the meeting venue that it is very small--Ashenafi-equal participation for partners to be known by CGIAR centers-not as a data collectors or only as a meeting participants -planning meeting should be organized in a way that the CGIAR centres can come and share their ideas to collect feedbacks. -Dr Efrem (Dean of Agriculture Faculty for Wachamo University) -closing remarks-Africa RISING my participation is twice and overall the activities are good. I would like to thank the organizer (ILRI)-the main thing that brought us together is a common goal which is agriculture that is complex to solve and it calls up on all of us to work together. The presentations are engaging and very important issues. ILRI should engage us till we recognize the working together of all of us. I would like to thank for the participation on behalf of WCU."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Photo 1 : Photo 1: Ato Belayneh Osire making an opening speech (left) and participants during the speed networking (Apollo/ILRI) "},{"text":" The site coordinator gave a very brief introductory bit about the Africa RISING project and went on reporting main research and capacity development activities that are being undertaken. There are eleven research protocols implemented in the two kebeles (Upper Gana and Jawe) in Lemo Woreda which lie into the seven research thematic areas identified by Africa RISING researchers. A total of 107 volunteer farmers in both kebeles are participating in these protocols. As a progress update, he presented the research methodologies and field activities of the eleven research protocols.Highlighted challenges  Less follow up of farmers on Tree Lucerne and unsuitable micro climate  Sheep disease on irrigated fodder sheep fattening experiment and less attention to the marketing aspect  Bringing different stakeholders to same level of interest in multi-stakeholder processes  Delay in planting from planting season in some experiments "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Different photos of the meeting showing presentations and discussion part of the morning session (Apollo/ILRI) "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Ashebit and Abiyot (CIP) presenting (Apollo/ILRI) "},{"text":" Participatory variety selection and community seed multiplication of potato, wheat, barley and faba bean Two presentations were made by representatives (Ashebir and Abiyot) from CIP as Ca GIAR center on the research activities accomplished in Lemo. Ashebir Kifle from CIP presented Participatory Variety Selection of wheat, barley, faba bean and potato combined with double cropping of short duration crops. In his presentation he covered the research background, methods and results. In justification section Ashebir stressed the problem of lack of improved seed of most of the crops that the farmers are growing by siting PCA, 2013 which is one of the Africa RISING diagnosis research report. The presentation was clear and simple for IP members to understand and get the point of the presentation as it was supported by figures, tables and pictures. See the follow table to get a picture of what Ashebir presented as results obtained from PVS trials. "},{"text":"Photo 4 : Photo 4: Group work on irrigation scaling up (Apollo/ILRI) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Innovation platform purpose, function and its link with kebele IP and FRGsA presentation was made by Zelalem on the structure, purpose, function and the different activities made within the innovation platform since its establishment last year. His presentation focused on how Lemo woreda platform can do its best by addressing the research gaps that Africa RISING project is trying to accomplish. He shared how the strategic IP is connected with operational innovation platforms established at the two kebels (Jewe and Layignaw Gana) and also with the Farmers Research Groups (FRGs) participating in different Africa RSINING research activities. The role of Technical Group (TG) members were briefed by Zelalem in his presentation and he noted that they are technically supporting the research activities in both kebeles in addition to supporting the kebele platforms. Zelalem shared the number of FRGs formed based on commodity and also communicated the local name given by farmers for each FRGs. The following table which is taken from Zelalem's presentation which was used to explain the number of FRGs formed with local names given by each group and selected representatives. Jewe Kebele FRGs, local names and selected representatives  "},{"text":"N o Protocols-Treatment Types Local Name of FRG FRG members FRG representatives Zelalem presentation, Lemo woreda IP communication champion, Admasu Belayneh from SOS-Sahel, presented different communication tools that were identified for innovation platform member to use to communicate the ongoing research activities at wider. The tools explained are simple and some of them are already used and these includes farmers' field day, photo reports, IP meetings and exchange visits. The tools that are proposed to be used include posters, video clips, resource center and photo films to be used to communicate research findings in different ways using different languages as appropriate. The communication champion, Admasu, concisely presented the different communication tools Identified by IP members to better facilitate communication among different AR local stakeholders. A photo report was played as one prototype for the communication tools.Update on Africa RISING research activities and findings at Lemo woredaAfrica RISING research activities in Lemo woreda was briefly presented by Workineh Dubale (Site coordinator). In his presentation he summarized the number of farmers participated in both kebeles and in each research activities.Workineh shared the status of each research activities and also challenges faced during the implementation of the research activities. The capacity building activities, experience sharing visits to Tigray, master student sponsored and other different activities accomplished by Africa RISING project was also shared. Opportunities and lessons learn were also presented by Workineh. Innovation platform communication tools   Innovation platform communication tools    M F T Name Responsibility Sex Total MFTNameResponsibilitySexTotal 1 Tree Lucerne Adebo (milk 56 5 61 Gezahegn Kebede Leader M 1Tree LucerneAdebo (milk56 561Gezahegn KebedeLeaderM   provider)       provider)       Wondimu Weshiso Secretary M Wondimu WeshisoSecretaryM       Bekelech Belachew Member F Bekelech BelachewMemberF 2 Avocado Hundibiko (that 27 11 38 Alemitu Abiyo Leader F 2AvocadoHundibiko (that27 11 38Alemitu AbiyoLeaderF   can be       can be   everything) )    Adinew Habore Secretary M everything) )Adinew HaboreSecretaryM       Brihanu Tirkaso Member M Brihanu TirkasoMemberM 3 Irrigated fodder (Oat & Sugamo 18 6 24 Zenebe Lende Leader M 3Irrigated fodder (Oat &Sugamo18 624Zenebe LendeLeaderM  vetch) (satisfactory       vetch)(satisfactory   feeds)    Bekele Nigussie Secretary M feeds)Bekele NigussieSecretaryM       Alemitu Erbeto Member F Alemitu ErbetoMemberF 4 Wheat (PVS -1 , CSP - Awenso 23 2 25 Abule Suleyman Leader M 4Wheat (PVS -1 , CSP -Awenso23 225Abule SuleymanLeaderM  1, Soil fertility        1, Soil fertility  management -23) (productive/lea    Brihanu Deboro Secretary M management -23)(productive/leaBrihanu DeboroSecretaryM   ding crop)       ding crop)       Desalech Helelo Member M Desalech HeleloMemberM 5 Faba been (PVS-1 and Getiso 29 6 35 Alemu Kebede Leader M 5Faba been (PVS-1 andGetiso29 635Alemu KebedeLeaderM  CSP-1, Faba Been with        CSP-1, Faba Been with  Forage 25) (save from    Workineh Dende Secretary M Forage 25)(save fromWorkineh DendeSecretaryM   hunger)       hunger)       Amarech Abiko Member F Amarech AbikoMemberF 6 Potato (PVS-1, and CSP- Godiso 10 0 10 Ermias Legeto Leader M 6Potato (PVS-1, and CSP-Godiso10 010Ermias LegetoLeaderM  1, Yield Gap Analysis -        1, Yield Gap Analysis -  8 ) (yemiyategeb-    Abera Mekengo Secretary M 8 )(yemiyategeb-Abera MekengoSecretaryM   enough)       enough)       Weshiso Lamboro Member M Weshiso LamboroMemberM 7 Food and Malt Barley Kutiso (makes 2 0 2 Mechulo Ameno Leader M 7Food and Malt BarleyKutiso (makes202Mechulo AmenoLeaderM   strong)       strong)       Defar Mekengo Secretary M Defar MekengoSecretaryM 8 Crop residue Ushetiso (that 19 6 25 Beyene Handiso Leader M 8Crop residueUshetiso (that19 625Beyene HandisoLeaderM   can give rest)       can give rest)       Demeke Oche Secretary M Demeke OcheSecretaryM       Amarech Wolde Member F Amarech WoldeMemberF 9 Enset Ulgesso (leading 9 6 15 Eshetu Doliso Leader M 9EnsetUlgesso (leading9615Eshetu DolisoLeaderM   food)       food)       Wolde Gefafo Secretary M Wolde GefafoSecretaryM       Aster Kassa Member F Aster KassaMemberF  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Lemo wereda, 2014 meher season participatory faba bean, malt and food barley and wheat variety selection trials grain and biomass yield  "},{"text":" Table3: Group work results on scaling up plans for 2015 and roles of IP members Group work result on micro doze Group work result on Group work result on Group work result on micro dozeGroup work result onGroup work result on fertilizer usage scale up (Biyensa) irrigation scale out livestock feed diversification fertilizer usage scale up (Biyensa)irrigation scale outlivestock feed diversification -Areka agricultural research Centre - (Workineh) (Ashebir): -Areka agricultural research Centre -(Workineh)(Ashebir): seed supply (improved) , capacity Water option Resource 1. Areka agricultural seed supply (improved) , capacityWater option Resource1. Areka agricultural building, data management, identified are: research center :- building, data management,identified are:research center :- -CIAT-technical support, validation (on-farm) when required -WARC -technical and data management and WCU -Ajacho river -Shallow well -Rain water harvesting through household pond Responsibilities of the -participation in seed multiplication -farmers training (forage agronomy) -CIAT-technical support, validation (on-farm) when required -WARC -technical and data management and WCU-Ajacho river -Shallow well -Rain water harvesting through household pond Responsibilities of the-participation in seed multiplication -farmers training (forage agronomy) Group work result on PVS and CSM scale up (Abiyot) 5. Potato-Areka and Worabe agricultural research centre (PVS, training and technical support) farmer, woreda 6. Community Seed Production-cooperative office want to organize as a cooperative farmers 7. Habebo milk producers-potato user (seed is going to be a challenge) partners institutions: 1. Lemo office of agriculture: -Mobilize the community living aside the Ajacho river -Awareness creation on shallow well digging and utilization -Training on the irrigation schedule and irrigated crop production 2. Zone department of agriculture will supply some pumps for -Data management 2. Worabe agricultural research center -Technical support -Data management 3. Wachamo university -Participation in farmers training, monitoring and evaluation 4. Habebo milk producer -Potential users 5. Lemo woreda OoA -Monitoring and Group work result on PVS and CSM scale up (Abiyot) 5. Potato-Areka and Worabe agricultural research centre (PVS, training and technical support) farmer, woreda 6. Community Seed Production-cooperative office want to organize as a cooperative farmers 7. Habebo milk producers-potato user (seed is going to be a challenge)partners institutions: 1. Lemo office of agriculture: -Mobilize the community living aside the Ajacho river -Awareness creation on shallow well digging and utilization -Training on the irrigation schedule and irrigated crop production 2. Zone department of agriculture will supply some pumps for-Data management 2. Worabe agricultural research center -Technical support -Data management 3. Wachamo university -Participation in farmers training, monitoring and evaluation 4. Habebo milk producer -Potential users 5. Lemo woreda OoA -Monitoring and Group work result on Avocado scaling demonstration evaluation Group work result on Avocado scalingdemonstrationevaluation up (Fikadu) 3. Africa RISING will -Backstopping up (Fikadu)3. Africa RISING will-Backstopping -Areka agricultural research centre-seed supply, research participation, training, Habebo milk producer (user-) -Jewe kebel farmer representatives, -Wachamo University-research participation, training and M&E -Worabe agricultural research center demonstrate some rope and washer pumps, and house ponds in the two kebeles 4. SOS-Sahile Ethiopia (NGO) will train the farmers on the irrigation technologies (rope and washer pumps) will link its farmers with Africa 6. Jewe kebele OoA -Technical support 7. Jewe kebele farmers representative -Provision of land, labor and water 8. Layignaw gana kebele OoA -Areka agricultural research centre-seed supply, research participation, training, Habebo milk producer (user-) -Jewe kebel farmer representatives, -Wachamo University-research participation, training and M&E -Worabe agricultural research centerdemonstrate some rope and washer pumps, and house ponds in the two kebeles 4. SOS-Sahile Ethiopia (NGO) will train the farmers on the irrigation technologies (rope and washer pumps) will link its farmers with Africa6. Jewe kebele OoA -Technical support 7. Jewe kebele farmers representative -Provision of land, labor and water 8. Layignaw gana kebele OoA -data management and technical RISING Site farmers for Technical support -data management and technicalRISING Site farmers forTechnical support support, Kebele, experience sharing  support, Kebele,experience sharing  "}],"sieverID":"024933ec-8cd7-42f9-b4a6-302e00d97595","abstract":""}

data/part_2/092292fd193cfb4e5447a9589881459d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"092292fd193cfb4e5447a9589881459d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e00f0cf6-8cf6-4988-86cc-78318e2c4c43/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":["Mobile apps","ICTs","fisherfolk","fishing","risk prevention"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Proximity to the international border line (IBL) with Sri Lanka alerts;"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• SOS facility that can help rescue fishers in critical situations;"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• Calling facility -fishermen can communicate with each other and relevant government departments such as the fisheries department and the Indian Coast Guard;"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Government scheme information and daily news."}]},{"head":"Evolution of the tool","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"FFMA was conceptualised and developed in 2007 using a Binary Runtime Environment for Wireless platform -an application development platform for CDMA-based mobiles -in partnership with Qualcomm. Technology advancements helped the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) to redevelop FFMA into an Android platform in 2013, and using a participatory approach that involved various stakeholders, including the fisher community, the pilot app was launched in Tamil, Telugu and English. A total of 1,026 fishers across three states (Andhra Pradesh, Puducherry and Tamil Nadu) partook in the pilot phase to refine the app and make it more user friendly. In 2 years, the app went through 37 revisions. FFMA enables fisher folk access to timely fishing-related information; minimises their risks"},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The coastal fishing community is one of the most vulnerable groups among the poor in India. They confront several difficulties in their lives and livelihoods, including poverty, vulnerability to natural calamities, diminishing fish stocks, increasing competition with other users of coastal resources, exclusion from alternative employment opportunities, and poor access to markets and infrastructure facilities."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"However, the Fisher Friend Mobile Application (FFMA) is bringing solutions to the various issues faced by the fisher community in India. FFMA provides timely and accurate seafaring information to improve the safety and incomes of fisher folk. The app has been designed to provide easy access to relevant information and knowledge related to fishing for small craft fishers. FFMA offers the following services and information to fisher folk:"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Potential fishing zone (PFZ) and GPS facility for navigating directly to fishing zones;"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Specific ocean state forecast (OSF) such as wave height, wind speed and direction;"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Danger zones in the sea, such as sunken boats, rock substrata and dead coral;"},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• Better market prices for various fish varieties;"},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• Emergency disaster alerts for e.g. tsunamis, cyclones and high waves;"},{"index":9,"size":57,"text":"The fishing communities of Nagapattinam, in Tamil Nadu, India, are now using a mobile app which is helping them solve issues related to seafaring safety, low incomes and timeliness in reaching fish shoals. The Fisher Friend Mobile Application has been introduced to the community using a participatory approach, helping ensure the usefulness and accuracy of the technology."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"Cover The Fisher Friend Mobile Application is bringing solutions to the problems frequently seen by the fisher community in India"}]},{"head":"FFMA in Nagapattinam","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The district of Nagapattinam is located on the Bay of Bengal coast. It covers an area of 2,715 km 2 , with a total population of 1.6 million of which 78% live in the rural areas. The district has a coastline of about 190 km, but most areas are situated either below sea level or at not more than 5 m above sea level. Therefore, there is a high probability of seawater intrusion and disasters such as cyclones, floods, drought, and tsunamis."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Nagapattinam was the most affected district of India in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, where over 7,000 lives were lost and approximately 40,000 houses were destroyed. Therefore, the genesis of FFMA stems from a post-tsunami rehabilitation context. In 2007, FFMA was piloted in three districts of Tamil Nadu, including Nagapattinam. Initially, implementation benefitted from the 'village knowledge centre' (VKC) already operating with the support of MSSRF. Village level partners supported the implementation process as village heads, traditional panchayat (village council) leaders and volunteers, and other key stakeholders in the villages were sensitised about the application. Similar orientation was given to stakeholders in the other two districts. During the pilot phase, around 500 fishers from Cuddalore, Kanyakumari and Nagapattinam took part in the process; they provided critical feedback on FFMA in terms of technology, content and accuracy of data."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"A multi-level capacity building and awareness raising strategy is now being rolled out by FFMA's whilst at sea; and maximises their economic benefits. Hence, reach of the pragmatic pan-India FFMA model was extended to benefit fisher folk across coastal India. In 2015, FFMA was made available in all the regional languages of coastal India. FFMA is also available on the Google Play store for easy access by different stakeholders. Currently, 21,000 users have accessed FFMA, all of them living in 39 districts of five coastal states: Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Odisha, Puducherry and Tamil Nadu."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"To promote the application across all the 625 coastal districts in India, evidence-based ground level experiences of implementation and learnings from where the app is already being used extensively, are required. With this in mind, the Nagapattinam district of Tamil Nadu was selected for the study because the fishers have been using the app in a sustained manner over a period of 10 years. Moreover, this district is geographically situated at the head of the Bay of Bengal, and experiences frequent extreme events associated with climate change."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"The main aim of the study was to understand the implementation procedures of the project team to promote FFMA in Nagapattinam, and how it is benefitting fishers' lives and livelihoods. A total of 100 fishers from seven villages in Nagapattinam were randomly selected and provided with sampling questionnaires and interviews to collect information regarding the utility of FFMA. MSSRF staff involved in project implementation in the district were also interviewed to find out more about the promotional strategies of FFMA."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"Up to 60% of those who downloaded the app are using it on a regular basis for OSF and PFZ information, disaster alerts and weather forecasts."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"implementation team to increase visibility of the app, including village level meetings, one-to-one interactions, promoting fishers as FFMA ambassadors, and with social media campaigns. More than 8,223 fishers have been trained in Nagapattinam on FFMA and its features; as a result, 3,593 fishers in Nagapattinam are using the app for getting day-to-day fishing-related early warnings and other relevant information."},{"index":8,"size":84,"text":"Up to 60% of those who downloaded the app are using it on a regular basis for OSF and PFZ information, disaster alerts and weather forecasts. Around 25% fishers stated that they are also using FFMA regularly for navigating the fishing zones. Ten per cent of fishers expressed that FFMA has helped them to mark traditional fishing grounds and to store the latitude/ longitude positions. Some respondents (5%) stated that they are using the application for government scheme information and to access daily news."},{"index":9,"size":87,"text":"The overall screen view of FFMA was 1,162,933 across the three districts, of which, Nagapattinam district accounted for 411,360, or 35% of the project total screen views. This data was collected via the inbuilt Google Analytics tool within the app. When the reasons for such a high rate of adoption were further explored, it was found that 80% of the FFMA users in Nagapattinam are small-scale fishers and they don't have any other equipment/tools other than mobiles, so they rely on this technology for their fishing information"}]},{"head":"Benefits to the fishers","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Fishers have used FFMA services for planning their fishing trips, identifying fish shoals, navigating fishing grounds, avoiding danger zones, and also for avoiding crossing the IBL with Sri Lanka. It was observed that 71% of the fisher folk who used FFMA were motorised fishers using small craft for fishing up to 50 km from the shore, 27% were mechanised boat operators, and the remaining 2% were from other sectors like government officials, non-governmental organisations and other private agencies who have been involved in fishing and fishing-related developmental interventions."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Almost all respondents using FFMA unanimously agreed that the application plays a very critical role in their lives. Data from the study shows that 39% of respondents reported to have economically benefited from using the app due to increased fish catch, reduced diesel consumption and by navigating the fishing zone directly. Around 44% of respondents expressed that their livelihood assets, such as boats and nets were kept safe due to early warning alerts. Some respondents (5%) also reported that the app saved their lives thanks to the timely information and disaster alerts on high waves and cyclones."}]},{"head":"\"I have used the app\"","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"I am from Nagore Pattinacherry fishing village near Nagore in Nagapattinam district. On 18 November 2016 at around 3 o'clock in the morning, myself and 3 others went fishing 35 km off the coast. Suddenly the engine cut out and we were stuck in the middle of the sea. We became anxious as there was nobody around and there were no landmarks close by to indicate to other fishers where we were. However, one of my fellow fishers told me about the FFMA GPS facility to pinpoint my boat's location. Using the app, I was able to inform my friends of our location and they were able to come and rescue us."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"Mr Murugan, fisherman, Nagore Pattinacherry I did not know how to use GPS prior to installing the app, but now I am well versed in it. On 9 February 2016, a friend of mine gave me the latitude and longitude points of a particular fishing zone. After reaching the point, I hauled my net for 3-5 h and caught 100 kg of seer fish. I sold my catch for Rs. 38,000 (€500). When I went to Nagapattinam during the same week, I received the information for a rocky zone from my friend who had saved it in his app and navigated to the exact location. I got 50 seer fish and sold them for Rs. 21,000 (€275). Thus, within a week I got a net profit of Rs 59,000 (€770). From then on, I have used the app to mark the places where the fish shoals are and also where the rocky areas are."}]},{"head":"Singaravelu Mohanraj, motorised boat owner, Poompuhar","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Above Out of 100 respondents, 64% stated that the FFMA information helps them reduce risks to themselves and to their livelihood assets"},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Out of 100 respondents, 64% stated that the FFMA information helps them reduce risks to themselves and to their livelihood assets. In terms of economic benefits, fisher folk who received PFZ information through the FFMA application benefited both directly and indirectly. Direct benefits included increases in catch as well as net income. Due to increased fish harvest, there has been a rise in the wages of the fishing crew as well. Some respondents have been using their profits to pay back bank loans taken out to purchase boat assets. The fishermen also pointed out that with the advisories, they are able to decide on how much diesel/ice to take on fishing trips."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"At the same time, it is quite apparent from our interactions with the respondents that their expenditure on fishing inputs, particularly diesel, has been considerably reduced as a result of using FFMA."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"A major gain is that by using the PFZ, GPS and 'My Tracker' facilities of the app, fishers are decreasing their diesel consumption and reaching their fishing destinations on time. The boat drivers expressed that reaching the location of fish shoals has become less complicated, and the reduction in diesel expenditure is, in itself, a major economic gain."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"309aa33a-c942-4475-bb95-5fd755ae581c","abstract":""}

data/part_2/09882f574df5e7a96ed57a698c49ec71.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09882f574df5e7a96ed57a698c49ec71","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1674/WF_925.pdf"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Spillover of commercially valuable reef fishes from marine protected areas in Guam, Micronesia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Over the past two decades, marine protected areas (MPAs) have been increasingly adopted as an important fisheries management tool. The primary goals for MPAs are to protect critical habitat and biodiversity, to sustain or enhance fisheries by preventing spawning stock collapse, and to provide recruitment to fished areas (Gell and Roberts, 2003;Halpern, 2003). Enhancement of fished areas may occur through transport of larvae from spawning stock within the MPA (Gerber et al., 2005) or by a net emigration of adult fish to adjacent fished areas-a movement that is commonly known as \"spillover\" (e.g., Alcala et al., 2005;Abesamis et al., 2006;Goni et al., 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":310,"text":"The role of spillover in determining MPA effectiveness has been addressed in both theoretical modeling studies (e.g., DeMartini, 1993;Kramer and Chapman, 1999;Gerber et al., 2005) and in empirical studies. The latter involve indirect documentation of spillover inferred from increases in fish biomass or catch per unit of effort (CPUE) in adjacent fished areas (e.g., Russ and Alcala, 1996;Roberts et al., 2001;Tupper and Rudd, 2002;Alcala et al., 2005), and direct documentation of fish movement through mark-recapture or sonic tracking experiments (e.g., Chapman and Kramer, 2000;Meyer et al., 2000;Kaunda-Arara and Rose, 2004;Meyer and Holland, 2005). There are a number of ways in which movement across MPA boundaries may occur; these ment out of marine protected areas [MPAs]) of fish create a net export of fish biomass from MPAs to adjacent fished reefs? Biomass of five commercial reef fish species was estimated by visual census within and outside three MPAs in Guam, Micronesia. For most species and sites, biomass was significantly higher within the MPAs than in adjacent fished sites. Movement of fishes into and out of the MPAs was determined by markrecapture experiments, in which fishes were tagged both inside and outside of MPAs. Four out of f ive species studied showed little or no net movement out of MPAs. However, the orangespine surgeonfish (Naso lituratus) showed a net spillover of biomass from all three MPAs; 21.5% of tagged individuals and 29% of the tagged biomass emigrated from MPAs. Patterns of spillover were strongly inf luenced by physical habitat barriers, such as channels, headlands, or other topographic features. MPAs that are physically connected by contiguous reef structures will likely provide more spillover to adjacent fished sites than those that are separated by habitat barriers. This study demonstrates that MPAs can enhance export of fish biomass to fished areas, but spillover is species-specific and depends on factors such as species size and mobility."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"include random movements of fish during their routine activities (sometimes referred to as diffusion), emigration in response to density dependence (e.g., Tupper and Juanes, 1999;Abesamis and Russ, 2005), directed dispersal due to migration, and ontogenetic habitat shifts (Gerber et al., 2005). In order for spillover to effectively enhance adjacent fisheries, the net direction of these movements, and the number and size of fishes moving, must result in a net flow of biomass out of the MPA. Measuring the movement of biomass into the MPA should therefore be equally important to measuring outward movements. However, few studies have measured immigration, and therefore net spillover, and those that do address bidirectional movements have reported conflicting results, depending on the species or life history stage, the habitat, and the size and placement of the MPA (e.g., Kelly and MacDiarmid, 2003;Zeller et al., 2003;Tremain et al., 2004;Goni et al., 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":200,"text":"The degree of spillover from MPAs depends on the rate of fish migration across MPA boundaries (DeMartini, 1993;Gerber et al., 2005). Larger or more mobile species with large home ranges may spend too much time outside of the MPAs to be effectively protected, whereas smaller, more sedentary species with small home ranges may not cross MPA boundaries in sufficient numbers to enhance adjacent fisheries by spillover (DeMartini, 1993;Tupper and Rudd, 2002). If the goal of a MPA is to enhance local fisheries by spillover in addition to conserving spawning biomass, then it must be designed and situated so that net movement of fishes from the MPA to fished areas can take place. In most tropical island nations, enhancement of local fisheries by adult spillover may be critical for continued support of the preserve system by the local fishing community (Russ and Alcala, 1999;Galal et al., 2002). In general, arguments for larval spillover carry little weight with fishermen because dispersal may not occur on spatiotemporal or \"visual\" scales that are meaningful to them (Russ and Alcala, 1996;Russ, 2002;Abesamis et al., 2006). This situation is doubtless the case in Guam, where little is known about the movement of fishes on coral reefs."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"One characteristic of heavily exploited reefs is the very low abundance (in some cases virtual absence) of large carnivorous fishes, particularly groupers (Serranidae) and snappers (Lutjanidae) (Russ, 1991(Russ, , 2002;;Medley et al., 1993). In Guam, grouper biomass is noticeably lower than at the less heavily populated islands in Micronesia (e.g., Palau). Much research has therefore been directed at determining the effects of implementing MPAs on populations of large predatory fishes (e.g., Russ andAlcala, 1996, 2004). In Micronesia, however, herbivorous fishes, particularly surgeonfishes and unicornfishes (Acanthuridae) and parrotfishes (Scaridae) are equally important to local fisheries, and in many areas they have dominated the catch (Amesbury et al., 1986). Thus, it is important to understand the effects of MPAs on herbivorous and carnivorous fishes."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"To address whether MPAs in Guam can increase fish biomass and provide spillover to adjacent reef areas, biomass of five important reef fish species inside three MPAs in Guam and on adjacent exploited reefs was determined by using underwater visual census. Net movements of both herbivorous and carnivorous reef fish across MPA boundaries were determined by using mark-recapture experiments."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study sites","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":245,"text":"In May of 1997, the Guam Department of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources (DAWR) established a network of five MPAs, termed \"marine preserves,\" around the island, which accounted for 11.8% of Guam's shoreline and 15.3% of Guam's reef area. Fishing within these MPAs is restricted to shore-based cast netting and hook-andline fishing for select reef species, except for the Piti Bomb Holes Marine Preserve, where no reef fishing (i.e., fishing from the shore to the reef margin) is allowed. Trolling seaward of the reef margin for pelagic fish is allowed in all preserves. Despite being implemented in 1997, the marine preserves did not become enforced until October 1999. Even then, only warnings were issued until January 2001, at which time the regulations became fully enforced, and all violators were subject to any or all penalties applicable under the law. This study was conducted in 2003−04 at three MPA sites (Achang Reef Flat Marine Preserve, Piti Bomb Holes Marine Preserve, and Tumon Bay Marine Preserve-hereafter referred to as Achang, Piti, and Tumon, respectively) on the western and southern coasts of Guam, Micronesia (Fig. 1). All three sites consist of shallow reef flats that lead seaward to a reef crest and then drop off to a reef slope. The two remaining marine preserves, Sasa Bay and Pati Point, were not surveyed. Sasa Bay is a mangrove swamp with no coral reefs within its boundaries, and Pati Point is located within a restricted military area (Anderson Air Force Base)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The Achang preserve is the largest of the three preserves (4.8 km 2 ). It includes a wide variety of habitats: mangroves, seagrass, sand, coral, and three channels that cut through the fringing reef from the outer reef slope to the reef flat. The largest of these, Manell Channel, separates Achang reef flat from Cocos Lagoon, to the west of Achang Reef Flat. To the west, the reef flat narrows and is interrupted by a rocky headland. Reference fished sites for the Achang Preserve were located in Cocos Lagoon. Seasonal traditional fishing is permitted in the Achang Preserve for juvenile streamlined spinefoot (Siganus argenteus), juvenile fusiliers (Ptercaesio tile), and big eye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) under special permit."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"The Piti preserve covers 3.6 km 2 and consists of a broad reef flat (1.4 km 2 ) in Piti Bay bordered by Tepungan Channel to the west. The fringing reef is continuous from Piti Bay eastward to the fished sites at Asan Bay. The reef flat includes unique features known as \"bomb holes,\" which provide sheltered areas of deeper water. The deepest of these sinkholes were 9−10 m deep and were densely populated by a variety of hard and soft coral species. They host rich soft coral communities and fish and invertebrate assemblages not often found within the reef margin. The main sinkhole is occupied by an 11-m in diameter underwater observatory that was completed in 1996. It is also frequented by commercial scuba divers during diving tours (up to 200 divers a day). Fish feeding is a common practice around the observatory; therefore, our survey sites were located away from the sinkholes in order to minimize possible confounding effects of fish feeding and diver presence."},{"index":4,"size":191,"text":"The Tumon preserve lies adjacent to the central tourist district on Guam. It is 4.5 km 2 in total area and consists of extensive reef flats (2.7 km 2 ), a gently sloping fore reef slope, and a broad shelf habitat. The reef flat is dominated by coral patch reefs. The Tumon MPA is bordered by headlands to the east and west, which interrupt the reef flat, although there is contiguous fringing reef which links Tumon with Tanguisson to the east. However, there is a sewage outfall at Tanguisson which may reduce movement of fish to the east. Because of the distance from the reef flat at the western boundary of the Tumon MPA to the reef flat at East Agana Bay (approximately 3 km), Tanguisson was the location chosen for the fished sites. Limited traditional fishing with hook-and-line or cast net from shore is allowed in the Tumon Bay preserve for four types of fish: convict surgeonfish (Acanthurus triostegus), spinefeet (Siganus spp., known regionally as rabbitfish), juvenile jacks and trevallies (Caranx spp.), and juvenile goatfishes (Mullidae). Cast nets are sometimes used for convict surgeonfish and spinefeet along the reef margin."},{"index":5,"size":123,"text":"At each site, visual census and tagging were performed as near to the geometric center of the MPA as possible. The closest distance to the MPA boundary was measured, and census sites on adjacent fished reefs were chosen at this same distance outside the MPA. All transects were surveyed and tagging was conducted in habitats as similar as possible, generally on the seaward edge of the reef flat at a 2−3 m depth, where the substrate typically consisted of sand, rubble, and scattered patch reefs (mainly Porites spp.), and where seagrass beds are nearer to shore (except in Tumon, where seagrass is scarce). This experimental design served to minimize bias due to among-site variation in distance from the reserve boundary and habitat type."}]},{"head":"Estimation of biomass in MPAs and adjacent fished areas","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Underwater visual census was used to estimate biomass of five exploited reef fishes at three MPAs and adjacent fished sites. These included three herbivores: convict surgeonfish (Acanthurus triostegus), orangespine unicornfish (Naso lituratus), and little spinefoot (Siganus spinus), and two carnivores: yellowstripe goatfish (Mulloidichthys flavolineatus), and honeycomb grouper (Epinephelus merra). These five species were chosen because of their great abundance and prevalence in the Guam nearshore reef fishery and because they are relatively easy to capture and tag. At each study site, four 50 m × 5 m transects were laid haphazardly. Divers swam each transect slowly, counting all commercially important species and estimating their lengths to the nearest cm. All divers were trained in fish size estimation for one month before this study. Biomass estimates were conducted biweekly from May through August 2003. In total, 32 transects were completed at each MPA and adjacent reference sites (8 census days × 4 transects at each site). Biomass was estimated by substituting the length of each fish on the transect into length-weight regressions for that species. The total weight of all fish by species was then used as an estimate of biomass."}]},{"head":"Mark-recapture study","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":347,"text":"The five study species were collected from three preserves and from surrounding areas of reference sites. Within each preserve, six permanent quadrats, each 20 × 20 m in planar area, were located at a distance of 800 m from the boundary of the MPA and reference site. The perimeter of each study site was marked at 1-m intervals by tying flagging tape to a dead coral. Another six quadrats were marked on fished reefs at the reference site, also at a distance of 800 m from the MPA boundary. This distance was chosen because it allowed the location of the study sites to fall into appropriate and similar habitats at all MPAs and fish sites. This distance also ensured that all tagged fish had an equal distance to move in order to enter or leave the MPA. It also represented sufficient distance from the MPAs to encompass a large area of fished reef. A square area was chosen for the mark-recapture study because it was easier to deploy surround nets and to quantify fishing effort in a large square than in a typical narrow rectangle used for belt transects. Within each permanent quadrat, fish were captured by squirting an anesthetic (10% solution of Quinaldine sulfate in seawater) into the water where the fish were hiding and by casting a surround net (for smaller and more sedentary fishes) around corals heads or small patch reefs. For each species, an attempt was made to tag the same number of individuals at each MPA and reference site. Because target species density was generally lower at the fished sites (see \"Results\" section), fish were captured and tagged first at the fished sites by exhaustively fishing each 20 × 20 m quadrat. The same numbers of fish were then tagged in quadrats within the MPAs. This procedure ensured that tagging effort was equal across all sites, although fishing effort was often lower in the MPAs because sufficient fish could be captured in a shorter time. For recaptures of tagged fish, all permanent quadrats were fished exhaustively and all tagged individuals were recorded."},{"index":2,"size":212,"text":"Tagging took place biweekly from May through July 2003 and from January through March 2004. Recaptured fish were collected weekly from May through August 2003 and January through April 2004 (n= 32 total recapture attempts per site), allowing 1 week to 6 months between tagging and recapture. Captured fish were identified, measured, and tagged with visible implant elastomer (VIE) tags (Northwest Marine Technologies, Inc., Shaw Island, WA), and immediately released at the site of capture. The VIE tag was implanted under a fish's skin and thus would not become entangled, scraped off, or fouled with algae. Tag loss can lead to underestimates of recapture rates if a fish is recaptured after losing its tag. Past studies with several reef fish families (Labridae, Scaridae, Acanthuridae, and Serranidae) showed high (>90%) retention of elastomer implants, particularly for individuals greater than 150 mm standard length (Tupper, 2007). The effective life of the VIE tag in most reef fish is about 6 months, after which the tissue surrounding the tag generally has overgrown and obscured the tag (Tupper, 2007). The use of surround nets allowed for capture of resighted tagged fish. This approach enabled much higher recapture rates than those in more conventional studies where external tags and nonselective gears (such as traps) are solely used."}]},{"head":"Analysis of data","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"To calculate spillover (S) for a given species, the numbers and biomass of tagged fish emigrating or immigrating across an MPA boundary were estimated. Spillover was calculated as the number (or biomass) of emigrants minus the number (or biomass) of immigrants. Percent spillover was calculated as the proportion of tagged fish (numbers and biomass) exported to adjacent fished areas minus the proportion of tagged biomass imported to the MPA:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"where S = percent spillover;"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"B e = biomass emigrating from the preserve; B P = biomass remaining in the preserve; B i = biomass immigrating into the preserve; and B R = biomass remaining in the reference site."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"A positive value would indicate net spillover; a negative value would indicate net influx of biomass to the MPA. Thus, a positive value indicates that the MPA is a source of biomass for adjacent fished areas, where a negative value indicates that the MPA is a biomass sink and perhaps better suited to conserving biomass of a given species than to enhancing local fisheries."},{"index":5,"size":210,"text":"Before analysis, all raw data were tested for normality by using the Shapiro-Wilk W test and for homogeneity of variance by using Levene's test (Sokal and Rohlf, 1995). Because raw density and raw spillover data did not initially meet these assumptions, they were squareroot transformed. Percent spillover data were arc-sin transformed. All transformed data met the assumptions of parametric analysis of variance (ANOVA). Variation in mean fish biomass between locations and between MPAs and fish sites was determined with 2-way ANO-VA. For this analysis, each MPA was paired with its adjacent fished site and this grouping resulted in three pairs: North (Tumon and Tanguisson), central (Piti and Asan Bay), and south (Achang and Cocos Lagoon). The ANOVA design was crossed, with location (north vs. central vs. south) as one factor and protection status (MPA vs. fished site) as a second factor. Variation in mean spillover between locations and between species was also analyzed bby using 2-way ANOVA. Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD) was used as a post hoc comparison test to determine pairwise differences in mean biomass and mean spillover in MPAs and reference sites. Linear regression was used to explore the relationship between density (expressed as biomass) of fish within the MPAs and the spillover rate from the MPAs."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Biomass estimates","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Mean biomass of the three herbivorous species was higher in MPAs than in the fished sites (Fig. 2). Mean biomass of convict surgeonfish did not differ between locations (i.e., between south, central, and north, 2-way ANOVA, F= 0.79, P= 0.46) but was significantly higher in MPAs than in fished sites at all locations (F=13.47, P<0.001; Tukey's HSD, P<0.05 for all paired comparisons). There was no significant interaction between location and protective status. Mean biomass of orangespine unicornfish also did not differ between locations (2-way ANOVA, F = 0.90, P= 0.42) but was significantly higher in MPAs than in fished sites (F=12.02, P<0.0001). There was a significant interaction (F= 9.4, P<0.01) between location and protective status because biomass of orangespine unicornfish was significantly higher in the Piti and Tumon MPAs than in adjacent fished sites (Tukey's HSD, P<0.05), but there was no significant difference in biomass between Achang and Cocos Lagoon (Tukey's HSD, P<0.05). Mean biomass of little spinefoot differed significantly between locations (2-way ANOVA, F=15.02, P<0.0001) and was significantly higher in the north and central locations than in the south (Tukey's HSD, P<0.05). Mean biomass of little spinefoot was also significantly higher on protected reefs (F=16.01, P<0.0001) at all locations (Tukey's HSD, P<0.05 for all paired comparisons)."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"For carnivorous species, mean biomass of yellowstripe goatfish (Fig. 2) did not differ between locations (2way ANOVA, F=1.76, P= 0.18). There was a nonsignificant higher abundance in MPAs than in reference sites (F=3.30, P= 0.076). There was a significant interaction between location and protective status (F=3.32, P<0.05), which occurred because biomass of yellowstripe goatfish was higher in the Tumon MPA than at Tanguisson, but did not differ between MPAs and reference sites at the central and south locations. Mean biomass of honeycomb grouper (Fig. 2) did not differ between locations (2-way ANOVA, F= 0.07, P= 0.93) but was significantly higher in MPAs than at fished sites (F=11.33, P= 0.002) at all locations."}]},{"head":"Spillover","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"A total of 2674 fishes were tagged; of these 935 (35%) were recaptured (Table 1). The species with the highest recapture rate (78%) was the honeycomb grouper; a solitary, benthic predator. Mobile, schooling species such as yellowstripe goatfish and little spinefoot had lower recapture rates (25−35%) but were abundant enough to allow relatively large numbers of returns."},{"index":2,"size":403,"text":"Most recaptured fish did not cross the MPA boundaries. The overall grand mean spillover (i.e., over all species at all sites) was 5.9% of individuals and 8.0% of biomass from the MPAs. Table 2 shows biomass and mean number of tagged fish remaining within each MPA and fished site, immigrating to each MPA, and emigrating to each fished site. The difference between emigration and immigration is shown in Table 2 as the net flux in biomass and as the net flux in numbers. Spillover (the proportion of tagged fish exported to adjacent fished areas minus the proportion of tagged fish imported to the MPA) is also presented as spillover in Table 1 Number of fish tagged and recaptured at three marine protected areas (MPAs) and three fished sites in Guam, Micronesia. Study species were convict surgeonfish (Acanthurus triostegus), honeycomb grouper (Epinephelus merra), yellowstripe goatfish (Mulloidichthys flavolineatus), orangespine unicornfish (Naso lituratus), and little spinefoot (Siganus spinus). A significant interaction between species and location (two-way ANOVA, F=7.73, P<0.0001) warranted a closer inspection of fish movements at each location. Orangespine unicornfish was the only species exported from all three MPAs. The overall mean spillover for orangespine unicornfish was 29.4% of biomass (Table 2) and 21.5% of individuals (Table 2). This was significantly higher than the other four species (2-way ANOVA, F= 6.27, P<0.0001). There was no significant difference in spillover of orangespine unicornfish between MPAs (2-way ANOVA, F=2.71, P= 0.34). Although yellowstripe goatfish showed low overall mean spillover (1.1% of individuals imported to MPAs but 16.4% of biomass exported), it was actually very mobile; 34% of its tagged biomass moved into the Achang MPA, and 31% of its tagged biomass moved out of the Piti MPA. These net inward and outward movements at different locations cancelled each other in the calculation of overall mean spillover for this species. No movement of this species occurred across the Tumon MPA boundaries. In contrast, net export of convict surgeonfish occurred at Achang and Piti MPAs, but there was a net import of surgeonfish biomass to the Tumon MPA (Table 2). Spillover of convict surgeonfish did not differ between the Achang and Piti MPAs (Tukey's HSD, P>0.05). Honeycomb grouper showed an overall mean outward movement of 3.3% of tagged biomass (Table 2). However, there was no net movement of individuals across MPA boundaries at all sites (Table 2); this result indicated that primarily larger individuals moved out of the MPAs."}]},{"head":"Achang","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"In general, for most species, the percentage of biomass exported from the MPAs was greater than the percentage of individuals exported. The exception was that of yellowstripe goatfish at the Achang MPA, which showed a net outward movement of 15.6% of individuals (Table 2) but a net inward movement that was 34.2% of biomass (Table 2), indicating that the fish moving into Achang MPA were much larger than the fish moving out. In contrast, at Piti there was a net outward movement of 15.6% of individuals and 30.8% of the biomass for yellowstripe goatfish, indicating that larger fish were primarily exported. The effect of resident biomass on spillover of each species was examined by plotting spillover (in biomass) against the biomass ratio of each species at each MPA, measured as biomass inside the MPA divided by the biomass at the fished site. The variation in density between censuses rendered it impossible to create separate regressions for each species or MPA. Thus, the overall mean biomass ratio and mean spillover were pooled for all species and MPAs into a single regression. No relationship was found between the biomass ratio and mean spillover (r 2 = 0.1, P= 0.34; Fig. 3)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":312,"text":"One of the primary effects of protection from fishing is an increase in size and abundance of fishes, and therefore in biomass, in MPAs (Russ, 2002;Halpern, 2003). Biomass of reef fish was greater in marine reserve areas than in fished areas after about six years of effective notake protection at Sumilon and Apo Islands in the Philippines (Alcala et al., 2005). Moreover, these differences became larger with increased duration of protection up to 19 years. Russ and Alcala (2004) concluded that the time required for full recovery of reef fish populations at the Sumilon and Apo Island MPAs would be 15 and 40 years, respectively. Biomass of leopard coralgrouper (Plectropomus leopardus) and spotted coralgrouper (P. maculatus), two large roving grouper species, was five times higher in no-fishing zones than in fished zones of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, after 14 years of protection (Evans and Russ, 2004). Numerous other studies had found no difference in biomass of Plectro-Table 2 Summary of mean numbers and biomass of recaptured fish that remained resident in the marine protected areas (MPAs) and fished sites, or that moved into or out of the MPAs. Spillover is the difference between emigration from and immigration to the MPAs. Percent spillover is the proportion of tagged fish emigrating from the MPAs minus the proportion of tagged fish immigrating to the MPAs. Data are presented as biomass of fish and number of fish. All data are means ±1 standard deviation; n = 32 recapture events for each site. Superscripts ( a, b ) indicate significant differences among MPAs according to pairwise comparisons (Tukey's honestly significant difference [HSD] test). Fished sites for Achang, Piti, and Tumon were Cocos Lagoon, Asan Bay, and Tanguisson, respectively (see Fig. 1). Study species were convict surgeonfish (Acanthurus triostegus), honeycomb grouper (Epinephelus merra), yellowstripe goatfish (Mulloidichthys flavolineatus), orangespine unicornfish (Naso lituratus), and little spinefoot (Siganus spinus)."}]},{"head":"Biomass of fish","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fish","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Fish  Biomass ratio (biomass inside MPA / biomass outside MPA) % spillover (kg wet weight) pomus spp. after <10 years of protection (reviewed in Evans and Russ, 2004). In Kenyan MPAs, complete recovery of fish populations was estimated to take 22 years (McClanahan and Graham, 2005). Other studies have reported more rapid buildup of biomass. Biomass of five commercially exploited fish families tripled within three years of implementation of the Soufriere Marine Management Area in St. Lucia (Roberts et al., 2001). Biomass of reef fish in another MPA in St. Lucia, Anse Chastanet Reserve, doubled within two years of effective protection (Roberts and Hawkins, 1997) and a similar, rapid buildup of biomass was observed in a small MPA in Saba (Roberts, 1995). Rates of biomass buildup inside MPAs should generally be consistent with life history characteristics of the fish (Russ and Alcala, 1996;Mosquera et al., 2000;Alcala et al., 2005). Large predators (e.g., epinepheline serranids [large groupers], Lutjanidae, Lethrinidae, and Carangidae) and many Acanthuridae (surgeonfish) are long-lived, often with low rates of natural mortality and recruitment. Such characteristics would indicate that recovery rates would be gradual, as observed by Evans and Russ (2004) and Alcala et al. (2005)."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"In this study, it was not possible to determine the rate of biomass buildup because data were not collected at the initial implementation of the MPAs or at the initiation of full enforcement. After approximately 2.5 years of protection, biomass of all five study species of reef fish was higher within the MPAs than in fished sites, although the difference was not statistically sig-nificant at the 95% confidence level for yellowstripe goatfish. A longer period of protection may result in greater biomass differentials between the marine preserves and fished sites. Biomass of all three species of herbivores was significantly higher within the MPAs, indicating that fishing pressure on herbivores in Guam is sufficient to show a biomass increase within no-fishing zones. Thus, increasing herbivore biomass on exploited reefs through spillover from MPAs may have the potential to reduce algal overgrowth, at least within a limited area adjacent to the MPA."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"Given rapid population turnover, coupled with high fishing effort in the reference areas, significantly higher biomass in the MPAs may be evident after only 2−3 years of protection. All the species in this study are small to medium-size fishes with rapid growth and maturation rates (Choat and Robertson, 2002). What is somewhat surprising is that the densities of convict surgeonfish, yellowstripe goatfish, and little spinefoot were all significantly higher in the Tumon MPA than at the adjacent fished site, given that these species were legally targeted by subsistence fishermen within the MPA. However, the regulations stipulate that fishing with hook-and-line or cast net only and from shore or the exposed reef margin only. Moreover, fishermen in Tumon would have to contend with large numbers of tourists in the immediate vicinity, and fishing effort appeared low throughout the course of this study."},{"index":4,"size":297,"text":"Several studies indicate that MPAs connected to fished areas by continuous reef will have higher rates of spillover (e.g., Kaunda-Arara and Rose, 2004). In this study, the highest overall spillover to surrounding fished reefs occurred from Piti, where the MPA and fished site are connected by a continuous reef flat. This was the only site at which no net inward movement of any species occurred. Fishermen were often seen along the boundary of the marine preserve, no doubt \"fishing the line\" in hopes of catching larger fish emigrating from the Piti MPA. When species were combined, the lowest rate of net flux occurred at Tumon. The fished site to the east of Tumon was at Tanguisson. These two bays are divided by a high, rocky headland (Punta Dos Amantes) with no reef flat. A sewage outfall just north of Punta Dos Amantes also separates the MPA and fished site. However, three of the five study species appeared to move freely between Tumon and Tanguisson-only yellowstripe goatfish and honeycomb grouper did not. Thus, the low overall rate of net flux was caused by the net import of convict surgeonfish and little spinefoot that balanced the net export of orangespine unicornfish. The overall spillover from Achang to Cocos Lagoon was also low, perhaps partly because these areas are separated by a wide tidal channel to the west of the Achang reef flat. However, the low mean spillover from Achang occurred because of the large number of adult yellowstripe goatfish moving into the MPA. These results demonstrate the importance of determining spillover at the species level. Because different species can vary in their market value, the mean spillover of all fishes from an MPA may not be indicative of the net value of fish moving from MPAs to fished reefs."},{"index":5,"size":390,"text":"The results of this study demonstrate that large, mobile herbivores like orangespine unicornfish may be exported from MPAs. The high rates of spillover for this species may result in part from its larger size in relation to the other species. In general larger fish have larger home ranges (Kramer and Chapman, 1999). In this study, the percentage of biomass exported from a given MPA tended to be higher than the percentage of individuals exported, indicating that spillover was primarily accomplished by larger fish. However, some acanthurids are known to be very site attached (e.g. Bell and Kramer, 2000;Meyer and Holland, 2005). For example, the larger congener (N. unicornis) is very site attached, and Meyer and Holland (2005) found little evidence for spillover of this species from a small (0.34 km 2 ) no-take marine reserve in Waikiki, Hawaii. Movements of adult N. vlamingii across the boundaries of Apo Island marine reserve are rare, but density-dependent interactions within the reserve are sufficient to displace smaller fish from the reserve (Abesamis and Russ, 2005). In a separate study, no cross-boundary migration was found for three other acanthurids: Acanthurus nigricans, Ctenochaetus striatus, and N. unicornis (M. Tupper, unpubl. data). Convict surgeonfish showed notable spillover (14−22% of tagged biomass) at Achang and Piti, but showed a net import of 20% of tagged biomass into Tumon. Similarly, yellowstripe goatfish showed net import to Achang and net spillover from Piti. These species tended to form large, mobile foraging schools at all locations. The spatial variation in movement of these two species may be a function of foraging or spawning movements constrained or modified by natural physical barriers (channels or headlands) and possibly anthropogenic barriers (e.g., the sewer outfall south of Tanguisson). For example, net inward movement of yellowstripe goatfish to Achang may be related to a spawning aggregation of this species located in Asgadao Channel, in the center of the Achang MPA (M. Tupper, unpubl. data). Alternatively, the disparity in direction of net movement at different sites may be simply explained by large ranging schools that happened to be tagged inside but recaptured outside the MPA at one location and vice versa at another. As might be expected, the honeycomb grouper, a small, sedentary, ambush predator, showed very low rates of spillover; no net movement in either direction was found at any of the study sites."},{"index":6,"size":159,"text":"Movement across MPA boundaries may occur as a result of random dispersal of fish during their routine activities, directed dispersal due to migration or ontogenetic habitat shifts (Gerber et al., 2005), or emigration in response to density dependence. High densities of conspecifics in MPAs may lead to increased juvenile mortality (Goeden, 1979;Tupper and Juanes, 1999), decreased growth (Béné and Tewfik, 2003;Tewfik and Béné, 2003), or increased emigration, or to a combination of all three (Tupper and Juanes, 1999;Abesamis and Russ, 2005). In this study, there was no relation between density and spillover of reef fish. This may have been due to fact that the density of fish in Guam's MPAs has not yet reached carrying capacity, i.e., the biomass within the MPAs is not yet representative of virgin, unfished stocks. It should be noted that pooled species and locations were used in the regression analysis. More data on individual species and locations would result in a more powerful test."},{"index":7,"size":248,"text":"In conclusion, rates of adult import or export from MPAs appear to result from a combination of foraging behavior, potential spawning movements, and random daily movements across MPA boundaries. These movements were inf luenced by reef topography. Spillover was highest in areas joined by continuous fringing reef systems and lowest where reefs where separated by a headland barrier. Knowledge of fish movement patterns with respect to reef topography may be useful for choosing MPA boundaries in order to maximize the spillover of target species. The herbivorous orangespine unicornfish showed the highest rate of spillover from MPAs, which indicates that MPAs have the potential to provide herbivore biomass to adjacent fished areas which may be suffering from algal overgrowth due to fishing of herbivores and from nutrient input due to agricultural activities. However, given the declines in density of exploited fishes at the fished sites since the implementation of the MPAs (Gutierrez 1 ), it is evident that overall spillover has not yet been sufficient to increase fish biomass on adjacent reefs. This is not surprising, given the relatively short time since the implementation of these MPAs and the displacement of fishing effort from the MPAs to adjacent fished areas. Although spillover rates of four out of five study species were quite low, adult migration is only one process that may benefit fisheries. Further research is needed to determine the role of MPAs in enhancing larval supply and the transport of recruits from Guam's MPAs to adjacent fished areas."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Map of Guam showing the locations of the three marine protected areas (MPAs) and three reference sites. MPAs (hatched areas) are Achang Reef Flat Marine Preserve, Piti Bomb Holes Marine Preserve, and Tumon Bay Marine Preserve. Reference sites are Cocos Lagoon, Asan Bay, and Tanguisson. Inset shows the location of Guam within the Western Pacific region. "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2 Mean biomass of five exploited reef fishes in three marine protected areas (MPAs) and three reference sites at Guam, Micronesia. South = Achang Marine Preserve and Cocos Lagoon reference site. Central = Piti Bomb Holes Marine Preserve and Asan Bay reference site. North = Tumon Bay Marine Preserve and Tanguisson reference site. Error bars represent ± 1 standard deviation; n = 32 censuses per site. Letters indicate groups of no significant difference among MPAs and reference sites, according to pairwise comparisons (Tukey's HSD). "}],"sieverID":"a59f91b3-89b0-416d-a172-e66d618866d6","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09a07e5d39b2139ea0587d114ea186e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eae618ad-f080-4ee4-953a-064c46726a00/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Gender Integration in Sheep Fattening A Training Manual (Amharic Version)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Training Manual for Gender Inclusivity in Sheep Fattening","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"This manual engages smallholder farmers on women's participation at every level of the livestock value chain, where they face influences from factors, including: their skills, their access to capital; capacities, organizational skills, and their limitations. Women face higher transaction costs in marketing and are less likely than men to be served by formal financial institutions."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"As livestock production becomes increasingly market-oriented, women may no longer be able to compete with men or gain the same benefits. Therefore, it is imperative that gender integration in livestock development considers how to enhance the position of women and influence strategic gender relations.  y|R›t(ò¬ GN²b@ XõT ¼Gender Blind/:-y|R›t(ò¬ }Ns `úïC GN²b@ xlmñR Xnz!HM bs@èC bwNìC bwND LíC L©grìC b?YwT täKéãÒcW §Y Sl¸Ãm-#T W-@T Sl¸ÃSgß#T ÍYÄ ÃlmrÄT nWÝÝ"}]},{"head":"የሥልጠና አሠጣጥ ዘዴዎች","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• ገለፃ"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"• ውይይት"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"• ሥዕላዊ መግለጫዎች"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• የቡድን ሥራ"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"• ልምድ ልውውጥ"},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• ማነቃቂያ መጠቀም ሲሆን፤ "}]},{"head":"y|R›t(ò¬ TNtÂ","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"bwNìC bs@èC mµkL S §lW h#n@¬½ X_rèC½ F §¯èC QD¸Ã Sl¸sÈcW g#Ä×C ZNAEl@ãC y-lq GN²b@N YsÈLÝÝ k|R›t(ò¬ y¸gßW mr© L †nèCN XNÁT tf-\" lL †nèc$ mf-R mNSx@ãC MN MN ÂcW F §¯èC ¯LtW ÃLw-# g#Ä×C ÂcWÝÝ"},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"ST ¶t&©!ÃêE F §¯èC ls@èC s!àl# bs@èC bwNìC mµkL AElW y|LÈN GNß#nT lWõC mššlÖC Y¬Ãl#ÝÝ ¼lMúl@ y¦BT td‰>nT q$__R XNQÍT yçn# ?¯C mwgD½ yb@T WS_ |‰ãC KFFL bb@T WS_ Xk#L yWoen@ s+nT mBT mSfN s@èC lYtWÃw-#xcW SL¬êE y|R›t(ò¬ F §¯èCls@èC XWQ kmS-T b?Brtsb# WS_ kwNìC UR µ §*cW GNß#nT xµ*à k¸dRSAEcW yb¬CnT tGÄéèC y¸mnOE ÂcWÝÝ lMúl@ lXk#L yQ_R :DL td‰>nT½ Xk#L KFý Xk#L HUêE AElmBTnT ¼y¦BT Xk#L td‰>nT q$__R wzt ÂcWÝÝ 5. s@èCN ¥B\"T s@èC y|LÈN AElb@Tn¬cWN l¥rUg_ b¥Hb‰êE y|R›t(ò¬ Å AESkt §cW CGéC §Y y §q toeTae XNÄ!ñ‰cW y¸ÃSCL £dT nWÝÝy §q W½SLÈN q$__R yHBrtsB lW_ l¥MÈT wÄlm tGAER y¸m\"bT £dT nWÝÝ s@èCN y¥B\"T £dT kzRF §Y ytmsrt úYçN ys@èCN bRµ¬ ¸ÂãC F §¯èC y¸ÃQF bXnRs#M mµkL S §lW GNß#nTy¸\"\"bW-@t$Ms@èC b? "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1. 1 የሥልጠናው ዓላማ በህገ-መንግስቱ ሠነድ ላይ በተቀመጠው መሠረት ሴቶችና ወጣቶች በኢኮኖሚ፣ማህበራዊ፣ፖለቲካ ሂደት ውስጥ እኩል ተሣታፊና ተጠቃሚ እንዲሆኑ መንግስታዊና መንግስታዊ ያልሆኑ ተቁዋማት በእቅዶቻቸውና በፕሮጀክቶቻቸው የሥርዓተ-ፆታና የወጣቶችን ጉዳይ ተቁዋማዊ በማድረግ ተሣታፊና ተጠቃሚ ማድረግ እንዲችሉ የአስፈፃሚዎችንና የፈፃሚዎችን አቅም ለመገንባት ነው፡፡ 1.2 ዝርዝር ዓላማዎች 1. በሥርዓተ-ፆታ ጉዳይ የሴቶችን ፅንሰ-ሀሳብ ላይ የጋራ ግንዛቤ ለመያዝ፣ 2. የሥርዓተ-ፆታንና የሴቶችን ችግር መለየት የሚያስችል የመረጃ አሰባሰብና የትንተና ዘዴ ክህሎት ለማሳደግ፣ 3. የሴቶችና ጉዳይ በልማት ሒደት ውስጥ ተካቶ እንዴት እንደሚሠራ ግንዛቤና ክህሎቱን ለማሣደግ፣  ò¬ (sex):-sãC YzWT y¸wlÇ bwND bs@T mµkL Ãl# |n(?Yw¬êE L †nTN y¸ÃúY s!çN Xnz!HM L †nèC xlM xqÍêE ÂcWÝÝ lMúl@½ s@èC -#T½ wNìC dGä [!M x §cWÝÝ h#l#M |n(?Yw¬êE L †nèC bs@TnT bwNDnT y¸gl[# XWn¬ãC ÂcWÝÝ  |R›t(ò¬ ¼Gender/:-bwNìC bs@èC mµkL Ãl# ¸ÂãC ¥Hb‰êE GNß#nèCN y¸ÃmlKT nWÝÝ bl@ § xg §l{ bHBrtsb# WS_ s@èCÂwNìC MN m|‰T XNd¸gAEcW y¸ÃmlKT s!çN YHM bwNìC bs@èC mµkLS §lW ytÂ_L GNß#T úYçN b¥HbrsB btÌM dr© AEl# g#Ä×C y¸¬Y nWÝÝ  ySR›t(ò¬ FT/êEnT ¼Gender Equity/:-¥lT b¦BT MdAE½ b¸f-\" mLµM XDlÖC bmúsl#T lwNìC ls@èC ¸²ÂêE ymçN £dT nWÝÝ FT¦êEnT XNdmoe ¶Ã |R›t(ò¬ Xk#LnT dGä XNdGB Y¬ÃLÝÝ bmçn#M y|R›t(ò¬ FT¦êEnT lXk#LnT xStê{å ÃbrK¬LÝÝ  y|R›t(ò¬ Xk#LnT ¼Gender Equality/:-s@èC wNìC sB›êE mBèÒcWN XWN b¥DrGÂlx!÷ñ¸ÃêE½l¥Hb‰êE l±ltEµêE AE? §êE :DgT y‰úcWN xStê{å XNÄ!ÃbrKt$ kXRs#M t-\"¸ XNÄ!çn# Xk#L :DL XNÄ §cW y¸ÃmlKT nWÝÝ "},{"text":" l¸l#T _Ãq&ãC M §> Sl¸s_ _\" ±l!s!ãCN lmQr{ Y-Q¥LÝÝ y|R›t(ò¬TN¬n@ ymNG|T ±l!s!ãC½ PéG‰äC PéjKèC bwNìC bs@èC btlà † mNgìC XNÁT t{Xñ XNd¸ÃúD\" y¸lY xSf §g! y±l!s! TNt xµL nWÝÝ y|R›t(ò¬ TNt b¸gAE yÄbr ¥Hb‰êE yTNt KHlÖèCN bxGAEb# ysl-n# LMD à §cW y¥?b‰êE zRF tm‰¥ ¶ãC wYM y|R›t(ò¬ AElÑÃãCN Y-Y\"LÝÝ bò¬ ytly mr© YH lxND ltly g#ÄY wYM b¥N¾WM mSK bs@èC bwNìC bwND LíC L©grìC mµkL ÃlWN L †nT y¸ÃúY x¦²êE yS¬TStEKS mr© nWÝÝ b|R›t(ò¬ yttntn mr© wNìC s@èC XNÄ!h#M wNìC LíC L©grìC Ãl#bTN dr© tNTñ x¦²êE AELçn mLk# bGL} y¸ÃúY mr© nWÝÝ y|R›t(ò¬ L †nT wYM KFtT bwNìC bs@èC bwNdC LíC L©grìC mµkL µl#bT h#n@¬ UR btgÂß wYM khBT td‰>n¬cW t-\"¸n¬cW UR btÃÃz y¸¬Y ¯Lè ywÈ L †nT wYM Xk#L xlmçN nWÝÝ y|R›t(ò¬Ng#ÄY¥µtTÝ( H¯CN½ ±l!s!ãCN PéG‰äCN =Mé y¬qÇ tGAE‰T bh#l#M zRF dr© ls@èC lwNìC à §cWN xNdM¬ ymÄsS £dT nWÝÝ y|R›t(ò¬ ¥µtT bx!÷ñ¸ÃêE ¥Hb‰êE ±ltEµêE g{¬ãC WS_ ys@èCN ywNìCN g#Ä×C LMìC y±l!s!ãC yPéG‰äC NDF½ TGb‰½ KTTL GMg¥ ZGJT wú\" xµL b¥DrG s@èC wNìC Xk#L t-\"¸ XNÄ!çn# y|R›t(ò¬ Xk#LnT m²AET XNÄY¬Y y¸ÃdrG St‰t&©! nWÝÝ ê Gb#M y|R›t(ò¬ Xk#LnTN XWN ¥DrG nWÝÝ |R›t(ò¬N ¥µtT b‰s# GB xYdlMÝÝ yMÂSBbTN mNgD½ yXRS bRS GNß#nT |‰ãÒCNN úÂÌR_ yMN\"\"bT xµÿD nWÝÝ xNgBUb! y|R›t(ò¬ F §¯èCÝ( xNgBUb! y|R›t(ò¬ F §¯èC kL¥ÄêE y|R›t(ò¬ y|‰ KFFL bmnúT bwNìC bs@èC tlYtW yw-# F §¯èC ÂcWÝÝ xNgBUb! y|R›t(ò¬ F §¯èC bxÍÈ\" l!àl# ÃSfLUl# ltAEl# m\\r¬êE F §¯èC M §> y¸s-# ÂcWÝÝ xB²¾WM g!z@ XNd W` xQRïT½ y-@ XNKBµb@½ m-lýdHNnT½ S‰ wzt X_rèC §Y Ãt÷\" ÂcWÝÝ St‰t&©!ÃêE y|R›t(ò¬ F §¯èCÝ( l|R›t(ò¬ Xk#L xlmçN mNSx@ kçn# g#Ä×C UR ytgÂß# yrJM g!z@ "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" ኅብረት RW MzlWr¿ ŠEîEøv ድY³sv G¤ ŠM릪Y¹t'å mCV¦r mElîsv፣ LV•v፣ £ †µG•Eør pºgMë•v፣ 'šp. †mFr LD~t'å }'å:: አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን የቀረበለትን የምዝገባ ማመልከቻ መርምሮ የተሟላ መሆኑን ሲያረጋግጥ በአምስት ተከታታይ የሥራ ቀናት ውስጥ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩን መዝግቦ የምዝገባ ምስክር ወረቀት ይሰጠዋል፡፡ በዚህም የምዝገባ ምስክር ወረቀት ላይ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ በኅብረት ሥራ ማህበርነት የተመዘገበበት ቀን ይጠቀሳል፡፡ ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር መተዳደሪያ ደንብ ይኖረዋል፤ መተዳደሪያ ደንቡ ይዘት የሚከተሉትን ይጨምራል፤ 2) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር መተዳዳሪያ ደንብ በጠቅላላ ጉባኤ ልዩ ውሣኔ ሊሻሻል ይችላል፤ ሆኖም የማንኛውም ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር መተዳዳሪያ ደንብ ማሻሻያ ሊጸና የሚችለው አግባብ ባለው ባለሥልጣን ቀርቦ ከተመዘገበበት ቀን አንስቶ ይሆናል፡፡ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር በዚህ አዋጅ ተቋቁሞ ከተመዘገበ እና ሕጋዊ ሰውነት ካገኘበት ቀን ጀምሮ አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን ባወጣው መመሪያ መሠረት በየሦስት ዓመቱ የምዝገባ ምስክር ወረቀቱን ማሳደስ አለበት፡፡ 2/በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (1) መሠረት የምዝገባ ምስክር ወረቀት ያላሳደሰ ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር አግባብ ባለው ባለሥልጣን በሚያወጣው መመሪያ መሠረት እርምጃ ይወሰድበታል፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር ምርት የማምረት ወይም አገልግሎት የመስጠት ወይም ምርት የማምረት እና አገልግሎት የመስጠት ሁለገብ ተግባር አጣምሮ የሚያከናውን ሆኖ ሊመሠረት ይችላል፡፡ 2) በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (1) የተደነገገው እንደ ተጠበቀ ሆኖ የሚደራጁት የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ዓይነቶች በሕግ በተከለከሉ፣ የህዝብ ሞራላዊ ዕሴቶች በሚነኩ፣ የአካባቢን ደህንነት በሚጎዱ ተግባራት መደራጀት የማይቻል ሲሆን አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን የኢኮኖሚ አዋጭነትን እንዲሁም በሚደራጁበት አካባቢ ሀብት መኖሩን በጥናት በመለየት የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት የሚደራጁባቸውን የአማራጭ አይነቶች በማቅረብ ሙያዊ ድጋፍ ይሰጣል፡፡ ቁጠባ ማለት በአንድ በተወሰነ የሥራ ክልል የሚኖሩ ወይም የሚሰሩ ግለሰቦች ተመሳሳይ ፍላጐትንና ፈቃደኝነትን መሠረት በማድረግ በድካማቸው ከሚገኝ ገቢ በየጊዜው ለመቆጠብና ኑሮን ለማሻሻልም ሆነ ለችግር ጊዜ ገንዘብ ሲያስፈልጋቸው ብድር ለማግኘት፣ የገንዘብ አጠቃቀምን ሥርዓት ለመልመድና ባንክ ነክ አገልግሎቶችን በአቅራቢያው ለማግኘት እንዲቻል ለማኀበሩ የሚያስፈልገውን ካፒታል ከአባላት በማሰባሰብ የሚቋቋምና ዲሞክራሲያዊ በሆነ መንገድ አባላት በባለቤትነት ይዘው የሚመሩት፤ የሚያስተዳድሩት፤ የሚቆጣጠሩት፤ የኅብረት ሥራ አዋጆችን፣ ይህን የአደረጃጀት መመሪያና ደንቦችን መሰረት በማድረግ ልዩ ልዩ የአፈፃፀም ደንብና መመሪያዎችን ማውጣት፣ መ. በብድር መመሪያው መሠረት የብድር አገልግሎት መስጠት፣ ተበዳሪ አባላት ገንዘባቸውን በአግባቡ መጠቀም ይችሉ ዘንድ ተገቢውን ምክር፣ዕገዛ፣ ክትትል፣ ትምህርት መስጠት፣ ለብድር የተሰጠው ገንዘብ በወቅቱ ከነወለዱ እንዲመለስ አስፈላጊውን መፈጸም፣ ሠ. በቁጠባ ሂሳብ ለተቀመጠ ገንዘብ ተገቢውን ወለድ ማሰብ፣ ረ. ለማህበሩ ጥቅም በሚያስገኝ ቦታ ገንዘብ ማስቀመጥ፣ ሰ. መደበኛ ያልሆነ ቁጠባውን ግለሰቦች ወጪ ለማድረግ በጠየቁ ጊዜ ማስተናገድ፣ ሸ. ተከታታይ ትምህርት፣ መረጃና ሥልጠና ለአባላት፣ ለአመራር አካላት፣ ለቅጥር ሰራተኞች እና አባል ለሚሆኑ ግለሰቦች መሰጠት፣ ቀ. ለስራው የሚያስፈልጉትን ቋሚና ተንቀሳቃሽ ንብረቶችን ማፍራትና ማስተዳደር፣ መደበኛቁጠባ፣ መደበኛ ቁጠባ ማለት የገንዘብ ቁጠባ አባላት በሚወስኑት የቁጠባ ጊዜ እና የቁጠባ መጠን መሠረት ያለማቋረጥ የሚቆጥቡት የቁጠባ ዓይነት ሲሆን፣ አባላት ከማኀበሩ በተለያየ ምክንያት አባልነታቸውን እስካላቋረጡ እንዲሁም የአንድ አባል የተጠራቀመ ቁጠባ መጠን በገጠር ከብር 50,000/ ሃምሳ ሽህ/ና በከተማ ከብር 100,000/አንድ መቶ ሽህ/ በታች ከሆነ ወጪ ሆኖ አይሰጥም፡፡ አባላት የመደበኛ ቁጠባ ክፍያ ጊዜውን በግልጽ በመተዳደሪያ ደንባቸው ማስቀመጥ ይጠበቅባቸዋል፡፡ የገቢ መጠንን፣ ፍላጐትን፣ ዕቅድን የቤተሰብ ብዛትን እንዲሁም የኑሮ ደረጃን መሠረት አድርጐ ለዕቅድ ዝግጅት፣ ለአሰራር፣ ለክትትል እንዲያመች ጠቅላላ ጉባዔው ዝቅተኛውን የመደበኛ ቁጠባ በመተዳደሪያ ደንቡ ይወስናል፡፡ አባላት የመቆጠብ አቅማቸውን መሠረት አድርገው ከላይ በተቀመጠው የቁጠባ መጠን ገደብ ውስጥ ያለማቋረጥ በቁጠባ ጊዜው ሊቆጥቡ የወሰኑትን የገንዘብ መጠን በማመልከቻ ይገልፃሉ፡፡ አባላት ገደቡን ጠብቀው የመደበኛ ቁጠባ መጠናቸውን ከፍ ወይም ዝቅ ማድረግ ይችላሉ፡፡ የቁጠባ መጠናቸውን ማሣደግ ወይም መቀነስ ሲፈልጉ ተግባራዊ ማድረግ የሚቻለው በየስድስት ወሩ በጥርና በሐምሌ ወር ነው፡፡ መደበኛ ያልሆነ ቁጠባ፣ መደበኛ ያልሆነ ቁጠባ ማለት የገንዘብ ቁጠባ አባል የሆኑና ያልሆኑ ግለሰቦችና ድርጅቶች በማኀበሩ መተዳደሪያ ደንብ መሠረት የሚቆጥቡትና በፈለጉ ጊዜ ወጭ አድርገው የሚጠቀሙበት የቁጠባ አይነት ነው፡፡ ከማኀበሩ አባላት ውስጥ ተከታታይ ገቢ የሌላቸው አባላት በአንድ ወቅት ሊያገኙ የሚችሉትን የገንዘብ መጠን መደበኛ ባልሆነ ቁጠባ ውስጥ አስቀምጠው ቀደም ብለው በመደበኛ ቁጠባ ለመቆጠብ በወሰኑት የገንዘብ መጠን መሠረት ከመደበኛ ያልሆነ ቁጠባ ተቀናሽ እየሆነ ወደ መደበኛ ቁጠባ እየተዛወረ እንዲቆጠብ የማድረግ አማራጭ ይኖራል፡፡ መደበኛ ካልሆነ ቁጠባ የሚሰበሰብ ገንዘብ በጥናት ላይ ተመስርቶ በጥንቃቄ ለብድር አገልግሎት ሊውል ይችላል፡፡ መደበኛ ያልሆነ ቁጠባ የሚያስገኘው ጥቅም ወለድ ብቻ በመሆኑ በከተማም ሆነ በገጠር የሚቋቋመው ወይም የተቋቋመው የገንዘብ ቁጠባና ብድር ኀብረት ሥራ ማኀበሩ መደበኛ ያልሆነ ቁጠባን ለማበረታታት የሚከፈለውን የወለድ መጠን በአካባቢ��� ያሉ የፋይናንስ ተቋማት ከሚከፍሉት የወለድ መጠን ጋር ተመጣጣኝ ይሆናል፡፡ መጠኑም በጠቅላላ ጉባዔው እንዲወሰን ይደረጋል፡፡ መደበኛ ላልሆነ ቁጠባ የሚከፈለው የወለድ መጠንም ለሚቆጥቡ ሰዎች በቅድሚያ እንዲያውቁት ይደረጋል፡፡ መደበኛ ላልሆነ ቁጠባ የሚከፈለው የቁጠባ ወለድ መጠንና የመክፈያ ጊዜ ከመደበኛ ቁጠባ የመክፈያ ጊዜ ጋር ተመሳሳይ ይሆናል፡፡ ስጦታ፣ እርዳታ፣ሽልማት ማኀበሩ ከግለሰቦች ከድርጅቶች ከመንግስት በጥሬ ገንዘብ ወይም በዓይነት ስጦታ፣ እርዳታ፣ሽልማት ሊያገኝ ይችላል፡፡ ይህም የማኅበሩ የጋራ ሀብት ይሆናል፡፡ ማኅበሩ እንኳ ቢፈርስ በስጦታ፣ በእርዳታና በሽልማት የተገኘው ሀብት ለሌላ ተመሳሳይ የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር የሚተላለፍ ይሆናል፡፡ የገንዘብ ቁጠባና ብድር ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት በህጋዊ መንገድ የሚመጡ ተዘዋዋሪና ሌሎች የፕሮጀክት ብድሮችን በማኅበሩና በፕሮጀክቶች መካከል በሚደረግ ስምምነት ተረክቦ ማሰተዳደር ይችላሉ፤  b|R›t(ò¬ g#Ä×C M §> sÀ ¼Gender Responsive/:-b|R›t(Û¬ {Ns ¦úB½ bL †nèCÂmNS›@ãÒcW  §Y GN²b@ mÃZ b|R›t(ò¬Xk#L ÃlmçN CGR ¼Gender inequality/M §>mS-TÂCGéc$N ¥SwgDN Ymlk¬LÝÝ  |R›t(ò¬êElW_¼GenderTransform ative/:-bwNìC bs@èC mµkL L †nT y¸f_\" g#Ä×CN mNSx@ãC mrÄTN Y-Y\"LÝÝ bwNìC bs@èC mµkL ÃlW yt²AE y|LÈN GNß#nT lmlw_ XRM© bmWsD ytšl ys@èC dr©Â y|R›t(ò¬ Xk#LnT XNÄ!ñR ÃdRULÝÝ አባል ለመሆን የሚያበቁ መመዘኛዎች • በማኅበሩ የሥራ ክልል የሚገኝ በአዋጅ ቁጥር 147/1991 እና በማሸሻያ አዋጁ 402/1996 እንዲሁም በክልሉ አዋጅ 220/07በፊደራሉ 985/09 መሰረት የተመዘገበና አዋጁን መሠረት አድርገው የወጡ መመሪያዎችን ተግባራዊ የሚያደርግ፣ • በማድለብ ላይ በተወሰነው ጌዜ ጥራቱን የጠበቀ ድልብ ማቅረብ የሚችል፣ • በሌላ ተመሣሣይ ማኅበር አባል ያልሆነ፡፡ • እድሜው ከ18 ዓመት በላይ የሆነ • ቢያንስ ማድለብ የሚችል እና በማድለብ ንግድ ያልተሰማራ መሆን አለበት • በህግ መብቱ ያልተገፈፈና የአእምሮ መታወክ የሌለበት • ገቢ ያለው፣ በአንድ አካባቢ የሚኖር ወይም በአንድ ድርጅት ወይም መስሪያ ቤት የሚሰራ፣ • . በፋይናንስ አገልግሎት ተመሳሳይ ፍላጐትና ዓላማ ያለው፣ • . በማኀበሩ የሥራ ክልል የሚኖር ወይም የሚሠራ፣ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት እና የአባላት እሴቶች 1/የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት እሴቶች፡-ሀ) ራስን በራስ መርዳት፣ ለ) የግል ኃላፊነትን መወጣት፣ ሐ) የዲሞክራሲ ባህልን ማስፋፋት፣ መ) እኩልነት፣ ሠ) ፍትሃዊነት፣ ረ) ወንድማማችነት፣ ይሆናሉ፡፡ 1.W^¿ LuG /W^¿ LY«r ✓ ˆ¦¿«¿«è  †mG lMzlU 'å^¼ £M릪Yµ'å¿ ˆ¿i^g\\î £EîF'å¿  †mG v•Y £MëÔq~ £paE pºgMë £M릪Y• LD}å¿ l¼Gdr ML¿~ ¨C¿ lMTµåN EîEøv¿ £MëT« nu Q¨D¿ W\\å¿ lpaE Aå}ïq £MëT« LD}å¿ Lµ¿šn pµlé }'å:: ✓ ŠšêC maµY  †mFrN D}å MzlWr £MzlWt'å 'åºîqM}r~ £v•Zut'å LÔqr ˆY^ lˆY^ £M릪Yµår ¼Tr~  †ድገr ˆ¿³ ŠEîF  †‹G lMëµ\" ድ ¶Ù~ ˆY«q  †ELD}å¿ l¼Gdr M'i ¨µmt\"G 2.£W^ yFÖ}r ➢ lLD}åN MzlU¿ 'åºîqM~ dG»×  †µG•Eør ˆ¿«é\\¼~ ቀጣይነት ˆ¿«éኖረው ለMT•& Šv•Zv~ Š †ª ¶•v £Lºli~ £L¿ŠmŠn& Š †OE]V ˆ¿i^g\\î•v £LŠFŠG yFÖ}r £ †mFr }'å:: ➢ ˆ¦¿«¿«è  †mG MzlU £Më¦^Lš•l'å  †lTqv ˆ¿i^g\\î £W\\å ¼Tr lLD}å £Mëª\\p'å¿ ¦CG  †mFr £MzlWt'å¿ £˜Er Š˜Er ˆ¿i^g\\î l †•mlå mELŠqpFt'å~ mELNWqt\" NOE¿¦r MzlWt'å £Më¦ ¶¼L'å¿ v•Y £L‹ÔG~ £LÙqr yFÖ}r  †Emt'å: 3.«éOOEW\\é 5.ÙrB\"ì}r ➢ znTr RW MzlWr lM릊~'å}år M¿ƒወåN MzlW\"ì~  †é••ኮኖMë¦\"ì ˆ¿i^g\\î 'åºîqM £MëD}år  †mFr lµ¿šn፣ lˆ'ådr~ lµåGlr lMë¦lTOEpýr  †^p\"Ή Lº¿ LPTr }'å:: ➢ ^ED}N MzlWr E †mFr £MëPºår  †é•ኮኖሚያዊም D} MzlW\"ì ¼iN ወይም  †µGµEør ˆ¦¿«¿«è  †mG EMzlU mlTŠp'å  †^p\"Ή Lº¿ LPTr LD¿  †Elr:: ➢ Š}šêC LPTq\"ì BQov lL}]r ˆ¦¿«¿«è  †mG lMzlU  †LWY Bìªr፣ l †µG•Eør  †\\»¼~ lG¤ G¤ LድT•ኮች £M릪Y ¶t'å ˆ¿i^g\\î•v AåEå l•Eå £pE£ pºgMë ELD¿ '¨N •E\\m\"ì v•Y¿ ELÙqr~ ÙF¸r¿ EMQ‹r Q¨D¿ £ †n›ƒ'å¿  ���mFr ÙF¸r~ v•Y LPTr mªTµ LGŠå p¿d]i_ pºgMë ELD¿ ¼Tr MT•  †Elr 2/ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት አባላት የሥነ-ምግባር እሴቶች፣ ሀ) ታማኝነት፣ ለ) ግልፀኝነት፣ ሐ) ተጠያቂነት፣ መ) አሳታፊነት፣ ሠ) ማህበራዊ ኃላፊነት፣ ረ) ለሌሎች ማሰብ፡፡ ስለኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት አመሠራረት 1) የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት እንደየባህሪያቸው ከመሠረታዊ እስከ ፌዴሬሽን በየደረጃው ሊመሰረቱ ይችላሉ፡፡ 2) የመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር፣ ሀ) በተወሰነ አካባቢ በሚኖሩ ወይም በሚሠሩ ወይም በተወሰነ ሙያ በተሰማሩ ግለሰቦች፣ እና ለ) ቁጥራቸው ከሃምሣ በማያንሱ አባላት ይደራጃል፡፡ 1) የዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (2) ፊደል ተራ (ለ) ቢኖርም የሥራ ባህሪያቸውን እና የኢኮኖሚ አዋጭነታቸውን መሠረት በማድረግ አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን የመነሻ ቁጥሩን በመመሪያ ሊወስን ይችላል፡፡ ሆኖም የመነሻ ቁጥሩ ከ10 ሊያንስ አይችልም፡፡ 4/ በፌዴራል ደረጃ የሚደራጅ መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር አባላት ነዋሪነታቸው ከሁለት እና ከዚያ በላይ ከሆኑ ክልሎች የተውጣጡ ግለሰቦች መሆን አለባቸው፡፡ 5/ አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራትን በፌዴራል ወይም በክልል ደረጃ በማደራጀት የሚመዘግብ ይሆናል፡፡ የማህበሩ የኮሚቴ አባል ለመሆን የሚያበቁ መመዘኛዎች ¾ማህበሩ ከሚያከናውናቸው ሥራዎች ጋር በቀጥታም ሆነ በተዘዋዋሪ በጥቅም የሚጋጭ ወይም ውድድር በሚያስከትል ተግባር ያልተሠማራ፣ በሌላ ሕዝባዊ ወይም መንግሥታዊ መዋቅር ተደራራቢ የሥራ ኃላፊነት የሌለበት መሆኑ በጠቅላላ ጉባዔ የታመነበት፣ በተቻለ መጠን ማንበብና መፃፍ የሚችል የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር ስም፣ 1) ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር መጠሪያ ስም ይኖረዋል፤ የስም አወጣጡም ምክንያታዊ፣ ሕግንና የሕዝብን ሞራል የማይቃረን መሆን አለበት፡፡ 2) ከማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር ስም መጨረሻ \"ኃላፊነቱ የተወሰነ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር\" የሚል ሐረግ መጻፍ ይኖርባቸዋል፡፡ 1) ማንኛውም ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር አግባብ ባለው ባለሥልጣን መመዝገብ አለበት፡፡ 2) ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር ለመመዝገብ ማመልከቻውን ከሚከተሉት ጋር አያይዞ አግባብ ላለው ባለሥልጣን ያቀርባል፤ ሀ) የመሥራቾች ስብሰባ ቃለ ጉባኤ፤ ለ) መተዳደሪያ ደንብ ሦስት ቅጂዎች፤ ሐ) የሥራ አመራር ኮሚቴ አባላት ስም፣ አድራሻና ፊርማ፤ መ) የቁጥጥር ኮሚቴ አባላት ስም፣ አድራሻና ፊርማ፤ ሠ) አባላት ሆነው የሚመዘገቡት ግለሰቦች አባል ለመሆን ብቁ መሆናቸውን የሚያስረዱ ዝርዝር መግለጫዎች ረ) ከመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር በላይ ከሆነ የአባል ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራትን አድራሻ እና የተወካዮች ፊርማ፤ ሰ) ከሦስት እስከ አምሰት ዓመት የሚደረስ የሥራ ዕቅድ፤ ሰነድ፤ ሸ) የመነሻ ካፒታሉን መጠንና ተሰብስቦ በባንክ ሂሳብ ገቢ መደረጉን ወይም ባንክ በሌለበት አካባቢ ከሆነ መዝጋቢው በወሰነው የፋይናንስ ተቋማት መቀመጡን የሚያረጋግጥ ; ቀ) የሚሠራበት ቦታ መግለጫ፤ በ) ይህን አዋጅ ለማስፈጸም በሚወጡ ደንቦች ወይም መመሪያዎች የሚወሰኑ ሌሎች መግለጫዎች፡፡ 3) 4) አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን አመልካቹን ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር መመዝገብ አይገባውም ሲል የወሰነ እንደሆነ ምክንያቱን በጽሑፍ በማድረግ ለኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩ ወኪሎች ከአመለከቱበት ቀን ጀምሮ በአምስት ተከታታይ የሥራ ቀናት ውስጥ መግለፅ አለበት፡፡ 5) የአመልካች ወኪሎች በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (4) መሠረት በጽሁፍ በተሰጠው ውሳኔ ላይ ቅሬታ ያላቸው ከሆነ፣ በክልል ሲሆን አግባብ ላለው የክልል ፍርድ ቤት ወይም በፌዴራል ደረጃ ሲሆን ለፌዴራል ከፍተኛ ደረጃ ፍርድ ቤት በ8 ተከታታይ ቀናት ውስጥ አቤቱታ ማቅረብ ይችላሉ፡፡ 6) በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (3) መሠረት የተሰጠ የምዝገባ የምስክር ወረቀት ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ በዚህ አዋጅ በተደነገገው መሠረት የተመዘገበ ለመሆኑ በቂ ማስረጃ ይሆናል፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር መተዳዳሪያ ደንብ ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር መተዳደሪያ ደንብ ይኖረዋል፤ መተዳደሪያ ደንቡ ይዘት የሚከተሉትን ይጨምራል፤ ሀ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን ስምና አድራሻ፤ ለ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን ዓላማና ተግባር፤ ሐ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን የሥራ ቦታ እና አካባቢ፤ መ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ አባል ለመሆን የሚያበቁ መመዘኛዎችን፤ ሠ) ስለኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ አባላት መብትና ግዴታዎች፤ ረ) ስለ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ አመራር አካላት ሥልጣን፣ ኃላፊነትና ተግባር፤ ሰ) አባላት ከኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ ስለሚወጡበትና ስለሚሰናበቱበት ሁኔታ፤ ሸ) ስለ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ ሥራ አመራር ኮሚቴ አባላትና ሌሎች የሥራ ኃላፊዎች ምርጫ፣ ሹመትና የሥራ ጊዜ እንዲሁም ከኃላፊነት ስለሚታገዱበት ወይም ስለሚሰናበቱበት ሁኔታ፤ ቀ) ስለ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ ስብሰባ አጠራር እና ስለድምጽ አሰጣጥ፤ በ) ስለትርፍ አመዳደብና ክፍፍል፤ ተ) ስለ ሂሣብ ምርመራ፤ ቸ) ስለ ሠራተኛ አቀጣጠር፤ ነ) ይህን አዋጅ እና አዋጁን ለማስፈጸም የሚወጣ ደንብ እና መመሪያን የማይቃረኑ ሌሎች ጉዳዮች፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ግዴታ 1) የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት አባሎቻቸው የሚፈልጉትን አገልግሎት በተያዘው ዕቅድ መሠረት የማቅረብ፤ 2) በአገሪቱ የአሠሪና ሠራተኛ ሕግ መሠረት ለቀጠሯቸው ሠራተኞች መብታቸውን የመጠበቅ፤ 3) ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ከሚያገኙት ገቢ ላይ ከገቢ ግብር በስተቀር ሌሎች ለመንግስት መከፈል የሚገባቸውን ክፍያዎቸ በሕጉ መሠረት ወቅቱን ጠብቆ ገቢ የማድረግ፤ 4) የመተዳደሪያ ደንቡን አክብሮ የመስራት፤ 5) ለሚመለከተው አካል አስፈላጊውን መረጃ በተጠየቀ ጊዜ የመስጠት፤ 6) የተቋቋመበትን መርህ እና ዓላማ አክብሮ የመሥራት፣ ሥራ ስለ መጀመር 1/ ማንኛውም ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር ከተመዘገበበት ቀን ጀምሮ በስድስት ወር ውስጥ በዕቅዱ መሠረት ሥራ ካልጀመረ በተጨማሪ በሦስት ወር ውስጥ እንዲጀምር ማስጠንቀቂያ ይሰጠዋል፡፡ 2/ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩ በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (1) መሠረት በተሰጠው የማስጠንቀቂያ ጊዜ ውስጥ ሥራ ካልጀመረ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩ ሂሣብ ከተጣራ እና መፍረሱ ከተወሰነ በኋላ ምዝገባው ተሰርዞ ሕጋዊ ሰውነቱን እንዲያጣ ይደረጋል፡፡ የምዝገባ ምስክር ወረቀትን ስለማሳደስ 3) አባልነቱ ከመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር በላይ ለሆነ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር ከሆነ አግባብ ባለው ባለሥልጣን ተመዝግቦ ሕጋዊ ሰውነት ያገኘ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር መሆን አለበት፡፡ 1/ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ተግባራትና ኃላፊነቶች፣ 1) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት በየደረጃቸው በዚህ አንቀጽ ከንዑስ አንቀጽ (2) እስከ (9) የተመለከቱት ተግባራትና ኃላፊነቶች ይኖራቸዋል፡፡ 2) መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት በዋናነት ግለሰብ አባላት በተናጠል መወጣት የማይችሉትንና ከአቅማቸዉ በላይ የሆነን የጋራ ኢኮኖሚያዊና ማኅበራዊ ችግር መፍታት የሚችሉ ተግባራትን የሚያከናውኑ ሆኖ በተለይ የሚከተሉትን ያካትታል፤ ሀ) ለአካባቢው ህብረተሰብ ስለኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር ፅንሰ ሃሳብ ግንዛቤ ማስጨበጥ እና ቅስቀሳ ማድረግ፤ ለ) የአካባቢ ልማት እና ጥበቃ ሥራ ላይ መሳተፍ፤ ለአባላት በቅድመ ምርት እና በድህረ ምርት ላይ ስለምርት ጥራት ሥልጠና መስጠት፤ መ) ለአባላት የመጋዘን አገልግሎት መስጠት፤ ሠ) የአባላትን ችግር የሚፈቱ ፕሮጄክቶችን የመንደፍ፤ ረ) የአባላትን ምርት በመረከብ ዕሴት በመጨመር አባል ለሆኑ���ቸው ዩኒዬን ወይም ፌዴሬሽን ማስረከብ ወይም የተሻለ የገበያ መዳረሻ በማፈላለግ መሸጥ፤ ሰ) ሌሎች በመተዳደሪያ ደንባቸው የተዘረዘሩ ተግባራትን የማከናወን፤ 3/ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ዩኒየኖች በዋናነት አባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት በተናጠል መወጣት የማይችሉትን የጋራ ኢኮኖሚያዊና ማኅበራዊ ችግሮች መፍታት የሚችሉ ተግባራትን የሚያከናውኑ ሆኖ በተለይ የሚከተሉትን ያካትታል፤ ሀ) ለአባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት በተሰማሩበት መስክ ሥልጠና መስጠት፤ ለ) ለአባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት የማማከር አገልግሎት መስጠት፤ ሐ) ለአባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት የገበያ መረጃ አገልግሎት መስጠት፤ መ) ለአባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት የገበያ ትስስር ማመቻቸት፤ ሠ) የመጋዘን አገልግሎት መስጠት፤ ረ) የምርት ማሳደጊያዎችን እና የፍጆታ እቃዎችን በጅምላ ማቅረብ፤ ሰ)በአባላት ምርት ላይ እሴት መጨመር እና ሌሎች በመተዳደሪያ ደንባቸው ላይ የተዘረዘሩትን ተግባራት ማከናወን፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ዓይነቶች 1) ማንኛውም መሠረታዊ የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር በሚያቀርበው የሥራ ዕቅድ እና የአዋጭነት ጥናት መሠረት ቢያንስ የመጀመሪያ ዓመት የሥራ ማስኬጃ ወጪዎቹን መሸፈን የሚያስችል ካፒታል ይዞ መመሥረት አለበት፡፡ 2) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት ዩኒዬን ሊመሠረት የሚችለው በተደረገው የአዋጭነት ጥናት መሠረት ዕቅዳቸውን ለመፈፀም እንዲያስችል በጠቅላለላ ጉባኤ ልዩ ውሳኔ መሰረት አባል ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ቢያንስ የጠቅላላ ካፒታላቸውን 25% ያህል ዕጣ መግዛት ሲችሉ ነው፡፡ 3) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት ፌዴሬሽን ሊመሠረት የሚችለው በተደረገው የአዋጭነት ጥናት መሠረት ዕቅዳቸውን ለመፈፀም እንዲያስችል በጠቅላለላ ጉባኤ ልዩ ውሳኔ መሰረት አባል ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ዩኔኖች ቢያንስ የጠቅላላ ካፒታላቸውን 30% ያህል ዕጣ መግዛት ሲችሉ ነው፡፡ ከአባላት ዉጭ ለሌሎች አገልግሎት ስለመስጠት 1) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት ከአባላት ዉጭ የሚሰጡት አገልግሎት በሚመሠረተው ውል መሠረት ሆኖ ለሚከተሉት ዓላማዎች ይሆናል፤ ሀ) መንግስት ምርትና ምርታማነትን ለማሳደግ በብድር ከመንግስት ካዝና ወጪ ተደርጎ የሚቀርቡ ግብዓቶችን ለማሰራጨት፤ ለ) ፍላጎትና አቅርቦትን ለማመጣጠን በመንግስት በኩል የሚቀርቡ የፍጆታ ዕቃዎችን ለማሰራጨት፤ ሐ) ከልዩ ልዩ ድጋፍ ሰጪ አካላት ለህብረተሰቡ የሚቀርቡ ተዘዋዋሪ ብድሮች እና ማህበራዊ አገልግሎቶች ለማሰራጨት፤ እና መ) በእርሻ ሥራ ላይ ለተሰማሩ አርሶ አደሮች የምርት ማሳደጊያ ግብአቶችን ማቅረብ እና ምርታቸውን ለመረከብ፤ 1) የዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (1) ዝርዝር አፈጻጸም በኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩ መተዳደሪያ ደንብ ይወሰናል፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር አባል ለመሆን መሟላት ያለባቸው መስፈርቶች 1) በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (2) እና (3) የተመለከቱትን የሚያሟላ ማንኛውም ሰው የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር አባል ለመሆን 2) አባልነቱ ለመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር ከሆነ፣ ሀ) ዕድሜው 18 ዓመት የሞላው፤ ለ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን ዕጣ ለመግዛትና የመመዝገቢያ ክፍያ ለመክፈል የሚችል፤ ሐ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን ዓላማና መተዳዳሪያ ደንብ የተቀበለና ግዴታዎችን ለመፈጸም ፈቃደኛ የሆነ፤ መ) ይህን አዋጅ ለማስፈጸም በወጡት ደንቦችና መመሪያዎች የተወሰኑ ሁኔታዎችን የሚያሟላ፡፡ የአባላት መዝገብ ስለ ማደራጀት 1/ ማንኛውም ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር የአባላት መዝገብ ማደራጀትና መያዝ አለበት፡፡ 2/ በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (1) መሠረት የተደራጀ የአባላት መዝገብ የሚከተሉትን ዝርዝር ይይዛል፤ ሀ) የመሠታዊ ኅብ��ት ሥራ ማህበር ከሆነ የእያንዳንዱን አባል ስም፣ አድራሻ፣ሥራ፣ዕድሜ እና ጾታ የያዘ ሲሆን ከመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር በላይ ከሆነ ስም፣አድራሻ፣የተመሰረተበት ዓመተ ምሕረት እና የተሰማራበት የሥራ መስክ ይሆናል፡፤ ለ) አባል የሆነበት ወይም አባልነቱን ያቋረጠበት ቀን፤ ሐ) እያንዳንዱ አባል የያዘውን የዕጣ መጠን እና የከፈለውን የመመዝገቢያ ክፍያ፤ መ) በመተዳደያ ደንቡ የተወሰኑ ሌሎች ዝርዝሮች፣ . ልዩ ልዩ መዛግብትና ሰነዶች፣ የአባላት መዝገብ የአባላት የግል ፋይል የቃለ ጉባዔ መዛግብት የንብረት መዝገብ የብድር መዝገብ የአባላት የግል የሂሳብ ደብተር የአባላት የግል የሂሣብ ቋት የገቢ ደረሰኝ የወጪ ማዘዣ የገቢና የወጪ መዝገብ አጠቃላይ የሂሳብ ቋት እና ሌሎች ከሂሳብ አያያዝ መመሪያው የተመለከቱ የሂሳብ ቅጻ ቅጾችን ይጨምራል፡፡ የገንዘብ ቁጠባ ኀብረተሰቡ ከሚያገኘው ገቢ ላይ የተወሰነ ገንዘብ በመቆጠብ እራሱን በራሱ እንዲረዳና የቁጠባን ባህል እንዲያዳብር እንዲሁም በቁጠባ የተገኘውን ገንዘብ የብድር አገልግሎት በመስጠት ኀብረተሰቡን የሚያገለግል የገንዘብ ተቋም ነው፡፡ የገንዘብ ቁጠባ የሚሰጡት አገልግሎት ጉልህ በመሆኑ በሀገር፣ በአህጉር እንዲሁም በዓለም አቀፍ ደረጃ ማህበራቱ በይበልጥ እየተስፋፉ ይገኛሉ፡፡ . የገንዘብ ቁጠባ አስፈላጊነት የገንዘብ ተቋም ነው፡፡ አባላትና ኀብረተሰቡ የሚያገኙትን ገቢ በሥርዓት እንዲጠቀሙ ትምህርት ለመስጠት በግለሰቦች እጅ ተበታትኖ የሚገኘውንና በሥራ ላይ ያልዋለውን ገንዘብ በቁጠባ ለማሰባሰብ፣ አባላት ችግር ሲገጥማቸውም ሆነ ኑሮአቸውን ለማሻሻል ወይም ለሚኖራቸው ዕቅድ ማስፈጸሚያ ገንዘብ ሲያስፈልጋቸው ያለውጣ ውረድ ብድር ለማግኘት፣ ማህበራዊ ኑሮን በማጠናከር በአባላት መካከል እርስ በርስ የመረዳዳትና የመተሳሰብ ልምድ እንዲያድግ ለማስቻል፣ ለሚፈጠሩ ማህበራዊና ኢኮኖሚያዊ ችግሮች መፍትሔ ለመንደፍ እንዲሁም የአገሪቱን ማዕከላዊ የገንዘብ ክምችት እንዲዳብር የሚረዳ አስፈላጊ ህዝባዊ ባንክ ነው፡፡ የገንዘብ ቁጠባ ዓላማ ሀ. አባላትና ብሎም ኀብረተሰቡ የሚያገኙት ገቢ በስርዓት እንዲጠቀሙበት ትምህርት መስጠት፣ ለ. አባላት በማኀበራቸው ገንዘብ እንዲቆጥቡ በማድረግ ኑሮአቸውን ማሻሻል፣ ሐ. ለአባላት ፈጣንና ምቹ በሆነ መንገድ በተገቢው ወለድ የብድር አገልግሎት በመስጠት ኀብረተሰቡን ኋላቀር ከሆኑና ለብዝበዛ ከሚያጋልጡ አራጣና ሌሎች የብድር ልምዶች ማላቀቅ፣ መ. ዘላቂነት ያለው የገንዘብ ተቋም በመፍጠር ሌሎች ባንክ ነክ አገልግሎት መስጠት፣ ሠ. በግለሰቦች እጅ ተበታትኖ የሚገኘውና በሥራ ላይ ያልዋለውን ገንዘብ በቁጠባ በማሰባሰብ የአገሪቱን ማዕከላዊ የገንዘብ ክምችት ማዳበር፣ የገንዘብ ቁ/ ተግባር፣ ሀ. የመመዝገቢያ ክፍያ፣ የዕጣ ክፍያ፣ መደበኛ ቁጠባ፣ መደበኛ ያልሆነ ቁጠባ፣ የአገልግሎት ክፍያዎችንና ሌሎች ገቢዎችን ከአባላት መሰብሰብ፣ ለ. በየጊዜው እንደአስፈላጊነቱ ዕጣ አዘጋጅቶ መሸጥ፣ 1) መነሻ ካፒታል ይችላል፡፡ ሐ.  b|R›t(ò¬ g#Ä×C M §> sÀ ¼Gender Responsive/:-b|R›t(Û¬ {Ns ¦úB½ bL †nèCÂmNS›@ãÒcW  §Y GN²b@ mÃZ b|R›t(ò¬Xk#L ÃlmçN CGR ¼Gender inequality/M §>mS-TÂCGéc$N ¥SwgDN Ymlk¬LÝÝ  |R›t(ò¬êElW_¼GenderTransform ative/:-bwNìC bs@èC mµkL L †nT y¸f_\" g#Ä×CN mNSx@ãC mrÄTN Y-Y\"LÝÝ bwNìC bs@èC mµkL ÃlW yt²AE y|LÈN GNß#nT lmlw_ XRM© bmWsD ytšl ys@èC dr©Â y|R›t(ò¬ Xk#LnT XNÄ!ñR ÃdRULÝÝ አባል ለመሆን የሚያበቁ መመዘኛዎች • በማኅበሩ የሥራ ክልል የሚገኝ በአዋጅ ቁጥር 147/1991 እና በማሸሻያ አዋጁ 402/1996 እንዲሁም በክልሉ አዋጅ 220/07በፊደራሉ 985/09 መሰረት የተመዘገበና አዋጁን መሠረት አድርገው የወጡ መመሪያዎችን ተግባራዊ የሚያደር��፣ • በማድለብ ላይ በተወሰነው ጌዜ ጥራቱን የጠበቀ ድልብ ማቅረብ የሚችል፣ • በሌላ ተመሣሣይ ማኅበር አባል ያልሆነ፡፡ • እድሜው ከ18 ዓመት በላይ የሆነ • ቢያንስ ማድለብ የሚችል እና በማድለብ ንግድ ያልተሰማራ መሆን አለበት • በህግ መብቱ ያልተገፈፈና የአእምሮ መታወክ የሌለበት • ገቢ ያለው፣ በአንድ አካባቢ የሚኖር ወይም በአንድ ድርጅት ወይም መስሪያ ቤት የሚሰራ፣ • . በፋይናንስ አገልግሎት ተመሳሳይ ፍላጐትና ዓላማ ያለው፣ • . በማኀበሩ የሥራ ክልል የሚኖር ወይም የሚሠራ፣ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት እና የአባላት እሴቶች 1/የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት እሴቶች፡-ሀ) ራስን በራስ መርዳት፣ ለ) የግል ኃላፊነትን መወጣት፣ ሐ) የዲሞክራሲ ባህልን ማስፋፋት፣ መ) እኩልነት፣ ሠ) ፍትሃዊነት፣ ረ) ወንድማማችነት፣ ይሆናሉ፡፡ 1.W^¿ LuG /W^¿ LY«r ✓ ˆ¦¿«¿«è  †mG lMzlU 'å^¼ £M릪Yµ'å¿ ˆ¿i^g\\î £EîF'å¿  †mG v•Y £MëÔq~ £paE pºgMë £M릪Y• LD}å¿ l¼Gdr ML¿~ ¨C¿ lMTµåN EîEøv¿ £MëT« nu Q¨D¿ W\\å¿ lpaE Aå}ïq £MëT« LD}å¿ Lµ¿šn pµlé }'å:: ✓ ŠšêC maµY  †mFrN D}å MzlWr £MzlWt'å 'åºîqM}r~ £v•Zut'å LÔqr ˆY^ lˆY^ £M릪Yµår ¼Tr~  †ድገr ˆ¿³ ŠEîF  †‹G lMëµ\" ድ ¶Ù~ ˆY«q  †ELD}å¿ l¼Gdr M'i ¨µmt\"G 2.£W^ yFÖ}r ➢ lLD}åN MzlU¿ 'åºîqM~ dG»×  †µG•Eør ˆ¿«é\\¼~ ቀጣይነት ˆ¿«éኖረው ለMT•& Šv•Zv~ Š †ª ¶•v £Lºli~ £L¿ŠmŠn& Š †OE]V ˆ¿i^g\\î•v £LŠFŠG yFÖ}r £ †mFr }'å:: ➢ ˆ¦¿«¿«è  †mG MzlU £Më¦^Lš•l'å  †lTqv ˆ¿i^g\\î £W\\å ¼Tr lLD}å £Mëª\\p'å¿ ¦CG  †mFr £MzlWt'å¿ £˜Er Š˜Er ˆ¿i^g\\î l †•mlå mELŠqpFt'å~ mELNWqt\" NOE¿¦r MzlWt'å £Më¦ ¶¼L'å¿ v•Y £L‹ÔG~ £LÙqr yFÖ}r  †Emt'å: 3.«éOOEW\\é 5.ÙrB\"ì}r ➢ znTr RW MzlWr lM릊~'å}år M¿ƒወåN MzlW\"ì~  †é••ኮኖMë¦\"ì ˆ¿i^g\\î 'åºîqM £MëD}år  †mFr lµ¿šn፣ lˆ'ådr~ lµåGlr lMë¦lTOEpýr  †^p\"Ή Lº¿ LPTr }'å:: ➢ ^ED}N MzlWr E †mFr £MëPºår  †é•ኮኖሚያዊም D} MzlW\"ì ¼iN ወይም  †µGµEør ˆ¦¿«¿«è  †mG EMzlU mlTŠp'å  †^p\"Ή Lº¿ LPTr LD¿  †Elr:: ➢ Š}šêC LPTq\"ì BQov lL}]r ˆ¦¿«¿«è  †mG lMzlU  †LWY Bìªr፣ l †µG•Eør  †\\»¼~ lG¤ G¤ LድT•ኮች £M릪Y ¶t'å ˆ¿i^g\\î•v AåEå l•Eå £pE£ pºgMë ELD¿ '¨N •E\\m\"ì v•Y¿ ELÙqr~ ÙF¸r¿ EMQ‹r Q¨D¿ £ †n›ƒ'å¿  †mFr ÙF¸r~ v•Y LPTr mªTµ LGŠå p¿d]i_ pºgMë ELD¿ ¼Tr MT•  †Elr 2/ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት አባላት የሥነ-ምግባር እሴቶች፣ ሀ) ታማኝነት፣ ለ) ግልፀኝነት፣ ሐ) ተጠያቂነት፣ መ) አሳታፊነት፣ ሠ) ማህበራዊ ኃላፊነት፣ ረ) ለሌሎች ማሰብ፡፡ ስለኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት አመሠራረት 1) የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት እንደየባህሪያቸው ከመሠረታዊ እስከ ፌዴሬሽን በየደረጃው ሊመሰረቱ ይችላሉ፡፡ 2) የመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር፣ ሀ) በተወሰነ አካባቢ በሚኖሩ ወይም በሚሠሩ ወይም በተወሰነ ሙያ በተሰማሩ ግለሰቦች፣ እና ለ) ቁጥራቸው ከሃምሣ በማያንሱ አባላት ይደራጃል፡፡ 1) የዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (2) ፊደል ተራ (ለ) ቢኖርም የሥራ ባህሪያቸውን እና የኢኮኖሚ አዋጭነታቸውን መሠረት በማድረግ አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን የመነሻ ቁጥሩን በመመሪያ ሊወስን ይችላል፡፡ ሆኖም የመነሻ ቁጥሩ ከ10 ሊያንስ አይችልም፡፡ 4/ በፌዴራል ደረጃ የሚደራጅ መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር አባላት ነዋሪነታቸው ከሁለት እና ከዚያ በላይ ከሆኑ ክልሎች የተውጣጡ ግለሰቦች መሆን አለባቸው፡፡ 5/ አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራትን በፌዴራል ወይም በክልል ደረጃ በማደራጀት የሚመዘግብ ይሆናል፡፡ የማህበሩ የኮሚቴ አባል ለመሆን የሚያበቁ መመዘኛዎች ¾ማህበሩ ከሚያከናውናቸው ሥራዎች ጋር በቀጥታም ሆነ በተዘዋዋሪ በጥቅም የሚጋጭ ወይም ውድድር በሚያስከትል ተግባር ያልተሠማራ፣ በሌላ ሕዝባዊ ወይም መንግሥታዊ መዋቅር ተደራራቢ የሥራ ኃላፊነት የሌለበት መሆኑ በጠቅላላ ጉባዔ የታመነበት፣ በተቻለ መጠን ማንበብና መፃፍ የሚችል የኅብ���ት ሥራ ማኅበር ስም፣ 1) ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር መጠሪያ ስም ይኖረዋል፤ የስም አወጣጡም ምክንያታዊ፣ ሕግንና የሕዝብን ሞራል የማይቃረን መሆን አለበት፡፡ 2) ከማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር ስም መጨረሻ \"ኃላፊነቱ የተወሰነ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር\" የሚል ሐረግ መጻፍ ይኖርባቸዋል፡፡ 1) ማንኛውም ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር አግባብ ባለው ባለሥልጣን መመዝገብ አለበት፡፡ 2) ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር ለመመዝገብ ማመልከቻውን ከሚከተሉት ጋር አያይዞ አግባብ ላለው ባለሥልጣን ያቀርባል፤ ሀ) የመሥራቾች ስብሰባ ቃለ ጉባኤ፤ ለ) መተዳደሪያ ደንብ ሦስት ቅጂዎች፤ ሐ) የሥራ አመራር ኮሚቴ አባላት ስም፣ አድራሻና ፊርማ፤ መ) የቁጥጥር ኮሚቴ አባላት ስም፣ አድራሻና ፊርማ፤ ሠ) አባላት ሆነው የሚመዘገቡት ግለሰቦች አባል ለመሆን ብቁ መሆናቸውን የሚያስረዱ ዝርዝር መግለጫዎች ረ) ከመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር በላይ ከሆነ የአባል ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራትን አድራሻ እና የተወካዮች ፊርማ፤ ሰ) ከሦስት እስከ አምሰት ዓመት የሚደረስ የሥራ ዕቅድ፤ ሰነድ፤ ሸ) የመነሻ ካፒታሉን መጠንና ተሰብስቦ በባንክ ሂሳብ ገቢ መደረጉን ወይም ባንክ በሌለበት አካባቢ ከሆነ መዝጋቢው በወሰነው የፋይናንስ ተቋማት መቀመጡን የሚያረጋግጥ ; ቀ) የሚሠራበት ቦታ መግለጫ፤ በ) ይህን አዋጅ ለማስፈጸም በሚወጡ ደንቦች ወይም መመሪያዎች የሚወሰኑ ሌሎች መግለጫዎች፡፡ 3) 4) አግባብ ያለው ባለሥልጣን አመልካቹን ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር መመዝገብ አይገባውም ሲል የወሰነ እንደሆነ ምክንያቱን በጽሑፍ በማድረግ ለኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩ ወኪሎች ከአመለከቱበት ቀን ጀምሮ በአምስት ተከታታይ የሥራ ቀናት ውስጥ መግለፅ አለበት፡፡ 5) የአመልካች ወኪሎች በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (4) መሠረት በጽሁፍ በተሰጠው ውሳኔ ላይ ቅሬታ ያላቸው ከሆነ፣ በክልል ሲሆን አግባብ ላለው የክልል ፍርድ ቤት ወይም በፌዴራል ደረጃ ሲሆን ለፌዴራል ከፍተኛ ደረጃ ፍርድ ቤት በ8 ተከታታይ ቀናት ውስጥ አቤቱታ ማቅረብ ይችላሉ፡፡ 6) በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (3) መሠረት የተሰጠ የምዝገባ የምስክር ወረቀት ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ በዚህ አዋጅ በተደነገገው መሠረት የተመዘገበ ለመሆኑ በቂ ማስረጃ ይሆናል፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር መተዳዳሪያ ደንብ ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር መተዳደሪያ ደንብ ይኖረዋል፤ መተዳደሪያ ደንቡ ይዘት የሚከተሉትን ይጨምራል፤ ሀ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን ስምና አድራሻ፤ ለ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን ዓላማና ተግባር፤ ሐ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን የሥራ ቦታ እና አካባቢ፤ መ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ አባል ለመሆን የሚያበቁ መመዘኛዎችን፤ ሠ) ስለኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ አባላት መብትና ግዴታዎች፤ ረ) ስለ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ አመራር አካላት ሥልጣን፣ ኃላፊነትና ተግባር፤ ሰ) አባላት ከኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ ስለሚወጡበትና ስለሚሰናበቱበት ሁኔታ፤ ሸ) ስለ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ ሥራ አመራር ኮሚቴ አባላትና ሌሎች የሥራ ኃላፊዎች ምርጫ፣ ሹመትና የሥራ ጊዜ እንዲሁም ከኃላፊነት ስለሚታገዱበት ወይም ስለሚሰናበቱበት ሁኔታ፤ ቀ) ስለ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩ ስብሰባ አጠራር እና ስለድምጽ አሰጣጥ፤ በ) ስለትርፍ አመዳደብና ክፍፍል፤ ተ) ስለ ሂሣብ ምርመራ፤ ቸ) ስለ ሠራተኛ አቀጣጠር፤ ነ) ይህን አዋጅ እና አዋጁን ለማስፈጸም የሚወጣ ደንብ እና መመሪያን የማይቃረኑ ሌሎች ጉዳዮች፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ግዴታ 1) የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት አባሎቻቸው የሚፈልጉትን አገልግሎት በተያዘው ዕቅድ መሠረት የማቅረብ፤ 2) በአገሪቱ የአሠሪና ሠራተኛ ሕግ መሠረት ለቀጠሯቸው ሠራተኞች መብታቸውን የመጠበቅ፤ 3) ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራ�� ከሚያገኙት ገቢ ላይ ከገቢ ግብር በስተቀር ሌሎች ለመንግስት መከፈል የሚገባቸውን ክፍያዎቸ በሕጉ መሠረት ወቅቱን ጠብቆ ገቢ የማድረግ፤ 4) የመተዳደሪያ ደንቡን አክብሮ የመስራት፤ 5) ለሚመለከተው አካል አስፈላጊውን መረጃ በተጠየቀ ጊዜ የመስጠት፤ 6) የተቋቋመበትን መርህ እና ዓላማ አክብሮ የመሥራት፣ ሥራ ስለ መጀመር 1/ ማንኛውም ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር ከተመዘገበበት ቀን ጀምሮ በስድስት ወር ውስጥ በዕቅዱ መሠረት ሥራ ካልጀመረ በተጨማሪ በሦስት ወር ውስጥ እንዲጀምር ማስጠንቀቂያ ይሰጠዋል፡፡ 2/ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩ በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (1) መሠረት በተሰጠው የማስጠንቀቂያ ጊዜ ውስጥ ሥራ ካልጀመረ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩ ሂሣብ ከተጣራ እና መፍረሱ ከተወሰነ በኋላ ምዝገባው ተሰርዞ ሕጋዊ ሰውነቱን እንዲያጣ ይደረጋል፡፡ የምዝገባ ምስክር ወረቀትን ስለማሳደስ 3) አባልነቱ ከመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር በላይ ለሆነ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር ከሆነ አግባብ ባለው ባለሥልጣን ተመዝግቦ ሕጋዊ ሰውነት ያገኘ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር መሆን አለበት፡፡ 1/ማንኛውም የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ተግባራትና ኃላፊነቶች፣ 1) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት በየደረጃቸው በዚህ አንቀጽ ከንዑስ አንቀጽ (2) እስከ (9) የተመለከቱት ተግባራትና ኃላፊነቶች ይኖራቸዋል፡፡ 2) መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት በዋናነት ግለሰብ አባላት በተናጠል መወጣት የማይችሉትንና ከአቅማቸዉ በላይ የሆነን የጋራ ኢኮኖሚያዊና ማኅበራዊ ችግር መፍታት የሚችሉ ተግባራትን የሚያከናውኑ ሆኖ በተለይ የሚከተሉትን ያካትታል፤ ሀ) ለአካባቢው ህብረተሰብ ስለኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር ፅንሰ ሃሳብ ግንዛቤ ማስጨበጥ እና ቅስቀሳ ማድረግ፤ ለ) የአካባቢ ልማት እና ጥበቃ ሥራ ላይ መሳተፍ፤ ለአባላት በቅድመ ምርት እና በድህረ ምርት ላይ ስለምርት ጥራት ሥልጠና መስጠት፤ መ) ለአባላት የመጋዘን አገልግሎት መስጠት፤ ሠ) የአባላትን ችግር የሚፈቱ ፕሮጄክቶችን የመንደፍ፤ ረ) የአባላትን ምርት በመረከብ ዕሴት በመጨመር አባል ለሆኑባቸው ዩኒዬን ወይም ፌዴሬሽን ማስረከብ ወይም የተሻለ የገበያ መዳረሻ በማፈላለግ መሸጥ፤ ሰ) ሌሎች በመተዳደሪያ ደንባቸው የተዘረዘሩ ተግባራትን የማከናወን፤ 3/ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ዩኒየኖች በዋናነት አባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት በተናጠል መወጣት የማይችሉትን የጋራ ኢኮኖሚያዊና ማኅበራዊ ችግሮች መፍታት የሚችሉ ተግባራትን የሚያከናውኑ ሆኖ በተለይ የሚከተሉትን ያካትታል፤ ሀ) ለአባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት በተሰማሩበት መስክ ሥልጠና መስጠት፤ ለ) ለአባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት የማማከር አገልግሎት መስጠት፤ ሐ) ለአባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት የገበያ መረጃ አገልግሎት መስጠት፤ መ) ለአባል መሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት የገበያ ትስስር ማመቻቸት፤ ሠ) የመጋዘን አገልግሎት መስጠት፤ ረ) የምርት ማሳደጊያዎችን እና የፍጆታ እቃዎችን በጅምላ ማቅረብ፤ ሰ)በአባላት ምርት ላይ እሴት መጨመር እና ሌሎች በመተዳደሪያ ደንባቸው ላይ የተዘረዘሩትን ተግባራት ማከናወን፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ዓይነቶች 1) ማንኛውም መሠረታዊ የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር በሚያቀርበው የሥራ ዕቅድ እና የአዋጭነት ጥናት መሠረት ቢያንስ የመጀመሪያ ዓመት የሥራ ማስኬጃ ወጪዎቹን መሸፈን የሚያስችል ካፒታል ይዞ መመሥረት አለበት፡፡ 2) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት ዩኒዬን ሊመሠረት የሚችለው በተደረገው የአዋጭነት ጥናት መሠረት ዕቅዳቸውን ለመፈፀም እንዲያስችል በጠቅላለላ ጉባኤ ልዩ ውሳኔ መሰረት አባል ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ቢያንስ የጠቅላላ ካፒታላቸውን 25% ያህል ዕጣ መግዛት ሲ���ሉ ነው፡፡ 3) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት ፌዴሬሽን ሊመሠረት የሚችለው በተደረገው የአዋጭነት ጥናት መሠረት ዕቅዳቸውን ለመፈፀም እንዲያስችል በጠቅላለላ ጉባኤ ልዩ ውሳኔ መሰረት አባል ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበራት ዩኔኖች ቢያንስ የጠቅላላ ካፒታላቸውን 30% ያህል ዕጣ መግዛት ሲችሉ ነው፡፡ ከአባላት ዉጭ ለሌሎች አገልግሎት ስለመስጠት 1) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበራት ከአባላት ዉጭ የሚሰጡት አገልግሎት በሚመሠረተው ውል መሠረት ሆኖ ለሚከተሉት ዓላማዎች ይሆናል፤ ሀ) መንግስት ምርትና ምርታማነትን ለማሳደግ በብድር ከመንግስት ካዝና ወጪ ተደርጎ የሚቀርቡ ግብዓቶችን ለማሰራጨት፤ ለ) ፍላጎትና አቅርቦትን ለማመጣጠን በመንግስት በኩል የሚቀርቡ የፍጆታ ዕቃዎችን ለማሰራጨት፤ ሐ) ከልዩ ልዩ ድጋፍ ሰጪ አካላት ለህብረተሰቡ የሚቀርቡ ተዘዋዋሪ ብድሮች እና ማህበራዊ አገልግሎቶች ለማሰራጨት፤ እና መ) በእርሻ ሥራ ላይ ለተሰማሩ አርሶ አደሮች የምርት ማሳደጊያ ግብአቶችን ማቅረብ እና ምርታቸውን ለመረከብ፤ 1) የዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (1) ዝርዝር አፈጻጸም በኅብረት ሥራ ማህበሩ መተዳደሪያ ደንብ ይወሰናል፡፡ የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር አባል ለመሆን መሟላት ያለባቸው መስፈርቶች 1) በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (2) እና (3) የተመለከቱትን የሚያሟላ ማንኛውም ሰው የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር አባል ለመሆን 2) አባልነቱ ለመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር ከሆነ፣ ሀ) ዕድሜው 18 ዓመት የሞላው፤ ለ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን ዕጣ ለመግዛትና የመመዝገቢያ ክፍያ ለመክፈል የሚችል፤ ሐ) የኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበሩን ዓላማና መተዳዳሪያ ደንብ የተቀበለና ግዴታዎችን ለመፈጸም ፈቃደኛ የሆነ፤ መ) ይህን አዋጅ ለማስፈጸም በወጡት ደንቦችና መመሪያዎች የተወሰኑ ሁኔታዎችን የሚያሟላ፡፡ የአባላት መዝገብ ስለ ማደራጀት 1/ ማንኛውም ኅብረት ሥራ ማኅበር የአባላት መዝገብ ማደራጀትና መያዝ አለበት፡፡ 2/ በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (1) መሠረት የተደራጀ የአባላት መዝገብ የሚከተሉትን ዝርዝር ይይዛል፤ ሀ) የመሠታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር ከሆነ የእያንዳንዱን አባል ስም፣ አድራሻ፣ሥራ፣ዕድሜ እና ጾታ የያዘ ሲሆን ከመሠረታዊ ኅብረት ሥራ ማህበር በላይ ከሆነ ስም፣አድራሻ፣የተመሰረተበት ዓመተ ምሕረት እና የተሰማራበት የሥራ መስክ ይሆናል፡፤ ለ) አባል የሆነበት ወይም አባልነቱን ያቋረጠበት ቀን፤ ሐ) እያንዳንዱ አባል የያዘውን የዕጣ መጠን እና የከፈለውን የመመዝገቢያ ክፍያ፤ መ) በመተዳደያ ደንቡ የተወሰኑ ሌሎች ዝርዝሮች፣ . ልዩ ልዩ መዛግብትና ሰነዶች፣ የአባላት መዝገብ የአባላት የግል ፋይል የቃለ ጉባዔ መዛግብት የንብረት መዝገብ የብድር መዝገብ የአባላት የግል የሂሳብ ደብተር የአባላት የግል የሂሣብ ቋት የገቢ ደረሰኝ የወጪ ማዘዣ የገቢና የወጪ መዝገብ አጠቃላይ የሂሳብ ቋት እና ሌሎች ከሂሳብ አያያዝ መመሪያው የተመለከቱ የሂሳብ ቅጻ ቅጾችን ይጨምራል፡፡ የገንዘብ ቁጠባ ኀብረተሰቡ ከሚያገኘው ገቢ ላይ የተወሰነ ገንዘብ በመቆጠብ እራሱን በራሱ እንዲረዳና የቁጠባን ባህል እንዲያዳብር እንዲሁም በቁጠባ የተገኘውን ገንዘብ የብድር አገልግሎት በመስጠት ኀብረተሰቡን የሚያገለግል የገንዘብ ተቋም ነው፡፡ የገንዘብ ቁጠባ የሚሰጡት አገልግሎት ጉልህ በመሆኑ በሀገር፣ በአህጉር እንዲሁም በዓለም አቀፍ ደረጃ ማህበራቱ በይበልጥ እየተስፋፉ ይገኛሉ፡፡ . የገንዘብ ቁጠባ አስፈላጊነት የገንዘብ ተቋም ነው፡፡ አባላትና ኀብረተሰቡ የሚያገኙትን ገቢ በሥርዓት እንዲጠቀሙ ትምህርት ለመስጠት በግለሰቦች እጅ ተበታትኖ የሚገኘውንና በሥራ ላይ ያልዋለውን ገንዘብ በቁጠባ ለማሰባሰብ፣ አባላት ችግር ሲገጥማቸው��� ሆነ ኑሮአቸውን ለማሻሻል ወይም ለሚኖራቸው ዕቅድ ማስፈጸሚያ ገንዘብ ሲያስፈልጋቸው ያለውጣ ውረድ ብድር ለማግኘት፣ ማህበራዊ ኑሮን በማጠናከር በአባላት መካከል እርስ በርስ የመረዳዳትና የመተሳሰብ ልምድ እንዲያድግ ለማስቻል፣ ለሚፈጠሩ ማህበራዊና ኢኮኖሚያዊ ችግሮች መፍትሔ ለመንደፍ እንዲሁም የአገሪቱን ማዕከላዊ የገንዘብ ክምችት እንዲዳብር የሚረዳ አስፈላጊ ህዝባዊ ባንክ ነው፡፡ የገንዘብ ቁጠባ ዓላማ ሀ. አባላትና ብሎም ኀብረተሰቡ የሚያገኙት ገቢ በስርዓት እንዲጠቀሙበት ትምህርት መስጠት፣ ለ. አባላት በማኀበራቸው ገንዘብ እንዲቆጥቡ በማድረግ ኑሮአቸውን ማሻሻል፣ ሐ. ለአባላት ፈጣንና ምቹ በሆነ መንገድ በተገቢው ወለድ የብድር አገልግሎት በመስጠት ኀብረተሰቡን ኋላቀር ከሆኑና ለብዝበዛ ከሚያጋልጡ አራጣና ሌሎች የብድር ልምዶች ማላቀቅ፣ መ. ዘላቂነት ያለው የገንዘብ ተቋም በመፍጠር ሌሎች ባንክ ነክ አገልግሎት መስጠት፣ ሠ. በግለሰቦች እጅ ተበታትኖ የሚገኘውና በሥራ ላይ ያልዋለውን ገንዘብ በቁጠባ በማሰባሰብ የአገሪቱን ማዕከላዊ የገንዘብ ክምችት ማዳበር፣ የገንዘብ ቁ/ ተግባር፣ ሀ. የመመዝገቢያ ክፍያ፣ የዕጣ ክፍያ፣ መደበኛ ቁጠባ፣ መደበኛ ያልሆነ ቁጠባ፣ የአገልግሎት ክፍያዎችንና ሌሎች ገቢዎችን ከአባላት መሰብሰብ፣ ለ. በየጊዜው እንደአስፈላጊነቱ ዕጣ አዘጋጅቶ መሸጥ፣ 1) መነሻ ካፒታል ይችላል፡፡ ሐ.  "}],"sieverID":"465ff5ad-6561-49d0-a100-372f19fdf42c","abstract":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socioeconomic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed)."}

data/part_2/09a916c703495a833b695fd84b0c0b4e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09a916c703495a833b695fd84b0c0b4e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dac9bf68-b9c1-4ed9-97ba-ae9c44623faa/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"S eventy percent of Kenya's economy depends on agriculture, and thirty out of Kenya's 47 counties are actively involved in agriculture. However, the sector faces many challenges as many best farming practices are not sufficiently adopted by smallholder farmers. This is largely the result of an inadequate extension service -one that does not pay sufficient attention to the positive results of many research and development initiatives."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"A couple of years ago, three colleagues and I felt there was a need to form an organisation that would focus on capacity building and on mentorship programmes that would support the adoption of farming practices proved to be successful and of climate-smart agriculture techniques, in both crop and livestock value chains. Targeting youth in the agricultural sector, we established Mkulima Faida Africa as a sister organisation of KLPA. Our aim was to share young people's success stories to encourage other youths to start embracing agriculture and digital farming."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Mkulima Faida Africa primarily mentors and trains youths in agricultural value chains, helping them to document and share their success stories using the experience capitalization process. This involves identifying, analysing and documenting experiences to encourage an exchange of good practices and lessons learnt. In this way, we promote the adoption of best farming practices by other youths in the region."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"In September 2017, KLPA and Mkulima Faida Africa -in partnership with Safaricom, iProcure, Mercy Corps and Arifu -started a project called DIGIFARM. The idea was to tackle those issues that cut across smallholder crop and livestock farming, and to document the process using experience capitalization so that the lessons and solutions are shared with other young people. DIGIFARM has focused on the general access to information, the need for an input loan facility, or the importance of markets for the local products. To tackle all of these challenges, the team began with a pilot project in eight counties in September 2017, namely, Bomet,"},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"The Kenya Livestock Producers Association (KLPA) is working to institutionalise the experience capitalization approach in its M&E department by developing specific Terms of Reference (TOR) which will be used in the ongoing and subsequent projects that KLPA is engaged in. KLPA is an apex farmer organisation, formed in 2004 with the aim of helping farmers with market linkages, conducting farmer trainings on various value chains, and lobbying and advocacy. In 2017, KLPA partnered with Mkulima Faida Africa and started the DIGIFARM project. The aim is to help young people in agricultural value chains share their success stories and encourage more youths to create value in the sector."}]},{"head":"Cover Gathering information meant going to the field with the M&E team","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Kericho, Kirinyaga, Makueni, Marakwet, Meru, Migori and Nyandarua. The selected counties include both arid and semi-arid areas. We successfully achieved our aim of reaching one million farmers by the end of the 6-month pilot programme."}]},{"head":"Institutionalising experience capitalization within KLPA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"KLPA mainly uses traditional reporting tools, but after the training process organised by CTA on experience capitalization, I understood the need to implement this process and complement our M&E activities. We think this can help us in terms of data collection, data analysis and documentation. The experience capitalization process can also help KLPA and other organisations write and publish their project success stories. With the knowledge gathered from CTA in March 2017 in Arusha, I felt the need to start incorporating experience capitalization into all of KLPA's projects."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The first critical step was to identify the departments and colleagues who could help us promote the experience capitalization process within our organisation. Recognising that the M&E and information systems departments have a key role in the process, I was able to recruit two colleagues from the M&E department to join our team. Next, we did an internal presentation and briefed our colleagues in the M&E department, showing what an experience capitalization process is all about and highlighting its potential benefits to the organisation. After the brief,"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"The aim of the training was to equip our colleagues with relevant knowledge on experience capitalization."}]},{"head":"Above A training session with different extension officers","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"they also saw the need to incorporate experience capitalization in our daily project activities, and many agreed to join a two-week training process, in November 2017."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"To conduct the training we used write ups and training materials from the previous CTA workshops and from the experience capitalization community of practice (COP) -the online group of individuals from all over the world sharing information about the experience capitalization approach. The aim of the training was to equip our colleagues with relevant knowledge on experience capitalization. We envisaged that if our colleagues bought into the idea, then it could be easier to convince our bosses that we should start new capitalization processes across the organisation, as we would have already started this within some of the existing projects. We then planned to start sharing the success stories coming from these projects with other colleagues and external partners. During these initial stages, we had the advantage that our bosses had given us leeway to bring in new ideas and develop them, and I was able to share with them the article that I had completed during the workshops ran by CTA."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"After conducting our internal experience capitalization training, we started documenting the case of an older project working on climate-smart agriculture, and making the necessary arrangements for sharing the final article that we were working on. At this point, we felt it was time to approach KLPA management and try to convince them to adopt experience capitalization. We scheduled a meeting in December 2017 and took the managers through the experience capitalization process. At first we had difficulties convincing the organisation to adopt it due to budget constraints, as training a lot of people would have been very expensive. But as we had volunteered to spearhead the process within the M&E department, after a series of lengthy meetings, we were permitted to pilot the experience capitalization process in the DIGIFARM project, which I was leading. For this, we were allowed to ride on the project's budget."}]},{"head":"Implementing experience capitalization in DIGIFARM","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"One of the aims of this project was to increase farmers' access to inputs, which required opening DIGIFARM depots in villages, where farmers are able to buy what they needed at an affordable price. The depots are able to provide relatively cheap inputs by sourcing them directly from the manufacturers. This has helped farmers to save a lot on input costs and boosted their yields. The consequent increase in their incomes has encouraged farmers to embrace agriculture as a business. We felt that it was important for us to document this experience because many organisations in the past have tried such projects, but there has rarely been reports that effectively convey the lessons learnt."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"We decided to gather all of the documents that talked about experience capitalization on the e-mails shared by the members of the COP, and to collect the insights that we received from those implementing experience capitalization processes in other countries, to guide us through the documentation process. We resolved to develop a capitalization strategy, draft some TORs and prepare a training manual to support the process within KLPA. With this in place, we were ready to document the experiences of the DIGIFARM project."}]},{"head":"Challenges","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"The challenges we faced during included:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• The lack of commitment to the process by various partners in the DIGIFARM project;"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"• The need for the M&E team to have a digital data collection tool to help retrieve the right data. There were no funds to get an external developer to come up such a system, but we received assistance from the internal ICT team, who developed a data collection system;"},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"• The time needed: an experience capitalization process is time consuming, especially because of the need to train other stakeholders who oversee the DIGIFARM project in our absence in the various counties;"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• The lack of funds for capacity building and training of staff on experience capitalization."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"Right \"We have seen that an experience capitalization process goes an extra mile when documenting the successful stories of projects...\""},{"index":7,"size":70,"text":"But before the experience capitalization could start, I felt there was a need to train the various stakeholders (partners, farmer leaders and county government officials) who were directly involved in the project. This was challenging, since most of them did not understand the importance of the experience capitalization process, or the need to get started. Arifu, an organisation that uses technology platforms to educate smallholder farmers, was a notable exception."},{"index":8,"size":87,"text":"Arifu was impressed with our work and with the different steps taken as part of the DIGIFARM project. As a result, they were willing and ready to join the experience capitalization process. Arifu mobilised their colleagues from various departments and asked them to include it in their day-to-day activities. We conducted a one-day workshop on experience capitalization in January 2018, where we introduced the concept and helped the Arifu team get ready to implement the process. Fifteen staff from the M&E and communications departments attended the workshop."},{"index":9,"size":62,"text":"The positive response to experience capitalization by Arifu has given us hope that more partners will come on board. We recently asked Arifu to identify other colleagues who would need to be trained on experience capitalization. Then we will organise another one-week training workshop with them, going through the different steps: from data collection and documentation to writing and publishing an article."},{"index":10,"size":67,"text":"Until now, the reports and documents that cover the first phase of DIGIFARM (after the steps of data collection, field visits, data analysis and writing) are much better and include more details than those produced as part of a \"regular\" M&E report. During the process, we noticed that M&E is generally more about facts and gathering data, unlike experience capitalization, which captures and analyses the information available."},{"index":11,"size":70,"text":"All in all, the experience capitalization process was successful because a few of my colleagues joined the training courses, and had vast knowledge of the whole process. As a result, Mkulima Faida Africa is currently developing a framework document for the institutionalization of experience capitalization. We have also made a resolution to develop concept notes, which we will share with NGOs and farmer organisations to help them adopt this approach."},{"index":12,"size":25,"text":"I am happy to report that experience capitalization is an ongoing effort at KLPA, even after I left the organisation to join Mkulima Faida Africa."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"We have seen that an experience capitalization process goes an extra mile when documenting the successful stories of projects, rather than depending on standard day-to-day M&E reports that usually leave a lot of insights uncaptured. Since the introduction of the experience capitalization approach to East African organisations in 2016 and 2017, there have been a lot of articles describing different methods to institutionalise this approach. However, there is need to get more organisations to follow the recommendations in these articles and to implement the process as part of their work."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"I am happy to report that experience capitalization is an ongoing effort at KLPA, even after I left the organisation to join Mkulima Faida Africa. The only remaining challenge is a lack of funds to hire an editor to review our cases and publish the articles and stories that we have written so that we can share them with the rest of the world. KLPA is also planning to start an online information sharing tool to help it reach a larger number of people. This will soon be available."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"e931934c-cec1-4fb4-b430-230b3af6ce52","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0aa1082b641cd4be88021a4a22885a68.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aa1082b641cd4be88021a4a22885a68","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0e64716d-046e-4743-bd57-60eed7749727/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"COlECCION HISTORfCA _ IRROZ 4acional","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"El Virus de la Hoja Blanca (VHB)","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"El VHB infecla lanlo al arroz como al insecto. Los síntomas de esta virosis en la planta son bandas clóroticas que se fusíonan haciendo que las hojas se tornen blanquecinas (Fig. 1 A). Cuando las plantas son inlectadas en edad temprana presentan enanismo y, en casos severos, necrosis y muerte; si la infección es tardía puede afectar las panículas y reducir la calidad y el número de granos (Fig. 1 B). "}]},{"head":"Biología de Sogata","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Los machos tienen un color de pardo oscuro a negro y son más pequeños que las hembras , las cuales son generalmente de color amarillo. Tanto las ninfas como los adultos de sogata pueden transmitir el VHB (Fig. 2)."}]},{"head":"Huevos","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Ad Ul to hembra 7-19dlas 24-36 (Uas Figura 2. Ciclo biológico de sogata"}]},{"head":"Epidemiología del VHB","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"El VHB no se transmite mecánicamente ni por semilla; sólo es transmitido por el insecto sogata aunque no todos los individuos de la población pueden hacerlo, ya que la habilidad de transmisión está controlada genéticamente. En condiciones normales de campo, menos del 2% de la población son insectos vectores; sin embargo, cuando se presentan brotes de VHB, los vectores alcanzan del 15% al 25% de la población. Se cree que el efecto nocivo causado por el virus en el insecto es el responsable de ta naturaleza cíclica de la enfermedad."}]},{"head":"Resistencia Varietal","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Hay muchas variedades comerciales de arroz con buenas cualidades de rendimiento y calidad; la mayoría son \"resistentes\" al daño mecánico causado por la so gata al alimentarse de la planta , pero no tienen un adecuado nivel de resistencia al virus ."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"De acuerdo a la reacción que presenten las variedades al VHB , éstas pueden ser clasificadas como: Resistentes, Intermedias, y Susceptibles. Ninguna de las variedades obtenidas hasta el presente son inmunes al VHB, las resistentes e intermedias pueden ser afectadas por el virus, especialmente durante tos primeros 25 días después de la emergencia (dde). Debido a que el virus necesita aproximadamente 10 días de incubación dentro de la planta, los síntomas se manifiestan con mayor frecuencia entre los 30 a los 40 días de germinado el arroz."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• En períodos de alta viru lencia de sogata , el manejo debe concentrarse en la siembra de vari edades resistentes y en la reducción de poblaciones del insecto vector ."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Si se necesitan aplicaciones adicionales de insecticid as para sogata u otras plagas durante el ciclo del cultivo, use productos que tengan grupo químico y mecanismo de acción diferentes."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"En general se recomiendan a los agricultores las prácticas siguientes:"},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"1. Conozca la incidencia del VHB en su área y en lotes vecinos para determinar la variedad que debe sembrar en cultivos futuros."},{"index":7,"size":189,"text":"2. Siembre, en zonas de riesgo, variedades resistentes e intermedias al VHB. 3. Si se siembran variedades susceptibles se debe tener mucho más cuidado en el manejo de insectos plaga. 4. En las zonas de riesgo es necesario, cualquiera que sea la variedad, vigilar con especial cuidado los lotes menores de 25 dias porque a esa edad las plantas tienen mayor susceptibilidad al VHB. 5. Destruir e incorporar las socas despues de la cosecha para erradicar el insecto y el VHB, ya que constituyen un excelente foco de infestación del virus y de sogata. 6. Mantener los canales, los caballones y el interior del cultivo libres de malezas gramfneas, porque se han reportado como hospedantes de sogata. 7. En zonas con medio a alto nivel de VHB se requiere aplicar control químico en la etapa inicial del cultivo (25 dde). Los productos seleccionados se deben manejar correctamente para preservar la fauna benéfica y no causar resurgencia de sogata. 8. No aplique insecticidas para controlar sogata en estos casos: • En plantas después de la emergencia de la panicula. • En zonas con bajo nivel de VHB (menor de 3%)."}]},{"head":"•","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Cuando unicamente se presenten simlomas de VHB en la maleza Echinochloa spp. "}]},{"head":"Monitoreo de Sogata","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Tomando en consideración la distribución de la sogata en el campo y las características de la misma se recomienda que se realice el monitoreo con la jama entomológica."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Este monitoreo se debe realizar desde el estado de plántula hasta los 60 días dde. El mismo se efectuará tomando muestras en diferentes puntos del campo, realizando 10 pases dobles de jama en cada uno de los puntos seleccionados."}]},{"head":"Control Biológico","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"En cultivos de arroz se han reportado diferentes especies de parasitoides, predadores y hongos que actúan regulando la densidad poblacional de sogata (Fig. 3). Observaciones de campo reportan parasitismo de: Anagrus, Elenchus, Atríchopogum y Haplogonatopus. También se han reportado arañas como los principales predadores de so gata (consumen de 2-3 insectos diariamente)."}]},{"head":"Manejo","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":". ~ .. ~ ."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Para manejar el complejo sogata-VHB son necesarias tanto variedades resistentes como prácticas culturales e.decuadas, asi :"},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"• Para determinar si se requiere una variedad resistente en la próxima siembra , se debe estimar el nivel de plantas infectadas con VHB en la siembra actual a los 50-60 dias después de la emergencia."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"• Si la incidencia del VHB es menor de 3%, se puede sembrar cualquier variedad y el control se debe efectuar cuando el nivel de sogata sea de 200 insectos por 10 pases dobles de jama (pdj) en los primeros 25 días de edad del cultivo."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"• Si se observa del 3% al 10% de infección, se recomiendan variedades intermedias o resistentes y hacer un control cuando el nivel de so gata sea mayor que 50 insectos por 10 pdj."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"• Si la incidencia del VHB es mayor que 10%, se recomiendan variedades resistentes y hacer un control cuando el nivel de sogata sea mayor de 10 insectos por 10 pdj."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"Lo anterior se resume en la siguiente tabla: • Para todas las variedades los primeros 25 dde son los más críticos. Si la variedad es susceptible al VHB, se requiere controlar las poblaciones de sogata hasta la emergencia de la panícula."},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"• Generalmente la primera infestación de sogata en un lote de arroz es de adultos que migran de lotes contiguos; por lo tanto se recomienda , que los cultivos de arroz sean examinados con jama cada 2 ó 3 días durante las tres primeras semanas."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 1 . Figura 1. Virus de Hoja Blanca A: Síntomas en hojas B:/nfección tardía "},{"text":" Este plegable fue financiado parcialml 100076947 Los aulores agradecen a los Drs. Miguel Diago. OCtavio Vargas (FEDEARR OZ, Colombia), Darío Leal, Diego Aristizábal (CORPOICA), FranC ISco Morales, Mónica Triana (CI AT) , Luis San in! (FLAR), Ralael Meneses (IIA. Cuba) por su contribución a este plegable. Contacto E-Mail: CIAT-AI CE @CGIAR. ORG "},{"text":"Figura 3 . Figura 3. Control biológico de sogata: A huevos parasitados por Anagrus spp; 8 adulto parasltado por Hapfogonatopus spp; e Araña Argiope catenulata predador de ninfas y ad ultos ; O Hongo entomopatógeno Metarhizium anisopliae. "},{"text":"Tabla 1. Recomendaciones para decidir el control del complejo sogat.VHB Plantas Nivel de Nivel de Variedad Infectad.s Riesgo Control Recomendada (%) (In\"\"00/10 pdll  < 3 Bajo >200 Cualquiera < 3Bajo>200Cualquiera 3-10 Medóo >50 Intermedia 3-10Medóo>50Intermedia    Resistente Resistente >10 Alto > 10 Resistente >10Alto> 10Resistente  "}],"sieverID":"cb62459d-2e07-4b12-9b65-5e63d74748a0","abstract":"Manejo del complejo \"Sogata-Virus de la hoja blanca\" en el cultivo del arrozLa hoja blanca del arroz es una enfermedad causada por un virus (VHB) transmitido por el insecto Tagosodes orizicolus conocido como \"sogata\". La incidencia del VHB ha aumenlado considerablemente en los ultimas años en Centro América y en algunos países de América del Sur y el Caribe. Esta enfermedad se ha presentado en éstas áreas en forma cíclica desde 1935 causando pérdidas en el rendimiento entre un 25 al 100%. Por esta razón es importanle informar al seclor arrocero las principales características de esle problema."}

data/part_2/0aa1febd0fb9828080b93ee8cc389a4d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aa1febd0fb9828080b93ee8cc389a4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub053/Report53.pdf"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Estimating Productivity of Water at Different Spatial Scales Using Simulation Modeling","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Introduction 1"}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods 2","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Results"}]},{"head":"9","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Conclusions 13"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Literature Cited 15 v"}]},{"head":"Summary","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Implementing real water saving measures in irrigated agriculture is only possible if all the components of the current water balance is clearly understood. However, measurement of all the terms in the water balance is infeasible on a spatial and temporal scale, but hydrological simulation models can fill the gap between measured and required data. To obtain all terms of the water balance for the Gediz Basin in western Turkey, simulation modeling was performed at three different scales: field, irrigation-scheme, and basin. These water balance numbers were used to calculate the Productivity of Water (PW) at the three scales."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"The four performance indicators considered were: PW irrigated (yield/irrigation), PW inflow (yield/net inflow), PW depleted (yield/depletion), and PW process (yield/process depletion), all expressed in kg (yield) per m 3 (water). Of the two cotton fields evaluated at the field scale, the more upstream field performed better than the downstream field. This was partly attributable to the difference in climatic conditions, but was mainly due to the location of the two fields: upstream and downstream. At the irrigation-scheme scale PW irrigated was higher than at the individual cotton field scale, as nonirrigated crops were also included. Other PW values were lower than those at the cotton field scale, as crops more sensitive to drought were also found in the irrigated areas. As large areas of the basin were concealed with less-productive land cover, the basin scale PWs were lower than those at the irrigation-scheme scale and the field scale. It is concluded that performance indicators are useful ways of representing water dynamics, and that it is important to consider all the spatial scales at the appropriate scale of detail."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Water is expected to be one of the most critical natural resources in the twenty-first century."},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"Twenty-six countries are now classified as water deficient, and nearly 230 million people are affected with water shortages. And the prediction is that by 2025, one quarter of the world's population will face severe water shortages (Seckler et al. 1999). To avoid social and environmental chaos, there is a clear need for better management of the limited amount of water available. Because agriculture is the main consumer of freshwater, increasing irrigation efficiencies seem to be the practical way to \"save\" water. Measures like subsurface irrigation and trickle or micro-irrigation have been studied in detail, and may result in achieving greater efficiency in water management than the traditional methods. However, irrigation schemes are not isolated but are part of a whole basin with other water users. Water \"savings\" at one place are likely to reduce return flows to other users downstream in the basin (Seckler 1996). An integrated basin approach, considering all water users, is necessary to assess whether water \"saving\" actions are real or are only local \"savings.\" The use of simulation models, at different spatial scales, is necessary for this integrated basin approach."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"Recently, performance indicators have been developed that can be used to analyze the productivity of water with a few simple ratios (e.g., Molden 1997;Molden et al. 1998). These indicators were developed to replace the classical efficiencies used in irrigation engineering. These newly developed performance indicators have overcome two of the main limitations of the classical efficiencies: (i) nonagricultural water uses are included, and (ii) the interaction with other water users is more explicit. Data for these performance indicators are needed at different scales of detail, and mostly are not directly available. However, the use of simulation models at different spatial scales can be an effective means to fulfill this data need. A more detailed discussion on performance indicators is beyond the scope of this report, but can be found elsewhere (e.g., Burt et al. 1997;Droogers et al. 2000a)."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"An integrated basin modeling approach, including agricultural as well as nonagricultural usage of water was used to analyze water use for the Gediz Basin in western Turkey. A detailed description of the area and data used can be found in IWMI and GDRS 2000. At the smallest scale, the field, the detailed Soil-Water-Atmosphere-Plant (SWAP) (Van Dam et al. 1997) was applied to quantify the local water balance. Results at this scale are given as local water fluxes: transpiration, evaporation, drainage, irrigation, percolation, runoff, etc. Moreover, yield per unit water, diverted or consumed, can be estimated at this scale. At the intermediate scale, local-scale water fluxes were aggregated to describe the terms of the water balance at the irrigation-scheme scale. Finally, fluxes at this irrigation-scheme scale were integrated with the hydrology of the river basin. The river basin model, Semi-Distributed Land-Use Runoff Processes (SLURP) (Kite 1998), was used to evaluate the water supply and use of the entire basin, including agricultural and nonagricultural water users."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"In summary, the objectives of this study were to: (i) simulate water balances at different spatial scales, (ii) use model results as data input for water productivity values, and (iii) compare these water productivity values at different spatial scales."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Applied Model: SWAP 2.0","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":360,"text":"The hydrological analyses at the field and irrigation-scheme scales were performed using the SWAP 2.0 model (Van Dam et al. 1997). SWAP is a one-dimensional physically based model for water, heat, and solute transport in the saturated and unsaturated zones. This model also includes modules for simulating irrigation practices and crop growth (figure 1). For this study, only the water transport and crop growth modules were used. The water transport module in SWAP is based on Richards' equation, which is a combination of Darcy's law and the continuity equation. A finite difference solution scheme is used to solve Richards' equation. Crop yields can be computed using either a simple crop growth algorithm based on the Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) approach (Doorenbos and Kassam 1979) or a detailed crop growth simulation module based on the partitioning of carbohydrate production between the different parts of the plant, taking into account the different phenological stages of the plant (Van Diepen et al. 1989). As detailed input data for crops were lacking, we elected to use the crop yield algorithm as described by Doorenbos and Kassam (1979), for this study. Yield response factors were applied in decomposed periods to account for different sensitivities throughout the growing season. One adjustment was made to this FAO approach; the ratio of actual transpiration to potential transpiration was used instead of simple evapotranspiration, following Hanks 1974. A distinction between soil evaporation and crop transpiration is desirable, as only the latter can be considered as a beneficial use of water in food production. The actual soil evaporation and plant transpiration are simulated based on the potential evapotranspirative demand and the leaf area index development. Actual soil evaporation and transpiration depend on the available soil water in the topsoil layer and the root zone, respectively. Irrigation practices can be simulated in two ways. First, the day that irrigation occurs can be defined as input. Second, the model can simulate that occurrence of irrigation is depended on a criterion, such as a defined soil moisture content or a defined plant stress. A detailed description of the model and all its components can be found in Van Dam et al. 1997."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The first version of SWAP, called SWATRE, was developed more than 20 years ago (Feddes et al. 1978). Since then several research activities have been successfully conducted using the SWATRE model and its successors to study soilwater-atmosphere-plant relationships in many parts of the world (e.g., Feddes et al. 1988;Bastiaanssen et al. 1996). A validation of the performance of SWAP, focused on a comparison between simulated and observed soil moisture contents, for the particular conditions in western Turkey is given by Droogers et al. 2000b."}]},{"head":"Applied Model: SLURP","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"The hydrological model, Semi-Distributed Land-Use Runoff Processes (SLURP) was applied at the basin scale (Kite 1998). SLURP is a continuous, semi-distributed, hydrological simulation model in which the parameters (interception coefficients, surface roughness, infiltration rate, snowmelt rates, soil moisture and groundwater storage characteristics) are related to the type of land cover (figure 2). The model divides a watershed into subareas known as aggregated simulation areas (ASA), and each ASA is subdivided into different land cover areas. During the simulation period, SLURP carries out a daily vertical water balance for each element of the matrix of ASAs and land covers. Each element is simulated by four reservoirs representing canopy interception, snowpack, rapid runoff, and slow runoff. The outputs from each vertical water balance include soil evaporation, crop transpiration, runoff, and changes in canopy storage, snowpack, soil moisture, and groundwater. Surface runoff, interflow, and groundwater flows are accumulated from each vegetation type within an ASA, and the combined runoff is converted to streamflow and routed through each ASA to the outlet of the basin. During this process, an account may be taken of diversions and regulatory structures. This large-scale model enables us to investigate irrigation schemes under basin-wide water management and water availability options, including changes in irrigation practice and climate variability and change options. A detailed description of the model can be found in Kite 1998. The model performance was previously tested, among other regions, in western Turkey (Kite and Droogers 1999)."}]},{"head":"Performance Indicators","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Performance indicators are based on the water balance approach using inflows and outflows. Such a water accounting system can be considered at different spatial scales: basin, subbasin, irrigation system or field. Molden (1997) has presented a conceptual framework for water accounting, based on inflows and outflows at different spatial scales, and this framework is mainly followed here. The generalized water balance for a certain area can be described as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Water storage change = Precipitation + Irrigation + Capillary rise -Transpiration -Evaporation -Surface runoff -Drainage -Percolation."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Obviously, the change in water storage can relate to surface water, groundwater, as well as soil water. Care should be taken not to double count water, which can lead to fictitious water savings instead of real water savings (\"dry\" and \"wet\" savings in Seckler 1996). For example, the water balance of an entire basin should not include irrigation, as this water is already accounted for as inflow in the precipitation term."},{"index":4,"size":198,"text":"The following performance indicators were adopted from Molden 1997: PW irrigated = Yield / Irrigation PW inflow = Yield / Net inflow PW depleted = Yield / Depletion PW process = Yield / Process depletion For the three spatial scales distinguished here, different definitions apply to the performance indicators (table 1). Irrigation is defined as the real amount of water brought to the field. PW irrigation is not applicable to the whole basin, as production will also include nonirrigated areas as well as nonagricultural areas such as forests and natural vegetation used for grazing. Net inflow for the basin also does not include capillary rise, as this is zero for a basin as a whole. The amount of water depleted for a certain area depends on the location of the area considered. Drainage water and water percolated to groundwater can be utilized by downstream users, as long as the water quality is not limiting. However, outflow from coastal areas should be considered as depleted as this is not used any further. Therefore, the definition of depletion depends on the location of the area considered. Finally, process depletion is defined as the amount of water transpired by the crop."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"In this study, PW is expressed only in terms of yields per unit supply (kg m -3 ), while ignoring the economics and water needs of domestic users, industry, and nature reserves. A comprehensive discussion of these points can be found in Molden 1997. Overview of the SLURP model."},{"index":6,"size":146,"text":"The four PWs indicate different performances, and a combination of PWs shows the performance of the system considered. A detailed interpretation of the meaning of PWs is given in the results section, but in general, a higher PW indicates a better-performing system. PW irrigation can be considered as a classical indicator (Droogers et al. 2000a), and should be used in combination with the other indicators to show the effectiveness of irrigation. PW inflow can also be regarded as a more classical indicator, but is less irrigation-focused and considers the whole balance. PW depleted is the best indicator to show the actual performance of crops: irrigated, nonirrigated as well as nonagricultural crops. In general, this indicator is the most important one to assess the performance of an entire system. Finally, PW process explains how well a specific crop is performing in terms of crop water use efficiency."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"To avoid results valid only for a specific year, a period of 9 years (1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997) was used for all simulations and analyses at field and irrigation-scheme scales. In addition to the longterm analyses, a dry year (1989) and a wet year (1995) were selected to evaluate the impact of different climatic conditions on the performance indicators."}]},{"head":"Field Scale","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"A cotton field was selected in each of the two large irrigation schemes, Salihli Right Bank (SRB) and Menemen Left Bank (MLB) (figure 3). Although both fields are located on loamy soil, and irrigation inputs are similar, the fields require different water management to increase productivity of water. SRB is located in the middle of the basin and water leaving the system through drains and deep percolation is used by downstream users. For the cotton field in MLB, the situation is completely different. As it is located at the tail end of the basin near the Aegean Sea, surface runoff, drainage, and percolation to groundwater flow to the sea and, therefore, this water cannot be used for other purposes. As a result of this difference in location, the definition of the amount of water depleted is different for the two fields (table 1). Obviously, the definition upstream does not relate to the actual location, but to the existence of downstream users, which is the case for SRB, where depletion includes only actual soil evaporation and actual crop transpiration while for MLB total depletion includes surface runoff, drainage, and percolation.  Climate data for the two fields were collected in the vicinity of the fields. Potential evapotranspiration was calculated using the Penman-Monteith approach. Instead of calculating one combined potential evapotranspiration for the soil and the crop, two separate potentials were obtained by varying the values for crop resistance, crop height and albedo."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Irrigation inputs were not constant during the period considered. In 1987, two years prior to the selected dry year, a severe drought occurred in the basin resulting in reduced inflows to the main reservoir in the Gediz Basin. As a consequence of this, from 1989 onwards less water was released for irrigation purposes. After this dry period, the climate improved somewhat and gradually more water became available in the reservoir for irrigation. Also, more wells were dug, which resulted in a further development of conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater."}]},{"head":"Irrigation-Scheme Scale","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"SRB was selected to demonstrate the method developed at the irrigation-scheme scale (figure 3). The SWAP model used at the field scale was also applied at the irrigation-scheme scale, but in a aggregated way. The entire study area was divided into subareas denoted as Land Use Systems (LUS) (FAO 1976), and each LUS was assumed to be homogenous in soil and hydrological behavior. Within each LUS different crops can occur. These LUSs are considered to be the building blocks for the simulations, i.e., the whole SRB is treated as a set of homogenous areas. Details of this approach can be found in Droogers et al. 2000b."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"A comprehensive database describing cropping patterns was built up using the 125 tertiary irrigation canals as units (figure 4). The gross area and the area per crop for each tertiary unit were known. The main crops grown were cotton (60%), grapes (10%) and a combination of maize and wheat (10%). Twenty percent of the area was left bare. The wheat was seeded in autumn and harvested in spring and it was succeeded by maize, resulting in two yields from the same field. The winter wheat was never irrigated. As information for four tertiaries (201 ha) was not available, similar cropping patterns to the neighboring tertiaries were assumed. Climate conditions and irrigation inputs were similar to those described earlier for the cotton field in SRB."}]},{"head":"Basin Scale","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"The basin-scale analyses were performed using the SLURP hydrological model (Kite 1998). As described earlier, the whole basin was divided into ASAs using a digital elevation model and a topographic analysis package. The land cover map of the whole basin, using National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA-AVHRR) satellite images, is displayed in figure 5 (Droogers et al. 1998). Climatic data (precipitation, temperature, radiation, wind, and humidity) were collected at five climate stations, and the weighted average values for each specific area of the basin were obtained using Thiessen polygons. As SLURP is a parametric model, a calibration was carried out using observed streamflows to derive parameters for the fast and slow store as well as for some of the hydraulic properties. Details of this calibration can be found in Kite and Droogers 1999. Tertiary units for Salihli Right Bank (SRB) and associated predominant crops."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"At the basin scale, in addition to the agricultural use of water, water transpired by forests, natural vegetation, as well as the urban and industrial water supply, was analyzed. In the productivity of water at the basin scale, the assumption was made that the only nonbeneficial uses of water were soil evaporation and outflow to the sea. All other water consumptions were considered to be beneficial. The latter is clearly true for agricultural use and forests but we considered all the urban extractions too as beneficial. For natural vegetation, the situation is more complicated. Parts of these are used for grazing and are thus beneficial but, owing to inaccessibility resulting from physical constraints, other parts are unsuitable for grazing. As more detailed information was lacking, we considered all the actual transpiration from natural vegetation as beneficial."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"The performance indicators described above are all related to crop yields. Basin-scale crop yields were calculated using the ratio of actual crop transpiration to potential crop transpiration and multiplying this by the maximum possible yield (table 2). This maximum possible yield is assumed to be 4,000 kg ha -1 for the irrigated areas, which is the weighted average of most common crops in the area, as reported by local experts. The potential yields for the other land covers were defined using some general and local expertise."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Note: Maki is a typical Mediterranean land cover with a mixture of shrubs and small trees.  "}]},{"head":"Results","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Field Scale","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"Simulated cotton yields for the two fields are displayed in figure 6. The dry period starting in 1989 had a dramatic adverse impact on the crops causing an almost 50 percent drop in cotton yields. The crop yields increased in later years as a result of an improvement in the climatic conditions as well as the use of irrigation water from groundwater extractions. The two fields differed somewhat in the yields obtained although the soil type and crop were identical. Generally, the MLB field has lower yields, mainly due to different climatic conditions in terms of greater evaporative demand by the atmosphere resulting from higher wind speeds. The Productivity of Water (PW) indicators are given in table 3 as average values over the period considered. All PW values are higher for the SRB field in comparison with the MLB field. This cannot be explained only by the higher yields for the SRB field. For the SRB field, yields by 22 percent and PW values by 63 percent, respectively are higher than those for the MLB field. The difference in the PW process values indicates that the climatic conditions for SRB field are more favorable than for the MLB field. An analysis of the meteorological conditions of the two sites showed a substantial difference in wind speed, with much higher values for the MLB field. This difference is a consequence of the different locations of the two fields; MLB in the Gediz Plain near the Aegean Sea and SRB in the main valley surrounded by mountains."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"However, the big difference in the PW depleted originates not from these differences in climate but from the different positions of the two fields in the basin: MLB at the tail end of the basin FIGURE 6. Simulated yields for the two cotton fields. MLB is located at the tail end of the basin, SRB in the middle of the basin."}]},{"head":"TABLE 3.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Performance indicators for the three scales considered. (The MLB field is located at the tail end of the basin, the SRB field in the middle of the basin, both cotton. A definition of the four Productivity of Water [PW] indicators is given in the text. Data are averages over the 9-year period 1989-1997.) *Yield is the simulated yield and refers to cotton for the field scale, to irrigated crops for the irrigation scheme, and to agricultural and nonagricultural production for the basin scale."},{"index":2,"size":335,"text":"and SRB at the middle of the basin. As a consequence of this difference, PW depleted is only defined in terms of actual evapotranspiration for the SRB field while for the other field surface runoff, percolation, and drainage are also included. The PW inflow and the PW depleted for the MLB field must be almost equal as the difference is only imposed by the change in soil water storage, which is normally minimal on a year-to-year basis. Table 3 indicates only the long-term average values. As described earlier, a severe drought started a few years before 1989 resulting in a dramatic drop in irrigation inputs. A detailed analysis of the periods before and after the drought is interesting, as the irrigation system, during these two periods, could be considered as \"demand-based\" and \"supplybased,\" respectively. Figure 7 shows the four PWs for a year directly after the drought (1989) and for a later year when the irrigation input had recovered (1995). Clearly, all the values for the SRB field were higher than those for the MLB field, as explained earlier. PW inflow and PW depleted are similar for MLB as the difference in these factors depends only on the changes in soil water storage, which is very low over a 1-year time span. PW irrigated was, as expected, higher for the low irrigation input year (1989) than for the higher irrigation input year (1995). This seems to be a justification for applying deficit irrigation; lower irrigation inputs increase the productivity of water. However, as mentioned earlier, water usage must be considered in a broader sense instead of only as water applied for irrigation. PW process should be seen as a real indicator of whether water has been saved. It appears that during the dry year PW process was similar to that of during the wet year, indicating that deficit irrigation is questionable. It should be emphasized that the crop growth module used here is an empirical one, which might be less accurate for these dry conditions."}]},{"head":"Irrigation-Scheme Scale","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Table 3 shows the long-term average yield and PW values for the irrigation scheme. Yields are somewhat higher than those for the two fields described earlier, as other crops, with higher yields such as grapes and wheat, are grown in the area too. On the other hand, some areas without crops were also included in the overall figure. The yield also includes nonirrigated winter wheat resulting in high PW irrigated values. The other PW values are lower (or similar) in comparison Productivity of water for the two cotton fields in a dry year (1989) and a wet year (1995)."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"with the values for the individual SRB cotton field as described in the previous section. PW depleted is lower as approximately 20 percent of bare soil was included in this PW value. From these areas water leaves the system through soil evaporation, without producing any crop. PW process is relatively low in comparison with the cotton field, especially during the dry period, as some of the other crops grown here are more sensitive to drought than cotton."},{"index":3,"size":194,"text":"Areally distributed values of yield and PW irrigated are shown in figure 8 for a dry year (1989) and a wet year (1995). The yields show a lot of spatial variation, with high values in areas that are dominated by a combination of maize and wheat and, low values in areas with a high percentage of uncropped land. Yields were lower in 1989 as a consequence of the lower irrigation inputs, although the maize and wheat areas suffered to a lesser extent from the drought as they were totally rain-fed. The grapes, too, suffered less from the drought as the deeper roots induced a higher capillary rise from the groundwater. Differences in the PW irrigated between the 2 years were very high, with much higher values in the dry year 1989 than in 1995, and with areal average values for PW irrigated of 1.11 kg m -3 and 0.76 kg m -3 for 1989 and 1995, respectively. The lower values in 1995 occur despite higher yields as a result of substantially higher irrigation inputs. Again, areas with a higher percentage of grapes and a combination of maize and wheat show higher PW irrigated values."}]},{"head":"Basin Scale","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"Average basin yields as well as PW values for the 9 years considered are given in table 3. Yields as well as the three PWs are lower in comparison with the other two scales considered. The reason for this is that only part of the basin is used for agricultural production (8% is irrigated and 25% is nonirrigated), while the main area is covered with less-productive vegetation. As a result we did not apply PW irrigated at the basin scale. PW inflow and PW depleted are similar as the difference is only governed by the change in soil water storage, which is normally low when considered over a whole year. Yield, actual transpiration and PW inflow for the whole basin for the dry and the wet years (1989 and 1995) are shown in figure 9. Clearly, the irrigated areas have higher transpiration rates than the nonirrigated and naturally vegetated areas, inducing higher crop yields. Areally averaged yields were 790 kg ha -1 and 1,005 kg ha -1 for 1989 and 1995, respectively. It is interesting to note that the irrigation schemes upstream perform better than those downstream. The areal averages of PW inflow for the 2 years are comparable, 0.18 kg m -3 and 0.14 kg m -3 for 1989 and 1995, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"However, a large areal variation, with lower values for the nonagricultural areas and higher values for irrigated and nonirrigated land covers, exists. Values for nonirrigated areas are higher than those for the irrigated areas, as yields are reasonably high while inflows are limited. Yield, actual transpiration, and PW process for the whole Gediz Basin for a dry year (1989) and a wet year (1995)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"• Water productivity indicators (PWs) and the combination of PWs, are a useful means to evaluate the use of water in a simple manner. PWs were used here successfully to intercompare different areas, and to assess the effect of changes in water supply at different spatial scales."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"• Simulation models can be used to derive the data needed to calculate these performance indicators. Some of these required data are difficult to measure in terms of spatial or temporal resolution or in processes such as soil evaporation in comparison to crop transpiration and capillary rise."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"• The models used in this study were applied reasonably quickly because of their extensive validations during many other studies and the availability of existing datasets. For areas where local data are limited or lacking, the growing number of available global datasets can be utilized."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Deficit irrigation needs to be studied in a total water-balance context, instead of concentrating only on irrigation inputs."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"• Considering that all the spatial scales are important to evaluate water resources at the appropriate scale of detail, detailed soil-water-balance analyses although less appealing for natural vegetation or forests, are important for irrigated areas."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"• The location of the area considered within the basin is an important characteristic in the context of the desired water management, for example, upstream users and the downstream users. This can be clearly noticed from the differences in the depletion indicator for the two cotton fields considered."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"• Results obtained can be used for an economic analysis where PWs can be expressed in US$ m -3 instead of kg m -3 ."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"• The methodology described can also be used to assess the impact of different scenarios on the productivity of water. Such an assessment can be easily made by changing the appropriate input, running the simulation models, calculating the PWs, and comparing these for the different scenarios."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1.Overview of the SWAP model. "},{"text":" FIGURE 2. "},{"text":" precipitation, I = irrigation, dS = change in soil water storage, Cap = capillary rise, E = actual evaporation, and T = actual transpiration. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. Map of Turkey showing the Gediz Basin and the Salihli Right Bank (SRB) and Menemen Left Bank (MLB) irrigation schemes. (Crosses [x] indicate the locations of the two fields studied in detail.) "},{"text":" FIGURE 4. "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 . FIGURE 5. Land cover map of the Gediz Basin, based on NOAA-AVHRR satellite images. "},{"text":" FIGURE 7. "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 . FIGURE 8. Areal distribution of yield and productivity of water for Sahili Right Bank (SRB) during a dry year (1989) and a wet year (1995). "},{"text":" FIGURE 9. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Terms of the water balance used to calculate the Productivity of Water indicators (PW) for the three spatial scales considered.  Field Irrigation scheme Basin FieldIrrigation schemeBasin PW irrigated Irrigation Irrigation Not applicable PW irrigatedIrrigationIrrigationNot applicable PW inflow P + I + dS + Cap P + I + dS + Cap P + dS PW inflowP + I + dS + CapP + I + dS + CapP + dS PW depleted    PW depleted  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 .  Maximum possible yields for the land covers used at the Maximum possible yields for the land covers used at the basin scale.  basin scale. Land cover Potential yield kg ha -1 Land coverPotential yield kg ha -1 Irrigated 4,000 Irrigated4,000 Nonirrigated 2,000 Nonirrigated2,000 Coniferous 1,000 Coniferous1,000 Maki 500 Maki500 Barren 0 Barren0 Shrubs 500 Shrubs500  "}],"sieverID":"caa32ceb-b123-402d-81ce-9d3df6d65c5f","abstract":"In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water users associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical, and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment. i i"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ad7ba44986cb83791025f2355742cba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9805d76f-b3cf-4088-98c5-55dc4eb76e74/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"VALEUR ECONOMIQUE DE L'EAU ET FLUX D'EAU VIRTUELLE DES PRINCIPALES CULTURES STRATEGIQUES EN TUNISIE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":358,"text":"L'eau virtuelle fait référence à l'eau douce utilisée durant toutes les étapes de production des biens échangés à l'échelle internationale (Allan, 1993). La teneur en eau virtuelle comprend trois composantes : l'eau virtuelle bleue qui renferme l'eau d'irrigation et l'eau utilisée durant la transformation d'un produit, l'eau verte incluant l'eau de pluie et l'eau emmagasinée dans le sol et finalement l'eau grise qui représente le volume d'eau nécessaire pour diluer tous les polluants introduits durant le processus de production. Plusieurs recherches considèrent que les échanges d'eau virtuelle présentent une solution potentielle à la mauvaise allocation des ressources en eau qui représente un problème commun dans plusieurs pays confrontés à des risques de pénurie d'eau, tel est le cas de la Tunisie. En effet, plusieurs recherches ont souligné le fait que l'optimisation des systèmes de culture et de la répartition géographique de la production en s'appuyant sur le concept d'eau virtuelle peut diminuer considérablement la pression sur l'eau d'irrigation et entraîne, par conséquent, un meilleur niveau de sécurité hydrique et alimentaire. L'objectif de ce travail, est de voir dans quelles mesures les instruments de protection peuvent-ils prendre en compte la composante gestion de la ressource eau et contribuer à travers les politiques commerciales et les flux d'eau virtuelle à une meilleure conservation, usage et allocation des ressources en eau ? Pour cela, on procède d'une part, à l'évaluation de la valeur économique de l'eau à travers des indicateurs tels que la productivité économique apparente de l'eau totale utilisée (définie comme étant le rapport entre le prix local du produit (TND/kg) et l'évapotranspiration réelle en (m3/kg)) et la valeur de l'eau d'irrigation (IWV) pour chacune des cultures sélectionnées. La IWV est estimée comme la valeur nette de la production par hectare de culture en système irrigué moins la valeur nette de la production en système pluvial divisée par le volume d'eau appliqué (m3). La valeur nette de la production est la valeur de la production moins les coûts de tous les intrants sauf l'eau. D'autre part, on se propose d'estimer les teneurs et les flux d'eau virtuelle des principaux produits agricoles et agroalimentaires produits, exportés et importés par la Tunisie."}]},{"head":"MATERIEL ET METHODES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":393,"text":"Les données utilisées découlent de deux enquêtes réalisées dans le cadre du projet de recherche « Eau Virtuelle et Sécurité Alimentaire : du Constat à l'Appui au Développement (EVSAT-CAD) ». La première enquête est réalisée auprès des agriculteurs dans les différentes régions (Nord-est, Nord-ouest, Centre-est, Centre-ouest et Sud) et étages bioclimatiques de la Tunisie (Humide-subhumide, Semi-aride Supérieur, Semi-aride inférieur, Aride et Saharien). La deuxième est effectuée auprès des unités de transformation des produits alimentaires. Nous avons établi et exploité des fiches technico-économiques relatives à 120 exploitations de blé, 123 oliveraies, 80 palmeraies, 47 vergers d'agrumes, 48 plantations de tomate, 46 de pomme de terre et 14 d'oignon. La deuxième enquête a concerné 120 unités de transformation d'huile d'olive, 22 unités de conditionnement de dattes et 7 unités de production de conserves de double concentré de tomate. Afin d'évaluer les teneurs et les flux d'eau virtuelle bleue et verte, on s'est basé sur la méthodologie développée par Hoekstra et al. (2009) et adoptée par le « Water Footprint Network » basée sur l'évaluation des volumes d'eau totale utilisée à travers l'évapotranspiration réelle des cultures et la quantification de l'eau consommée durant toutes les étapes de la transformation pour les produits agroalimentaires. Les calculs de l'évapotranspiration réelle et des teneurs en eau virtuelle ont été réalisés grâce à un programme sur Excel ajusté à l'aide du logiciel CROPWAT. Seules les composantes bleues et vertes de la teneur en eau virtuelle sont prises en compte dans ce travail. La teneur en eau virtuelle grise n'est pas un indicateur de la quantité d'eau requise par les cultures, mais plutôt un concept hypothétique relatif à la qualité de l'eau, alors que les composantes bleues et vertes se rapportent à l'évapotranspiration et à la répartition de l'eau. La teneur en eau virtuelle de la culture par unité de produit (m 3 /kg) est estimée par le rapport entre la consommation totale d'eau bleue et verte (m 3 / ha) et le rendement de la culture (kg/ha). La consommation totale d'eau est obtenue en faisant la somme de l'évapotranspiration réelle, sur la période de croissance, des précipitations et de l'eau d'irrigation apportée. La consommation d'eau est également variable selon la texture du sol. Le flux d'eau virtuelle (en m 3 ) est calculé en multipliant la teneur en eau virtuelle moyenne d'un produit par sa quantité totale importée ou exportée."}]},{"head":"RESULTATS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":450,"text":"Les résultats indiquent que parmi les cultures étudiées, dans les régions arides de la Tunisie, l'oignon présente la meilleure valeur économique de l'eau d'irrigation avec 2,12 DT/m3. En semi-aride inférieur, la pomme de terre et les agrumes ont les meilleures valeurs d'eau d'irrigation avec respectivement 1,69 et 1,31 DT/m3. De même, en humide subhumide, la pomme de terre et les agrumes occupent toujours les premières places avec respectivement 1,53 et 0,81 DT/m3. En semi-aride supérieur, les valeurs sont respectivement de 1,95 et de 1,99 DT/m3. Concernant la productivité économique de l'eau totale utilisée, celles de la pomme de terre et des tomates sont les plus élevées au niveau de l'étage humide subhumide suivies par le blé en irrigué et en pluvial. En semi-aride supérieur, on a enregistré les meilleures valeurs de la productivité économique apparente de l'eau. Elle dépasse les 3,4 DT/m3 pour la pomme de terre et elle est proche de 2DT/m3 pour les agrumes et les tomates, suivies par l'oignon. Parmi les cultures étudiées, le blé en pluviale présente la plus faible productivité dans cet étage. En semiaride inférieur, la pomme de terre présente toujours une productivité qui dépasse les 3DT/m3, suivie par les tomates et les agrumes. En zone aride, également, les cultures maraichères et notamment l'oignon présentent les meilleures productivités de l'eau suivies par l'olivier. Les dattes présentent la plus faible productivité économique de l'eau (0,36 DT/m3) par rapport aux autres cultures étudiées dans cet étage. A l'échelle nationale, en se basant sur les indicateurs économiques de l'usage de l'eau et sur la quantification des teneurs en eau virtuelle, il est possible d'identifier les cultures les plus valorisantes de l'eau. L'oignon, la pomme de terre, les agrumes et la tomate sont les cultures qui disposent des meilleures valeurs de l'eau d'irrigation et de la productivité économique de l'eau totale utilisée contre des teneurs en eau virtuelle relativement faibles. D'un autre côté, les dattes, le blé et l'huile d'olive conduits en irrigué forment un deuxième groupe caractérisé par des teneurs en eau virtuelle élevées et une valeur économique de l'eau relativement faible. En ce qui concerne les flux d'eau virtuelle, la Tunisie économise théoriquement 2,2 milliards de m3 d'eau en important du blé. Ces économies touchent essentiellement l'eau verte (eau de pluie). Les importations d'oignon et de pomme de terre permettent d'économiser environ 8 millions de m3 d'eau virtuelle, dont 5,5 millions de m3 d'eau bleue (eau de surface). En contrepartie, pour le cas de l'huile d'olive, le flux d'eau virtuelle exporté (majoritairement formé d'eau verte) frôle les 1,2 milliard de m3/an. Pour les dattes, le flux d'eau virtuelle bleue exporté atteint 299 Millions de m3/an. Soit 14% de l'eau bleue totale destinée à l'irrigation en Tunisie."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":336,"text":"D'après une étude de Chouchane et al. (2015) aucune variation de la productivité économique de l'eau pour l'olivier ni en pluvial ni en irrigué n'est détectée dans les différentes régions de la Tunisie. Pour le blé la productivité de l'eau est légèrement supérieure au Nord, mais aucune différence n'est rapportée entre la conduite en pluviale et celle en irriguée. Ils rapportent également que les tomates, les pommes de terre et les agrumes présentent les meilleures productivités de l'eau au niveau des différentes régions de la Tunisie. Cependant, ils indiquent que ce sont les tomates qui ont la productivité la plus élevée contrairement à ce que l'étude par étage bioclimatique a montré. En prenant en considération les variations dues aux variétés cultivées, la gestion des exploitations, le type du sol, les précipitations, etc., les résultats obtenus concernant l'estimation des teneurs en eau virtuelle, notamment pour les cultures maraichères, le blé et les dattes, sont comparables à ceux rapportés par Renault et Wallender (2000), Hoekstra et Hung (2003). Renault (2002 b) souligne l'importance de rappeler que les décisions concernant l'importation et la production des produits alimentaires, ne donnent pas l'importance nécessaire à la teneur en eau virtuelle comme à d'autres facteurs tels que la disponibilité des terres, de l'eau, du travail et de la technologie. En contrepartie, Aldaya et al. (2008) ont constaté que l'Espagne exporte des produits à forte valeur économique et à faible teneur en eau virtuelle, comme les agrumes, les légumes et l'huile d'olive, alors qu'elles importent des cultures à forte teneur en eau virtuelle et à faible valeur économique comme les céréales. Bien que le lien entre le commerce des produits agricoles et la gestion de la demande en eau soit un problème qui a rarement été abordé, il peut influencer le niveau de sécurité hydrique de la Tunisie. Ainsi, il est important que l'eau virtuelle soit correctement évaluée en termes de valeur afin d'être mieux considérée au niveau des politiques de commerce extérieur, de la gestion de l'eau et de la politique agricole."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"L'importation de grandes quantités de blé représente éventuellement une bonne stratégie pour économiser les ressources en eau, surtout lorsque le prix mondial est inférieur au coût de la production locale. Une meilleure allocation de l'eau et de la terre peut alors être considérée. Modifier la répartition régionale des cultures en tenant compte des teneurs en eau virtuelle, notamment l'eau virtuelle bleue, et des indicateurs économiques de l'usage de l'eau peut provoquer une augmentation des flux échangés d'eau virtuelle, mais qui sera en faveur des cultures économiquement plus productives et moins consommatrices d'eau. Par ailleurs, la réduction de la teneur en eau virtuelle et l'optimisation de la productivité de l'eau à travers une meilleure distribution des doses et des périodes d'irrigation selon les stades de développement des cultures et selon les étages bioclimatiques sont nécessaires pour protéger les ressources en eau locales et préserver la compétitivité sur le marché international. Mots clés : eau virtuelle, productivité de l'eau, pénurie d'eau, étage bioclimatique"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"f1c983ca-e335-46fe-a45e-b4bb9155f225","abstract":""}