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+{"metadata":{"id":"00410a8830f776f1cb7ddca38ed1b73d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ad7cc0d-4735-4330-a246-b83b8cae7911/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Agronomy Ontology (AgrO)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines Fieldbook based on the Agronomy Ontology tested for data collection in the field. • Rothamsted Research • Rothamsted Research • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute • UBC -University of British Columbia • UBC -University of British Columbia • AWI -Alfred Wegener Institut • AWI -Alfred Wegener Institut • UC Berkeley -Berkeley University of California • UC Berkeley -Berkeley University of California Milestones: Milestones: • 1.3.7. Sub-IDOs: • 1.3.7. Sub-IDOs: • 8 -More efficient use of inputs • 8 -More efficient use of inputs • 10 -Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices • 10 -Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices  "}],"sieverID":"be272a24-93da-4281-abde-6eab26cce3fc","abstract":"Description of the innovation: The Agronomy Ontology (AgrO) provides terms from the agronomy domain that are semantically organized and can facilitate the collection, storage and use of agronomic data, enabling easy interpretation and reuse of the data by humans and machines alike. It supports the creation of fieldbooks that improve the collect fo data across multiple trials."}

data/part_5/008a2932f8accc4c0b6ae37624e90560.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"008a2932f8accc4c0b6ae37624e90560","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/32/3713_AAS-2014-12.pdf"},"pageCount":44,"title":"","keywords":["Back cover","Sibeso Mulele","Ministry of Agriculture Livestock"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"Concerns about perceived loss of indigenous materials emerged from multiple stakeholders during consultations to plan and design the CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems for the Borotse hub in Zambia's Western Province. To come to grips with and address the concerns, the AAS Borotse hub program of work included an assessment of agrobiodiversity to inform community-level and program initiatives and actions. The agrobiodiversity assessment comprised three components: key informant and expert surveys complemented by review of grey and published literature, focus group discussions in the communities, and individual household surveys. This working paper reports the findings from assessments of agrobiodiversity resources in the Borotse hub by key informants and local experts working in government ministries, departments and agencies, and non-governmental organizations operating in the communities. This working paper covers the following topics: agriculture in the Borotse flood plain; major agricultural land types in the Borotse flood plain; soils and their uses; production systems; crops, including the seed sector and ex-situ resources; indigenous materials collected from the wild, including non-perennial and perennial plants, aquatic plants, and forest biodiversity; fish resources, including both capture fisheries and aquaculture; livestock resources; dietary diversity; and indigenous and local knowledge on management systems."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"Insights from the agrobiodiversity assessments include exploring the following: options for improving livelihoods of households through more systematic cultivation of edible mushrooms, woody perennials and new crops linked to market opportunities; community-led initiatives to promote sustainable access to and use of forest biodiversity and ecosystem services associated with woodlands; a sustainable mechanism for predicting and informing residents of the flood plain about the likely commencement and retreat of floods; and adapting farming practices to the vagaries of the floods through participatory investigation and design of feasible options for farmers to use different land types available to farmers in the Borotse flood plain. We noted that low yields of the major cultivated crops (rice, maize, sorghum, millet, cassava, etc.) point to opportunities for productivity improvements involving early-maturing varieties, as well as matching varieties to flooding regimes for the different land types and rains, timely availability and access to high-performing seeds, soil amendments to enhance nutrient availability, and cultural practices to control weeds in the fragile wetland ecosystem and optimize planting."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"Gender differentiation in access to resources and participation in economic opportunities, where they occur, have been highlighted in the paper. The AAS gender thematic area may want to explore, with the help of local women's groups and traditional authorities, how best to overcome discriminatory practices against women and enhance mutually beneficial roles between genders. For the follow-up focus group discussions on agrobiodiversity assessment in the 10 communities identified by the AAS program for research-in-development initiatives, we identified the need to use problem tree methodology (to explore why many households do not produce enough food to sustain them over a year, as well as options for remedying the situation) and four cells methodology (to identify major crops and varieties and minor crops and varieties that risk disappearance). Finally, in view of the importance of fish, livestock and crops in the Borotse flood plain, the AAS productivity thematic area may want to explore options for beneficial integration and test these options for their suitability and acceptance by farmers in the Borotse study villages."}]},{"head":"eXecutive summAry eXecutive summAry introduction introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"The Borotse flood plain (Figure 1) comprises extensive grasslands from Lukulu, near the Zambezi River's confluence with the Kabompo and Lungwebungu rivers, to Senanga district in the Western Province of Zambia. It includes a system of arable land, canals, lagoons and swamps. Its area is broadly estimated at 550,000 hectares, with a total wetland area of 1.2 million hectares (Turpie et al., 1999). The flood plain gets flooded after the main rainy season, with floods peaking in April and receding by July. The annual flooding regime in the Borotse flood plain has an important influence on the livelihoods and economies of households that practice agriculture on the plains, particularly as it forces seasonal migration of people and livestock to higher ground during flooding. "}]},{"head":"Agriculture in the Borotse flood plAin","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":335,"text":"Agriculture is the mainstay of most people in the Borotse flood plain, especially in rural communities. Turpie et al. (1999) report that about 90 percent of the population is involved in agriculture, mostly for subsistence. According to Simwinji (1997), the total agricultural land in Western Province is estimated at 279,000 hectares. Mongu East and the Borotse plains are the main agricultural production areas. The agricultural economy of the Borotse flood plain involves a strong interaction between herding, cropping and fishing activities (Simwinji, 1997). Agricultural inputs for smallscale farmers consist predominantly of hand hoes, animal draft power and hired labor for farm operations. Inorganic fertilizers are accessed, where possible, through Farmer Input Support Program (FISP). There are very few established agro-input dealers. Soil type, topography, hydrology (frequency of flooding), a high water table in the Zambezi flood plain, and the \"dambos\" 1 on the upland, as well as pest and livestock damage, are the main factors influencing the farming system practiced. Rain-fed crop production occurs mostly in selected flood plain and upland areas. Poorly developed infrastructure (roads, dams and canals) and markets, as well as inadequate inputs, constitute major constraints to agriculture. Road rehabilitation, canal clearing to facilitate irrigation and drainage, and ease of access to farm inputs (seed, fertilizer, implements, etc.) are key factors for improving agriculture, particularly for the smallholders. During the lean months of October or November to January, stored produce from the previous growing season typically gets exhausted and new food crops are not available; as a result, food and nutrition insecurity occur in households. This food insecurity is particularly critical during periods when fishing is banned to allow for spawning and floods may have forced migration of people and livestock to upland areas. It is in this prevailing context of opportunities and constraints offered and posed by the natural resources and seasonal flooding of the Borotse flood plain that the CGIAR's AAS program set up a hub in Zambia's Western Province to engage in research-in-development activities in partnership with multiple stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"The development challenge set by the CGIAR, along with the multiple development partners in the AAS hub, is \"to make effective use of the seasonal flooding and natural resources in the Borotse flood plain system through more productive and diversified aquatic agricultural management practices and technologies that improve the lives and livelihoods of the poor. \""},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The AAS research-in-development initiatives in the Borotse flood plain involve a participatory approach that explores and harnesses indigenous knowledge, local biodiversity resources, partnerships with development actors (NGOs, government and private sectors) and efforts of local communities. Such knowledge, resources and partnerships will be deployed to develop the potential of the flood plains and adjacent upland areas to improve productivity and livelihoods (income, food and nutrition) while minimizing risks to people living in the Borotse flood plain."},{"index":4,"size":229,"text":"Stakeholder consultations were organized to inform the planning for the AAS hub program of work. A key concern expressed during these consultations was the need to understand the status of the natural resources in the Borotse flood plain, so as to address any loss or disappearance of indigenous materials. As a first step toward addressing the stakeholder concerns on food resources and gathering information to inform hub-level or community-led initiatives, the AAS hub program of work for the Borotse flood plain included an assessment of agrobiodiversity resources. The baseline assessment of biodiversity resources in the Borotse flood plain was structured to cover three aspects: a literature review complemented by information from experts or key informants, focus group discussions in 10 villages selected by the AAS hub program for initial researchin-development activities, and individual household surveys. This report synthesizes primary and secondary information and data on biodiversity resources gathered from experts who currently work or have worked in the Borotse flood plain in Zambia's Western Province. Agrobiodiversity resources reviewed include both cultivated species and plant species collected by households from the wild for domestic use. The objective of this initial phase of the agrobiodiversity assessment is to provide a consolidated synthesis of existing knowledge, identify key issues for further exploration, and inform participatory action research with communities by partners in the CGIAR-led AAS research in development in Zambia's Western Province."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"Annex 4 contains a schematic presentation of the demand and supply conceptual framework that guided the development of the questionnaire 2 used to collect primary data and information from experts and key informants. The demand factors covered food-securityrelated agricultural and forest biodiversity resources important for household diets, livestock feed and meeting other household needs (e.g., income and construction). The supply factors covered plants cultivated or collected from the wild, livestock, edible insects, and exchanges in formal markets and informal settings. Gender role, cultural, economic, communal land governance, policy, institutional and environmental dimensions of the demand and supply factors were integrated into the survey questionnaire. We also sought information on diversity of domesticated and wild plant and animal species (including those found in various types of gardens), management and uses of resources, formal and informal seed systems for key crops grown, conservation strategies, challenges and drivers of identified challenges, potential local remedies, and possible external remedies to consider. The major agricultural land types in the Borotse flood plain are identified and classified on the basis of the topography and flooding characteristics of the landforms."},{"index":6,"size":144,"text":"• \"Milapo\" (plural of \"mulapo\") represent landforms along waterways. These landforms are lower than the general level of the flood plain or are bound by \"matongo. \" • \"Matongo\" (plural of \"litongo\") are rarely flooded landforms often found at the margins of the Borotse flood plain. • \"Mazulu\" (plural of \"lizulu\") consist of landforms raised above the general flood plain level. They have some of the best soils in the flood plain but are also exposed to risks from flooding and drought, and some are left fallow due to their inaccessibility. • \"Sitapa\" represent landforms on which annual flooding of the flood plain deposits silt and humus from vegetation and decaying aquatic plants. These deposits enrich the fertility of the land on the plains, creating fertile arable land for crop production. However, in the late-season heat after the floods have receded, the soils harden."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Soil on which cassava is grown near Mapungu village, Kalabo district soils And their uses soils And their uses  , 2008)."},{"index":8,"size":211,"text":"Locally, the soils in the Borotse flood plain cover the following: Kalahari sands (principally \"mushitu\" and \"matongo\" soils on flood plain edges, which experience a high dynamic water table ); \"shishanjo\" soils, found on the flood plain; pan, drained; and \"dambo\" soils. The different soils found in the Borotse flood plain are planted to different crops in predominant production systems. Without manure application to maintain soil fertility or intercropping with leguminous crops, nutrient stocks in \"mushitu\" soils are exhausted after 2-3 years of cultivation. However, the ease of access to forest lands for new cultivation represents a likely disincentive to investment in land fertility maintenance on these soils. However, farmers who do not own cattle are likely to lose valuable crop residues, which could have been returned as organic material to the soil, with receipt of little or no manure in return. In addition to communal grazing, cattle-owning farmers practice a system of shifting the cattle kraal every week to facilitate the accumulation of manure on entire fields (\"kutulisa\"). Apart from the residue and manure exchange, cattle provide milk for family consumption. Possession of cattle also gives better access to draft power for tilling land. Simwinji (1999) and IUCN (2003) present eight categories of cultivated fields in the Borotse flood plain:"}]},{"head":"production sYsteMs","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• \"Matema\" -dryland field. These are upland fields under shifting cultivation within woodlands."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• \"Lizulu\" -raised garden within the flood plain. These are cultivated to rain-fed crops (mainly maize, sorghum and millet), and cover about 0.5 percent of the total flood plain area."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"• \"Mazulu\" -consist of some of the best soils but also carry risks of flooding and drought. Their inaccessibility results in many of these fields being left fallow. \"Mazulu\" are planted to different crops, especially maize, during the rainy season (starting in November) but could be cropped earlier with irrigation."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"production systems"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• \"Litongo\" -village garden. These are found on the upper slopes of the plain margin."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"Village gardens are cultivated to mixed rain-fed crops (including vegetables and fruit trees) during the rainy season."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Although the soils found on the \"litongo\" are not naturally fertile, cattle manure is sometimes applied."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• Wet \"litongo\" -seepage garden. These are used intensively for cultivation of mixed crops."},{"index":9,"size":187,"text":"• \"Shishango\" -drained seepage garden. These are found in permanently waterlogged areas in which crop cultivation is risky due to flooding. The soils are poorly drained and difficult to till. The farming practices on the \"shishango\" soils involve the digging of trenches around garden beds to drain mounds. The fertility of its acidic peats can be increased by burning them to raise the pH and nutrient availability. During the dry season, \"shishano\" soils found on the flood plain and \"dambo\" soils are irrigated and cultivated to maize (Zea maïs), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), onions (Allium cepa), rape (Brassica napus L.) or mustard (Brassica juncea), cabbage (Brassica oleracea capitata), sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), and pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.). Poor weeding practices and soil nutrient maintenance, as well as high pest and disease incidence, contribute to poor yields. Increased use of compost and integrated pest management techniques could facilitate continuous farming of vegetables. Continuous cropping of maize and sorghum could require the application of manure, compost or green tree leaves to the field and the rotation of the cereals with groundnuts, beans or a combination of the two."},{"index":10,"size":59,"text":"• \"Sitapa\" -lagoon garden. These are found on naturally fertile inner margins of the flood plain. \"Sitapa\" is often planted to maize to make use of available soil moisture in July and August, but the growing season for maize is short due to high risk of flooding. At the same time, however, the flooding provides opportunities for rice cultivation."},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"• \"Litunda\" -small riverbank garden. This type of garden is planted to maize and root crops."}]},{"head":"production systems","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The According to the local experts and key informants, improvements to existing crop production systems and livelihoods of people who depend on cropping the Borotse flood plain could come from planting maize varieties that are planted before the rains in the \"sitapa\" fields, maize varieties that keep cobs high above the floodwater line, and sorghum varieties that tolerate flooding for months, just like rice."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Residents of upland areas generally have access to \"matema\" and \"matongo, \" but have less access to other field types. Arable land is limited along the fertile plain edges. Literature shows that the average area cultivated in the Borotse flood plain is about 2.9 \"lima, \" which is roughly 0.74 hectares. Based on findings from earlier studies, field size was found to be significantly positively correlated with household size (n = 136, P < 0.05) and wealth with richer households cultivating larger fields than the average (Turpie et al., 1999)."}]},{"head":"crops and varieties","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The major rainy season crops include rice (Oryza spp.), grown on lower areas (\"litapa\"); maize (Zea maïs), grown on raised mounds (\"mazulu\"), and cassava (Manihot esculenta), grown on the upland areas. Maize is the preferred crop on lowlands after the rains or on \"mazulu\" landforms during the rainy season. Maize is planted on fields in the plain and on good upland soils, while poorer fields are generally cropped with sorghum, millet and cassava."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Varieties of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), cassava and paddy rice are mostly indigenous (locally recycled planting materials). Cucurbits (mostly Cucurbita and Citrullus) and cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) are other notable crops for food security. The influence of government policy implemented through farmer support programs facilitates farmer access to subsidized mineral fertilizer and maize seed. These support programs have transformed maize into an important household crop for most smallholder farmers in Western Province over a number of years. Farmers practice both rain-fed and winter cropping in the aquatic systems. Winter cropping is locally known as \"madimba. \""},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"In order for maize to benefit from the seasonal flooding experienced in the Borotse flood plain, flooding of the low-lying \"sitapa\" must come late and dry early to permit planting in September. Also, the flooding must not reach the \"mazulu\" land types before maize matures. When flooding of the \"sitapa\" occurs early and dries up late then different maize varieties with a shortened cycle, or a different crop entirely, may need to be considered for the \"sitapa. \""},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"Maize varieties cultivated in the Borotse flood plain include some purchased hybrids (usually 400 series). Cases of recycling of seeds purchased from the market occur. There are also maize landraces such as colored flints (\"munali\"), dents (Hickory King or \"gaankata\") and some recycled yellow maize (\"buusumili\"), first introduced to the Borotse flood plain in the early 1990s when devastating droughts were experienced. Only 10 percent of maize fields are planted to landraces -mainly Hickory King with some flint."}]},{"head":"crops crops","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Rice is an important cash crop, cultivated on sandy flood gardens (Simwinji, 1997) in the Borotse flood plain. Some of the rice varieties cultivated in the Borotse flood plain include \"mongu supa\" (mainly cultivated for sale), Angola, Yangshzu (pronounced \"yan-zoo\"), blue bonnet, \"zawa\" and \"kajakete\" (the local rice variety that has a double seed coat, making it difficult for birds to pick grains, Gershon et al., 2012). Rice is cultivated on \"litapa\" (flood plains) or on \"mazulu\" (raised areas in the flood plains). Floods are needed for rice cultivation on \"milapo\" to ensure undisturbed grain filling."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"The most popular rice variety, \"mongu supa, \" is photoperiodic, and if water drains quickly from the field grain filling is hampered. In areas where \"milapo\" have water even during harvest time, no water stress is experienced during crop growth. Rice farming practices involve puddle paddies and broadcasting; transplanting is rare. Rice yields are about 1-2 tons per hectare and are entirely dependent on flood levels. Weeds pose a major problem. The burning of rice residues, lack of external inputs and lack of extension education are pertinent issues to explore in order to facilitate continuous rice cropping on these landforms. Increased intensification, preservation of organic matter from paddies during the off-season, and shortterm fallows are recommended."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), and sorghum and other minor crops are cultivated as rain-fed crops on deep Kalahari sands (\"mushitu\"). Cassava is planted in October (before the rains), at random spacing. Cassava yields are low, estimated at 2-3 tons per hectare. Key informants suggested that the sandy soils would benefit from improvement in organic matter content from the return of organic materials to the soil through compost, manure, or rotation of cassava with beans or groundnut."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"The broadcasting of black sunnhemp (Crotalaria spp.) or velvet beans (Mucuna pruriens) at the time of planting cassava cuttings presents an option for facilitating continuous farming of \"mushitu\" soils. Bananas (Musa spp.) are also planted on some fields."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"crops Some crop varieties cultivated in the Borotse flood plain include the following:"},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• Sorghum -\"sipopa\" (white), multiple other landraces. • Millet -\"lubasi, \" \"kaufela\" and \"dola. \" • Cassava (Manihot esculenta) -\"kapumba, \""},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"\"nalumino\" and \"nakamoya. \" • Vegetables -Chinese cabbage, tomato, onions, roselle (\"sindambi\") and amaranthus (\"libowa\"), as well as blackjack collected from the wild. • Groundnuts (Arachis hypogea) -Natal common, MGV4 or \"makulu, \" and \"chishango. \" • Bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea (L.) thouars) -local white. • Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) -traditional climbing varieties and \"lutembwe. \" • Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)multiple varieties."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"The gaps between potential research yields for most crops at station level and average yields obtained at farm level remain wide due to differences in crop husbandry and agronomic practices between the station trials and the farms. There are opportunities for the AAS productivity thematic area to explore opportunities, through agronomic studies, to narrow existing yield gaps."},{"index":9,"size":41,"text":"Where farmers are experiencing the impact of climate change on particular crop yields, they have responded by shifting from maize to rice with flooding. However, severe and regular floods are likely to wipe out other crops such as pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.)."},{"index":10,"size":108,"text":"seed sector Seed maize is generally harvested between May and July, and therefore seeds may not be readily available to farmers in the Borotse flood plain for September planting. This suggests the need for early-maturing varieties or earlier availability of seed maize targeted for sale to farmers in the Borotse flood plain, on lands that are not flooded or even under irrigation to ensure that agro-dealers have seeds for sale to farmers before September. Key informants noted that there were no strong gender differences with respect to accessing seeds, although women stood a better chance of securing seeds from neighbors since women are generally the keepers of seeds."},{"index":11,"size":35,"text":"According to the input marketing officer at the Provincial Ministry of Agriculture and NGOs working with farmers in the communities, seed acquisition constraints experienced by farmers in the Borotse flood plain system include the following:"},{"index":12,"size":244,"text":"• There is a lack of agro-input businesses or agro-dealers due to the clustering of input dealers in towns, which are not readily accessible to poor farmers. Through farmer group discussions in selected communities and exhaustive consultations among the farmers themselves, two local crop varieties of maize and groundnuts (\"gankata\" and \"kadononga, \" respectively) were selected for restoration to the farming system. A start-up group of farmers within each community volunteered to spearhead the seed multiplication program, with agreement to pass on a portion of the harvested seeds to a committee for distribution to other farmers within the community during the following season. The participating farmers received training on practices to follow in growing the seed crop. Seed packs based on germplasm from the genebank and from farmers who possessed seeds of these varieties in their communities were distributed to the start-up group of farmers in the first growing season. Field days were organized on selected farmers' fields in which the lead farmers themselves were the resource persons. During the field days, other would-be seed growers signed up and learned from the lead farmers. A committee was formed from among the farmers to monitor and ensure that farmers participating in seed multiplication were implementing the program appropriately. Over the years, as a result of the multiplier effect from the seed multiplication approach adopted, the target varieties will be completely restored as part of the farming systems of households in the communities involved and beyond."},{"index":13,"size":23,"text":"by the National Plant Genetic Resources Center as part of a Southern African Development Community regional pilot study involving Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe."},{"index":14,"size":8,"text":"The perennial plant or tree species on farmlands"},{"index":15,"size":105,"text":"Trees are largely absent from the seasonally flooded areas of the Borotse flood plain (Turpie et al., 1999) except in occasional raised wooded areas of 1-2 hectares, mostly anthropogenic, which occur throughout the flood plain (Timberlake, 1997). Trees found on farmlands, garden plots and homesteads in the Borotse flood plain include mango (Mangifera indica), papaya (Carica papaya L.), china berry (Melia azedarach), pawpaw (Asimina triloba), guava (Psidium guajava), lemon (Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f.) and guava -all planted by households -and naturally growing trees such as \"mazauli\" (Guibourtia coleosperma), \"musekese\" (Piliostigma thonningii), \"isunde\" (Baphia massaiensis) and \"mungongo\" (Ricinodendron rautanenii), which is relied upon for making oil."},{"index":16,"size":40,"text":"In addition, naturally growing plants on-farm include \"manganda\" (Hyphaene ventricosa), \"mumonsomonso\" or \"mimbole\" (Vangueriopsis lanciflora), and \"mubula\" (Parinari curatellifolia) in \"mushitu\" fields. Trees on farms belong to the farm owners. Visitors may pick a fruit to eat but not harvest."},{"index":17,"size":10,"text":"Silutoko mushroom, Senanga district indigenous resources collected from the Wild"}]},{"head":"Aquatic plants","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Reeds and sedges are important to rural life on the flood plain. For example, Phragmites sp. (\"mataka\") is used for construction, fencing courtyards, and making mats and some types of fishing apparatus (fish baskets, fish spear handles and fishing rods). Turpie et al. (1999) found from household surveys that 84 percent of households harvested reeds. Only men harvest reeds after floodwaters recede, with richer households harvesting more reeds than poorer households."}]},{"head":"forest biodiversity","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Forest resources in the Borotse flood plain provide commercially valued timber from \"mukusi\" or Zambian teak (Baikiaea plurijuga), \"mwande\" (Afzelia quanzensis), \"muzauli\" or African rosewood (Guibourtia coleosperma), \"mulombe\" or \"mukuwa\" (Copaifera baumiana), and \"mutuya\" (Brachystegia spiciformis). See Annex 1 for more botanical names. However, forest resources are under increasing pressure from logging for poles, fiber, ropes, charcoal and artisanal crafts, as well as from bush fires and total vegetation clearance for farmland preparation. Valuable tree species such as \"muzauli, \" \"mwande, \" \"mukusi, \" and \"mukwa\" or \"mukuwa\" (Copaifera baumiana) have been depleted. The predominant forest resources (usually Julbernardia sp.) are cleared and burned to produce charcoal for sale. Charcoal is not only used by households to meet cooking energy needs but is also sold to provide a source of income. Curios are manufactured from trees like \"mungongo, \" \"mukelete\" or African blackwood (Dalbergia melanoxylon), \"munganyama\" or purple-leaved albizia (Albizia antunesiana), and \"munjonjolo\" (Diospyros batocana), and \"makenge\" or \"mukenge\" (Combretum zeyheri) is used for basketry."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Women typically access virgin land (despite ownership) because of their inability to clear the land for cultivation (mainly because women do not have the resources to cut trees and lack access to oxen or draft power for plowing new fields)."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Forests are also sources of naturally growing mushrooms, possibly associated with termite activities, etc., and are collected for household consumption and sale."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"fish resources fish resources capture fishery in the borotse flood plain"},{"index":5,"size":144,"text":"The Zambezi River and its tributaries provide habitat for freshwater fish resources ranging from socially and economically significant species such as tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus) and lungfish (Protopterus annectens brieni) to rare or endemic cichlid (tilapias) and cyprinid species (Mandima and Mwima, 2005). The vast flood plains and swamps of the Upper Zambezi are breeding and feeding grounds for a moderately rich fish fauna, including a nearendemic radiation of large riverine cichlids (Skelton, 1994). Capture fishery activities in the Western Province of Zambia are mainly concentrated on the flood plains of the Upper Zambezi (Timberlake, 1997;van Gils, 1988). A total of 98 species were caught in three surveys carried out by the African Wildlife Foundation in the Upper Zambezi River (Mandima and Mwima, 2005). Annex 2 presents information on the scientific, English and local names, as well as the status of threats to the species."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"Capture fishing is pursued on both full-and part-time bases, and represents an important economic activity in Western Province. It is reported that 60 percent of households in the Borotse flood plain are involved in fishing activities (Simwinji, 1997). Fish provide an important source of income and protein."}]},{"head":"Consumption of fish by local residents in","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Western Province is estimated at about five times the national average (van Gils, 1998). Turpie et al. (1999) report field study results that show that in Lealui district about 75 percent of people claimed to eat fish at least three times per week. The same household survey found that 99.3 percent of households consume fish (Turpie et al., 1999). Another publication reports that only 25 percent of the local fish catch is sold outside Western Province, with 75 percent of fish being sold locally (van Gils, 1988). Fishers and traders dry (sun-dry or smoke-dry using shrubs and leaves) part of their fish catches. This trend has gone up significantly with increased volumes taken by distant traders (who pay fish levies to councils) from the districts."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"Capture fishing is highly seasonal but reportedly most effective when the water is receding and from lagoons where fish species are concentrated (Turpie et al., 1999, citing personal communication from D. Kabakwe). The receding floods leave behind various lagoons, lakes and swamps on the flood plains, which provide aquatic habitats for fish such as tigerfish and bream. Nkhata and Kalumiana (1997) report that fishery productivity is determined by flood levels, and that higher floods provide greater opportunities for fish to breed. However, total fish catch is determined by the length of the flood season (van Gils, 1988, as cited by Turpie et al., 1999). Fish catch is highest when water recedes after April and fish species migrate back to the main channels. Fishers continue to fish for several months after the peak months till the onset of the closed season, which runs from December to the last day of February. Fish scarcity occurs during the period of flooding, while the highest catches occur in June and July (Turpie et al., 1999, reporting information gathered during village meetings)."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"In the Borotse flood plain, fish spawn just before the floods occur. Fish movements in the main Zambezi River channels follow a roughly discernible pattern. Fish species move from the main river channels into the wetlands from December to April, in order to spawn before the height of the floods (in February or March). With the rise of floodwaters, the water becomes turbid with suspended soil. These turbid floodwaters are low in oxygen and only barbel fish species survive. Bream are sometimes killed when turbid floodwaters from the lagoons enter the main channels even though the eggs survive."},{"index":4,"size":271,"text":"In terms of fish catch, it is reported that bream fish species make up 80 percent of the total fish catch (Maimbo et al., 1996). Other fishes caught in smaller amounts in the Borotse flood plain include minnows, tilapia (cichlids), bottlenose (Momelops) and silver barbels (Turpie et al., 1999, citing personal communication from D. Kabakwe). Indigenous fish species desired by people in the Borotse flood plain include bream, which has high commercial value and preferred taste (for example, the redbreasted bream). Tilapia species are also among preferred fish species in the Borotse flood plain. Tilapia species generally contain 19 percent fat (but are low in saturated fat), 81 percent protein and low amounts of sodium (\"Nutrition Facts, \" n.d.). They provide micronutrients, phosphorus, niacin and about 27 calories per ounce (about 1 calorie per gram). Tilapia species have a nutrient balance completeness score 3 of 37 and an amino acid score 4 (denoting quality of protein) of 124 (\"Nutrition Facts, \" n.d.). Farm-raised tilapia species, unlike the captured relatives, contain low levels of omega-3 fatty acids (nutrient value recommended by dieticians) and relatively high omega-6 (\"Aquaculture of Tilapia, \" n.d.). The maize-based feeds given to aquaculture tilapia fish contribute to the higher ratios of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids. Barbs and snout fishes also have high commercial value. They are affordable and have preferred taste. Synodontis spp. (squeakers, locally known as \"singongi\"), Schilbe intermedius (silver catfish, locally known as \"mabango\"), Clarias spp. and catfish are other consumed fish species. Synodontis spp. (squeakers or \"singongi\"), juvenile tilapia and silver fish bycatch from illegal fine-meshed draw nets may also be fed to pigs."},{"index":5,"size":154,"text":"Gill nets, set overnight in standing water and lagoons, dominate the fishing practices in the Borotse flood plain (Table 2), accounting for about 75 percent of the total river fish catch. Gill nets are used to fish from the lagoons, created by the receding floods, where the fish remain concentrated (Turpie et al., 1999). Gillnetting intensifies in lagoons and along the edge of the main channel from May until December, when many fishers stop fishing in anticipation of the rains (Chilala, 1968). Traditional \"maalelo\" traps (comprising a reed and earth weir with conical reed and grass traps) are also used for catching fish in the Borotse flood plain (van Gils, 1988), predominantly when the flood plain is fully inundated. Traps and spears are also used during this period (Chilala, 1968). Apart from these legal traditional fishing methods, the use of illegal fishing methods, such as mosquito nets, threaten fish stocks.  (Mandima and Mwima, 2005)."},{"index":6,"size":310,"text":"The intense fishing methods place considerable pressure on both adults and larger juveniles of the larger species to such an extent that people have noted a decline in catch size over the last two decades. This decline has been attributed in the literature to increased use of smallmeshed nets (Mandima and Mwima, 2005). Key informants in the fisheries sector see most capture fish species as still plentiful, though with concerns about some species (Table 3). Both men and women take part in the fishery sector, together with children, but differences in gender and age group roles occur along the value chain. Turpie et al. (1999) found that men constitute 69 percent of fishers while women represent only 24 percent of fishers. (The remaining 7 percent is ostensibly accounted for by children who engage in fishing.) Table 4 shows predominant gender and age group roles at various economic points along the fish value chain. Capture fish production is dominated by men and youths, with limited women's involvement. Men go out fishing in dugout canoes and use stationary and draw nets to harvest fish for household consumption and sales. Some fish is also used to barter for other goods. The predominance by men in capture fishing is evident in \"kuwaya litindi, \" which involves fish harvesting only by men in September. Traditionally it is taboo for women to fish in the main river channel using dugout canoes and gill nets. Women and children use fishing baskets and mosquito nets to catch small seasonal fish species for household consumption and some sales. Women dominate the fish processing and marketing points along the fish value chain. Analyses of returns to labor by actors along the fish value chain would help ascertain the proportion of rents from market fish pricing captured at points along the fish value chain and substantive differentials between men and women."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"outsiders have been entering into fishery at will (Turpie et al., 1999) "}]},{"head":"Aquaculture in the borotse flood plain","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"In most of the Borotse flood plain, except for in Kaoma district, aquaculture is a relatively new technique. The main fish species farmed, primarily for household consumption and sometimes for sale, are Tilapia rendalli or redbreasted bream (30 percent), Oreochromis macrochir or green-headed bream (10 percent), and Oreochromis andersonii or three-spotted bream (60 percent). Gender differentials in aquaculture exist because men operate as individuals while women operate in groups. This differential is partly dictated by the nature of the work involved in manual construction of fish ponds, as well as access to and availability of suitable land. Pond construction is restricted to the dry periods of the year for new ponds, while pond management continues all year round. Aquaculture practices in the Borotse flood plain include the use of rice bran, maize bran, cassava leaves, sweet potato leaves and green vegetables as feed, given twice a day to the fishes. Aquaculture fish are harvested at maturity, six months and beyond after the ponds are stocked. There is no processing of the fish harvested. Unlike capture fish, aquaculture fish are not fed to livestock. The key constraints to effectiveness of current aquaculture practices in the Borotse flood plain include the following: lack of high-quality fingerlings, poor nutritional value of fish feed ingredients, high cost of commercial feed, poor slope of prevailing flat lands with the result that most ponds utilize underground water and are unable to drain completely, and high seepage levels due to predominantly sandy soils."}]},{"head":"livestocK resources liVestocK resources","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Table 5 presents predominant livestock resources, the purposes for which they are kept, gender management roles and feeding practices. The Lozis traditionally keep herds of cattle as part of their farming system and livelihood strategies. The cattle provide draft power for plowing fields, manure for fertilizing fields, milk, and cash when an emergency arises (Gershon et al., 2012). Livestock are typically sold only when household members need to pay large sums of money for goods and services. However, this is changing, and there is increased participation in cattle marketing as a source of income."},{"index":2,"size":209,"text":"The Borotse flood plain contains some of the most productive areas in Zambia for raising cattle. In Mongu district, the geographical distribution of cattle shows concentration in and around the flood plain. The highest settlements are on the edges of flood plains, including both the Zambezi flood plain and the Luena flood plain. Here both good grazing land and water are available. Under a transhumance system in which cattle and other livestock are moved between the flood plains and adjacent upland areas, livestock owners move their animals to higher ground during the flood season and then move back to the flood plains after the floods recede. The length of the upland grazing period depends on the time it takes for the floods to recede in the flood plain. Usually, pressure on upland range resources and feed quality affect the condition of the animals, since grazing and browsing constitute over 90 percent of overall feed resources. Crop residues are only available in very limited periods soon after harvest. Where communal grazing land is beyond the carrying capacity of cattle numbers, transhumance brings with it overgrazing, deforestation, and the confining of cattle to a reduced area during the rainy season in order to avoid quarrels as a result of crop damage. "}]},{"head":"livestocK resources","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The indigenous or traditional livestock husbandry in the Borotse flood plain relies on ethnoveterinary resources to treat sick animals. The treatment of sick animals is usually the domain of the heads of households, especially the males or fathers. Indigenous livestock knowledge systems are limited to older people in the communities."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The main cattle production constraints in the Borotse plains are the limited grazing time, especially during floods, and inadequate nutrition. There is also a huge worm burden, especially liver fluke, which is worsened by the transhumant nature of the people and their livestock. A consistent de-worming program is required to alleviate productivity constraints due to the worm burden. There is a general lack of modern skills and knowhow of general principles and norms governing livestock rearing and welfare. The assessment of cattle resource management suggests that improvements in cattle productivity may require individual and community-led initiatives to improve nutrition through feed supplementation, disease control and adoption of modern husbandry practices."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Goats are predominantly kept by the Mbunda and Luvale tribes, and only recently by Lozis through interventions by projects. Limited browsing space for peripatetic stock poses a challenge to integrated livestock systems. This is because the rearing of goats sometimes raises conflicts, since it can be seen as a nuisance."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Local chickens, predominantly kept by women, suffer seasonal wipe-outs from diseases such as Newcastle disease. The introduction of vaccination programs has had a positive impact, although there is inadequate availability of vaccines."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Pigs are also raised, but they mainly roam freely, scavenging for food."},{"index":6,"size":152,"text":"dietAry diversity predominant diet components and food consumption prohibitions actual food availability is highly seasonal. From August or September to February (known as the \"hunger season\") food availability is mostly limited, and households are generally not selfsufficient in food. Fish is an essential part of household diets in the Borotse flood plain. The commonly consumed species include breams, barbel fish (eaten by all), tigerfish (eaten by all), bulldog (\"nembele\"), \"limbala\" (eaten by all) and \"mbundu\" (not eaten by women). Pregnant women are prohibited from consuming red-breasted bream. Apart from traditional factors, other social factors that influence fish consumption in the Borotse flood plain include religion (e.g., Seventh Day Adventist adherents do not eat fish without scales), lack of scientific knowledge, and economic factors such as the effects of increase in population and the influence of increasing fish demand from outside the province on fish prices, which make fish less affordable than before."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Table 6. Typical diets of residents of rural and urban communities in the Borotse flood plain"},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"• Schizophyllum commune (called locally in Lozi \"silutoko, \" or \"sepa\" in Bemba). • Other unidentified mushrooms collected locally, called in Lozi \"bionde, \" \"bushele, \" \"liluwe, \" \"sibiti, \" \"kashimbandala\" and \"sitongwani\"; most mushrooms are currently collected from the wild."},{"index":9,"size":107,"text":"improving diets in the borotse flood plain Gershon et al. (2012) found that at Mweeke, while women ranked meat, fish and most green leafy vegetables as highly nutritious foods, they had some misperceptions about the nutritional value of fruits (with the exception of oranges), while energy-dense rice and maize were ranked as very nutritious. This may point to gaps in nutrition education and the need for local nutrition experts to explore avenues (such as antenatal visits or visits by community healthcare experts to villages) to disseminate knowledge about the known nutritional value of fruits, as well as the need to balance consumption from the various food groups."},{"index":10,"size":110,"text":"Local nutrition informants surveyed in Western Province suggested that the consumption of vegetables such as \"libowa\" (Amaranthus spp.), \"sindambi\" (Hibiscus spp.) and \"sishungwa\" (Cleome gynandra) could improve diets. Also, parts of wild plants such as \"mumbole\" or \"mumonsomonso\" (Vangueriopsis lanciflora), \"mulutululwa\" (Ximenia caffra), \"mahululu\" (Strychnos cocculoides), \"namulomo\" (unidentified), and \"mungongo\" (Rucinodendron rautanenii) could help improve the quality and diversity of diets. Annex 1 presents botanical names and corresponding Lozi vernacular names. The nutritional contents, as well as any anti-nutritional factors, of these locally available vegetable plant species require careful investigation and documentation for use in nutritional education in schools and in hospital outlets frequented by women for ante-and postnatal care."},{"index":11,"size":85,"text":"Local nutrition informants also suggested that nutrient-dense indigenous species that could be used to improve diet quality and diversity include \"mugongo\" (Rucinodendron rautanenii), used as cooking oil; \"mubula\" (Parinari curatellifolia), used in preparing drinks, oil and cakes; and sorghum and millet, which are crops well suited to the soils in the Borotse flood plain. Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), soybeans (Glycine max.) and groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea) are non-indigenous crop species that could contribute to improving diets in the Borotse flood plain because of their plant protein contents."},{"index":12,"size":171,"text":"Although a wide variety of livestock products (chicken, eggs, ducks, pigeons, milk and meat from cattle, and meat of goats and pigs) are consumed by households in the Borotse flood plain, key informants pointed out that women experience some food consumption restrictions informed by unproven beliefs. For example, women are discouraged from eating eggs based on the belief that they could get bald heads when they eat eggs. Yet eggs contain diverse vitamins and minerals, as well as some essential micronutrients, such as selenium, that are needed by the human body. Annex 4 presents some nutritional facts about eggs, which show the benefits (source of riboflavin, vitamin B12 and phosphorus, as well as a very good source of protein and selenium) and negative aspects (high in saturated fat and very high in cholesterol) of eggs. Since eggs contain some nutritionally desirable elements, social and gender analyses of the Borotse flood plain communities may want to explore further the scope for overcoming traditional beliefs that bar women from the consumption of eggs."},{"index":13,"size":86,"text":"The key informants also noted that pregnant women are prohibited from eating offal (particularly the intestines) of livestock and some fish species. In the case of the fish species, it would be pertinent to compare the nutritional profiles of fish species that women can consume to those species whose consumption is prohibited by local customs and traditions. If adequate fish species replacements for those on the consumption prohibition list exist and are accessible to women, then there may be no need to worry about the prohibitions."},{"index":14,"size":71,"text":"No evidence of gender restrictions were reported with respect to the consumption of products (such as wild vegetables) from nontree species harvested from the wild. Similarly, there is no known gender-based prohibition against the consumption of produce (such as fruits) from tree species. Caterpillars, other edible insects and several types of edible fungi are collected and consumed by all family members without gender restrictions. Generally, the mushrooms found are the following: "}]},{"head":"summAry synthesis And recommendAtions synthesized insights","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Overexploitation of biodiversity species occurs when humans use a particular species or group of species beyond the point where those species can replace themselves (Timberlake, 2000). Fish species harvested from the Borotse flood plain, wild vegetables, and other products extracted from forest resources are under severe exploitation pressure. The fish value chain research in development may want to link up with all relevant stakeholders to explore effective capture fishing governance and constraints to aquaculture. Sustaining natural forest resources will depend on developing alternative income-earning opportunities to resource-depleting activities such as making charcoal and curios from wood."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"In addition, analyses of the value of current forest resources, such as mushrooms and non-timber forest products that could be lost if natural forests are depleted, would be helpful in galvanizing communities and their leaders to put in place effective local governance of natural resources. Key informants suggested that options for improving livelihoods in the Borotse flood plain could include beekeeping, more systematic cultivation of mushrooms (to take advantage of the good market for mushrooms), the planting of woody perennials such as pigeon pea (seeds for food, leaves for fertility improvement and woody parts for firewood) and Gliricidia sepium, and new crops such as sunflower (to take advantage of developing market opportunities). AAS research in development on natural resources management could explore community-led initiatives to promote sustainable access and use of ecosystem services, such as the provision of mushrooms associated with woodlands and termite activity."},{"index":3,"size":353,"text":"Farmers are unable to predict flooding levels in any one year. AAS research-in-development efforts may be directed at enhancing predictability of flooding levels and putting in place a sustainable mechanism for predicting and informing residents of the flood plain about the likely commencement and retreat of floods. Until there are reasonable means to predict flooding, farming practices have to adapt to the vagaries of the floods. This may suMMArY sYnthesis And recoMMendAtions require participatory investigation and design of feasible options for farmers to use based on indigenous knowledge of the potentials and risks associated with different land types available to farmers in the Borotse flood plain. Farmers have responded to flooding risk to crops by shifting from maize to rice with increased flooding. However, high regular floods are likely to wipe out some crops such as pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata) from the fields where they are normally cultivated. The AAS productivity thematic area may want to work with all stakeholders to identify threatened crops and explore potential alternative sites for cultivation of the flood-threatened desired crops. The low yields of the major cultivated crops (rice, maize, sorghum, millet, cassava, etc.) point to opportunities for productivity improvements involving early-maturing varieties, as well as matching varieties to flooding regimes for the different land types and rains, timely availability and access to highperforming seeds, soil amendments to enhance nutrient availability, and cultural practices to control weeds in the fragile wetland ecosystem and optimize planting. The AAS productivity thematic area may want to work with partners in the hub to explore participatory design of community-led agronomic studies that will seek to overcome current constraints to crop productivity and levels of food production, as well as increase access to and improve utilization of limited soil amendments. We could also benefit from indigenous knowledge shared by key informants to improve crop production systems through testing changes to crops and the cropping calendar; e.g., planting maize varieties before the rains in the \"sitapa\" fields, utilizing maize varieties that keep cobs high above floodwater line, and growing sorghum varieties that tolerate flooding for months (just like rice) in areas prone to flooding."},{"index":4,"size":361,"text":"Gender differentiation in access to resources and participation in economic opportunities, where they occur, have been highlighted in this paper. The AAS gender thematic area may want to explore, with the help of local women's groups and traditional authorities, how best to overcome discriminatory practices against women and enhance mutually beneficial roles between genders. 32 A common basic problem in the Borotse flood plain is that many households do not produce enough food to sustain them for a year. Adopting a problem tree approach, the follow-up focus group discussions in the 10 AAS communities could explore factors that may be contributing to inadequate food resources. These factors could include lack of access and lack of timely availability of high-performing seeds, poverty, lack of soil amendments and plowing services to cultivate lands, and lack of capacity to manage fields from sowing to harvest and beyond. Also, the follow-up individual household surveys could explore the linkages between the different land types and food gaps experienced by households. In fulfillment of the AAS development challenge, further agrobiodiversity researchin-development activities may explore specific sets of holistic innovations, such as training in revolving domestic savings (piloted by Caritas), local seed production and distribution, and a focus on strong marketable produce, which could more tightly link rural communities to private sector actors through market operations. Bioversity could lead participatory design and implementation of rural seed initiatives (conservation and availability) to facilitate local access and examine with Catholic Relief Services, Caritas and other intervention matrix partners how to empower poor farmers to facilitate access to preferred highperforming hybrids. Another critical element that needs to be addressed is improvement in the productivity of the crop-livestock system (both the nutrient-and organic-matter-poor sandy soils and cattle feed when livestock are moved to upland areas at the onset of floods). To respond to the associated constraints, appropriate multiple-purpose pigeon pea and groundnut varieties could be tested for their suitability and acceptance by farmers in the Borotse study villages. notes \"Dambos\" are complex, shallow wetlands generally found in flat, higher rainfall plateau areas, with river-like branching forms that may be nowhere very large, but common enough to add up to a large area."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"A copy of the questionnaire is available from the first author and the AAS knowledge management database upon request."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"Nutrient balance completeness score ranges from 0 to 100. This score essentially tells you how close the food is to filling your needs for all essential nutrients. See http://nutritiondata.self.com/ help/nutrient-balance-indicator#ixzz2gSETaD91"},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"Amino acid scoring provides a way to predict how efficiently protein will meet a person's amino acid needs. This concept assumes that tissue protein synthesis is limited unless all required amino acids are available at the same time and in appropriate amounts at the site of tissue protein synthesis.  (Skelton, 2001;Tweddle et al., 2004). Winemiller (1991) classed the species as a river-dwelling crepuscular piscivore.*9 11. Tilapia rendalli Red-breasted bream"}]},{"head":"Mbufu","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The major threats to this species are increased fishing pressure and loss of vegetated margins and flood plains around rivers and lakes due to agriculture extension.*10 12. Tilapia sparrmanii Banded bream Situhu Tilapia sparrmanii is a species that is commercially used for aquaculture, and there is potential for overfishing.*11 AnneX 2"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"13. Oreochromis andersonii Three-spotted tilapia"}]},{"head":"Njinji","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The spread of alien Oreochromis niloticus (L.) as a result of aquaculture introductions in the Kafue and Upper Zambezi catchments is a major threat to the survival of O. andersonii throughout its range (Tweddle et al., 2004) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Map of Borotse flood plain "},{"text":" Photo Credit : Sondo Chanamwe/Natural Resources Development College, Lusaka, Zambia "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"district MAJor AgriculturAl lAnd tYpes in the Borotse flood plAin mAJor  the seed sector); (vii) indigenous resources the seed sector); (vii) indigenous resources collected from the wild; (viii) fish resources; collected from the wild; (viii) fish resources; (ix) livestock resources; (x) dietary diversity; (ix) livestock resources; (x) dietary diversity; (xi) indigenous knowledge and management (xi) indigenous knowledge and management systems; (xii) environmental issues; and (xiii) a systems; (xii) environmental issues; and (xiii) a summary synthesis and recommendations. summary synthesis and recommendations. The key The key informants consulted were representatives of informants consulted were representatives of government departments in the Ministry of government departments in the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Fisheries, Nutrition, Agriculture and Livestock (Fisheries, Nutrition, Forestry, Farmer Input Support Program, Plant Forestry, Farmer Input Support Program, Plant Genetic Resources Unit of Zambia Agricultural Genetic Resources Unit of Zambia Agricultural Research Institute at Mount Makulu) and non Research Institute at Mount Makulu) and non governmental agencies and institutions (Caritas, governmental agencies and institutions (Caritas, Concern International, CeLIM and University Concern International, CeLIM and University of Borotseland). Other types of information of Borotseland). Other types of information (including data) were gathered from reports of (including data) were gathered from reports of the National Seed Certification Unit of the Seed the National Seed Certification Unit of the Seed Control and Certification Institute, as well as Control and Certification Institute, as well as from the grey literature. from the grey literature. The rest of this working paper covers the The rest of this working paper covers the following areas for the Borotse flood plain, following areas for the Borotse flood plain, numbered by section: (iii) major agricultural numbered by section: (iii) major agricultural land types; (iv) soils and their uses; (v) land types; (iv) soils and their uses; (v) production systems; (vi) crops (including production systems; (vi) crops (including  "},{"text":" The formal seed sector actors comprise private seed companies and public research and extension services (involved in seed certification, release, production and distribution). The informal sector is dominated by a system of farm-saved seed that has been practiced for generations. However, the short height renders the maize plant vulnerable to destruction if the cob goes under water. The taller local cultivars have the advantage of being tall enough to keep the cob above water. In the case of rice, farmers select and keep their rice seed stocks or procure seeds from neighbors. Since rice seeds may be mixed at the time of planting, careful selection of seeds for the next cropping season is required at harvest.  Private Private  sector seed companies operating in Zambia sector seed companies operating in Zambia  include Zamseed, MRI Agro, Seed Co, Pannar include Zamseed, MRI Agro, Seed Co, Pannar The key factors that influence rice varietal Seed Limited, Pioneer, Dupont, Kamano and The key factors that influence rice varietalSeed Limited, Pioneer, Dupont, Kamano and choice by farmers in the Borotse flood plain Monsanto. In the formal sector, seed processing choice by farmers in the Borotse flood plainMonsanto. In the formal sector, seed processing include consumption needs, market outlet, is mostly done with machines. The informal include consumption needs, market outlet,is mostly done with machines. The informal market price, the nature of the floodwaters and sector largely processes seeds by hand, market price, the nature of the floodwaters andsector largely processes seeds by hand, suitability for preparation of \"buhobe\" (local although smallholders are improving seed suitability for preparation of \"buhobe\" (localalthough smallholders are improving seed staple preparation). handling. Seed storage and distribution and staple preparation).handling. Seed storage and distribution and  seed bags are increasingly being used by both seed bags are increasingly being used by both  the formal and informal sectors (Zambia Seed the formal and informal sectors (Zambia Seed  Sector Inspection Manual, n.d.). Sector Inspection Manual, n.d.).  Farmers in the Borotse flood plain do keep Farmers in the Borotse flood plain do keep  and grow landraces, sometimes on gardens and grow landraces, sometimes on gardens  or plots near the house, which allows them or plots near the house, which allows them  to benefit from kitchen wastes dumped to benefit from kitchen wastes dumped  there. The landraces are grown for household there. The landraces are grown for household  consumption by both smallholders and farmers consumption by both smallholders and farmers  who plant larger areas, but the poor tend to see who plant larger areas, but the poor tend to see  the landraces as \"safe bets. \" Generally, landraces the landraces as \"safe bets. \" Generally, landraces  are kept by farmers because of desirable traits are kept by farmers because of desirable traits  that are absent in new varieties or hybrids. In that are absent in new varieties or hybrids. In  maize, for example, the landrace is kept for the maize, for example, the landrace is kept for the  taste of its roasted corn on the cob and higher taste of its roasted corn on the cob and higher  flour yield per unit weight. Most landraces kept flour yield per unit weight. Most landraces kept  by households are those of maize, rice, sorghum by households are those of maize, rice, sorghum  and crops traditionally grown by women, such and crops traditionally grown by women, such  as cowpeas, groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea), as cowpeas, groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea),  bambara nuts (Voandzeia subterranea (L.) bambara nuts (Voandzeia subterranea (L.)  thouars) and sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas). thouars) and sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas).  Also, farmers tend to save seeds of those crops Also, farmers tend to save seeds of those crops  whose seeds are not being sold aggressively whose seeds are not being sold aggressively  by seed companies. Notwithstanding farmer by seed companies. Notwithstanding farmer  desire to keep landraces, there is an increasing desire to keep landraces, there is an increasing  shift to new varieties and hybrids, especially by shift to new varieties and hybrids, especially by  farmers who cultivate larger land areas. Also, farmers who cultivate larger land areas. Also,  farmers are being encouraged to shift to high- farmers are being encouraged to shift to high-  yielding varieties. New varieties and hybrid yielding varieties. New varieties and hybrid  seeds of maize are purchased from stores. seeds of maize are purchased from stores.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Seeds of some crop varieties found in Western Province are held in collections at the National Plant Genetic Resources Center of the Zambia Agriculture Research Institute station at Mount Makulu near Lusaka. Table 1 lists crops and number of accessions of each crop held in the collections.crops Flood plains in Zambia that are similar to the Borotse flood plain found in Western Province are the Zambezi flood plains of Sinazongwe and Chiawa in Southern Province. Collections of crops grown in the Sinazongwe and Chiawa areas (landraces of maize, pearl millet, sorghum, cowpea, cucurbits and sweet potatoes) could also be suitable for crowdsource testing of their suitability in the Borotse flood plain. Crop • Hybrid maize is often not suited for sandy • Hybrid maize is often not suited for sandy conditions on flood plains. conditions on flood plains.  "},{"text":"of origin of collections Collected species Number of accessions held in collection The collections from Western Province and other regions in Zambia with growth characteristics similar to those found in the Borotse flood plain offer opportunities for restoration of desired \"lost\" materials. Mechanisms for the restoration of germplasm have been implemented in Rufunsa, Chikankata and Situmbeko (Mumbwa district). The germplasm restoration program for selected crop varieties is a continuation of on-farm activities initiated in these areas in 1998 Box 1. Species restoration experiences in Rufunsa (near Lusaka), Chikankata (Southern Province) and Situmbeko (Mumbwa district of Central Province).In the first year of program implementation, restoration activities were started in two communities in Rufunsa, Lusaka Province. The activities were scaled up to include Chikankata in Southern Province and Situmbeko in Mumbwa district of Central Province. Farmer group discussions highlighted building up the local seed system of traditional crop varieties as a major priority area.Farmers attributed the vulnerability or collapse of the local seed system to the displacement of local varieties by new varieties promoted through the government-subsidized Farmer Input Support Program. Lukulu Arachis hypogeae 10 LukuluArachis hypogeae10  Hibiscus spp 1 Hibiscus spp1  Sorghum bicolor 7 Sorghum bicolor7  Vigna subterrenea 2 Vigna subterrenea2  Vigna unguiculata 11 Vigna unguiculata11  Zea mays 4 Zea mays4  Pennisetum indicum 1 Pennisetum indicum1  Solanum spp 3 Solanum spp3 Kaoma Vigna subterrenea 6 KaomaVigna subterrenea6  Vigna unguiculata 9 Vigna unguiculata9  Sorghum bicolor 1 Sorghum bicolor1  Sesemum indicum 1 Sesemum indicum1  Oryza longistaminata 1 Oryza longistaminata 1 Mongu Oryza longistaminata 18 MonguOryza longistaminata 18  Vigna subterrenea 5 Vigna subterrenea5  Vigna unguiculata 9 Vigna unguiculata9  Sesbania sesban 1 Sesbania sesban1 Senanga Oryza longistaminata 2 SenangaOryza longistaminata 2  Vigna subterrenea 1 Vigna subterrenea1  Vigna unguiculata 3 Vigna unguiculata3 Sesheke Arachis hypogeae 7 SeshekeArachis hypogeae7  Cleome gynandra 1 Cleome gynandra1  Cucumis spp 1 Cucumis spp1  Cucurbita spp 13 Cucurbita spp13  Eleusine indicum 1 Eleusine indicum1  Hibiscus sabdariffa 3 Hibiscus sabdariffa3  Sorghum bicolor 11 Sorghum bicolor11  Vigna subterrenea 8 Vigna subterrenea8  Vigna unguiculata 15 Vigna unguiculata15 Shang'ombo Vigna subterrenea 3 Shang'omboVigna subterrenea3  Vigna unguiculata 3 Vigna unguiculata3  Abelmoschus esculentus 1 Abelmoschus esculentus 1  Amaranths spp. 3 Amaranths spp.3  Citrullus lunatus 4 Citrullus lunatus4  Cleome gynandra 1 Cleome gynandra1  Cucurbita spp. 8 Cucurbita spp.8  Hibiscus spp. 2 Hibiscus spp.2  Sesamum indicum 1 Sesamum indicum1  Sorghum bicolor 13 Sorghum bicolor13  "},{"text":" key elements of the germplasm restoration program, summarized in Box 1, have useful lessons for future species restoration activities in the Borotse flood plain communities. Annex 1 presents the Lozi, English and Annex 1 presents the Lozi, English and botanical names of the biodiverse species botanical names of the biodiverse species found in the Borotse flood plain. According to found in the Borotse flood plain. According to key informants interviewed, indigenous non- key informants interviewed, indigenous non- perennial plant species desired by residents of perennial plant species desired by residents of the Borotse flood plain, such as local vegetables the Borotse flood plain, such as local vegetables and wild fruit trees, include \"mampana, \" \"linjefu\" and wild fruit trees, include \"mampana, \" \"linjefu\" and \"mashela. \" Priority indigenous species that and \"mashela. \" Priority indigenous species that are disappearing or rarely found in recent years are disappearing or rarely found in recent years in the Borotse flood plain include \"malumba\" in the Borotse flood plain include \"malumba\" and a flood-tolerant sorghum variety called and a flood-tolerant sorghum variety called \"munanana, \" as well as some varieties of finger \"munanana, \" as well as some varieties of finger millet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn) and sweet millet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn) and sweet potatoes. Changes in taste and availability potatoes. Changes in taste and availability of substitutes are some of the underlying or of substitutes are some of the underlying or driving factors for the perceived species and driving factors for the perceived species and varietal losses. varietal losses.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Seasonal  "},{"text":"Fish species Conditions for high catches and availability Fishing method Fishing location  Capture fishing pressure is so intense   Capture fishing pressure is so intense throughout the flood plain that fish stocks,   throughout the flood plain that fish stocks, including the smallest species, are exploited   including the smallest species, are exploited by widespread use of drifting gill nets, fine-   by widespread use of drifting gill nets, fine- meshed drag nets and large open-water seines,   meshed drag nets and large open-water seines, leaving few sanctuaries for fish. This is the case   leaving few sanctuaries for fish. This is the case particularly where drifting gill nets are close   particularly where drifting gill nets are close to the bank and fish sheltering in riverbank   to the bank and fish sheltering in riverbank vegetation have been driven out of cover by   vegetation have been driven out of cover by fishers beating the vegetation in advance of   fishers beating the vegetation in advance of the floating net    the floating net Jewel fish When floods recede and leave Gilled Simunyange Plains and Jewel fishWhen floods recede and leaveGilledSimunyange Plains and  behind lakes and streams  flood plains behind lakes and streamsflood plains Pike Low water levels with Gilled Lagoons and vegetated PikeLow water levels withGilledLagoons and vegetated  slow-moving waters (forming  parts of river channel slow-moving waters (formingparts of river channel  rivers and big lakes)   rivers and big lakes) Red-breasted Flooded plain Gilled Rivers, streams and Red-breastedFlooded plainGilledRivers, streams and bream   channels breamchannels Spotted Mostly during the dry season Gilled Long rivers, streams and SpottedMostly during the dry season GilledLong rivers, streams and bream   channels breamchannels Banded Rising waters and floods Gilled Along rivers, streams and BandedRising waters and floodsGilledAlong rivers, streams and bream   channels breamchannels Barb Dry season Traps and Along rivers, streams and BarbDry seasonTraps andAlong rivers, streams and   small-meshed nets channels small-meshed netschannels Clarias spp. Rainy season Harpooned and Along rivers, streams, in Clarias spp.Rainy seasonHarpooned andAlong rivers, streams, in   gilled lagoons and on flood plain gilledlagoons and on flood plain  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Capture fish species and observed trends in availability in the Borotse flood plain Scientific name English name Local name Observed Scientific nameEnglish nameLocal nameObserved    trends in trends in    availability availability Protopterus annectens Lungfish Musiyoka and Seasonal Protopterus annectensLungfishMusiyoka andSeasonal   mutome  mutome Marcusenius macrolepidotus Bulldog Nembele Plentiful Marcusenius macrolepidotus BulldogNembelePlentiful Mormyrus lacerda Western bottlenose Ndikusi Plentiful Mormyrus lacerdaWestern bottlenoseNdikusiPlentiful Borotse Borotseensis Barbus Mbala Plentiful Borotse BorotseensisBarbusMbalaPlentiful Labeo lunatus Upper Zambezi labeo Linyonga Seasonal Labeo lunatusUpper Zambezi labeoLinyongaSeasonal Schilbe intermedius Silver catfish Lubango Plentiful Schilbe intermediusSilver catfishLubangoPlentiful Hemichromis elongatus Banded jewel fish Lihulungu Seasonal Hemichromis elongatusBanded jewel fishLihulunguSeasonal Serranochromis robustus Yellow-belly bream Nembwe Seasonal Serranochromis robustusYellow-belly breamNembweSeasonal Serranochromis angusticeps Thinface largemouth bream Mamunyandi Plentiful Serranochromis angusticeps Thinface largemouth bream MamunyandiPlentiful Serranochromis altus Humpback largemouth Mushuna Plentiful Serranochromis altusHumpback largemouthMushunaPlentiful Tilapia rendalli Red-breasted bream Mbufu Plentiful Tilapia rendalliRed-breasted breamMbufuPlentiful Tilapia sparmanii Banded bream Situhu Plentiful Tilapia sparmaniiBanded breamSituhuPlentiful Oreochromis andersonii Three-spotted tilapia Njinji Plentiful Oreochromis andersoniiThree-spotted tilapiaNjinjiPlentiful Ctenopoma multispine Perch Mbundu Seasonal Ctenopoma multispinePerchMbunduSeasonal Sargochromis giardia Pink bream Seo Plentiful Sargochromis giardiaPink breamSeoPlentiful Hydrocynus vittatus Tigerfish Ngweshi Seasonal Hydrocynus vittatusTigerfishNgweshiSeasonal Hepsetus odoe Zambezi pike Mulumesi Seasonal Hepsetus odoeZambezi pikeMulumesiSeasonal Synodontis species Squeaker Singongi Plentiful Synodontis speciesSqueakerSingongiPlentiful Clarias species Burble fish Ndombe Plentiful Clarias speciesBurble fishNdombePlentiful Cyphomyrus discorhynchus Parrotfish Minga Plentiful Cyphomyrus discorhynchusParrotfishMingaPlentiful Petrocephalus catostoma Northern churchill Pepe Plentiful Petrocephalus catostomaNorthern churchillPepePlentiful  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Gender and age group roles along the fish value chain in the Borotse flood plain  "},{"text":"Value chain point Men Women Youth Factors accounting for gender and age group differentiation in roles  Production XXXX XX XXXXX Physically demanding, traditional gender stereotyping ProductionXXXX XXXXXXX Physically demanding, traditional gender stereotyping Processing XX XXXXX XXX Not very involving, traditional gender stereotyping ProcessingXXXXXXXXXXNot very involving, traditional gender stereotyping Transportation XXX X XXXXX Physically demanding, traditional gender stereotyping Transportation XXXXXXXXX Physically demanding, traditional gender stereotyping Marketing XX XXXXX XXX Women are responsible for household economics MarketingXXXXXXXXXXWomen are responsible for household economics  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Livestock types, breeds, feeding practices and management in the Borotse flood plain Livestock Breed Purposes for which Management Feeding practices LivestockBreedPurposes for whichManagementFeeding practices type  they are kept roles  typethey are keptroles Cattle Borotse breed, Prestige, sale when Managed by Traditional free-range CattleBorotse breed,Prestige, sale whenManaged byTraditional free-range  crosses (between needy, manure, males but women grazing systems on crosses (betweenneedy, manure,males but womengrazing systems on  Borotse breed meat, hides, draft plus youth play communal lands Borotse breedmeat, hides, draftplus youth playcommunal lands  and barom power, milk from role as caretakers by herders; no and barompower, milk fromrole as caretakersby herders; no  cattle); not much indigenous cattle with limited or no deliberate feeding; cattle); not muchindigenous cattlewith limited or nodeliberate feeding;  in terms of dairy  power over stock only few cases of in terms of dairypower over stockonly few cases of  cattle   supplements; not cattlesupplements; not     much attention much attention     paid to feeding and paid to feeding and     welfare regimes welfare regimes Goats and Local, Boer, and Meat, hides Owned mainly by Free-range browsing; Goats andLocal, Boer, andMeat, hidesOwned mainly byFree-range browsing; sheep crosses  women scavenging on crop sheepcrosseswomenscavenging on crop     stover stover Village Indigenous Meat, financial Managed by Scavenging on human VillageIndigenousMeat, financialManaged byScavenging on human chicken  backup women food and crop remains chickenbackupwomenfood and crop remains Ducks Indigenous Meat Same as for Scavenging on DucksIndigenousMeatSame as forScavenging on    chickens human food and chickenshuman food and     crop remains crop remains Pigs Crosses with Meat Men and women Scavenging for food PigsCrosses withMeatMen and womenScavenging for food  landrace, large  have almost equal  landrace, largehave almost equal  white, indigenous  ownership and  white, indigenousownership and  black  management roles  blackmanagement roles  "},{"text":" Relish consists of different vegetables, fish, eggs, insects and meat (that is, beef, pork, goat meat, poultry, etc.). *\"Samp\" is coarsely crushed maize that is dehulled. It may be mixed and consumed with one of the following: sugar, salt, whole groundnuts, groundnut flour, sour milk, vegetables, and meat or any relish available. dietArY diVersitY   dietArY diVersitY Table 6 presents expert assessment of the   Table 6 presents expert assessment of the typical diets of men, women and children.   typical diets of men, women and children. Households in the Borotse flood plain access  Households in the Borotse flood plain access food through a variety of sources, including  food through a variety of sources, including domestic production, gathered wild foods,  domestic production, gathered wild foods, purchases from markets and food for work  purchases from markets and food for work where available. Diets in both urban and rural  where available. Diets in both urban and rural communities are dominated by energy-dense  communities are dominated by energy-dense foods such as \"nsima\" (thick paste prepared  foods such as \"nsima\" (thick paste prepared from either maize or millet meal), cassava and  from either maize or millet meal), cassava and sweet potatoes. Such carbohydrate-rich foods  sweet potatoes. Such carbohydrate-rich foods are often eaten with vegetable relish, which  are often eaten with vegetable relish, which may also contain some protein (where fish,  may also contain some protein (where fish, meat, insects, etc. are included in the relish).  meat, insects, etc. are included in the relish). Meals served to children in rural communities  Meals served to children in rural communities include some sour milk. Gershon et al. (2012)  include some sour milk. Gershon et al. (2012) noted that despite the diversity of food sources,  noted that despite the diversity of food sources, Time of meal Adult men Women Children 0.5-6 years Time of mealAdult menWomenChildren 0.5-6 years (urban and rural)    (urban and rural) Early morning Tea and bread or scones, Tea and bread or scones, Maize meal porridge with Early morningTea and bread or scones,Tea and bread or scones,Maize meal porridge with (urban) rice rice groundnuts or milk, tea and bread (urban)ricericegroundnuts or milk, tea and bread    or scones, rice or scones, rice Early morning Usually nothing Usually nothing Roasted cassava, leftover maize or Early morningUsually nothingUsually nothingRoasted cassava, leftover maize or (rural)   millet or cassava meal with relish,* (rural)millet or cassava meal with relish,*    sweet potatoes sweet potatoes Afternoon meal Maize meal and relish* Maize meal and relish* Maize meal and relish* Afternoon mealMaize meal and relish*Maize meal and relish*Maize meal and relish* (urban)    (urban) Afternoon meal Maize, millet or cassava Maize, millet or cassava Maize, millet or cassava meal with Afternoon mealMaize, millet or cassavaMaize, millet or cassavaMaize, millet or cassava meal with (rural) meal with relish,* sweet meal with relish,* sweet relish,* sweet potatoes (rural)meal with relish,* sweetmeal with relish,* sweetrelish,* sweet potatoes  potatoes potatoes  potatoespotatoes Snack (urban) Fruits when available Fruits when available Maize meal porridge with Snack (urban)Fruits when availableFruits when availableMaize meal porridge with    groundnuts or fresh or sour milk, groundnuts or fresh or sour milk,    teamed with bread or scones, rice, teamed with bread or scones, rice,    biscuits, fruits, \"samp\"** biscuits, fruits, \"samp\"** Snack (rural) Roasted cassava, sweet Roasted cassava or Roasted cassava or groundnuts, Snack (rural)Roasted cassava, sweetRoasted cassava orRoasted cassava or groundnuts,  potatoes, fruits, \"samp\",** groundnuts, sweet sweet potatoes, fruits, \"samp, \"** potatoes, fruits, \"samp\",**groundnuts, sweetsweet potatoes, fruits, \"samp, \"**  \"maheu, \"*** porridge potatoes, fruits, \"samp, \"** \"maheu, \"*** porridge with sour \"maheu, \"*** porridgepotatoes, fruits, \"samp, \"**\"maheu, \"*** porridge with sour  with sour milk (\"ilya\") \"maheu, \"*** porridge milk (\"ilya\") with sour milk (\"ilya\")\"maheu, \"*** porridgemilk (\"ilya\")   with sour milk (\"ilya\")  with sour milk (\"ilya\") Evening meal Maize meal or rice and Maize meal or rice and Maize meal or rice and relish* Evening mealMaize meal or rice andMaize meal or rice andMaize meal or rice and relish* (urban) relish* relish*  (urban)relish*relish* Evening meal Maize or millet meal with Maize or millet meal with Maize or millet meal with relish, Evening mealMaize or millet meal withMaize or millet meal withMaize or millet meal with relish, (rural) relish, sour milk or both relish, sour milk or both sour milk or both (rural)relish, sour milk or bothrelish, sour milk or bothsour milk or both  "},{"text":" Plowing and pulverization of the soil accelerate loss of organic matter, damage soil structure, and expose topsoil to erosion by rainwater and wind and nutrient loss through runoff water.  desiccates trees and wipes out non-fire- desiccates trees and wipes out non-fire-  tolerant species, leading to changes in tolerant species, leading to changes in  species composition. Where bush fires species composition. Where bush fires  affect grasses in \"dambo, \" communities that affect grasses in \"dambo, \" communities that Key informants surveyed pointed to other depend on sales of grasses lose a source of Key informants surveyed pointed to otherdepend on sales of grasses lose a source of specific environmental issues as impinging on income. specific environmental issues as impinging onincome. biodiversity resources in Borotse flood plain: • Overgrazing of communal rangelands by biodiversity resources in Borotse flood plain:• Overgrazing of communal rangelands by • Land degradation, which reduces soil cattle numbers beyond carrying capacity. • Land degradation, which reduces soilcattle numbers beyond carrying capacity. capacity to provide environmental services • Shifting cultivation practices by farmers. capacity to provide environmental services• Shifting cultivation practices by farmers. to plant life, including reduced levels of  to plant life, including reduced levels of nutrients.  nutrients. • Deposition of silt and sediments eroded  • Deposition of silt and sediments eroded from lands elsewhere.  from lands elsewhere. • Soil mining, resulting from  • Soil mining, resulting from non-replenishment  non-replenishment • of nutrients depleted for crop production,  • of nutrients depleted for crop production, particularly where crop residue is not  particularly where crop residue is not returned to the soil.  returned to the soil. • Chanterellus spp. (of which there are four  • Chanterellus spp. (of which there are four types; namely, C. miniatescens, C. cibarius, C.  types; namely, C. miniatescens, C. cibarius, C. longisporus and C. densifolius), commonly  longisporus and C. densifolius), commonly called in Lozi \"ndwindwi, \" \"mwamba-  called in Lozi \"ndwindwi, \" \"mwamba- lindondwe, \" \"chitondwe, \" \"lindondwe\" and  lindondwe, \" \"chitondwe, \" \"lindondwe\" and \"matwianshangwe\").  \"matwianshangwe\").  "},{"text":" Annex 2. scientific, english and local names of river fish species caught in the borotse flood plain and documented status of threats to them notes     notes No. Scientific name English name Local name Threats*  No. Scientific name English name Local name Threats* 1 Protopterus Lungfish Musiyoka or No threats are known to be currently  1ProtopterusLungfishMusiyoka orNo threats are known to be currently  annectens spp.  mutome affecting this species.*1  annectens spp.mutomeaffecting this species.*1  Brieni     Brieni 2 Marcusenius Bulldog Nembele There are no major threats for this  2MarcuseniusBulldogNembeleThere are no major threats for this  macrolepidotus   species.*2  macrolepidotusspecies.*2 3 Mormyrus Western Ndikusi The species has no immediate threats,  3MormyrusWesternNdikusiThe species has no immediate threats,  lacerda bottlenose  although it is specifically targeted by  lacerdabottlenosealthough it is specifically targeted by     fishers using hook and line.*3  fishers using hook and line.*3 4 Borotse Barbus Mbala Given the wide distribution and  4BorotseBarbusMbalaGiven the wide distribution and  Borotseensis   extensive suitable habitat, there are no  Borotseensisextensive suitable habitat, there are no     major threats to this species.*4  major threats to this species.*4 5 Labeo lanatus Upper Linyonga No information.  5Labeo lanatusUpperLinyongaNo information.   Zambezi labeo    Zambezi labeo 6 Schilbe Silver catfish Lubango Schilbe intermedius is commercially  6SchilbeSilver catfishLubangoSchilbe intermedius is commercially  intermedius   used in aquaculture. There is heavy  intermediusused in aquaculture. There is heavy     fishing pressure but the species is highly  fishing pressure but the species is highly     abundant and fecund.*5.  abundant and fecund.*5. 7 Hemichromis Banded jewel Lihulungu The species has a widespread distribution  7HemichromisBanded jewelLihulunguThe species has a widespread distribution 8 elongatus Serranochromis robustus ssp. fish Yellow-belly bream Nembwe in large rivers and thus there are no major threats.*6 Fishing of this subspecies is unlikely to be having a major impact at the moment, AnneX 2 8elongatus Serranochromis robustus ssp.fish Yellow-belly breamNembwein large rivers and thus there are no major threats.*6 Fishing of this subspecies is unlikely to be having a major impact at the moment,AnneX 2  Robustus   although could increase in the future.*7  Robustusalthough could increase in the future.*7 9. Serranochromis Thinface Mamunyandi Serranochromis angusticeps is  9. SerranochromisThinfaceMamunyandi Serranochromis angusticeps is  angusticeps largemouth  commercially used for aquaculture.*8  angusticepslargemouthcommercially used for aquaculture.*8   bream    bream 10. Serranochromis Humpback Mushuna No known threats. Restricted almost  10. SerranochromisHumpbackMushunaNo known threats. Restricted almost  altus largemouth  entirely to the edges of main river  altuslargemouthentirely to the edges of main river     channels and deep connected lagoons  channels and deep connected lagoons     in fringing vegetation  in fringing vegetation  "},{"text":" . Increasing fishing effort and increasingly widespread use of small-meshed fishing nets have depleted stocks in many areas, such as the heavily populated areas of the Borotse flood plain on the Upper Zambezi River in Zambia. Flood plain lagoons no longer provide refugia as they are all intensively seine netted.*12 14. Ctenopoma multispine  Perch Mbundu No major threats known; however, it has PerchMbunduNo major threats known; however, it has    commercial importance as an aquarium commercial importance as an aquarium    fish. Tweddle et al. (2004) observed it fish. Tweddle et al. (2004) observed it    moving out from the Zambezi River moving out from the Zambezi River    onto newly flooded grasslands; e.g., they onto newly flooded grasslands; e.g., they    recorded 62 specimens from a single recorded 62 specimens from a single    mat of grounded vegetation on the mat of grounded vegetation on the    overflowing riverbank.*13 overflowing riverbank.*13 15. Sargochromis Pink bream Seo No known threats.*14 15. SargochromisPink breamSeoNo known threats.*14 giardi    giardi 16. Hydrocynus Tigerfish Ngweshi Tigerfish have declined in some rivers in 16. HydrocynusTigerfishNgweshiTigerfish have declined in some rivers in vittatus   southern Africa due to pollution, water vittatussouthern Africa due to pollution, water    abstraction and obstructions such as abstraction and obstructions such as    dams and weirs that prevent passage. dams and weirs that prevent passage.    Unregulated gillnet fisheries locally Unregulated gillnet fisheries locally    threaten the species.*15 threaten the species.*15 17. Hepsetus odoe Zambezi pike Mulumesi Hepsetus seems to prefer the upper 17. Hepsetus odoe Zambezi pike MulumesiHepsetus seems to prefer the upper    courses of small rivers where Hydrocynus courses of small rivers where Hydrocynus    is absent or less abundant. A major threat is absent or less abundant. A major threat    is its collection commercially as aquarium is its collection commercially as aquarium    fish.*16 fish.*16 18. Synodontis sp. Squeaker Singongi No information available.*17 18. Synodontis sp.SqueakerSingongiNo information available.*17 nov. \"Lower Tana\"    nov. \"Lower Tana\" 19. Clarias Burble fish Ndombe Clarias stappersii is a demersal species 19. ClariasBurble fishNdombeClarias stappersii is a demersal species stappersii   that occurs in well-vegetated, sluggish stappersiithat occurs in well-vegetated, sluggish    river channels and flood plain lagoons. It is river channels and flood plain lagoons. It is    more common in northern Upper Zambezi more common in northern Upper Zambezi    tributaries. No major threats are known.*18 tributaries. No major threats are known.*18 20. Cyphomyrus Parrotfish Minga This species has commercial importance 20. CyphomyrusParrotfishMingaThis species has commercial importance discorhynchus or Zambezi  as an aquarium fish. There is also risk of discorhynchusor Zambezias an aquarium fish. There is also risk of  parrotfish  overfishing (particularly in lakes); illegal parrotfishoverfishing (particularly in lakes); illegal    fishing, especially by use of poisons fishing, especially by use of poisons    and small-meshed nets across rivers, and small-meshed nets across rivers,    threatens this species.*19 threatens this species.*19 21. Petrocephalus Northern Pepe Threat of predation by larger avian 21. PetrocephalusNorthernPepeThreat of predation by larger avian catostoma churchill  predators; common in flood plain habitats. catostomachurchillpredators; common in flood plain habitats.  "}],"sieverID":"6aa1e825-070d-4437-b747-03b67a811752","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0128c4c8ae615669a101f566229bd528","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/wor187.pdf"},"pageCount":54,"title":"From the Mountains to the Plains: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in the Koshi River Basin","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Working Papers","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The publications in this series record the work and thinking of IWMI researchers, and knowledge that the Institute's scientific management feels is worthy of documenting. This series will ensure that scientific data and other information gathered or prepared as a part of the research work of the Institute are recorded and referenced. Working Papers could include project reports, case studies, conference or workshop proceedings, discussion papers or reports on progress of research, country-specific research reports, monographs, etc. Working Papers may be copublished, by IWMI and partner organizations."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment."}]},{"head":"About IWMI","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"IWMI's mission is to provide evidence-based solutions to sustainably manage water and land resources for food security, people's livelihoods and the environment. IWMI works in partnership with governments, civil society and the private sector to develop scalable agricultural water management solutions that have a tangible impact on poverty reduction, food security and ecosystem health. vii"}]},{"head":"Summary","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"The Koshi Basin, spread across China, Nepal and India, is perceived as having high potential for hydropower and irrigation development, both seen as ways to promote economic development in the region. As climate change (CC) is likely to impact future water resources, it is very important to consider CC in future planning. This paper quantifies and assesses the past and projected future spatial and temporal water balances in the Koshi Basin. A Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was set up, calibrated and validated using measured daily flow data from the basin from 1999 to 2006. The CC analysis is based on the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) \"Representative Concentration Pathways\" (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5). The delta change approach was used to generate daily future time series climate data for 2021-2050, considering historical data from 1998-2008 as reference."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Results show that the annual average precipitation, actual evapotranspiration (ET) and net water yield for the reference period are 1,720 mm, 520 mm and 1,124 mm, respectively, with over 75% of precipitation and flow occurring during the monsoon season. The precipitation and net water yield are lowest in the transmountain region and the Tibetan plateau. The values are highest in the mountain region, followed by the hills and Indo-Gangetic Plains. Approximately 65% of average annual precipitation is converted to flows, indicating high water availability. Actual ET, which indicates water use by plants, is highest in the Indo-Gangetic Plains region due to the presence of irrigated agriculture and a few forested mountain watersheds. There is, therefore, a clear mismatch between the area where water availability is highest (mountains) and where water use is highest (Indo-Gangetic Plains). As most of the water from the mountain and hill regions eventually flows down to the plains, the mountain and hill regions in Nepal are important for maintaining agriculture in the plains in both Nepal and India."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Flow analyses show that high-flow pulses (exceeding 75% of daily flows) occur two to five times annually and last for 2 to 20 days during the monsoon season. Extreme low flows occur two to nine times annually and last up to 25 days during the dry season. These results indicate the high temporal variability of flows in the basin. The information on these extreme weather events could be very useful in water-induced disaster management in this region, and also for planning longterm hydraulic structures. The frequent occurrences of both high-and low-flow events demonstrate the existing vulnerability of the region to both floods and droughts, leading to a very risk-prone livelihood system."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"The CC projections show an increasing trend in precipitation and net water yield for most of the basin, except the transmountain region. Actual ET also shows an increasing trend for both CC pathways (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5) throughout the basin. Comparison of flow ranges between the past and projected data indicates that future changes during the dry season are within the past data ranges. However, the future monsoon flows will be higher than the past as demonstrated by higher averages as well as maximum flows. An increasing trend is seen in the high-flow pulse frequency, and occurrences of high flows are shifting towards the latter part of the monsoon. Therefore, flooding occurrences in the monsoon are expected to increase with CC."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Results also show that the seasonal variation in contribution to annual flow volume at the outlet of the Koshi Basin for the reference and future periods remained very similar, with over 75% of the total annual flow occurring within the monsoon season. Therefore, the monsoon will remain the main hydrological driver, variability will continue to be high, future dry seasons will be similar to the past dry seasons, and future monsoons will likely be stronger and wetter with increased flood risk."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"There is a growing focus among the scientific community on understanding the Himalayan river basins with several recent studies investigating the biophysical processes (e.g., Lutz et al. 2014;Immerzeel et al. 2013;Devkota and Gyawali 2015;Nepal 2016). The Himalayan river basins are still considered to be data and information scarce, relative to other regions; scientific studies, especially related to the physical system, are limited. This is primarily due to unavailability and sometimes inaccessibility of long-term hydrological and climate data of good quality and coverage, as well as lack of rigorous analysis of the existing accessible information. The complex topography and extreme climate also make it difficult for climate scientists to construct hydrological and climatic sequences with good spatial and temporal coverage. Nonetheless, decision makers need to explore possible future development scenarios."},{"index":2,"size":167,"text":"The Koshi River Basin is perceived as having high potential for hydropower and irrigation development, both seen as ways to promote economic development in the region. The respective governments (i.e., China, Nepal and India) are interested in building water infrastructure to develop energy production and water supply. There have been a few enabling steps in this direction, such as the recently signed power trade agreement between Nepal and India. So far, a basin development strategy, which goes beyond national and sectorial plans, does not exist. Future water infrastructure is being designed primarily at individual project level without real consideration of the impacts/ benefits outside of the project objectives, such as downstream impacts, environmental flows, impact on local livelihoods, etc. A prerequisite for developing any future basin plans is to carry out water resource assessments, which quantify both spatial and temporal water availability in the basin. Furthermore, as climate change (CC) is likely to impact future water resources, it is very important to consider CC in future planning."},{"index":3,"size":270,"text":"The main objective of this study was to assess the spatial and temporal water balances in the Koshi Basin in China, Nepal and India, and quantify the impact of CC on the basin. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was used to carry out the analysis at sub-basin level. The study is a follow-up to previous studies in the Koshi Basin by the authors (Bharati et al. 2014(Bharati et al. , 2016)). In the previous studies, the Koshi Basin was limited to the mountain and hill regions in China and Nepal. However, in this new, updated study, the outlet of the basin is where the Koshi River joins the main branch of the Ganges (Figure 1) in India. This larger basin includes the transmountain, mountain and hills as well as the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). The transmountain region is behind the Himalayan mountain range in the main Tibetan Plateau. The current study incorporated better input data for the model, including: (i) data from high-altitude stations in the mountains, which were previously not available; (ii) remotely sensed datasets such as Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM); (iii) more detailed land cover and soil maps (see section Methods and Data); and (iv) CC analysis was based on the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) (IPCC 2014). The current study also compared the performance of the more detailed SWAT model to a simple conceptual model GR4J to assess the impact of model structure on model performance (see section Results and Discussion). Furthermore, the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) version 7.1 was used to analyze extreme weather events."}]},{"head":"STUDY AREA","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"The Koshi River is one of the largest tributaries of the Ganges River. The catchment area of the Koshi River up to its confluence with the Ganges River is 87,311 km 2 , of which 28,300 km 2 lies in China, 39,407 km 2 in Nepal and 19,604 km 2 in India. The basin covers five districts in China, 27 districts in Nepal and 16 districts in India. The basin area lies within latitudes 26°54'47'' N to 25°24'43''N, and longitudes 87°09'25''E to 87°15'32''E. The elevation of the basin ranges from 60 meters above sea level (masl) on the alluvial plains in India to more than 8,000 masl in the High Himalayas in Nepal. Due to the large variation in elevation, the river basins of the Himalayan region can be divided into four ecological regions: Indo-Gangetic Plains (60-200 masl), hills (200-4,000 masl), mountains (> 4,000 masl), and the transmountain region, which lies north of the Himalayan mountain range and extends into China (Figure 2). The climate of the Koshi Basin ranges from tropical in the Gangetic Plains to alpine conditions in the high-altitude areas (Agarwal et al. 2014;Bharati et al. 2014Bharati et al. , 2016))."}]},{"head":"Past Water Resource Assessments and Climate Change Studies in the Koshi Basin and Eastern Himalayas","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":416,"text":"Recently, there has been an increase in the number of publications on the Koshi Basin in relation to future CC and its impacts on water availability, runoff components, crop production and natural hazards, using historical trend analysis and IPCC projections. One of the first studies in the Koshi Basin was carried out by Sharma et al. (2000), who studied basin-wide land use, and climatic and hydrological trends. The analysis of climatic and hydrological trends from 1947 to 1993 indicated an increasing trend for temperature and precipitation but a decreasing trend in the discharge, which is more significant in low-flow months. Shrestha et al. (2013) assessed the spatial and temporal impacts of CC on rice-wheat cropping systems, focusing on Irrigation Water Requirement (IWR) in the Bagmati River Basin (a sub-basin of the Koshi Basin). The study found that the impact of CC on IWR depends on different physiographic regions as well as the growth stages of rice and wheat. Due to the migration of people, IWR is decreasing in the hills and mountain but increasing in the Terai Plains. Therefore, there will be increased pressure on large-scale irrigation systems in the Terai. Qi and Redman (1993) conducted a climatic linear trend analysis using 40 years of climate data from 10 meteorological stations and showed a warming trend of 0.25 °C per decade. Bhatt et al. (2014) also investigated climate trends and the impacts on crop production. The results showed warming trends in most parts of the basin with an increase in mean monthly temperature from 1960-2008, which then has a negative impact on the crop yields (rice, maize and wheat). Crop yields, however, might benefit from higher temperatures provided that other conditions such as water availability and soil fertility are favorable (Bhatt et al. 2014). More recently, Nepal (2016) assessed historical records of precipitation and temperature trends in the Nepal part of the Koshi Basin using data from the last 40 to 50 years. The study suggested that about two-thirds of the precipitation stations (22 out of 36) show increasing trends, of which only two were statistically significant, and 14 show decreasing trends, of which only one was statistically significant. Similarly, the maximum temperature increased at the rate of 0.058 °C per year based on data from the last 40 years (Nepal 2016). Furthermore, Lacombe and McCartney (2014) conducted statistical assessments and found that increasing temperatures in the Indian Himalayan region are likely affecting the monsoon and hence changing precipitation patterns in the north of the country."},{"index":2,"size":417,"text":"There have also been a few publications using projected CC data. Agarwal et al. (2014) analyzed precipitation using outputs from 10 General Circulation Models (GCMs) under three IPCC emission scenarios (B1, A1B and A2) for three future periods (2020s, 2055s and 2090s) and for six physiographic regions in the Koshi Basin. Results from the study indicate that not all 10 GCMs agree that changes in precipitation will be positive or negative. A majority of the GCMs and the average values of all the GCMs for each scenario indicate a positive change in summer, autumn and annual precipitation but a negative change in spring precipitation. Differences in the GCM projections exist for all the three future periods and the differences increase with time. The estimated uncertainty is higher for scenario A1B than for scenarios B1 and A2. Agarwal et al. (2016) suggested that the temperature of the Koshi Basin is expected to rise with a relatively higher increase in the mountains than in the hills based on data obtained from 10 GCMs under B1, A1B and A2 scenarios. Khadka et al. (2014) predicted future changes in climatic parameters of the Tamakoshi Basin, one of the highly glaciated sub-basins of the Koshi Basin. The GCMs used in the analysis indicate that both temperature and precipitation will increase by 0.025 °C/year and 4.7 mm/year, respectively. Bharati et al. (2014Bharati et al. ( , 2016) ) stated that the impacts of CC are scale dependent. The impacts of CC are more noticeable at sub-basin and seasonal scales rather than at annual, full basin scales. Therefore, storage and transfer of water from water-surplus seasons and areas to water-deficit seasons and areas are good adaptation strategies. Furthermore, as variability in the system is also likely to increase, future strategies should aim at dealing with variability as well as uncertainty, instead of focusing on changes in average trends. Devkota and Gyawali (2015) assessed CC impacts based on two regional climate models (PRECIS-HADCM3Q0 and PRECIS-ECHAM05). The results showed that CC does not pose a major threat to average water availability. However, temporal flow variations are expected to increase in the future. The magnitude of projected flow for given return periods strongly depends on the climate model run considered. The ECHAM05 results show greater flow changes than those estimated from the HADCM3 model. Gosain et al. (2006) predicted increases in rainfall, evapotranspiration (ET), snowmelt and surface runoff due to CC for the Koshi Basin, but they did not assess seasonal and spatial variations at sub-basin level."},{"index":3,"size":501,"text":"Nepal (2016) used the process-based J2000 hydrological model in the Dudh Kohsi sub-catchment and applied the A1B scenarios of the PRECIS regional climate model until the end of the century. The study indicated that runoff may increase by 13% followed by a slight decrease by the end of the century compared to the reference period. The increase in runoff is attributed to the increase in precipitation in the future. Similarly, ET may increase by 16% by the end of the century. Furthermore, snowmelt and glacier melt are major contributors to runoff and streamflow in Himalayan basins (Immerzeel et al. 2013;Nepal 2016). According to Khadka et al. (2014), the average annual contribution of snowmelt during the reference period (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008) in Tamakoshi is around 17.7%. Similarly, Nepal (2016) estimated a 17% glacier contribution from the Dudh Koshi Basin (the neighboring catchment of Tamakoshi to the east). The study highlighted that the seasonal contribution is more important than the annual contribution. Similarly, Lutz et al. (2014) also estimated the glacier melt contribution to be about 19% in the Dudh Koshi Basin. In the Tamor catchment of the Koshi Basin, the snowmelt contribution to total runoff in the basin is reported to be about 29% on average. It is observed that the snowmelt contribution will not change significantly (17.8% in the 2020s to 17.3% in the 2050s). However, the rainfall contribution is projected to increase. Miller et al. (2012) also studied glacier meltwater contribution in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. The results showed that the impacts of glacier melt strongly affect flows in headwater catchments, but their effects decrease further downstream. Immerzeel et al. (2013) used results from the latest ensemble of GCMs analyzing climate scenarios -Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5 -to assess the hydrological impacts of CC in two Himalayan watersheds, i.e., the Baltoro (a part of the Indus system) and Langtang (a part of the larger Koshi Basin and Ganges system). The study projected an increase in precipitation and temperature in the Ganges Basin, and an increase in future runoff in both watersheds. The study also showed that, in both cases, glaciers will recede but net glacier melt runoff will increase until 2050. Therefore, in combination with a positive change in precipitation, water availability during this century is not likely to decline (Immerzeel et al. 2013). In a similar study, Lutz et al. (2014) used the latest ensemble of climate models and large-scale, high-resolution cryospheric-hydrological models to quantify the upstream hydrological regime of the Eastern Himalayas and the impacts of CC on future water availability. Their results showed an increase in precipitation for the Koshi Basin during the monsoon season. Specifically for the Koshi Basin, the study indicated that discharge might increase, at a higher magnitude during the monsoon season, at least up to 2050, primarily due to an increase in precipitation. Nonetheless, the nature of the hydrograph remains largely unaffected. However, the study also highlighted uncertainties in the results as well as large variations between the annual average and seasonal projections."}]},{"head":"METHODS AND DATA","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"The methodological framework for this study is shown in Figure 3. Spatial and time-series data from the basin were collected and used to set up the SWAT model. The model was then calibrated and validated to observed flow data from multiple stations in Nepal (Table 1) using different criteria such as coefficient of determination (R 2 ), Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) and bias. Flow data from India and China would increase model reliability, but as these data are not accessible, only flow data from Nepal were used. This is still the most detailed model of the Koshi Basin to date. The model results were then analyzed in terms of water balances at daily scales per sub-basin, and compared to model runs using CC projection data to evaluate possible impacts from modelled climate change. Details of each methodological step as well as the SWAT model are described in the following sections.  "}]},{"head":"Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"SWAT is a process-based hydrological model that predicts the impact of land management practices on water, sediment and agricultural chemical yields in complex basins with varying soils, land use and management conditions (Arnold et al. 1998;Srinivasan et al. 1998). The main components of the model include climate, hydrology, erosion, soil temperature, plant growth, nutrients, pesticides, land management, and channel and reservoir routing. Conceptually, SWAT divides a basin into sub-basins. Each sub-basin is connected through a stream channel and further divided into Hydrologic Response Units (HRUs). An HRU is a unique combination of a soil and vegetation type in a sub-watershed. SWAT simulates hydrology, vegetation growth and management practices at the HRU level. The hydrologic cycle, as simulated by SWAT, is based on the water balance equation:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"( "},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Amount of surface runoff on day i (mm) E a : Amount of evapotranspiration on day i (mm) w seep : Amount of percolation on day i (mm) Q gw : Amount of return flow on day i (mm)"},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"Since the model maintains a continuous water balance, the subdivision of the basin enables the model to reflect differences in evapotranspiration for various crops and soils. Thus, runoff is predicted separately for each sub-basin and routed to obtain the total runoff for the basin. This increases the accuracy and gives a much better physical description of the water balance. More detailed descriptions of the model can be found in Arnold et al. (1998) and Srinivasan et al. (1998). The physical infrastructure was included in the model using the reservoir module in SWAT."}]},{"head":"Spatial Data","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":350,"text":"SWAT requires three basic types of data for delineating the basin into sub-basins and HRUs, i.e., a DEM, soil map and a land cover map. The SRTM 90 m resolution DEM for the basin was used as input to the model. The stream network was also generated using the SRTM 90 m DEM. The generated stream network was then compared with the Hydrological data and maps based on SHuttle Elevation Derivatives at multiple Scales (HydroSHEDS) (http://hydrosheds.cr.usgs.gov/ index.php) river network (15 second spatial resolution) as well as Google Earth images in order to rectify some errors. Based on the Google Earth images, incorrect locations of some parts of the generated river network (especially the main branches) were corrected using the burning process in geographic information systems (GIS). The basin was subdivided into 127 sub-basins. The basic LULC map used in the model was obtained from the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) (http://geoportal.icimod.org/) and contained 15 major LULC classes. However, as agricultural land was not subdivided into irrigated and rain-fed land, the agricultural area was further subdivided into irrigated and rain-fed areas using the GlobCover 2009 map (http://due.esrin.esa.int/page_globcover.php). Further, the irrigated and rain-fed areas were discretized to district level for China, Nepal and India within the Koshi Basin with major crop types. The district-wise crop types and calendar were entered into the SWAT model through its management schedule capabilities, which involves input of information on the planting or growing season of plants, irrigation operation, etc. A large part of the study basin is agricultural land (38,614 km 2 ) followed by grassland (21,599 km 2 ). Snow and glaciers cover an area of 5,232 km 2 . The soil and terrain database system (SOTER) soil map of China, Nepal and Indo-Gangetic Plains was downloaded from the ISRIC website (https://www.isric.org/). The soil nomenclature was based on FAO and ISRIC (1990); based on the processed map, there are 37 classes. The dominant soil is Gelic Leptosols in the transmountain and mountain region, Eutric Cambisols in the hills, and Eutric Gleysols and Eutric Cambisols in the Terai and Indo-Gangetic Plains of the basin."}]},{"head":"Time Series Data","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"SWAT requires time series of observed climate data, i.e., rainfall, minimum and maximum temperatures, sunshine duration, wind speed and relative humidity. Table 2 lists the number of climate stations used for modeling while the locations of these stations are presented in Figure 4. Daily observed climate and hydrological data were collected from the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM), Nepal, and India Meteorological Department (IMD). However, as it was not possible to access data from the Chinese part of the Koshi Basin and as there are no climate stations in the higher altitude areas in Nepal, precipitation data from the TRMM (http:// trmm.gsfc.nasa.gov/) were used. In addition, data (daily rainfall, temperature, wind speed, solar radiation and humidity) from three Ev-K2-CNR (http://www.evk2cnr.org/cms/en) stations in the Himalayan Region and Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR) gridded data for China were also acquired and used in the model.  "}]},{"head":"Model Calibration and Validation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":557,"text":"The model was calibrated using daily flow data from 1999 to 2002 and validated for 2003 to 2006. This period was used so that it matches the land cover map chosen for the basin. The measured flow data for this period was also more complete. Calibration of the model was carried out in three steps: sensitivity analysis, auto calibration and manual calibration. Sensitivity analysis was performed using the built-in tool of SWAT, changing the values one at a time, from which the ten most sensitive parameters were identified. Table 3 lists out these parameters with their ranking, i.e., 1 is the most sensitive and 10 the least sensitive. The most sensitive parameters are related to the baseflow process (ALPHA_BF -baseflow recession factor, GWQMN -threshold depth of water in aquifer, REVAPMN -threshold depth of water in aquifer for percolation/evaporation) and surface runoff (CN2 -curve number, ESCO -soil evaporation compensation factor, SURLAG -surface runoff lag coefficient). The built-in tool of SWAT and SWAT-CUP was used for auto calibration using these parameters. The model was run for 1,000 iterations during this step. Sensitivity analysis in SWAT and auto calibration using SWAT and SWAT-CUP are limited to the use of observed data from a single gauging station. Thus, observed flow data from Chatara (outlet of the 96 th sub-basin) were used for this purpose. Although the range of values for the sensitive parameters was narrowed down (Table 3), the simulated and observed hydrographs did not match well. One obvious reason could be the large size of the basin and hence the inability to fit the parameters over the entire basin based on the results from one flow station. Therefore, it was necessary to also perform manual calibration. Manual calibration was done simultaneously using the daily flow data at five gauging stations, all established and maintained by DHM within Nepal. Unfortunately, flow data from China and India were not available. An iterative approach was used for manual calculation which comprised the following steps: (i) simulation; (ii) comparison of observed and simulated values; (iii) checking whether the output is reasonable; (iv) if not, adjusting the parameters based on expert judgment; and (v) repetition of the process until the best results are obtained (Arnold et al. 2012). It was found rational to calibrate the major tributaries of the Koshi River independently to incorporate the spatial variability of the basin in the model. Figure 4 shows the Arun, Tamor, Sunkoshi, Bagmati and Saptakoshi rivers along with the Turkeghat, Majhitar, Pachuwarghat, Padherodovan and Chatara gauging stations, respectively, used for calibration and validation. During manual calibration, first, adjustments were made to those parameters which were deemed most sensitive during the sensitivity analysis for the Chatara gauging station, as discussed previously, followed by adjustments to the parameters deemed to be least sensitive. For some catchments, additional parameters that were not identified during the sensitivity analysis were adjusted for better performance of the model. During calibration, parameters were varied within a reasonable range (Table 4). Furthermore, visual inspection of the hydrographs (peak, time to peak, shape of the hydrograph and baseflow), statistics (mean, standard deviation [SD], coefficient of determination [R 2 ], Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency [NSE], percent bias [PBIAS] and root mean square error [RMSE]-observations standard deviation ratio [RSR]) and comparison of the simulated water balance with the observed values were the basis for evaluating model prediction during manual calibration."},{"index":2,"size":272,"text":"Table 4 shows that the most sensitive parameters, such as runoff curve number (CN_2), groundwater delay (GW_DELAY) and baseflow recession factor (ALPHA_BF), were common calibration parameters at all the stations. Use of initial SWAT-estimated parameters mostly underestimated the baseflow in all cases. Therefore, CN_2 had a key role in increasing the infiltration and hence the groundwater flow into the stream. Similarly, the value of GW_ DELAY was maintained within 90-120 days as it represents the delay in the groundwater flow contributing to the baseflow. It is to be noted that, in the Koshi Basin, around 80% of the total annual precipitation occurs in 4 months (June-September) and the baseflow during the dry period (remaining 8 months) is sustained by the groundwater recharge during the monsoon season. The value of ALPHA_BF was changed depending on the slope of the receding limb of the hydrograph. Other flow-related parameters, such as soil evaporation compensation factor (ESCO), revap coefficient (GW_REVAP), threshold depth of water in the shallow aquifer required for return flow to occur (GWQMN), soil depth (SOL_Z), available water capacity of the soil (SOL_AWC), saturated hydraulic conductivity (SOL_K), effective hydraulic conductivity in the main channel (CH_K2), channel Manning's number (CH_N2) and surface runoff lag coefficient (SURLAG) were adjusted from initial estimates to match the simulated and observed flows. As elevation bands were used in the model, TLAPS and PLAPS played an important role in the spatial distribution of temperature and precipitation (Rahman et al. 2013). Snow/glacier-related parameters, such as TLAPS, lateral flow travel time (LATTIME), snowfall temperature (SFTMP) and snowmelt base temperature (SMTMP) were also adjusted in certain sub-basins where snow/ glacier coverage is large."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Once the model was calibrated, it was run for validation in a different time period, i.e., from 2003 to 2006, using the same parameter sets obtained during calibration. The streamflow results are compared for gauged data for 2003-2006 using the same statistical measures as in the calibration process. The purpose of this step is to assess whether the model can reproduce the flow in this period, thereby providing a measure of its robustness."},{"index":4,"size":173,"text":"Tables 5 and 6 show the daily and monthly statistics of calibration and validation, respectively, at the five gauging stations. Figures 5 to 9 show the observed and simulated daily hydrographs at the five gauging stations. The overall performance of the model was satisfactory. The differences in the mean and SD of the observed and simulated datasets are within ±15% and 20% on daily runs except for Turkeghat and Padherodovan. Similarly, NSE at the daily time step is greater than 0.65 for the calibration period and greater than 0.58 for the validation period for all the gauging stations. Also, R 2 for the daily run is greater than 0.66 for both the calibration and validation periods at all the gauging stations. In the case of the monthly run (Table 6), NSE and R 2 are both well above 0.85 for the calibration period. For the validation period, R 2 is greater than 0.85 for all the stations except Turkeghat (0.75) and NSE is above 0.8 for all the stations except Turkeghat (0.66). 13"},{"index":5,"size":323,"text":"Although PBIAS for the calibration period is well within the ±10% range at all the stations, the values are slightly higher in the validation period at Turkeghat (25.01%), Padherodovan (-45.52%) and Chatara (13.77%). Santhi et al. (2001) have identified potential errors (spatial variability errors in rainfall, soils and land use, errors in measuring flow and errors caused by sampling strategies) that can occur in the measured input data and data used for calibration. As a very large area from Tibet contributes to the flow at Turkeghat, it is strongly dependent on the input (precipitation) data within its catchment area. The TRMM-gridded data in this part of the basin were used due to the unavailability of observed data. Also, accurate information on the snow and glaciers regarding their coverage area, depth and depletion rate was not available for the areas at high altitudes. Thus, the low values of the statistics in this sub-basin are most likely attributable to the precipitation and snow/glacier input data. In addition to the above statistical indices, the ratio of the root mean square error to the standard deviation of measured data (RSR) was also calculated which includes a scaling/normalization factor. RSR varies from zero to a large positive value. The lower the RSR, lower the RMSE and better the model simulation performance (Moriasi et al. 2007). RSR at all stations was found to be less than 0.4 for the calibration period and less than 0.6 for the validation period in the monthly run. Based on the general performance ratings criteria developed by Moriasi et al. (2007) for a monthly time step, it can be seen that the calibration and validation results are \"very good\" in almost all cases (Table 6). Figures 5 to 9 show daily observed and simulated flows from the calibration stations. The model simulations improve for the lower part of the basin as can be seen from the figure for the station at Chatara (Figure 9).     "}]},{"head":"Comparison between GR4J and SWAT","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"The GR4J model developed by Perrin et al. (2003) is a daily lumped rainfall-runoff model. In this study, the outputs of the GR4J model were compared with the SWAT model outputs to compare the results between a complex semi-distributed model such as SWAT and a relatively simple conceptual GR4J model. Comparison of the results also helped to identify the robustness and uncertainties between the two modeling systems. Figure 10 presents the visual fit of the calibration and validation of the catchments in the Koshi Basin, with the GR4J set up. There is good agreement for all gauges. The model matches well for the rise, fall and recession of the hydrographs, but it tends to underpredict the peaks. The main discrepancies are the validation period for the Arun catchment, where the model under-predicts the streamflow, and the Bagmati catchment, where the model is unable to reproduce some very high flows. FIGURE 10. 95% parameter prediction interval (grey shading) and time series of observed streamflow for the calibration (red dots) and validation (blue dots) periods for the Arun, Tamor, Sunkoshi, Bagmati and Saptakoshi hydrological stations."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"The performance statistics in Figure 11 and Table 7 indicate that the model performs well during calibration and validation for all catchments with the exception of the Bagmati catchment, where the NSE values for calibration are below 0.6 and the BIAS is also large with values of the order of 25%, as the model is unable to reproduce the large peaks and the volumes associated with them. However, across both calibration and validation in the Bagmati catchment, while showing lower NSE and R 2 values, the GR4J model tends to show lower biases across both periods."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"Also, the model does not perform well at the Arun catchment, where it has a very large bias and a low NSE score during validation despite performing well during calibration. As mentioned in the SWAT results, the likely explanation for this poor performance lies with the rainfall data used in the model. For the period 2004-2005, the mean annual runoff was 60 mm higher than for the calibration period (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002), but the mean annual rainfall is 300 mm lower. This would suggest that the large bias and poor NSE for the validation period is due to the discrepancy in rainfall. The lack of high resolution rainfall data could also be another hindrance to better model fit."},{"index":4,"size":287,"text":"Table 7 also shows that the SWAT and GR4J models have similar performances, with GR4J showing better performance in terms of NSE for Tamor, Sunkoshi and Saptakoshi catchments, while SWAT is superior for the Arun and Bagmati catchments. On the other hand, in some catchments, SWAT has smaller biases than GR4J, but both models have similar problems for the Arun and Bagmati catchments.  The posterior density as estimated by the DiffeRential Evolution Adaptive Metropolis (DREAM) (Vrugt et al. 2009) are shown in Figure 12. For most catchments, all parameters are well defined, with the exception of X1 (maximum capacity of production store) for the Saptakoshi catchment, X2 (groundwater exchange coefficient) for the Arun catchment, and X3 (routing store) for the Sunkoshi and Tamor catchments. In the cases of X1 and X3, the results indicate that larger values would be preferred. For the Arun catchment, however, the preference for a lower value of the groundwater exchange coefficient (X2) indicates that the model requires a good portion of the rainfall to be lost to groundwater. Therefore, it is possible that, for the calibration period, the rainfall is somewhat overestimated (suggesting a larger coefficient of runoff), and therefore a model calibrated to these excessive rainfall estimates exacerbates the problem when a lower rainfall estimate (such as in the  It is important to note that the uncertainties shown in Figure 12 are related to parameter uncertainty only, and do not take into account possible errors associated with model forcing (i.e., rainfall and evapotranspiration) and streamflow measurements. Of the five streamflow gauges considered here, the rating quality for three (Saptakoshi, Bagmati and Sunkoshi) from DHM, Nepal, is \"fair\", while the quality is considered to be \"good\" for both Tamor and Arun catchments."}]},{"head":"Capabilities and Limitations of the Model","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"As the calibration and validation statistics show satisfactory performance of the SWAT model in the hills and Terai of Nepal, the results obtained from these regions can be confidently used for further activities. Moreover, since agriculture covers a large area, especially in the plains of Nepal and India, the model results can also be used in the quantification of irrigation water, in particular. Land-use classes of the agricultural areas have been reclassified on a district-wise basis in order to extract information on the demand and use of water at the district level. Due to the unavailability of precipitation data and accurate information on snowmelt and glacier melt in the high mountainous areas of Tibet and Nepal, results from the model have a low confidence level for this region. Although the model performs all its calculations at a very small areal unit, it has not been developed and calibrated to simulate small catchments. Therefore, issues related to small sites/catchments should not depend solely on the model results."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"It has been mentioned in the literature by the SWAT developers that its snow/glacier and groundwater component is not as strong as the surface hydrology component (Arnold et al. 1998). Thus, the use of other snow/glacier models and groundwater models is recommended, if these components are important and need to be analyzed in detail."}]},{"head":"CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOS","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"In this study, delta change grids (Immerzeel et al. 2013) were used to downscale two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5), each scenario comprising four GCMs. The period of future simulations was 2021-2050; however, a period of 11 years (2040-2050) was used for climate change analysis."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"The climate change scenarios considered in this model are two RCPs (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5). RCPs are a set of four new pathways developed for the climate modeling community as a basis for long-term and near-term modeling experiments. RCPs were developed from an innovative collaboration between integrated assessment modelers, climate modelers, terrestrial ecosystem modelers and emission inventory experts (van Vuuren et al. 2011). As shown in Table 8, the RCPs cover a period from 1850 to 2100 and the radiative forcing values of 2.6, 4.5, 6 and 8.5 Watts per square meter (W/m 2 ) (van Vuuren et al. 2011). The pathways selected for the study are RCP 4.5 (one of the medium stabilizing scenarios) and RCP 8.5 (a very high reference emission pathway). "}]},{"head":"Future Climate Data Generation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"The climate change downscaling method involved selection of GCMs from a total of 43 model runs for RCP 4.5 and 41 model runs for RCP 8.5. The model selection was carried out as a part of a previous study by Lutz et al. (2014) for a larger domain of the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region. For each model run, the average annual difference in precipitation (%) and temperature (K) was determined (for the period 2021-2050 relative to . Based on these projected differences, four combinations (dry and cold, dry and warm, wet and cold, and wet and warm) for each RCP were derived based on the 10 th and 90 th percentile values of the projected changes. Finally, the model run that was closest to the percentile values were selected for downscaling. The 10 th and 90 th percentile values were selected to include all four corners of the projected changes in temperature and precipitation and to avoid outlier GCMs. According to this method, four GCMs each were selected for both climate scenarios followed by downscaling of the model projections using the monthly delta change grids for the future (2021-2050) relative to a reference period  for each GCM (Immerzeel et al. 2013; Table 9). The delta change values in the grids reflect the change in temperature (K) and precipitation (%) over 60 years (Table 10).  "}]},{"head":"Delta Change Method","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"The monthly delta change grids for the future were then individually processed using GIS to obtain monthly delta change values for all the stations with precipitation and temperature data. There are 92 precipitation stations, of which 53 have temperature stations. The delta change approach was used to generate daily future time series climate data (precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature) for the period 2021 to 2050 from the reference period (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008); however, a period of 11 years (2040-2050) was used for climate change analysis. In order to generate future time series, we developed the R-model, which selects a random year from the reference period (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008) and then applies the delta change formula (shown below) to generate future time series, with the assumption that the change from the period 1961-1990 until 2021-2050 is linear. More information on this method can be found in Wijngaard et al. (2017)."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Where: P = Precipitation (mm) T = Temperature (maximum and minimum, °C) i = day, 1 ≤ i ≤ 31 for month j j = month number, 1 (January) ≤ j ≤ 12 (December) k = future year, 2021 ≤ k ≤ 2050 baseline= 1998-2008 dP = delta change value for precipitation (%) for month j dT = delta change value for temperature (K) for month"},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"The SWAT model was then run with climate data (precipitation, maximum and minimum temperatures) generated by the delta change method for the projected period (2021-2050) for all eight GCMs for RCPs 4.5 and 8.5. The model output was then analyzed to assess the future change in hydrological components such as precipitation, actual ET, net water yield and discharge at Saptakoshi, which is the gauging point, with available data at the lowest reach of the basin."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Water Balance","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Temporal Distribution of Water Balance Components","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":548,"text":"After calibration and validation, the model was run from 1998 to 2008 with 2 years (1996)(1997) as the warm-up period. The four hydrological components considered for the analysis were precipitation, actual evapotranspiration (ET), net water yield and the change in storage (∆ storage). Net water yield is the collective value of snowmelt, surface runoff, baseflow and lateral flow. It does not always follow the precipitation pattern, but is also affected by factors such as rainfall intensity, soil properties and land cover characteristics. The '∆ storage' is a collective term including groundwater recharge, change in soil moisture storage in the vadose zone and model inaccuracies. Annual average precipitation, actual ET and net water yield of the entire basin for the simulation period of 11 years were 1,720 mm, 520 mm and 1,124 mm, respectively. However, the temporal (Figure 13) and spatial variation (Figure 14) of these components within the basin is large. As can be seen from the monthly water balance in Figure 13, monsoon (June, July, August and September) is the main hydrological driver in the basin accounting for over 75% of precipitation and flows. As expected, actual ET and water yield are high in the monsoon and low in the dry period of the year. Large values of ∆ storage during the monsoon can be attributed to high groundwater recharge, which is responsible for groundwater flow and ultimately baseflow during the dry period of the year. Similarly, a decreasing trend of ∆ storage from the monsoon to the dry period is very prominent. July was identified as the wettest month with a maximum precipitation of 393 mm and December the driest with 9 mm. The annual average precipitation for the entire basin for the reference period is 1,720 mm, and the mean seasonal distribution is 49 mm, 241 mm, 1,345 mm and 84 mm for winter (December, January), pre-monsoon (February, March, April, May), monsoon (June, July, August) and post-monsoon (September, October, November) seasons, respectively. The average annual actual ET for the entire basin for the reference period is 550 mm and the mean seasonal distribution is 49 mm, 131 mm, 290 mm and 80 mm for winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon and postmonsoon seasons, respectively. The average annual ET is highest in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, owing to the greater area under cultivation and irrigation. Actual ET decreases from the Indo-Gangetic Plains to the transmountain region. The average annual net water yield for the reference period is 1,124 mm and mean seasonal distribution is 57 mm, 105 mm, 838 mm and 124 mm for winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, respectively. Net water yield is highest in the mountains, followed by the hills, the Indo-Gangetic Plains and transmountain regions.   [1998][1999][2000][2001][2002][2003][2004][2005][2006][2007][2008]. The precipitation and net water yield are lowest in the transmountain region and highest in the mountains followed by the hills in the Nepal part of the basin. In most of the upper sub-basins, water yield was greater than ET. An increasing trend of ET from the northern part to the southern part of the basin is prominent (Figure 15). As ET depends largely on precipitation, land cover and temperature, it was found to be high in forested areas in the hill regions of the basin and agricultural areas in the plains of Nepal and India. Maximum precipitation (5,135 mm)  "}]},{"head":"Ecological Region-wise Water Balance Calculations","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Figure 17 shows the annual variation of precipitation, actual ET and net water yield in the different ecological regions within the Koshi Basin. The error bars show the maximum-minimum range for each parameter within the specified region. Maximum annual average precipitation (2,234 mm) was recorded in the mountain region (M) followed by the hills (H) and the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), and the minimum (943 mm) was recorded in the transmountain region (TM). Annual average actual ET shows a different trend with a minimum (232 mm) in the TM, which increases as we move down the elevation of the basin with the maximum occurring in the IGP (763 mm). Annual net water yield follows a similar pattern to that of precipitation. Minimum net water yield occurs in the TM (585 mm) and the maximum occurs in the mountain region (1,675 mm). As seen in Figure 17, the maximum and minimum ranges for precipitation, actual ET and net water yield are highest in the mountain region and lowest in the transmountain region."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"Figure 18 shows the seasonal variation of mean precipitation, mean actual ET and mean net water yield in the different ecological regions within the study basin. The error bars show the maximum-minimum range for each parameter within the specified region. Although the magnitudes vary, a very similar trend is observed in all the cases. Precipitation, actual ET and net water yield have the maximum values during the monsoon season followed by the pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and winter seasons. Mean precipitation is highest in the mountains, i.e., 61 mm during the winter, 278 mm in the pre-monsoon, 1,494 mm in the monsoon and 87 mm in the post-monsoon seasons. Variation in mean actual ET within the basin is low for a particular season. However, it is highest in the monsoon season with a maximum value of 1,277 mm in the mountains. Mean actual ET for the IGP is very similar for the pre-and post-monsoon seasons. As expected, the mean net water yield is also highest during the monsoon season followed by the pre-monsoon, post-monsoon and winter seasons. Areas with high actual ET have low water yields, e.g., the IGP. The highest net water yield is observed in the mountains during the monsoon season (1,063 mm)."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"The monsoon is clearly the main hydrological driver in the basin as precipitation, ET and water yield are the highest during this season. Storage and transferring water from the monsoon to the dry period is a good water management strategy. There is also a clear mismatch between areas where water availability is highest (mountains) to areas where water use is highest, i.e., in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The water generated in the mountains in Nepal are, therefore, very important for maintaining the vast area of irrigated agriculture in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, termed the 'bread basket' in both Nepal and India."}]},{"head":"Analysis of Extreme Flow Events","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) version 7.1 is a tool which can be easily used to summarize long periods of daily data. It was used to analyze the hydrologic characteristics of the Koshi River at Chatara using daily time series flow data from 1982 to 2006 (for further details, see Richter et al. 1996). Parametric statistics (mean/standard deviation) were used for the analysis. Flows exceeding 75% of daily flows for the period were classified as High Flows and those below 50% of daily flows for the period were classified as Low Flows. A Small Flood event was defined as an initial High Flow with a peak flow greater than a 2-year return interval event. Similarly, a Large Flood event was defined as an initial High Flow with a peak flow greater than a 10-year return interval event. An Extreme Low Flow was defined as an initial Low Flow below 10% of daily flows for the period."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Figure 19 shows the Flow Duration Curve (FDC) of Chatara for the reference period. Flows corresponding to 40%, 60% and 80% exceedance probabilities are 1,090 m 3 /s, 543 m 3 /s and 385 m 3 /s, respectively.   (in 1987 and 2003) can also be observed. Similarly, a few occurrences of extreme low flows can also be seen. Thus, it can be said that the Koshi River has a high degree of variability regarding its flow characteristics. The information on these extreme events could be very useful for water-induced disaster management in this region, and also for planning long-term hydraulic structures."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Results of the high-flow analysis are shown in Figure 21. It can be seen that peak flows within the range of 2,500-4,500 m 3 /s are very common for the Koshi River at Chatara. Extreme flows (greater than 6,000 m 3 /s) have also occurred in the past (2003)(2004). It is also evident that high-flow pulses occur at least two to five times annually during the monsoon (June to August), and those pulses last for 2 to 20 days almost every year. An annual increasing trend is seen in the high-flow pulse frequency, and occurrences of high flows are shifting towards the latter part of the monsoon. As with large floods, small floods also occur during the monsoon."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Low-flow analysis is summarized in Figure 22. It is clear that, although the occurrence of low flows is relatively less frequent during the period of analysis, it extends to 70-100 days annually. Extreme low flows occur two to nine times annually with a duration of up to 25 days every year (Figure 22). These events are found to occur during the dry season. The frequent occurrences of both high-and low-flow events demonstrates the vulnerability of the region to both floods and droughts, resulting in a very risk-prone livelihood system."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"Results from RCPs 4.5 and 8.5 Future Projections Figures 23, 24 and 25 show sub-basin-wise average percentage changes in precipitation, actual ET and net water yield, respectively, for four GCMs each of RCPs 4.5 and 8.5. Precipitation and net water yield show increases in most parts of the basin except for the sub-basins within the transmountain region, which shows a decrease. Similarly, Actual ET is seen to increase over the entire basin except for a few sub-basins, especially in the transmountain region. The RCP 8.5 projections show a similar spatial pattern to RCP 4.5. Actual ET is projected to increase across most of the basin, and precipitation and water yield will increase except in a few sub-basins, which are mostly in the transmountain region."},{"index":6,"size":242,"text":"Figure 26 shows the monthly minimum, maximum and average discharges for the reference period (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008) and projected period (2040-2050) for ensembles of RCP 4.5 for Chatara gauging station (Figure 4). The data range for the reference period is represented by the error bars and the range for all the CC projections are within the orange area in the figure. As variability is high in the basin, it is useful to compare future changes in the data range in addition to the average changes. If, for example, the future range is similar to the past range then adaptation strategies might already exist, which then decreases vulnerability. However, if the future range is outside of the past range then the impact of CC will be more severe. For RCP 4.5, the lower range for the projected average monthly discharge is within the range of the discharge in the reference period for all the months. Therefore, the future low flows are within the past data range. However, the range for the projected high flows is outside the past range in all the months except January and September. This suggests that the peak flows will increase in the future, also increasing the risk of floods. The average seasonal discharge from the different projections shows an increase for all seasons, i.e., 2 to 12% in the winter, 5 to 13% in the pre-monsoon, -2% to 11% in the monsoon and 5 to 16% in the post-monsoon seasons. "}]},{"head":"Flow exceedence probability","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Figure 27 shows the monthly minimum, maximum and average discharges for the reference period (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008) and projected period (2040-2050) for ensembles of RCP 8.5 for Chatara gauging station. Similar to Figure 26, the error bars and orange area show the minimum and maximum range of the reference period and projected period, respectively. For RCP 8.5, the projected average monthly discharges during low flows are within the data range for the reference period. However, the projected monthly average discharge from May until November is higher than the past range. The average seasonal discharge from the different projections also shows an increase for all seasons under RCP 8.5, i.e., 8 to 14% in the winter, -8 to 25% in the pre-monsoon, 9 to 18% in the monsoon and 3 to 20% in the post-monsoon seasons."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Therefore, both Figures 26 and 27 suggest that the future changes during the dry season (November-May) are within the past ranges. However, the future monsoon flows will be higher than the past as demonstrated by higher averages as well as maximum flows."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Results show that the seasonal variation in contribution to annual flow volume at the outlet of the Koshi Basin for the reference and projected periods remained very similar. For the reference period, 72% of the total annual flow occurred during the monsoon, 6% in the winter, 12% in the pre-monsoon and 10% in the post-monsoon seasons. The projected variation in seasonal contribution to annual flow only showed a 1% change in the monsoon season and a maximum of a 2% change in the pre-monsoon season. The percentage contributed was the same for both the post-monsoon and winter seasons. Note: Refer to Table 9 for details on the GCMs for each scenario. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. Map of the Koshi River Basin showing the administrative boundaries and the four ecological regions. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2. A map showing the Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) patterns across the four ecological regions in the Koshi Basin. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. Methodological framework for this study. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 . FIGURE 4. Hydrological, meteorological and calibration stations in the Koshi Basin. "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 .FIGURE 6 . FIGURE 5. Observed and simulated flows at Turkeghat (#604.5) on a daily time step. "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 . FIGURE 8. Observed and simulated flows at Padherodovan (#589) on a daily time step. "},{"text":"FIGURE 11 . FIGURE 11. Box plots of NSE (top panel) and percent bias (bottom panel) for calibration (left side) and validation (right side) for all five calibration gauges (Arun, Tamor, Saptakoshi, Bagmati and Sunkoshi). "},{"text":" years 2004-2005) is encountered. It is possible to calibrate the Arun model for the period 2003-2006 and obtain a PBIAS of only 1.8%, but the validation for the period 1999-2002 then shows an excess of streamflow resulting in a PBIAS of 45% (results not shown). "},{"text":"FIGURE 12 . FIGURE 12. Posterior histograms for the four parameters of the GR4J hydrological model in each catchment (parameter bounds are X1 = [1,1500], X2 = [-10,5], X3 = [1,500], and X4 = [0.5,4]). "},{"text":" \uD835\uDC77\uD835\uDC77 \uD835\uDC8A\uD835\uDC8A,\uD835\uDC8B\uD835\uDC8B,\uD835\uDC8C\uD835\uDC8C = \uD835\uDC77\uD835\uDC77 \uD835\uDC8A\uD835\uDC8A,\uD835\uDC8B\uD835\uDC8B,\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83 + \uD835\uDC77\uD835\uDC77 \uD835\uDC8A\uD835\uDC8A,\uD835\uDC8B\uD835\uDC8B,\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83 * ( \uD835\uDC85\uD835\uDC85\uD835\uDC77\uD835\uDC77 \uD835\uDC8A\uD835\uDC8A \uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4 * (\uD835\uDC8C\uD835\uDC8C − \uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83 + \uD835\uDFCF\uD835\uDFCF)/\uD835\uDFCF\uD835\uDFCF\uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4 \uD835\uDC7B\uD835\uDC7B \uD835\uDC8A\uD835\uDC8A,\uD835\uDC8B\uD835\uDC8B,\uD835\uDC8C\uD835\uDC8C = \uD835\uDC7B\uD835\uDC7B \uD835\uDC8A\uD835\uDC8A,\uD835\uDC8B\uD835\uDC8B,\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83 + \uD835\uDC85\uD835\uDC85\uD835\uDC7B\uD835\uDC7B \uD835\uDC8A\uD835\uDC8A \uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4\uD835\uDFD4 * (\uD835\uDC8C\uD835\uDC8C − \uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83\uD835\uDC83 + \uD835\uDFCF\uD835\uDFCF) "},{"text":"FIGURE 13 . FIGURE 13. Mean monthly water balance (1998-2008). "},{"text":" Figures 14, 15 and 16  show the spatial distribution of annual average precipitation, actual ET and net water yield for the reference period(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008). The precipitation and net water yield are lowest in the transmountain region and highest in the mountains followed by the hills in the Nepal part of the basin. In most of the upper sub-basins, water yield was greater than ET. An increasing trend of ET from the northern part to the southern part of the basin is prominent (Figure15). As ET depends largely on precipitation, land cover and temperature, it was found to be high in forested areas in the hill regions of the basin and agricultural areas in the plains of Nepal and India. Maximum precipitation (5,135 mm) occurred in a sub-basin in the mountain region and minimum precipitation (604 mm) in the transmountain region in the Tibetan plateau. The maximum ET (1,052 mm) occurred in a sub-basin in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India, while the minimum ET (52 mm) occurred in a sub-basin in the transmountain region of China. Similarly, the maximum water yield (4,408 mm) was recorded in a sub-basin in the mountain region of Nepal and the minimum water yield (259 mm) was recorded in a sub-basin of the transmountain region of China. "},{"text":"FIGURE 17 . FIGURE 17. Ecological region-wise variation of (a) annual precipitation, (b) actual ET, and (c) net water yield within the Koshi Basin. (a) "},{"text":" Figure20shows the environmental flow components at Chatara. It can be seen from the graph that small floods and high floods are very common, occurring almost every year during the monsoon. Two instances of large floods(in 1987 and 2003)  can also be observed. Similarly, a few occurrences of extreme low flows can also be seen. Thus, it can be said that the Koshi River has a high degree of variability regarding its flow characteristics. The information on these extreme events could be very useful for water-induced disaster management in this region, and also for planning long-term hydraulic structures.Results of the high-flow analysis are shown in Figure21. It can be seen that peak flows within the range of 2,500-4,500 m 3 /s are very common for the Koshi River at Chatara. Extreme flows (greater than 6,000 m 3 /s) have also occurred in the past(2003)(2004). It is also evident that high-flow pulses occur at least two to five times annually during the monsoon (June to August), and those pulses last for 2 to 20 days almost every year. An annual increasing trend is seen in the high-flow pulse frequency, and occurrences of high flows are shifting towards the latter part of the monsoon. As with large floods, small floods also occur during the monsoon.Low-flow analysis is summarized in Figure22. It is clear that, although the occurrence of low flows is relatively less frequent during the period of analysis, it extends to 70-100 days annually. Extreme low flows occur two to nine times annually with a duration of up to 25 days every year (Figure22). These events are found to occur during the dry season. The frequent occurrences of both high-and low-flow events demonstrates the vulnerability of the region to both floods and droughts, resulting in a very risk-prone livelihood system. "},{"text":"FIGURE 19 . FIGURE 19. Flow duration curve (FDC) in log scale of Chatara. "},{"text":"FIGURE 21 .FIGURE 22 . FIGURE 21. Results of the high-flow analysis: (a) peak, (b) frequency, (c) timing, and (d) duration. (a) "},{"text":"FIGURE 26 . FIGURE 26. Average annual hydrograph for the reference (1998-2008) and future (2040-2050) periods for ensembles of RCP 4.5. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . An overview of the main datasets. Category Data Data source CategoryDataData source Hydrology River discharge Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM), Nepal HydrologyRiver dischargeDepartment of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM), Nepal Climate Precipitation, temperature, relative For Nepal, DHM and Ev-K2-CNR (Chartered Association ClimatePrecipitation, temperature, relativeFor Nepal, DHM and Ev-K2-CNR (Chartered Association  humidity, solar radiation, wind speed in Nepal) station data were used; for China, TRMM and humidity, solar radiation, wind speed in Nepal) station data were used; for China, TRMM and   Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR) gridded data Climate Forecast System Reanalysis (CFSR) gridded data   were used; for India, India Meteorological Department (IMD) were used; for India, India Meteorological Department (IMD)   gridded and point data were used gridded and point data were used Topography Digital elevation model (DEM) - Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) TopographyDigital elevation model (DEM) -Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)  90 m resolution  90 m resolution Soils Soil map and soil properties Soil and Terrain database system (SOTER) soil map of SoilsSoil map and soil propertiesSoil and Terrain database system (SOTER) soil map of   China, Nepal and Indo-Gangetic Plains. Downloaded from China, Nepal and Indo-Gangetic Plains. Downloaded from   ISRIC -World Soil Information website ISRIC -World Soil Information website   (https://www.isric.org/) (https://www.isric.org/) Land use Land use map Land cover types of the land use/land cover (LULC) map Land useLand use mapLand cover types of the land use/land cover (LULC) map  "},{"text":" 1) Where:   Where: SW t : Final soil water content (mm) SW t:Final soil water content (mm) SW o : Initial soil water content (mm) SW o:Initial soil water content (mm) t : Time in days t:Time in days R   R  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Summary of climate and hydrological data, and climate stations used for modeling. Description Remarks DescriptionRemarks Climate data (daily)  Climate data (daily) • 92 Precipitation stations • Includes data from DHM (Nepal), IMD • 92 Precipitation stations• Includes data from DHM (Nepal), IMD • 53 Temperature stations (India), Ev-K2-CNR, TRMM and CFSR • 53 Temperature stations(India), Ev-K2-CNR, TRMM and CFSR • 55 Humidity stations • Compilation of both point (station) and • 55 Humidity stations• Compilation of both point (station) and • 56 Wind speed stations gridded data • 56 Wind speed stationsgridded data • 68 Solar duration stations  • 68 Solar duration stations Hydrological data (daily)  Hydrological data (daily)  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . Initial values of the parameters after sensitivity analysis and auto calibration. Sensitivity analysis ranking Parameters * Initial value suggested by SWAT Sensitivity analysis rankingParameters *Initial value suggested by SWAT 1 ALPHA_BF 0.54 1ALPHA_BF0.54 2 CH_K2 142.79 2CH_K2142.79 3 CH_N2 0.1001 3CH_N20.1001 4 CN2 19.129 4CN219.129 5 ESCO 0.6208 5ESCO0.6208 6 GWQMN 944.35 6GWQMN944.35 7 REVAPMN 8.967 7REVAPMN8.967 8 SOL_AWC 18.17 8SOL_AWC18.17 9 SOL_K 23.45 9SOL_K23.45 10 SURLAG 2.35 10SURLAG2.35 Note:   Note:  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . Calibrated SWAT parameters. Flow station Parameters * File * Level * Initial values Calibrated values Range * Flow stationParameters *File *Level *Initial values Calibrated valuesRange * 1 Turkeghat TLAPS .sub Sub-basin -5.6 -3.8 --10 1 TurkeghatTLAPS.subSub-basin-5.6-3.8--10  PLAPS .sub Sub-basin -50 5.8 -100 PLAPS.subSub-basin-505.8-100  CN_2 .mgt HRU Varies 0.8 (Ratio) -98 CN_2.mgtHRUVaries0.8 (Ratio)-98  SOL_K .sol HRU Varies 0.8 (Ratio) -100 SOL_K.solHRUVaries0.8 (Ratio)-100  GW_DELAY .gw HRU 31 120 0 -50 GW_DELAY.gwHRU311200 -50  ALPHA_BF .gw HRU 0.048 0.55 0 -1 ALPHA_BF.gwHRU0.0480.550 -1  ESCO .hru HRU 0 0.7 0 -1 ESCO.hruHRU00.70 -1  LATTIME .hru HRU 1 1 -180 LATTIME.hruHRU11-180  SOL_Z .sol HRU 300 600 -3,000 SOL_Z.solHRU300600-3,000  GWQMN .gw HRU 0 550 -5,000 GWQMN.gwHRU0550-5,000  SURLAG .bsn Basin 10 1 1 -10 SURLAG.bsnBasin1011 -10  SFTMP .bsn Basin 1 1 -5 -5 SFTMP.bsnBasin11-5 -5  SMTMP .bsn Basin 0.5 0.9 -5 -5 SMTMP.bsnBasin0.50.9-5 -5 2 Majhitar GW_DELAY .gw HRU 31 85 0 -50 2 MajhitarGW_DELAY.gwHRU31850 -50  CN_2 .mgt HRU Varies 0.8 (Ratio) -98 CN_2.mgtHRUVaries0.8 (Ratio)-98  ESCO .hru HRU 0 0.5 0 -1 ESCO.hruHRU00.50 -1  SOL_Z .sol HRU 300 800 -3,000 SOL_Z.solHRU300800-3,000  SOL_K .sol HRU Varies 0.75 (Ratio) -100 SOL_K.solHRUVaries0.75 (Ratio)-100  SOL_AWC .sol HRU Varies 0.95 (Ratio) 0 -1 SOL_AWC.solHRUVaries0.95 (Ratio)0 -1  GWQMN .gw HRU 0 415 -5,000 GWQMN.gwHRU0415-5,000  CH_N2 .rte Reach 0.014 0.035 0 -1 CH_N2.rteReach0.0140.0350 -1 3 Pachuwarghat CN_2 .mgt HRU Varies 0.75 (Ratio) -98 3 PachuwarghatCN_2.mgtHRUVaries0.75 (Ratio)-98  GW_DELAY .gw HRU 31 90 0 -50 GW_DELAY.gwHRU31900 -50  ALPHA_BF .gw HRU 0.048 0.09 0 -1 ALPHA_BF.gwHRU0.0480.090 -1  GWQMN .gw HRU 0 500 -5,000 GWQMN.gwHRU0500-5,000  SOL_Z .sol HRU 300 600 -3,000 SOL_Z.solHRU300600-3,000  SOL_K .sol HRU Varies 0.7 (Ratio) -100 SOL_K.solHRUVaries0.7 (Ratio)-100  SOL_AWC .sol HRU Varies 1.167 (Ratio) 0 -1 SOL_AWC.solHRUVaries1.167 (Ratio)0 -1  ESCO .hru HRU 0 0.7 0 -1 ESCO.hruHRU00.70 -1 4 Padherodovan CN_2 .mgt HRU Varies 1.35 (Ratio) -98 4 PadherodovanCN_2.mgtHRUVaries1.35 (Ratio)-98  GW_DELAY .gw HRU 31 90 0 -50 GW_DELAY.gwHRU31900 -50  ALPHA_BF .gw HRU 0.048 0.015 0 -1 ALPHA_BF.gwHRU0.0480.0150 -1  SOL_AWC .sol HRU Varies 1.135 (Ratio) 0 -1 SOL_AWC.solHRUVaries1.135 (Ratio)0 -1  SOL_K .sol HRU Varies 0.56 (Ratio) -100 SOL_K.solHRUVaries0.56 (Ratio)-100  ESCO .hru HRU 0 0.075 0 -1 ESCO.hruHRU00.0750 -1  GW_REVAP .gw HRU 0.02 0.05 0.02 -0.2 GW_REVAP.gwHRU0.020.050.02 -0.2  CH_K2 .rte Reach 0 6.21 -150 CH_K2.rteReach06.21-150  CH_N2 .rte Reach 0.014 0.211 0 -1 CH_N2.rteReach0.0140.2110 -1 5 Chatara GW_DELAY .gw HRU 31 100 0 -50 5 ChataraGW_DELAY.gwHRU311000 -50  ALPHA_BF .gw HRU 0.048 0.5 0 -1 ALPHA_BF.gwHRU0.0480.50 -1  CN_2 .mgt HRU Varies 0.65 (Ratio) -98 CN_2.mgtHRUVaries0.65 (Ratio)-98  LATTIME .hru HRU 1 4 -180 LATTIME.hruHRU14-180  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . Daily calibration and validation statistics assessing model performance at five hydrological stations. River Station (index number) Index Calibration Validation RiverStation (index number)IndexCalibrationValidation Arun Turkeghat (#604.5) R 2 0.81 0.64 ArunTurkeghat (#604.5)R 20.810.64   NSE 0.81 0.58 NSE0.810.58   PBIAS % -6.81 24.6 PBIAS %-6.8124.6   RSR 0.44 0.65 RSR0.440.65 Tamor Majhitar (#684) R 2 0.66 0.67 TamorMajhitar (#684)R 20.660.67   NSE 0.65 0.58 NSE0.650.58   PBIAS % 7.52 -3.65 PBIAS %7.52-3.65   RSR 0.59 0.66 RSR0.590.66 Sunkoshi Pachuwarghat (#630) R 2 0.74 0.71 SunkoshiPachuwarghat (#630)R 20.740.71   NSE 0.72 0.65 NSE0.720.65   PBIAS % -2.06 5.42 PBIAS %-2.065.42   RSR 0.53 0.59 RSR0.530.59 Bagmati Padherodovan (#589) R 2 0.71 0.70 BagmatiPadherodovan (#589)R 20.710.70   NSE 0.71 0.67 NSE0.710.67   PBIAS % -7.89 -45.38 PBIAS %-7.89-45.38   RSR 0.54 0.57 RSR0.540.57 Saptakoshi Chatara (#695) R 2 0.86 0.83 SaptakoshiChatara (#695)R 20.860.83   NSE 0.85 0.80 NSE0.850.80   PBIAS % -8.69 13.77 PBIAS %-8.6913.77   RSR 0.39 0.44 RSR0.390.44  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 . Monthly calibration and validation statistics assessing model performance at five hydrological stations. River Station (index number) Index Calibration Validation RiverStation (index number)IndexCalibrationValidation Arun Turkeghat (#604.5) R 2 0.95 0.75 ArunTurkeghat (#604.5)R 20.950.75   NSE 0.94 0.66 NSE0.940.66   PBIAS % -6.86 25.01 PBIAS %-6.8625.01   RSR 0.24 0.58 RSR0.240.58   * Performance Very good Satisfactory * PerformanceVery goodSatisfactory Tamor Majhitar (#684) R 2 0.91 0.95 TamorMajhitar (#684)R 20.910.95   NSE 0.85 0.95 NSE0.850.95   PBIAS % 7.41 -3.75 PBIAS %7.41-3.75   RSR 0.38 0.22 RSR0.380.22   * Performance Very good Very good * PerformanceVery goodVery good Sunkoshi Pachuwarghat (#630) R 2 0.93 0.94 SunkoshiPachuwarghat (#630)R 20.930.94   NSE 0.93 0.93 NSE0.930.93   PBIAS % -2.16 5.50 PBIAS %-2.165.50   RSR 0.26 0.26 RSR0.260.26   * Performance Very good Very good * PerformanceVery goodVery good Bagmati Padherodovan (#589) R2 0.93 0.95 BagmatiPadherodovan (#589)R20.930.95   NSE 0.92 0.82 NSE0.920.82   PBIAS % -8.04 -45.52 PBIAS %-8.04-45.52   RSR 0.27 0.42 RSR0.270.42   * Performance Very good Unsatisfactory * PerformanceVery goodUnsatisfactory Saptakoshi Chatara (#695) R2 0.90 0.88 SaptakoshiChatara (#695)R20.900.88   NSE 0.89 0.84 NSE0.890.84   PBIAS % -8.72 13.77 PBIAS %-8.7213.77   RSR 0.32 0.40 RSR0.320.40   * Performance Very good Good * PerformanceVery goodGood Note:     Note:  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 . Comparison of results from the SWAT and GR4J models using R2, NSE and BIAS (GR4J results correspond to the model results with highest NSE). Calibration Validation CalibrationValidation  "},{"text":"TABLE 8 . Overview of the representative concentration pathways (RCPs).  Description Description RCP 8.5 Rising radiative forcing pathways leading to 8.5 W/m2 (~ 1,370 parts per million [ppm] RCP 8.5Rising radiative forcing pathways leading to 8.5 W/m2 (~ 1,370 parts per million [ppm]  carbon dioxide [CO2]) by 2100. It is one very high reference emission scenario carbon dioxide [CO2]) by 2100. It is one very high reference emission scenario RCP 6 Stabilization without overshoot pathway to 6 W/m2 (~850 ppm CO2) at stabilization after 2100 RCP 6Stabilization without overshoot pathway to 6 W/m2 (~850 ppm CO2) at stabilization after 2100 RCP 4.5 Stabilization without overshoot pathway to 4.5 W/m2 (~650 ppm CO2) at stabilization after 2100. RCP 4.5Stabilization without overshoot pathway to 4.5 W/m2 (~650 ppm CO2) at stabilization after 2100.  It is a medium stabilizing scenario It is a medium stabilizing scenario RCP 2.6 Peak in radiative forcing at ~3 W/m2 (~490 ppm CO2) before 2100 and then declines to 2.6 W/m2 RCP 2.6Peak in radiative forcing at ~3 W/m2 (~490 ppm CO2) before 2100 and then declines to 2.6 W/m2  by 2100 by 2100  "},{"text":"TABLE 9 . List of selected GCMs. Description RCP dP (%) dT (K) Selected model DescriptionRCPdP (%)dT (K)Selected model DRY, COLD RCP 4.5 -1.8 1.4 GISS-E2_rcp45 DRY, COLDRCP 4.5-1.81.4GISS-E2_rcp45 DRY, WARM RCP 4.5 -1.8 2.3 IPSL-CM5A_rcp45 DRY, WARMRCP 4.5-1.82.3IPSL-CM5A_rcp45 WET, COLD RCP 4.5 8.9 1.4 CCSM4_rcp45 WET, COLDRCP 4.58.91.4CCSM4_rcp45 WET, WARM RCP 4.5 8.9 2.3 CanESM2_rcp45 WET, WARMRCP 4.58.92.3CanESM2_rcp45 DRY, COLD RCP 8.5 -1.1 1.7 GFDL-ESM2G_rcp85 DRY, COLDRCP 8.5-1.11.7GFDL-ESM2G_rcp85 DRY, WARM RCP 8.5 -1.1 2.7 IPSL-CM5A_rcp85 DRY, WARMRCP 8.5-1.12.7IPSL-CM5A_rcp85 WET, COLD RCP 8.5 12.1 1.7 CSIRO-Mk3_rcp85 WET, COLDRCP 8.512.11.7CSIRO-Mk3_rcp85 WET, WARM RCP 8.5 12.1 2.7 CanESM2_rcp85 WET, WARMRCP 8.512.12.7CanESM2_rcp85 Source: Lutz and Immerzeel 2013.    Source: Lutz and Immerzeel 2013.  "},{"text":"TABLE 10 . Specification of delta change grids. Character Specification CharacterSpecification Extent (WGS 1984) Longitude: 66.00° to 99.00° E Extent (WGS 1984)Longitude: 66.00° to 99.00° E  Latitude: 21.25° to 37.50° N Latitude: 21.25° to 37.50° N Spatial resolution 0.25° x 0.25°∆ Spatial resolution0.25° x 0.25°∆ T units Kelvin (K) T unitsKelvin (K) ∆P units Percentage (%) ∆P unitsPercentage (%) Format American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) grid FormatAmerican Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) grid Total number of grids 192 Total number of grids192  "},{"text":" occurred in a sub-basin in the mountain region and minimum precipitation (604 mm) in the transmountain region in the Tibetan plateau. The maximum ET (1,052 mm) occurred in a sub-basin in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India, while the minimum ET (52 mm) occurred in a sub-basin in the transmountain region of China. Similarly, the maximum water yield (4,408 mm) was recorded in a sub-basin in the mountain region of Nepal and the minimum water yield (259 mm) was recorded in a sub-basin of the transmountain region of China. FIGURE 15. Spatial distribution of annual average actual evapotranspiration. FIGURE 15. Spatial distribution of annual average actual evapotranspiration. FIGURE 14. Spatial distribution of annual average precipitation. FIGURE 14. Spatial distribution of annual average precipitation. FIGURE 16. Spatial distribution of annual average net water yield. FIGURE 16. Spatial distribution of annual average net water yield.  "}],"sieverID":"1c8067ff-8c7e-4fd7-b788-7254616b1d02","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0163c27a44a2e6574e0947714be0cafc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/46131c74-f0bc-4385-aaec-60eb6d39b2c0/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Evaluation of nutritional properties of cassava-legumes snacks for domestic consumption-Consumer acceptance and willingness to pay in Zambia","keywords":["cassava flour","snacks","proximate composition","consumer preference","willingness-to-pay"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a widely grown drought-tolerant crop that can be cultivated on marginal soils and produce high yields in unfavourable growing conditions [1]. It is the most essential vegetatively propagated food staple in Africa and a prominent industrial crop in Latin America and Asia [2]. It is cultivated as a subsistence crop in developing countries across the world estimated to feed between 500 and 1,000 million people [3]. Its popularity is second to none in sub-Saharan Africa and the South-West Indian Ocean islands (SWIO) [4], where it has become the major staple food crop constituting the central part of the diet of traditional households. The world cassava production was estimated to be 277 million tonnes (fresh root equivalent); this has been projected to rise by half a per cent in 2018 [5]. So far, cassava has held the status of one of the fastest expanding staple crops at the global level that has recorded two decades of uninterrupted growth of more than 3% per annum."},{"index":2,"size":299,"text":"In Zambia, cassava is the second most-consumed staple food crop after maize [6]. Before now, it was considered a backward crop, traditional foodstuff grown by women for subsistence [7]. The importance of cassava has become more prominent in recent years due to the increase in population and the drought susceptibility of maize brought about by climate change [8]. It accounts for roughly 15% of national calorie consumption and is mostly grown in the five provinces-Luapula, Northern, North-Western, Copperbelt and Western-where it is regarded as a staple [9]. In recent years, cassava production has expanded to the southern and eastern parts of the country [10] because cassava cuttings were being distributed to households as part of efforts to actualize food security in the southern part of Zambia. To combat the vulnerability of maize to adverse climatic conditions, Zambia introduced new and improved cassava varieties. It was reported that these varieties are often consumed as ‗nshima' (cassava flour alone or a mixture of cassava and maize meal, called maize-cassava nshima), or dried and roasted as snacks [11]. In the nineties, cassava was not a popular food crop because of its poisoning effect observed after consumption. Hence, different processing methods were adopted to reduce the toxic substance-cyanide. The most common processing methods in Zambia are -bwabi‖, -kasabe‖ and -kapesula‖. The kapesula method involves the peeling, drying, soaking and re-drying of the roots, which ensures a longer shelf life for chips/flour [11]. In addition to cassava -nshima‖, the cassava is also processed into dried chips or flour to reduce prevailing postharvest losses [12]. Again, the flour is used in the production of confectioneries, a step in the direction to increase cassava consumption [11,12]. Varieties usually used for flour include Nakamoya, Nalumino and Mupulanga, the latter being preferred for its plain white flour [13]."},{"index":3,"size":219,"text":"Cassava flour has been successfully used as a substitute for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) all over the world in the production of biscuits and confectioneries. In Indonesia, a survey conducted in West and East Java in 2001 showed that 84% of respondents accepted cassava flour in the production of traditional dishes, cookies, cakes and noodles with substitution ranging from 20 to 100% [14]. In Egypt, partial substitution of wheat flour by cassava flour at 20 and 30% levels resulted in good quality bread like that obtained from wheat flour, although with the addition of 1% malt [15]. Sanful & Darko [16] reported the substitution of wheat flour with cassava and cocoyam flour up to 30% to produce rock cake as acceptable in Ghana. In West Africa generally, especially in Nigeria, bread made with 10 to 20% substitution levels of wheat flour with cassava flour has overall acceptability like 100% wheat bread [17]. Furthermore, bread made with the composite of cassava, wheat and maize flour has been reported with the cassava flour as high as 20 to 40% [18]. Also, in the production of cookies or biscuits, 100% cassava flour, composite with wheat or the incorporation of legumes such as cowpea or soybean as improvers have been reported to enjoy high acceptability and can favourably compete with wheat cookies/biscuits [19]."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"Over the years, leguminous grains like cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], which contain a considerable amount of proteins and minerals, have been in use as fortificants or improvers in cassava-based products [19,20]. Research has shown that cassava flour alone does not contain the protein, fat, and essential amino acids the body needs for healthy growth and stay [21]. Hence, cassava flour products are usually fortified with legumes to increase their nutrient load. Cowpea and soybean are cultivated as an integral part of the traditional cropping system in Zambia [22]. As such, they are in abundance and increase food availability and food access, which results in increased income [23]. These legumes are grown across the country, with cowpea production concentrated in Northern and Southern provinces and soybeans in the Central province [24]. They are known to be productive and yet inexpensive sources of protein and have been found to offer several health benefits due to their dietary fibre and isoflavonoid content [25]."},{"index":5,"size":153,"text":"Chin-chin and tidbits are snacks popular in West Africa. While chin-chin is originally made with wheat flour, tidbits is a relatively new recipe developed from cassava flour and cowpea or soy paste mixed in equal proportions [20]. Bread, cookies and confectioneries have been successfully produced using 100% cassava flour with good acceptability [20]. The increasing rate of urbanization has given rise to the consumption of convenient foods known as -snacks‖ [26,27]. Snacks are a small portion of food consumed in between traditional meals such as breakfast, lunch and dinner [28]. Snacking could be a habit of both the young and old because it supplies the quick calories needed at some point during an active day, or it is just eaten for pleasure [27,29]. In a view to enforcing consumption standards, some countries have policy interventions to promote the consumption of healthy snack and guide against what could be detrimental to people's health [30]."},{"index":6,"size":150,"text":"A similar study to the current study was conducted by Maziya-Dixon et al. [31] in DR Congo, in which legumes and cassava showed the potential to alleviate protein malnutrition. Cassava and legumes are also considered as significant ingredients in the snack food sector both as partial substitutes for wheat flour and as a basis for new product development in the snack food industry. Alamu et al. [11] reported a low consumption of cassava-based snacks in Zambia in comparison with other staples and their derivatives. According to the Zambia Agriculture Status Report 2018 [32], low dietary diversity is a significant drive-in food and nutrition challenge in the country, giving rise to a gap which cassava production, promotion and product diversification can bridge. Thus, this research work aimed to evaluate the level of acceptance of cassava-based snacks (chin-chin and tidbits) by Zambians and their preference for legumes used for fortification in snacks."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Materials","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Fresh cassava roots were obtained from the IITA office in Lusaka, Zambia while the soybean and cowpea grains were purchased from a local market in Lusaka, Zambia."}]},{"head":"Processing of fresh cassava roots, soybean and cowpea into flours","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":325,"text":"The cassava roots were processed immediately on arrival at the laboratory, according to the method described by Alamu et al. [11]. The cassava roots were washed, peeled, grated or chopped into slices or chips then sun-dried in a screen house to avoid contamination from the dust. The processes were completed within 24 hrs after harvesting to obtain high-quality cassava flour (HQCF). The soybean and cowpea flours were prepared using the methods described by Alamu et al. [33]. The legume grains were cleaned and sorted to remove stones and other impurities. The cowpea seeds were soaked in water and dehulled before drying. However, the cleaned soybean seeds were roasted slightly under low heat until the seed coat could be removed by hand. The roasted seeds were then coarse-milled and winnowed to remove the seed coat. The dried cassava chips, the dried and dehulled cowpea, and the decorticated soybean were finely milled to 0.5 mm particle size using a laboratory mill (Perten, Hä gersten, Sweden) to obtain fine flour. The flours were packaged and appropriately stored before using to make the products. The 20% level of substitution was chosen because past studies have shown that legumes can be used to supplement cereals at this level without off-flavour [33].  1 contains the recipes of the products. Wheat flour, eggs, margarine, sugar, baking powder and nutmeg were mixed in a bowl before the gradual addition of water at room temperature to form a dough. About 125.7 g (1/4) of cassava flour was added to 210 g of water heated at 95°C and mixed vigorously to form a viscous and smooth paste. The pre-cooked cassava flour was mixed with the remaining flour (377.3 g, the remaining 3/4) containing all other ingredients to form a dough. After proper kneading, the dough was rolled and cut into small rectangular shapes using a stainless-steel knife, then deep-fried in 1 litre of vegetable oil at a temperature between 170°C and 175°C until golden brown."}]},{"head":"Preparation of wheat and cassava chin-chin","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The colour of the fried product changed from cream to a golden brown, which depicts the completion of Maillard's reaction, which takes an average time of 7 mins and 5.5 mins for cassava chin-chin and wheat chin-chin, respectively. There was also a noticeable texture change from soft (compressible) to hard (crunchy) when cold."}]},{"head":"Preparation of tid-bits","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"The formulations for tidbits are shown in Table 2. To begin with, 200 g cowpea and 200 g of soybean seeds were soaked for 10 minutes in 800 g of water to make the seed coat easy to remove. The dehulled portion was blended with one fresh medium-sized onion (approximately 50 g) using a warring blender. The blended cowpea and soy pastes were mixed thoroughly with cassava flour to form a soft, non-sticky dough with minimal salt added to obtain a savoury taste. The dough was scooped into an extruder and extruded into a deep fryer containing 4 litres of vegetable oil at a temperature of 170°C -175°C . The average frying time was 3.75 minutes for cowpea tidbits and 3.25 minutes for soy tidbits; the golden-brown colour depicts the completion of Maillard's reaction. The weight of the extrudates varied from 2.80 g and 4.20 g before frying to a range of 1.70 g to 2.70 g after frying for the cowpea variant. The soy extrudate weighed between 2.90 g to 4.90 g before frying and 1.60 g to 3.40 g after frying. The reduction in weight was due to moisture loss during frying. Baking powder 0.9 g 0.9 g"}]},{"head":"Physicochemical and anti-nutritional components","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The chin-chin and tidbits were analyzed for moisture, protein, fat, ash, total reducing sugars, digestible starch, amylose, phytate, tannins, pH, and bulk density."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Moisture content determination: The milled samples (5 g) in duplicate were used for the determination of moisture content by weighing in crucibles and drying in an oven at 105°C for 24 hrs in a draft air Fisher Scientific Isotemp R Oven model 655F [32]. Ash content was determined by burning off moisture and all organic constituents in a furnace at 600°C for 6hrs in a VULCAN ™ furnace model 3-1750. The weight of the residue after incineration was recorded as the ash content [32]."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Protein content determination: The Kjeldahl method [32] was used to determine the protein content by the multiplication of the nitrogen value with a conversion factor of 6.25 as described by Alamu et al. [33]."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Crude fat content determination: This was determined using the Soxhlet extraction method [32]. Crude fat was extracted from the sample with hexane, and the solvent evaporated off to get the fat. The difference between the initial and final weights of the extraction cup was recorded as the crude fat content [32]."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Digestible starch and total reducing sugar content determination: Digestible starch and total reducing sugar were determined using the method of Dubois et al. [34] as reported by Alamu et al. [33]. This involved the extraction of starch and free sugar from the samples with 95% ethanol, and the hydrolysis of the starch residue to sugars with perchloric acid. The sugar obtained after hydrolysis was converted to starch by multiplying by 0.9. The absorbance of both starch and sugar was read at 490 nm."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Amylose content determination: Amylose content was determined using the method reported by Alamu et al. [33] as described by Williams et al. [35]. This is a spectrophotometric method based on the formation of a deep blue-colored complex with iodine; the absorbance was read at 620 nm."},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"Determination of phytic acid content: Phytate was determined by the extraction and precipitation of phytic acid according to the method of Wheeler and Ferrel [36] as described by Okukpe & Adeloye [37]."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"Tannin content determination: Tannins were determined by the method described by da Silva Lins et al. [38]. The reaction is based on phosphotungstomolybdic acid reduced by tannin-like compounds in an alkaline solution producing a highly coloured blue solution which is measured at 760 nm."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"pH determination: This was done using 10 g of pulverized chin-chin and tidbits dispersed in 20 ml of deionized water to detect the pH of the suspension using a table-top pH meter."},{"index":10,"size":40,"text":"Bulk density determination: Bulk density was determined using the method recommended by AOAC [39]. The sample (7 g) was placed into a 50 ml graduated measuring cylinder and then tapped gently against the palm until a constant volume was obtained."}]},{"head":"Consumer preferences","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":300,"text":"The survey was conducted in three camps per district in each of the four major cassava-growing districts (Kaoma, Kasama, Mansa and Serenje). The areas were selected based on consumption levels and accessibility. Thirty-five respondents per camp were randomly selected to give a total of 105 respondents and 430 respondents for the whole survey. The data was collected using a well-structured questionnaire which was administered to each respondent with the help of well-trained enumerators. They were well informed about the study, and each respondent consented. The cassava-based products were well coded to avoid positional error and presented to the participants randomly according to the method described by Alamu et al. [33]. The sensory attributes chosen are aroma, appearance, taste, texture, and overall acceptability. The attributes of each product were rated by participants on a 5-point hedonic scale to measure the degree of likeness using qualitative judgements that correspond to 1 = dislike very much, 2 = dislike a little, 3 = neither like nor dislike, 4 = like a little, 5 = like very much. The order of sensorial testing was such that product appearance was rated first, then aroma, and finally taste and texture. According to Altamore et al. [40], clean potable water was supplied to respondents for necessary rinsing of the mouth between one type of product and the other. Simultaneously, intention for consumption was measured on a 6-point scale corresponding to 1 = I would eat often, 2 = I would eat if available, 3 = I do not like but eat on occasion, 4 = I would hardly ever eat, 5 = I would eat if no other choice, 6 = I would eat only if forced. Furthermore, respondents were asked to indicate the most preferred snacks and how much they could pay for a specified quantity."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The data generated on the proximate, functional and anti-nutritional properties were statistically analyzed using IBM SPSS statistical software (Version 21). The data on preference and willingness to consume were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) at a 95% level of significance. The differences between means were tested using the Duncan multiple range test (P < 0.05)."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Proximate composition","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The results of the analysis for proximate parameters from 100% wheat chin-chin and 100% cassava chin-chin showed significant (P < 0.01) differences in moisture, ash, fat, amylose, sugars and digestible starch contents (Table 3). The moisture content of the products ranged from 2.40 to 4.20%, with 100% cassava chin-chin having a higher value. The moisture content values for the chin-chin were within the range reported having no adverse effect on the quality attributes of the product [41]. Moreover, the wheat chin-chin dough was more viscous because of its gluten, and the presence of multiple hydrophobic binding sites will not encourage moisture absorption [42]."},{"index":2,"size":337,"text":"Furthermore, HQCF-based products usually contain very high moisture content because of the high water absorption capacity of HQCF [43]. The moisture content of all the products falls within the range where the optimum textural property is achieved [38]. However, the low moisture content could be an added advantage for a longer shelf life of finished products stored at ambient temperature [11]. The ash content for the wheat chin-chin was higher than that of the cassava chin-chin; this indicates that wheat chin-chin had higher mineral content than cassava chin-chin [43,44]. The fat content for wheat chin-chin was also higher compared to that of cassava chin-chin. This can be attributed to wheat starch affinity to lipid because on the macromolecular level, soft wheat starch contains on its surface polar lipids such as digalactosyldiglyceride, monogalactosyldiglyceride, phosphatidylcholine and other phospholipids [45]. Hence, there are enough hydrophobic sites to attract the oil to settle within the products during frying. Another possibility could also be the lower water absorption capacity of wheat flour in comparison to cassava flour which produced a soft dough and as such absorbed more frying oil [46]. High -fat food is subject to oil deterioration, thereby reducing its shelf life [47]. Wheat chin-chin had a higher protein content (11.2%) than cassava chin-chin (2.6%). This agrees with the findings of Adebayo-Oyetoro et al. [40] who reported the protein content for 100% wheat chin-chin as 11.1%. The gluten in wheat is responsible for its high protein content. Cassava flour has a very low protein content ranging between 1 and 2% [19]. The higher amylose content for wheat chin-chin confirms the report that amylose is more in wheat than cassava [48]. However, some cassava varieties have been bred for high amylose content and exhibit healthy resistant starch which has been reported to be beneficial for the treatment of hyperglycaemia [49]. From the results, it is evident that the starch and total reducing sugars in the chin-chin variants had an inverse relationship, and wheat chin-chin contains higher starch and lower total reducing sugar."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"In comparison, cassava chin-chin had lower starch with higher sugar content. Wheat flour usually consists of about 70-85% starch [50], while cassava flour has about 70-82% depending on the variety [51]. The results show that both chin-chin variants fell below their starch ranges which could be attributed mainly to varietal differences or environmental influence on the genetics of their raw materials. Higher total sugars in cassava chin-chin could make it a better snack because Alamu et al. [11] report that sugar impacts taste and flavour in foods. Furthermore, it may be available for rapid breakdown to release energy to the body in the form of glucose."},{"index":4,"size":326,"text":"The analysis of variance showed that there was a significant (P < 0.05) effect of product type on all the proximate components except starch which had no significant effect (P > 0.05). The mean values of tidbit variants also exhibit significant (P < 0.05) differences across all proximate compositions except for ash content. This may be attributed to the presence of legumes (cassava + soybean or cassava + cowpea) in their formulations. Cowpea seeds have been reported to be generally high in ash [52,53]. Oluwamukomi et al. [19], reported an increase in ash content with 10% soy flour substitution of wheatcassava biscuit. Protein-and carbohydrate-rich foods are characterized by higher water absorption than fatty foods [51,52]; this could be the reason why the cowpea tidbits had higher moisture content. This agrees with the findings of Brou et al. [52] that water and oil absorption capacities of soyflour/cassava flour blends increased with increasing levels of soy flour. The fortified soy tidbits exhibited higher values for fat, amylose, sugar and starch contents. The higher fat content is the contribution of oil from soy [19,52]. Furthermore, the particle size of the soy paste may have contributed to the uptake of excess frying oil. This may, however, be a disadvantage as the shelf life of the product cannot be guaranteed due to the oxidative deterioration of fatty acids. The cowpea tidbits had a protein content of 5.1% while the protein content of the soy variant was 7.6%. These results agree with that of Maziya-Dixon et al. [20] who reported protein contents for strip snacks from 50:50 cowpea:HQCF, boiled soy:HQCF and unboiled soy:HQCF as 5.58%, 9.89%, and 9.74%, respectively. The legumes as fortificant have successfully made up for the protein deficiency in HQCF. The higher amylose content may be advantageous for people suffering from insulin deficiency or hypoglycemia. The more elevated sugar and digestible starch contents are indicators that calories will be released faster and will be suitable for physically active people."}]},{"head":"AIMS Agriculture and Food","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Volume 5, Issue 3, 500-520. "}]},{"head":"Anti-nutritional and functional properties of the snacks","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Table 4 shows that the anti-nutritional and functional properties of wheat chin-chin were higher than those of cassava chin-chin, while the soy-tidbit had the highest anti-nutrient properties. Phytic acid is a significant anti-nutrient found in cereals and legumes, which is significantly reduced once subjected to processing such as dehulling, oven-drying, cooking, steeping, frying, fermentation and malting, among others. Phytic acid/phytate is considered an anti-nutrient mainly due to its ability to bind to essential dietary minerals as well as proteins and starch, and to consequently reduce their bioavailability in humans, especially children. In contrast, it is considered an antioxidant in adults. It works in a broad pH-region as a highly negatively charged ion. Therefore, its presence in the diet adversely affects the bioavailability of divalent and trivalent mineral ions such as Zn 2+ , Fe 2+/3+ , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Mn 2+ and Cu 2+ . It is found in fresh cassava roots but can be removed by processing such as fermentation, boiling, and oven-drying. For tidbits, cowpea and soybean variants have tannin and phytate contents of 0.36/0.77% and 0.33/0.87 mg/g, respectively, with higher values recorded for the soybean variant."}]},{"head":"Table 4. Anti-nutritional and functional properties of cassava-based snacks.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Notes: Parameters were analyzed in duplicate. Mean values in the same column with different letters are significantly different at P < 0.05. ns: not significant at P >0.05; *: significant at P < 0.05; **: significant at P < 0.01; ***: significant at P < 0.001."},{"index":2,"size":252,"text":"The values of the anti-nutrients recorded for all the products are below the safe limit recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the permissible range in the United Kingdom [52]. Thus, they are safe for human consumption. The low values are because of processing which resulted in the drastic reduction in their anti-nutrients. However, the tannins (polyphenols) and phytate are currently classified as bioactive components due to their antioxidant properties. Tannins have been reported to inhibit the digestive enzymes and lower digestibility of most nutrients, especially protein and carbohydrates, thereby increasing faecal nitrogen [53,54]. They are predominantly found in seed hull, and dehulling takes care of most, if not all. However, these anti-nutrients can also be useful to humans at low concentrations as anthelminthic antioxidants which protect against degenerative diseases [55,56] and they have also been shown to reduce blood glucose and insulin responses to starchy foods and plasma cholesterol and triglycerides [57,58]. Bulk density across all products was not significant except for wheat chin-chin. Bulk density is significant in the package design, storage and transport of foodstuff [53,59]. Wheat chin-chin and soy tidbits had a higher pH value, which was lower than the value reported by McGlynn [60], who gave the pH of raw soybean as 6.8. Cassava chin-chin and cowpea tidbit have low pH values. Cassava flour processed for confectionary purposes usually does not have a low pH as reported by the Standards Organisation of Nigeria; thus, the low pH observed could be due to fermentation during processing [61]."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"On the other hand, cowpea has been reported to be a low pH food [62]. A low pH could improve protein digestibility [63] and may also be an indicator of a reduced rate of spoilage [64]. Considering the pH of foods from another perspective, it does not matter whether a food is acidic or basic, it can still be a medium for mould growth even at very low moisture content [64]."}]},{"head":"Characteristics of survey respondents and consumption frequency","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Table 5 presents some selected characteristics of participants in the consumer survey across four locations. Over 50% of the participants were males with a higher consumption frequency/week (2.40) than females (1.89). "}]},{"head":"Preference for sensory attributes across locations","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Table 6a shows the mean preference ratings for sensory characteristics of chin-chin variants across locations. The general trend across sites showed that there were no significant differences (P ≤ 0.05) observed for the overall mean values of appearance and aroma ratings for the chin-chin variants except in Serenje district. In Kaoma and Mansa, cassava chin-chin was preferred over wheat chin-chin for appearance and aroma. In Kasama, as much as appearance and aroma for wheat chin-chin were preferred to those for cassava chin-chin, the statistical difference in their ratings was not significant (P ≤ 0.05). Alamu et al. [59] reported that fritters from HQCF were most preferred in Kasama. Also, Paloma et al. [65] reported that better acceptability was recorded for 50% cassava snack over 100% wheat bites with no significant differences in their appearance. Serenje district had the lowest ratings of sensory attributes for both chin-chin variants; this also agrees with the findings of Alamu et al. [59]. The taste of cassava chin-chin across all locations was preferred to that of wheat chin-chin, and differences were significant except in Kaoma and Kasama."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"In contrast, the preference for cassava chin-chin texture superseded that of wheat chin-chin except in Kasama District. Nevertheless, statistically, there was no significant difference in the texture rating across all locations except in Serenje district, which could be because the sensory attribute ratings were at the lowest. An important factor that could be responsible for the varied preference in taste and texture could be the high fibre content in HQCF [65], which, in turn, affects the taste of the product."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Dischsen et al. [66] reported a formulated breakfast cereal with cassava residue and increased fibre content, showed a significant difference (P ≥ 0.05) in texture and overall sensory attributes. Paloma et al., [65] established that root crop flour has a coarse texture, giving a sandy taste sensation which makes it unacceptable to consumers."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"Thus, the overall acceptability for the chin-chin variants indicates that wheat chin-chin was the preferred product with the following percentages: Kasama (66.7%), Kaoma (57.9%), Mansa (53.7%) and Serenje (70.2%). However, the difference margin between the chin-chin variants across the locations was not so wide except in Serenje, where it had been reported that consumption of cassavabased secondary products is low [11]."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"Table 6b shows the mean preference ratings for sensory attributes of the tidbit variant across locations, and the two types of tidbits produced for the study were cowpea tidbit (301) and soy tidbit (302). Appearance as a sensory attribute across all locations had significant differences with a preference for cowpea tidbits."},{"index":6,"size":258,"text":"Statistically, there was no significant difference in the taste and aroma of products across all sites, but the hedonic ratings showed that cowpea tidbit was preferred. This preference could stem out of the characteristic beany flavour of soybean which, when perceived in the product, can be a put off [67]. Also, at some elevated levels of soy, product acceptability may be affected as reported by Chanadang et al. [68]. Balogun et al. [67] reported that the organoleptic qualities of tapioca meal fortified with defatted soy flour were rated the most acceptable; the same trend observed with the high acceptability of products from the fortification of cassava flour with cowpea flour. Researchers have found that humans have an unlearned preference for sweet taste and learn a choice for salty taste very early in life. It was reported by Lombardo et al. [69] that women consume more sugar-sweetened products and prefer salty taste to sweet taste. Another research established the general belief that men eat more salty foods compared to women [70]. Casperson & Roemmich [71] found out that food reinforcement was higher for sweet than savoury snacks in men. In place of these, we discover that wheat chin-chin is the preferred variant by both genders with a higher proportion of female preference. While for tidbits, cowpea tidbit is preferred by both genders with a higher percentage of male preference. It can then be inferred that the preference for snack foods depends mostly on biological factors (genetic) influenced by social factors (environmental). Figures 1 and 2 explain the overall preference.  "}]},{"head":"Analysis of variance for chin-chin","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The results of the ANOVA for chin-chin (Table 7) show that district had a strong significant effect (P < 0.001) on the aroma and appearance, a significant effect (P < 0.01) on texture and a weak significant effect on taste (P < 0.05). The variety of the chin-chin showed a significant effect (P < 0.01) on aroma, taste and texture; this could be due to the difference in the base material (wheat and HQCF) used for the products."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"In the case of the tidbits, the results (Table 7) show that district and variety had an exceptionally high significant effect (P < 0.001) on aroma and appearance respectively. These could lead to a strong inference that aroma and appearance of the products were district dependent, that is, a group of people within a locality may have a common sensory attribute but different from one region to another. Notes: ns: not significant at P >0.05; *: significant at P < 0.05; **: significant at P < 0.01; ***: significant at P < 0.001."}]},{"head":"Correlation between attributes and willingness-to-pay (WTP)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Table 8 shows the correlation between sensory characteristics and WTP for chin-chin and tidbits. There was a robust positive linear relationship between sensory attributes and consumer WTP for tidbit snacks based on aroma, taste and texture. By implication, WTP is directly proportional to sensory properties. This agrees with Maziya-Dixon et al. [20] who observed a correlation between WTP and the sensory evaluation of the cassava-based products evaluated among Nigeria and DR Congo respondents. Thus, it could be concluded that cassava-based snacks are acceptable, and respondents are willing to pay irrespective of the social culture. WTP was higher for wheat chin-chin (K2.66) compared to cassava chin-chin (K2.28) while Kasama had the highest mean WTP for both wheat chin-chin and cassava chinchin (K3.88 and K3.55, respectively) and Mansa had the lowest for both samples. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Most preferred chin-chin sample by gender. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Most preferred tid-bit sample (%) by gender. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Ingredients and quantities for chin-chin. Ingredients Product type and quantity IngredientsProduct type and quantity  Chin-chin (100% wheat) Chin-chin (100% HQCF) Chin-chin (100% wheat)Chin-chin (100% HQCF)  201 202 201202 Wheat flour 599.18 g 0 Wheat flour599.18 g0 HQCF 0 503.03 g HQCF0503.03 g Sugar 124.60 g 124.60 g Sugar124.60 g124.60 g Baking powder 11.40 g 11.40 g Baking powder11.40 g11.40 g Butter 60.0 g 60.0 g Butter60.0 g60.0 g Eggs 158 g 158 g Eggs158 g158 g Nutmeg 7.5 g 7.5 g Nutmeg7.5 g7.5 g Water 153.53 g 407.98 g Water153.53 g407.98 g Table   Table  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Ingredients and quantities for tidbits. Ingredients Product and quantity IngredientsProduct and quantity  Tidbit (cowpea) Tidbit (soybean) Tidbit (cowpea)Tidbit (soybean)  301 302 301302 Bean paste 627 g 0 Bean paste627 g0 Soybean paste 0 613.5 g Soybean paste0613.5 g HQCF 355 g 400 g HQCF355 g400 g Salt 2.9 g 4.6 g Salt2.9 g4.6 g Onion-bulb 50.5 g 50.5 g Onion-bulb50.5 g50.5 g  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Nutritional properties of cassava-based snacks. Product type % MC % Ash % Fat %Protein %Amylose %Amylopectin % Sugar %Starch TDCHO Product type% MC % Ash % Fat%Protein %Amylose %Amylopectin % Sugar %Starch TDCHO Chin-chin (100% 2.4 c 1.1 b 17.4 b 11.2 a 13.3 a 86.7 c 21.2 b 67.3 b 88.5 a Chin-chin (100%2.4 c1.1 b17.4 b11.2 a13.3 a86.7 c21.2 b67.3 b88.5 a wheat)          wheat) Chin-chin (100% 4.2 ab 0.8 c 5.4 d 2.6 d 10.6 c 89.4 a 23.4 a 63.0 b 86.3 a Chin-chin (100%4.2 ab0.8 c5.4 d2.6 d10.6 c89.4 a23.4 a63.0 b86.3 a HQCF)          HQCF) Tidbit (50:50 5.1 a 2.9 a 8.2 c 5.1 c 10.9 c 89.1 a 6.4 d 54.6 c 60.9 b Tidbit (50:505.1 a2.9 a8.2 c5.1 c10.9 c89.1 a6.4 d54.6 c60.9 b HQCF: cowpea)          HQCF: cowpea) Tidbit (50:50 3.1 bc 2.9 a 38.0 a 7.6 b 12.2 b 87.8 b 8.9 c 77.5 a 86.5 a Tidbit (50:503.1 bc2.9 a38.0 a7.6 b12.2 b87.8 b8.9 c77.5 a86.5 a HQCF: soybean)          HQCF: soybean) Mean 3.7 1.9 17.2 6.6 11.7 88.3 15 65.6 80.6 Mean3.71.917.26.611.788.31565.680.6 Maximum 5.3 2.9 38.3 11.3 13.4 89.5 23.5 84.8 93.8 Maximum5.32.938.311.313.489.523.584.893.8 Std. deviation 1.1 1 13.7 3.4 1.2 1.2 7.9 9.9 12.9 Std. deviation1.1113.73.41.21.27.99.912.9 Pr > F ** *** *** *** *** *** *** ns ** Pr > F********************ns**  "},{"text":" , Product types Tannin (mg/g) Phytate (%) pH value Bulk density (g/ml) Product typesTannin (mg/g)Phytate (%) pH valueBulk density (g/ml) Chin-chin (100% wheat) 0.6 ab 1.6 a 6.2 a 0.8 a Chin-chin (100% wheat)0.6 ab1.6 a6.2 a0.8 a Chin-chin (100% HQCF) 0.3 b 1.4 a 4.3 b 0.7 b Chin-chin (100% HQCF)0.3 b1.4 a4.3 b0.7 b Tidbit (50:50 HQCF: cowpea) 0.4 b 0.3 b 4.3 b 0.7 b Tidbit (50:50 HQCF: cowpea)0.4 b0.3 b4.3 b0.7 b Tidbit (50:50 HQCF:soybean) 0.8 a 0.9 ab 6.0 a 0.6 b Tidbit (50:50 HQCF:soybean)0.8 a0.9 ab6.0 a0.6 b Mean 0.5 1.1 5.2 0.7 Mean0.51.15.20.7 Minimum 0.2 0.3 4.3 0.6 Minimum0.20.34.30.6 Maximum 0.8 1.8 6.2 0.8 Maximum0.81.86.20.8 Std. deviation 0.2 0.6 1.0 0.1 Std. deviation0.20.61.00.1 Pr > F ** ** *** ** Pr > F*********  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Characteristics of survey respondents and consumption frequency.   Kaoma Kasama Mansa Serenje KaomaKasamaMansaSerenje Variable  N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) VariableN (%)N (%)N (%)N (%) Gender Female 110 (51.4) 112 (54.9) 102 (47.22) 68 (32.69) GenderFemale110 (51.4)112 (54.9)102 (47.22)68 (32.69)  Male 104 (48.6) 92 (45.1) 114 (52.78) 140 (67.31) Male104 (48.6)92 (45.1)114 (52.78)140 (67.31) Age (year) Mean ± SD 49 ± 14.4 40 ± 13.2 42 ± 12.1 41 ± 14.1 Age (year)Mean ± SD49 ± 14.440 ± 13.242 ± 12.141 ± 14.1  Minimum 19 18 18 21 Minimum19181821  Maximun 89 72 70 84 Maximun89727084 Frequency of      Frequency of consumption/week     consumption/week Products  Mean ± SD CV   ProductsMean ± SDCV Chin chin (100% wheat) 1.89 ± 0.93 49.13   Chin chin (100% wheat)1.89 ± 0.9349.13   2.4 ± 1.15 48.11   2.4 ± 1.1548.11 Chin chin (100% HQCF) 1.89 ± 0.93 49.13   Chin chin (100% HQCF)1.89 ± 0.9349.13   2.4 ± 1.15 48.11   2.4 ± 1.1548.11 Tidbit (50: 50 HQCF:cowpea) 1.55 ± 1.02 39.93   Tidbit (50: 50 HQCF:cowpea) 1.55 ± 1.0239.93   1.61 ± 1.03 39.36   1.61 ± 1.0339.36 Tidbit (50:50 HQCF: 1.55 ± 1.02 39.93   Tidbit (50:50 HQCF:1.55 ± 1.0239.93 soybean)      soybean)   1.61 ± 1.03 39.36   1.61 ± 1.0339.36  "},{"text":"Table 6a . Preference for sensory characteristics of chin-chin variants across locations.Notes: Values in the columns with the same letters are not significantly different at P > 0.05. Sample codes: 201 = 100% wheat chinchin; 202 = 100% cassava chin-chin.   Appearance  Aroma Taste  Texture  AppearanceAromaTasteTexture District Product Mean ± Std CV Mean ± Std CV Mean ± Std CV Mean ± Std CV DistrictProductMean ± StdCVMean ± Std CVMean ± StdCVMean ± StdCV Kaoma         Kaoma (N = 107) 201 4.7 ± 0.52 11.02 4.68 ± 0.51 10.82 4.58 ± 0.53 11.63 4.28 ± 0.86 19.99 (N = 107)2014.7 ± 0.5211.024.68 ± 0.51 10.824.58 ± 0.5311.634.28 ± 0.8619.99  202 4.84 ± 0.37 7.59 4.77 ± 0.45 9.37 4.73 ± 0.49 10.3 4.64 ± 0.62 13.31 2024.84 ± 0.377.594.77 ± 0.45 9.374.73 ± 0.4910.34.64 ± 0.6213.31  Mean 4.77 ± 0.45 a 9.5 4.72 ± 0.48 a 10.12 4.65 ± 0.51 ab 11.06 4.46 ± 0.77 a 17.18 Mean4.77 ± 0.45 a9.54.72 ± 0.48 a 10.124.65 ± 0.51 ab 11.064.46 ± 0.77 a 17.18 Kasama         Kasama (N = 102) 201 4.8 ± 0.51 10.58 4.84 ± 0.52 10.77 4.61 ± 0.8 17.32 4.64 ± 0.67 14.49 (N = 102)2014.8 ± 0.5110.584.84 ± 0.52 10.774.61 ± 0.817.324.64 ± 0.6714.49  202 4.76 ± 0.53 11.12 4.81 ± 0.54 11.22 4.75 ± 0.59 12.47 4.37 ± 0.9 20.59 2024.76 ± 0.5311.124.81 ± 0.54 11.224.75 ± 0.5912.474.37 ± 0.920.59  Mean 4.78 ± 0.52 a 10.83 4.83 ± 0.53 a 10.97 4.68 ± 0.7 ab 15.06 4.5 ± 0.8 a 17.83 Mean4.78 ± 0.52 a10.834.83 ± 0.53 a 10.974.68 ± 0.7 ab15.064.5 ± 0.8 a17.83 Mansa         Mansa (N = 108) 201 4.71 ± 0.61 12.99 4.73 ± 0.62 13.12 4.71 ± 0.64 13.62 4.39 ± 0.94 21.32 (N = 108)2014.71 ± 0.6112.994.73 ± 0.62 13.124.71 ± 0.6413.624.39 ± 0.9421.32  202 4.81 ± 0.44 9.05 4.74 ± 0.65 13.64 4.73 ± 0.61 12.79 4.65 ± 0.77 16.46 2024.81 ± 0.449.054.74 ± 0.65 13.644.73 ± 0.6112.794.65 ± 0.7716.46  Mean 4.76 ± 0.53 a 11.18 4.74 ± 0.63 a 13.35 4.72 ± 0.62 a 13.18 4.52 ± 0.86 a 19.09 Mean4.76 ± 0.53 a11.184.74 ± 0.63 a 13.354.72 ± 0.62 a13.184.52 ± 0.86 a 19.09 Serenje         Serenje (N = 104) 201 4.57 ± 0.55 12.11 4.47 ± 0.67 14.93 4.54±0.57 12.63 4.15 ± 0.79 18.91 (N = 104)2014.57 ± 0.5512.114.47 ± 0.67 14.934.54±0.5712.634.15 ± 0.7918.91  202 4.55 ± 0.59 12.96 4.43 ± 0.68 15.32 4.57 ± 0.62 13.56 4.34 ± 0.77 17.78 2024.55 ± 0.5912.964.43 ± 0.68 15.324.57 ± 0.6213.564.34 ± 0.7717.78  Mean 4.       Mean4.  "},{"text":"56 ± 0.57 b 12.51 4.45 ± 0.67 b 15.1 4.55 ± 0.6 b 13.08 4.25 ± 0.78 b 18.41 3 .4.1. Overall preference for chin-chin and tidbit variants by gender  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Mean squares from the analysis of variance for the sensory characteristics of chinchin and tidbits across all locations. Source DF Product Appearance Aroma Taste Texture SourceDFProductAppearanceAromaTasteTexture District 3 Chin-chin 2.3575*** 5.3856*** 1.05875* 3.1952** District3Chin-chin2.3575***5.3856***1.05875*3.1952**  3 Tidbits 1.4636* 2.6521*** 0.407 3.0051** 3Tidbits1.4636*2.6521***0.4073.0051** Variety 1 Chin-chin 0.4751 0.0107* 1.45487* 4.1342* Variety1Chin-chin0.47510.0107*1.45487*4.1342*  1 Tidbits 17.7963*** 2.1400* 3.8935** 0.7824 1Tidbits17.7963***2.1400*3.8935**0.7824 Gender 1 Chin-chin 0.0012 0.0253 0 0.1229 Gender1Chin-chin0.00120.025300.1229  1 Tidbits 0.0338 0.0365 0.0369 0.101 1Tidbits0.03380.03650.03690.101 Error 836 Chin-chin 0.2704 0.3411 0.3736 0.644 Error836Chin-chin0.27040.34110.37360.644  858 Tidbits 0.3268 0.3603 0.416 0.4683 858Tidbits0.32680.36030.4160.4683  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Correlation between attributes and willingness-to-pay(WTP). : significant at P < 0.05; **: significant at P < 0.01; ***: significant at P < 0.001.  Chin-chin Tidbits Chin-chinTidbits Attribute WTP WTP AttributeWTPWTP Appearance 0.0804* 0.0889** Appearance0.0804*0.0889** Aroma 0.1117** 0.1493*** Aroma0.1117**0.1493*** Taste 0.1103** 0.2320*** Taste0.1103**0.2320*** Texture 0.08838* 0.2097*** Texture0.08838*0.2097*** Notes:   Notes:  "}],"sieverID":"2b2efcb5-6f6f-40a9-b943-ae5eb3bcc464","abstract":"High-quality cassava flour (HQCF) is a cheaper alternative to wheat in the production of snacks. This study assessed the nutritional properties and consumer acceptability of cassava-legume snacks in Zambia. Cassava snacks were made from 100% HQCF, 50:50 cassava-soybean flour blend, 50:50 cassava-cowpea flour blend and 100% wheat flour as the control. The samples were analyzed for nutritional, functional and anti-nutritional properties using standard laboratory methods. Also, a well-outlined questionnaire was used to collect data on consumer preferences. The results showed a significant (P < 0.05) effect of product type on all the proximate components except starch that had no significant effect (P < 0.05). There was a significant (P < 0.05) increase in ash, protein and fat contents but a decrease in total sugars, amylose and starch contents of the legume-fortified snacks when compared with 100% cassava snacks. Cassava-legume snacks had a high acceptance in Kasama, Kaoma and Mansa districts, with a better preference for the cowpea variant of tidbit. There was a positive linear relationship between snack sensory characteristics (aroma, taste and texture) and consumer willingnessto-pay (WTP). The results show that snacks that are acceptable, affordable, nutritious and of excellent preference characteristics can be produced from cassava and legumes for households in Zambia."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01a8b48e54a9d90004fab81303628f4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4319/d1de83c96e77aa6031d4920e3e9f7aa0.pdf"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Incentivizing co-management for impact: mechanisms driving the successful national expansion of tonga's special management area program","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Food security and biodiversity are increasingly threatened by the depletion or collapse of marine resources (Díaz et al., 2019), and many proposed management strategies fail at scaling up to achieve meaningful national or inter-national conservation results (Mills et al., 2019). Marine resources are also notorious for suffering from the \"tragedy of the commons\" (Hardin, 1968), whereby individuals or groups of individuals overexploit a resource and behave contrary to the common good of all users (Ostrom, 1999). While many marine management strategies have been implemented, each comes with its own suite of caveats (Ban et al., 2011;Jupiter, Cohen, Weeks, Tawake, & Govan, 2014). A key goal of conservation policy and management research is to identify solutions to the specific issues that limit the effectiveness of various management strategies (Diaz et al. 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"Protected areas are expanding globally as a key management strategy to address both declining food security and biodiversity (Diaz et al., 2019;Mills et al., 2019). While their management often takes the form of centralized governments gazetting areas for conservation, in practice, they are often compromised by a lack of resources for monitoring and enforcement (Gaymer et al., 2014). In response to continuing fisheries declines despite centralized management, governments of many developing countries are increasingly focusing on decentralized, community-based, or comanagement approaches, which in many instances were already in place through customary marine tenure (Cinner et al., 2012;Govan et al., 2009;Webster et al., 2017). Here, we consider community-based management to be natural resource or biodiversity management by, for, and with the local community (as defined by Western & Wright, 1994) and co-management as situations where communities share responsibilities for making and enforcing natural resource management rules with governments, civil society, and/or academia (Cinner and Huchery, 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"Implementing protected areas is often met with resistance unless local communities can be offered incentives to manage areas for conservation when their livelihoods depend on the resources within them (Brockington & Schmidt-Soltau, 2017;Ferraro & Hanauer, 2011). Typically, managers and conservationists argue that the long-term food security of an area and its biodiversity value outweigh immediate requirements for continued resource use (Hutton & Leader-Williams, 2014). However, offering long-term assurances of increased food security and ecosystem health might not always be important for people for whom finding food or making a living are immediate concerns (Hutton & Leader-Williams, 2014). The strategy of excluding resource extraction has attracted criticism from social scientists and human rights advocates for resulting in the forced displacement of populations and loss of food security (Cernea & Schmidt-Soltau, 2006). While compensatory incentivebased programs do exist, such as direct payment concessions for protected areas, they likely provide limited benefits to biodiversity conservation unless they are conditional on defined conservation actions (Mills et al., 2019;Sachedina & Nelson, 2009)."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"A second problem with the global expansion of protected areas is that many are residual, defined as being situated in locations with limited value for extractive activities, and have correspondingly small conservation impact (Devillers et al., 2015;Ferraro & Hanauer, 2011;Joppa & Pfaff, 2011). Ultimately, protected areas are effective only if they change human behavior (Pressey, Weeks, & Gurney, 2017). Therefore, to achieve impact they must be configured to influence either present day or potential future actions (Smallhorn-West, Bridge, Malimali, Pressey, & Jones, 2019). However, given the importance of involving local stakeholders in the planning process (Hutton & Leader-williams, 2014), it seems inevitable that resource users will aim to configure protected areas to minimize overlap with their current or planned activities."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"The responsibility of identifying solutions to incentivize protected area implementation and ensure they are situated to achieve impact should lie with planners as well as conservation policy and management researchers. Individual communities may have little choice but to prioritize their immediate needs for food and/or income. The question raised is therefore: \"Is it possible to align the requirements of communities with the goal of building sustainable use and biodiversity conservation into the future?\""},{"index":6,"size":223,"text":"Here, we address this question by discussing the recent rapid expansion and successful implementation of Tonga's co-management initiative, the Special Management Areas (SMA) program, at a national level. We use this program as a case study to identify solutions to the aforementioned problems of providing community incentives for conservation, and ensuring conservation actions are non-residual. In a relatively short time (15 years), Tonga's SMA program has expanded from a few communities to over 50, covering roughly half of all coastal communities in the country and aiming to include 100% by 2025. Furthermore, SMAs are situated in places that are considered to have high value for resource users. We argue that, by providing the right balance of incentives, the SMA program has successfully avoided key pitfalls associated with protected area implementation, which has enabled the program to expand to a national level in a way that is non-residual. Specifically, we: (a) describe the background and key characteristics of the program; (b) identify mechanisms by which the program has avoided problems that have constrained the effectiveness of other protected areas, including (i) provisioning of appropriate incentives and (ii) avoiding conserving only residual areas; and (c) discuss potential limitations of the program and its expansion to other regions. We conclude that the success of this program offers insights into the successful expansion of protected areas globally."}]},{"head":"BACKGROUND OF TONGA'S SPECIAL MANAGEMENT AREA (SMA) PROGRAM","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":257,"text":"Fisheries management in Tonga was historically open access, with little to no effective regulations. A civil war in F I G U R E 1 Map of a typical Special Management Area (SMA) in Tonga. The yellow denotes the SMA area, in which only members of the community are allowed to fish, similar to a territorial user rights fishery (TURF). The red denotes the Fish Habitat Reserves (FHR), which are permanently closed to all fishing. Given that this SMA included both exposed and sheltered fringing reefs, this particular community (Ha'atafu) opted to implement two no-take FHRs instead of one the mid-1800s resulted in the then king, King Taufa'ahau Tupou I, abolishing all tenure-a key difference between Tonga and many other Pacific island nations where customary marine tenure is in place. The King also proclaimed that: (a) all Tongans had equal fishing access to all Tongan waters; and (b) that any traditional claims of local control or management authority over fishing areas were abolished (Gillett, 2017). In modern times, this open-access approach has collided with commercial realities and the inability of inshore resources to sustain harvests (Gillett, 2017). Due to growing concern over the potential depletion or collapse of marine resources, several forms of centralized management and protected areas were attempted in the late 20th century (Smallhorn-West & Govan, 2018). However, due to the limited capacity at the time of the Tongan Ministry of Fisheries (MoF), the main government agency charged with monitoring and enforcement, there is no evidence that resource extraction within these managed areas ever changed."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"In the early 2000s, growing support for the concept of letting local communities manage their own resources resulted in the Fisheries Management Act 2002 (Gillett, 2017). Funding was provided by Australia to support the Tonga fisheries project and assist in the establishment of the early SMAs. The first, O'ua in the Ha'apai group, was designated in November 2006. While the program has since received funding from many sources (Gillett, 2017), it has largely been the Tongan MoF that has driven its expansion. Tongans are therefore justifiably proud in the fact that the successful implementation of this \"home grown\" program has largely been due to the efforts of Tongans."},{"index":3,"size":293,"text":"The SMA program is a dual approach to marine management and conservation (Figure 1). First, through legislative action, each community is granted exclusive access to the marine environment adjacent to their village to the 50 m depth contour or 2500 m from shore. Within this area only registered members of the community are permitted to fish and it effectively acts as a territorial user rights fisheries (TURF) (Gelcich, Godoy, Prado, & Castilla, 2008). The role of enforcement is primarily that of the community, with support and training provided by the MoF. Second, in exchange for this exclusive access, a subset of the area must be designated a permanent no-take zone, termed a Fish Habitat Reserve (FHR). The size and location of each FHR are determined by the community and, if desired, communities may implement multiple FHRs. The size and boundaries of each SMA are determined by the MoF in consultation with both the SMA communities and adjacent communities. Within each SMA, management and enforcement are the responsibility of the community, and each must establish a coastal community management committee and a coastal community management plan. Communities, therefore, take the leading role in managing their coastal resources, although assistance is provided by the Ministry as required. Tonga's SMA program has become so popular with Tongan communities that there is more interest from communities than the capacity of the MoF can currently manage (Gillett, 2017). During the decade following the implementation of the first SMAs (2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015), the program grew slowly, with 11 SMAs in implemented (Figure 2; Table S1). The slow uptake was largely due to the lengthy process of raising awareness and educating communities and the public about the benefits of marine management. However, as awareness grew, interest in the program expanded exponentially.  S2)."}]},{"head":"MECHANISMS BY WHICH THE SMA PROGRAM HAS AVOIDED PITFALLS COMMON IN THE EXPANSION OF PROTECTED AREAS ELSEWHERE","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Providing community incentives for conservation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":319,"text":"The primary consideration of most communities for implementing an SMA is to exclude others from fishing \"their\" reefs (Figure 3a). Exclusive access rights are a substantial asset for any community, and it is inherently in the interest of each community to establish an SMA. However, given that in exchange for exclusive rights communities must also establish a no-take FHR, the SMA provides the incentive to achieve meaningful conservation results through the FHR. Baseline socio-economic surveys of seven new SMA communities in the Vava'u island group demonstrated that there was strong support (>90%) for the implementation of the SMA program, including the FHRs, which provides evidence to suggest that this is the case (Parks, 2017). The perceived effectiveness of management efforts, including both SMAs and FHRs were also very high, specifically as a way to improve livelihoods (94% support), lead healthier lives (94% support), adapt to climate change (91% support), improve marine resources (94% support) and improve community ability to manage marine resources (96% support) (Parks, 2017). Considering the popularity of the program, the SMA incentive, therefore, appears to provide ample compensation to communities for giving up the fishing grounds within the FHRs. Another mechanism by which community incentives have driven the expansion of the SMA program is through a positive feedback loop that increases pressure for remaining non-SMA communities to apply (Figure 3b). While SMA communities can fish both inside and outside their SMAs, non-SMA are blocked from fishing inside nearby SMAs. At the program's inception, when only a small number of SMAs were in place, this would not have been of huge consequence to non-SMA communities. However, as the program has expanded, each additional SMA implemented has further reduced the fishing grounds for non-SMA communities while leaving their coastal areas vulnerable to fishing by all other communities. This increased loss of fishing grounds has therefore created a positive feedback mechanism which increases their incentive to establish an SMA."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"As with TURF systems established elsewhere (Villaseñor-Derbez et al., 2019), many communities have also developed a sense of pride and ownership over their SMAs and FHRs as well as the program as a whole, and encouraged a sense of belonging and the development of long-term connections with 'their' reefs. Within Tonga these assertions are supported by (a) two socioeconomic assessments of the effects of the SMA program that demonstrate strong local support for the program within SMA communities (Malimali, 2013;Parks, 2017) and (b) statements from community members and fishers in five SMA communities (personal communications). In addition, Gillett (2017) suggests that the \"home grown\" development of the SMA program by Tongans into its current form has been critical to maintaining a local sense of ownership and pride. These implications also align more broadly with the academic literature on support for local management, particularly in the Indo-Pacific (e.g., Bartlett, Pakoa, & Manua, 2009;Johannes, 2002;Pollnac, Crawford, & Gorospe, 2001)."}]},{"head":"Avoiding residual conservation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":376,"text":"Residual conservation is now a well-recognized concern with protected areas globally (Devillers et al., 2015;Ferraro & Hanauer, 2011). We tested for the presence of systematic biases in the placement of SMAs and FHRs, compared to open areas, by assessing whether they were located in regions with a low value to resource users across four metrics known to influence the configuration of protected areas (Devillers et al., 2015). The primary resource associated with Tonga's SMA program is the reef fish fishery (Parks, 2017). We therefore converted all reef areas in Tonga into 100 m 2 raster cells in ArcMap (10.4.1) and labeled these as either SMA, FHR, or Open based on their configuration as of October 2019. Four socio-environmental variables were selected to test for systematic biases in the placement of SMAs and FHRs: distance to village, distance to land, long-term fishing pressure, and wave energy. Details on how these variables were calculated are available in the Supporting Information (Section S3). The fishing pressure metric represents a value of relative long-term fishing effort throughout the region calculated as the weighted abundance of commercial and subsistence fishers from each village adjusted for differences in catch and extrapolated across available fishing grounds with decay ratios determined from key informant interviews. Fishing pressure inside management areas represents fishing pressure prior to management. These four variables, which were previously calculated for the entirety of Tonga's coral reef habitat, were chosen because they are: (a) known to influence the configuration of protected areas; and (b) are based on spatially continuous data across the region. For the whole of Tonga, null models were created of equal area to both total area of SMAs and total area of FHRs, but randomly sampled from the total reef area in Tonga (including SMAs and FHRs). These two null models were resampled 1000 times and the difference for all four metrics calculated between the actual SMA or FHR extent and each null model. In addition, to determine whether FHRs were systematically biased within SMAs, the same method was applied but only to the total combined area of FHRs and SMAs. One sample t-tests were then used to determine whether the bootstrapped differences varied significantly from 0. All analysis was conducted in R (V.3.5.3) (R core team, 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":191,"text":"With the exception of fishing pressure inside the SMAs, both FHRs and SMAs were biased towards areas of greater extractive value than expected by chance (Table 1, Figure 4). Distance to village, distance to land, and wave energy were all significantly lower within FHRs and SMAs than null models. Fishing pressure was greater within FHRs, but lower in SMAs. In addition, within SMAs, FHRs Distance to land (km) were also more likely to be configured in areas of higher fishing pressure, lower wave energy, and closer to villages and land than the null model. These results demonstrate that while Tonga's SMA program does have systematic biases in its configuration, they are in the opposite direction to those commonly observed for protected areas. Rather than being residual, management areas in Tonga are systematically less likely to be placed in areas of low extractive value than by chance. This demonstrates that the SMA program has been able to avoid residual biases in protected area placement because notake FHRs must be situated only within the boundaries of each SMA, and SMAs are implemented only near villages, where resource use is historically high (Figure 3c)."}]},{"head":"LIMITATIONS OF THE PROGRAM AND ITS EXPANSION TO OTHER REGIONS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"At the outset, while it is clear that the implementation of Tonga's SMA program has been successful with respect to its rate of expansion, this does not demonstrate any difference made to the stated objectives of improving coastal fisheries resources or biodiversity conservation. Ultimately the success or failure of the SMA program is based on its impact, or the difference it makes compared to taking no action. However, determining impact relies on having an accurate understanding not only of the present state, but also counterfactual conditions that would be expected if management had never occurred (Pressey, Visconti, & Ferraro, 2015). While most SMA communities are enthusiastic about the benefits of the program, there is little quantitative evidence of any changes in ecosystem state and, ultimately, coastal fisheries resources (Gillett, 2017). Several studies conducted in 2010 on five SMAs began to examine the impacts of the SMA program, with basic controlimpact methodology (Malimali, 2013;Richardson, 2010). However, they were completed when most SMAs were still too young for discernible changes to have occurred. Webster et al. (2017) compared community-based catch data with community perceptions of change in the oldest SMA in Tonga, although their methodology did not test the impacts of the FHR and used data of questionable quality. While a large body of evidence supports the notion that the no-take FHRs should provide positive impacts (Smallhorn-West et al., 2019), given that fishing is still allowed inside the SMAs, albeit potentially at a lower rate, it is unreasonable to expect large changes in ecosystem state within SMAs."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"While acknowledging the caveats associated with protected area targets (Pressey et al., 2017), it should also be noted that the present spatial coverage of no-take FHRs in Tonga is low and unlikely to make significant contributions to national protected area commitments. Currently, total FHR coverage is 45 km 2 , or 6.82 × 10 −5 % of Tonga's EEZ, and 3.26 % of Tonga's coral reef habitat. Furthermore, given widely reported problems with misreporting protected area targets in the South Pacific (e.g., Smallhorn-West & Govan, 2018), SMAs could easily be mislabelled as no-take protected areas and give the false impression that Tonga is reaching its international commitments. Lastly, the large coastal coverage by SMAs, where fishing is still permitted, might also limit additional spatial planning and no-take marine protected areas not associated with the SMA program, or relegate them to areas far from population centers and with less conservation impact."},{"index":3,"size":242,"text":"The establishment of an SMA effectively sequesters the tragedy of the commons at the village level, where ongoing resource conflicts might continue to persist, albeit within the community. However, in 2015 a project by MACBIO gathered community members from existing SMAs to discuss \"lessons learned\" (Tupou Taufa et al., 2016). Two key points raised were: (a) to \"acknowledge that there will always be community members who disagree; thus communities should move forwards after adequate consultation and majority agreement even if not 100% consensus\"; and (b) that \"where possible, include dissenting voices in the management of the SMAs\". Therefore, while acknowledging that resource conflict might continue to exist within communities, it is at a level that should allow for better communication and collaboration between dissenting viewpoints. However, one caveat to this consideration is that the dispersal scales of target species are likely greater than the scale of individual management, resulting in a 'partial commons' (Almany et al., 2013;Costello, Quérou, & Tomini, 2015). An additional caveat, and one that requires further investigation, is the degree to which gender and social status may limit the ability of certain groups to contribute to decision-making without outside interventions. Within this context, local management of individual SMAs is meant to be supported by the Tongan government through the MoF, although it is unclear at this stage the degree to which marginalized groups are able to have their voices heard, and this is a key area for further research."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Lastly, it is important to note that the successful expansion of the SMA program in Tonga has relied largely on the fact that, prior to its inception, Tonga was entirely open access. Re-establishing a form of customary tenure has therefore been the prime incentive for strong engagement."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"A key consideration in expanding this program to other countries would be that support may be greatest in areas where existing management is weakest. For example, the SMA program in its current form might provide little incentive for groups in Vanuatu to implement no-take zones, where strong customary tenure already exists (Govan, 2009). However, other incentives such as providing formal recognition of customary tenure through legislation could provide similar enticements in these places."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The dual approach of Tonga's SMA program provides key insights into mechanisms by which to avoid known pitfalls in protected areas expansion. First, providing immediate incentives (e.g., exclusive access zones) that also foster long-term relationships with resources encourages groups that otherwise may be against management and conservation to implement protected areas. Then ensuring that protected areas occur within the boundaries of these exclusive access zones entices groups to protect areas of greater extractive value than they would likely do so otherwise."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Applying this framework successfully to other regions will rely on understanding the specific local incentives that will ultimately foster the greatest long-term engagement in management and conservation. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"F I G U R E 2 Overview of Tonga's Special Management Area program. Yellow denotes Special Management Areas (SMAs), red no-take Fish Habitat Reserves (FHRs), and black communities. Top left: Map of Tonga in the South Pacific. Right: Map of all SMAs and FHRs as of October 2019. Bottom left: Growth of the SMA program, with bars indicating the total numbers of SMAs and FHRs and lines representing the total areas "},{"text":" From 2016 to 2019, 31 new SMAs were established, resulting in roughly half of all coastal communities in Tonga having an SMA. This rapid uptake following 2016 was likely due in part to (a) increased awareness from a \"lessons learned\" conference in October 2015 implemented by the MoF and Civil Society Forum of Tonga and supported by the Marine and Coastal Biodiversity Management in Pacific Island Countries (MACBIO) project (Tupou Taufa et al., 2016), and, (b) increased financial support from various international donors to implement new SMAs in the Vava'u archipelago (e.g., Asian Development Bank and WAITT Institute). As of September 2019, an additional 46 SMA communities have either been confirmed, submitted to cabinet for approval, written a letter of interest, or been proposed, with the aim of including all coastal communities in the program by 2025 (Table "},{"text":"F I G U R E 3 Conceptualization of Tonga's Special Management Area (SMA) program. The top row represents the state prior to the implementation of the program including problems with open access systems and factors preventing successful conservation efforts. The middle row represents the SMA program, with the expected outcomes of the SMAs and FHRs. The bottom three boxes represent key mechanisms by which the SMA program has avoided problems that have constrained the effectiveness of other protected areas "},{"text":" Density plots of overall differences in four socioenvironmental variables between no-take Fish Habitat Reserves (FHR), Special Management Areas (SMA) and open areas in Tonga "},{"text":"A C K N O W L E D G M E N T SThe authors are grateful for the advice of Dr. Robert Gillett regarding the history and future direction of Tonga's Special Management Area program. Likewise, we are grateful to Karen Stone and the Vava'u Environmental Protection Agency for discussions about the philosophy of the program. We similarly indebted to Sione Mailau and Amanda Le'ota from the Ministry of Fisheries for providing the up to date coordinates and status of all SMAs in the country. P.S.W., T.C.L.B., R.L.P., and G.P.J. acknowledge support from the Australian Research Council and PSW from the National Geographic Society, McIntyre Adventure, and the Halaevalu Mata'aho Marine Discovery Centre.D ATA AVA I L A B I L I T YRaw data for spatial analysis is available in the supplementary materials.A U T H O R C O N T R I B U T I O N SP.S.W. conceived and wrote the manuscript. J.S. aided with graphical analysis, in country support, and idea development. S.M. and T.H. contributed to in country support and critical background information about the program. T.B., R.P., and G.J. supervised the project and developed the ideas. All authors contributed to the final manuscript. Patrick F. Smallhorn-West https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6782-3704 Tom C. L. Bridge https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3951-284X Robert L. Pressey https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6531-7389 Geoffrey P. Jones https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6244-1245 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" The relationship between four socio-environmental metrics and the presence of Fish Habitat Reserves and Special Management Areas in Tonga. LCL and UCL represent 95% lower and upper confidence limits respectively from 1000 bootstrapped samples. Negative estimate values indicate that values inside the management areas are lower than in areas open to fishing and positive estimate values indicate that values inside the management areas are greater than in areas open to fishing Fish Habitat Reserves       Fish Habitat Reserves Variable Estimate LCL UCL t d f p -Value VariableEstimateLCLUCLtd fp -Value Distance to land −2048.59 −2055.93 −2041.25 −547.8 999 <.05 Distance to land−2048.59−2055.93−2041.25−547.8999<.05 Distance to village −5353.65 −5366.11 −5341.2 −843.36 999 <.05 Distance to village−5353.65−5366.11−5341.2−843.36999<.05 Fishing pressure 6.59 6.55 6.62 352.31 999 <.05 Fishing pressure6.596.556.62352.31999<.05 Wave Energy −855.94 −858.05 −853.84 −798.6 999 <.05 Wave Energy−855.94−858.05−853.84−798.6999<.05 Special Management Areas       Special Management Areas Variable Estimate LCL UCL t d f p -Value VariableEstimateLCLUCLtd fp -Value Distance to land −1627.38 −1630.25 −1624.51 −1111.6 999 <.05 Distance to land−1627.38−1630.25−1624.51−1111.6999<.05 Distance to village −4242.97 −4247.68 −4238.26 −1767.7 999 <.05 Distance to village−4242.97−4247.68−4238.26−1767.7999<.05 Fishing pressure −5.03 −5.05 −5.02 −809.19 999 <.05 Fishing pressure−5.03−5.05−5.02−809.19999<.05 Wave Energy −367.79 −368.52 −367.06 −988.86 999 <.05 Wave Energy−367.79−368.52−367.06−988.86999<.05 Fish Habitat Reserves within Special Management Areas     Fish Habitat Reserves within Special Management Areas Variable Estimate LCL UCL t d f p -Value VariableEstimateLCLUCLtd fp -Value Distance to land −365.01 −370.27 −359.75 −136.16 999 <.05 Distance to land−365.01−370.27−359.75−136.16999<.05 Distance to village −963.84 −972.53 −955.15 −217.67 999 <.05 Distance to village−963.84−972.53−955.15−217.67999<.05 Fishing pressure 11.07 11.04 11.09 846.45 999 <.05 Fishing pressure11.0711.0411.09846.45999<.05 Wave Energy −339.33 −340.71 −337.96 −484.21 999 <.05 Wave Energy−339.33−340.71−337.96−484.21999<.05  "}],"sieverID":"0622c0ea-e231-4a0d-bfc6-29e6b3720fa3","abstract":"The expansion of coastal marine protected areas can suffer from two key drawbacks: (a) the difficulty of incentivizing local communities to manage areas for conservation when their livelihoods also depend on resource use; and (b) that many protected areas get situated residually, or in locations with limited value for either biodiversity conservation or livelihoods. Here, we discuss and analyze key characteristics of Tonga's Special Management Area (SMA) program, including both the mechanisms that have motivated its successful national expansion and its ability to configure no-take reserves in areas that are considered to have high value to resource users. Granting communities exclusive access zones in exchange for implementing no-take reserves has encouraged conservation actions while fostering long-term relationships with resources. Ensuring notake reserves occurred within the boundaries of exclusive access zones enabled communities to protect areas of greater extractive values than they would have otherwise. We conclude that the success of this program offers a way forward for achieving targets in the global expansion marine protected areas."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01c7a9aacd837267e2e7e999795dc02f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9611018d-3603-4136-84d2-f6f197100fe3/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"COtECO N HISTOIIU","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"~ , . Ezequiel Espinosa ]J, César P. Martínez f../, Eric Batista '!J, \" Samuel Lezcano J..I, Luisa Martínez ' !../ y Claudio Fernandez y INTRODUCCION La obtención de variedades superiores de alto potencial de rendimiento, buena calidad, tolerante a las principales enfermedades y plagas prevalen tes en la reglon y de buenas características agronómisas, constituye uno de los principales objetivos de un programa de fitomejoramiento."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Sin embargo, para que estas variedades mejoradas puedan expresar su potencial genético y contribuir de esa manera no sólo al incremento de la producción sino también a la estabilidad de la misma, deben ir acompañadas de un manejo agronómico adecuado y estar bien adaptadas a las condiciones locales. Varios estudios (2,4,6,8,9) Indican que las variedades actualmente sembradas en varios países centroamericanos no están expresando su potencial de rendimiento tal vez debido en parte, a un manejo agronómico deficiente."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"Casi siempre un fltomejorador se enfrenta con la disyuntiva de cuál tipo de variedad debe producir: en ciertos casos es preferible entregar variedades que se comporten bien bajo una amplia gama de condiciones [adaptación genera 1) mientras que en otras circunstancias se requieren materiales adaptados a ciertas condiciones especificas (adaptación específica). Dado que las condiciones ambientales cambian a través del tiempo y del espacio, en la mayorla de los casos resulta difícil decidir cual tipo de adaptación es más deseable (1). Por otra parte. un principio bien aceptado sugiere que las futuras variedades deben seleccionarse y evaluarse dentro del área para la cual se va a recomendar. Con muy pocas excepciones, casi todas las variedades que se han sembrado o se siembran actualmente en Centro América han sido desarrolladas en medios ambientes distintos; la gran mayorla de estas variedades ha presentado probi'emas de susceptibilidad a enfermedades (especialmente él Pyricularia oryzae) y por consiguiente, su duración ha sido muy corta."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"En 1982 se inició en Panamá un proyecto colaborativo entre el Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuaria de Panamá (IDIAP), la Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias de la Universidad de Panamá (FCA) y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) con el objetivo principal de obtener germoplasma mejorado para las condiciones de riego y secano favorecido existentes en Panamá y en Centro América. Luego de varios años de selección y evaluación en Alanje, David y Río Hato se escogieron 15 líneas avanzadas las cuales se evaluaron en pruebas regionales sembradas en fincas de agricultores en 1985."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"No es sorprendente encontrar que un buen número de líneas que han pasado con todo éxito por los tamices y evaluaciones hechas en parcelas de observación y ensayos de rendimiento presenten inconvenientes y debilidades cuando se siembran en fincas de agricultores (5), Por consiguiente, la realización de pruebas regionales en tantos sitios como sea posible, es un paso esencial en la identificación de líneas superiores."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"El objetivo de este artículo consiste en discutir la evaluación de cuatro líneas promisorias sembradas en parcelas demostrativas en fincas de agricultores en once sitios pertenecientes a las principales zonas arroceras de Panamá,"}]},{"head":"MATERIALES Y METODOS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Se evaluaron cuatro lineas promisorias (Cuadro 1) en parcelas de 1000 m 2 en 11 sitios en Panamá: Tocumen, La Esperanza-Barú, CEIAT-Tocumen, Antón-Coclé, Las Guabas-Coclé, La Barqueta-Alanje, Santa María-Herrera, Los Números-Divalá, Chepa-Panamá, Tolé-Chiriqul y David-Chiriquí. Tres de los sitios localizados en la Provincia de Chiriqul (David, Tolé y DivaláJ tenlan suelos fértiles de origen aluvial y textura franco arcillosa; en tanto que en Barú y Alanje los suelos eran de fertilidad media y de textura franco-arenosa. Los tres sitios escogidos en la Provincia de Panamá (Tocumen, CEIAT y Chepo) tenlan suelos fránco-arcillosos, con drenaje imperfecto y fertilidad media. Los sitios escogidos en las provincias de Coclé y Herrera (Arítón, Las Guabas y Santa Maria) se caracterizaron por tener suelos poco profundos, de textura franca y fertilidad media."},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"La evaluación se hizo bajo condiciones de riego en Antón y Las Guabas, mientras que en los sitios restantes se hizo bajo condiciones de secano. La densidad y sistema de siembra y el manejo agronómico de las parcelas (control de malezas y plagas, fertilización, épocas de aplicación, etc) fueron los mismos utifizados por los agricultores en sus campos comerciales; se aplicaron entre 180 y 225 kg/ha de 12-24-12 como fertilización básica y entre 45 y 62.5 kg/ha de N aplicado en forma fraccionada. Las variedades (CICA 8, Oryzica 1, Anayansi, CR 201, CR 5272 y Toc 5430) sembradas comercialmente por los agricultores sirvieron como testigos. Se tomaron datos sobre las principales características agronómicas (altura, floración, vigor, vuelco, rendimiento, etc) e incidencia de enfermedades; se tomaron cinco muestras de 2 X 2 m para determinar el rendimiento de cada linea y el testigo. Se realizaron dlas de campo y se efectuaron encuestas para determinar el grado de aceptación de las líneas por parte de los agricultores. El análisis estadfstico de los datos se hizo mediante el modelo de Plaisted (7) en tanto que los parámetros de estabilidad ambiental se determinaron según el modelo de Eberhart y Russel (3). La definición del índice ambiental se modificó un poco y se estableció como la diferencia entre el rendimiento promedio de un sitio y el rendimiento de todos los sitios excluyendo la variedad a analizar."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS Y DISCUSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"En términos generales las pruebas que fueron sembradas en los meses de Mayo y Junio sufrieron más por efectos de sequía que las que se sembraron en Julio. Las localidades más afectadas por las sequías en la Provincia de Chiriquí fueron La Barqueta (Finca Olas) y Divalá (Finca Los Números). En la Provincia de Panamá se observaron estréses de sequla en Chepa (Finca Arrocera San Cristóbal), en el CEIAT y durante el desarrollo inicial del cultivo en la finca agropecuaria Tocumen. En la región del Barú, Provincia de Chiriquf, ocurrieron inundaciones durante el mes de Octubre, cuando las lineas sembradas en la Finca La Esperanza estaban en floración (excepto la línea UP 1542)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"La inundación ocasionó mucho vaneamiento y a ello se atribuye los bajos rendimientos obtenidos en esta localidad."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"La línea UP 1542 fué menos afectada ya que al ocurrir las inundaciones aún no habla llegado el período de floración."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"La incidencia de enfermedades foliares varió considerablemente de una localidad a otra. En todas las localidades fué prevalente el escaldado de la hoja, la Helminthosporiosis y el manchado del grano. En algunas de las localidades de la provincia de Chiriquí, se observó además la mancha ojival y el carbón de la hoja. En Coclé (Finca Asentamiento 11 de Octubre) se observó Cercosporiosis o mancha lineal afectando en forma moderada a las líneas UP 1542 Y 1048 Y con mayor intensidad a la variedad testigo CICA 8. En las fincas localizadas en la Provincia de Panamá [Chepa y Tocumen) prevaleció el añublo de la vaina y el carbón de la hoja, pudiendo catalogarse su incidencia como moderada."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"Hubo muy poca incidencia de pirlcularia afectando el follaje; se observaron, en cambio, ataques tardíos de piricularia en el cuello de la panoja, particularmente en la línea 16404 y en la variedad testigo CR 5272."},{"index":6,"size":77,"text":"En las fincas TESKO, SA Y en el Asentamiento 11 de Octubre, en las que la prueba se hizo bajo condiciones de riego, el cultivo se desarrolló bajo óptimas condiciones obteniéndose los mas altos rendimientos. Cabe indicar que en estas dos fincas se aplicaron dosis mas altas de fertilizantes que en las otras localidades y a éllo se puede atribuir que las líneas alcanzaron mayor desarollo vegetativo lo que indujo al acame. particularmente en la línea 1048."},{"index":7,"size":93,"text":"Un resumen de las principales características agronómicas de las lineas y el rendimiento obtenido en los 11 sitios se presenta en los Cuadros 2 y 3, respectivamente. Hubo diferencias significativas al nivel del 5% entre sitios y entre lineas (Cuadro 4). Los rendimientos promedios (Fig. 1) mas altos se obtuvieron bajo condiciones de riego en Antón (7.3 ton/ha) y Las Guabas (7.0 ton/ha) seguidos por Divalá (6.9 ton/ha) y Tolé (6.7 ton/ha). No hubo diferencias significativas entre Antón, Las Guabas, Divalá y Tolé pero si hubo entre estos cuatro sitios y los restantes."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"El rendimiento promedio más bajo se obtuvo en Barú (3.1) ton I ha) • La prueba de Duncan mostró diferencias significativas en rendimiento al 5% (Fig. 2) entre las líneas 1048, UP 1537 y 16404 con respecto al testigo del agricultor y a la línea U P 1542 (Cuadro 4)."},{"index":9,"size":54,"text":"La línea 16404 presentó ataques tardlos de piricularia (P. oryzae) en el cuello de ia panícula en varios sitios, en tanto que lasllneas 1048 y UP 1537 mostraron tolerancia (Cuadro 2); la susceptibilidad de la linea 16404 a piricularia, especialmente en condiciones de secano. también se observó en las pruebas regionales efectuadas en 1985."},{"index":10,"size":91,"text":"La linea 1537 fué la más consistente en su comportamiento a través de los distintos ambientes. en tanto que la 1048 se comportó mucho mejor que las otras líneas en situaciones en donde la fertilidad del suelo no era buena o cuando el control de malezas fué deficiente; bajo condiciones de riego presentó un volcamiento ligero. La línea UP 15lJ2 fué la menos consistente de. todas; se comportó muy bien en condiciones de riego pero en secano fué bastante afectada por escaldado de la hoja (R. oryzae) y manchado del grano."},{"index":11,"size":220,"text":"Los índices de adaptabilidad aparecen en el Cuadro 5; el análisis indica que las líneas de mejor adaptación fueron la U P 1537, 16lJ04 y 1048 seguidas por el testigo del agricultor y la UP 1542, respectivamente. La prueba \"t\" de significancia mostró que los índices de adaptabilidad no son significativamente diferentes de 1 al 5%; esto quiere decier que todas las linea rsponden a las condiciones del ambiente, es decir, que al mejorar las condiciones del cultivo incrementan su producción. proporcionalmente a la mejora de las condiciones. Sin embargo, el análisis del error de estimación y de la contribución a la interacción indican que la línea UP 1537 es la de mejor adaptación ya que tuvo el error de estimación menor y su contribución a la interacción fué la menor de todas; el comportamiento de la UP 1537 fué el más consistente a tr.avés de todos los sitios; siguieron en su orden la 16404 y la 1 OlJ8. La línea UP 1542 tuvo el error de estimación mayor y además, fué la segunda en contribuir más a la Interacción; esto sugiere que la UP 15lJ2 es la más irregular en su respuesta ál medio ambiente y que s610 se comporta bien en condiciones particulares existentes en ambientes especlficos. Esto explica su buen comportamiento en riego y malo en secano."},{"index":12,"size":56,"text":"Las encuestas realizadas en los días de campo celebrados en cuatro sitios indicaron que las líneas más preferidas por los agricultores fueron, en su orden 1611011, 10l¡a y UP 1537. Lo que más gustó de la 16404 fué su follaje verde y limpio hasta la época de cosecha y la exerclón y tamaño de la panícula."},{"index":13,"size":66,"text":"En los Cuadros 6 y 7 se presentan algunos datos sobre la calidad culinaria y molinera de las líneas UP 1537 y 1048 en comparación con varios testigos. La linea 1048 supera a la UP 1537 en rendimiento de molino. contenido de proteina y rendimiento en arroz cocido; sin embargo, los granos de UP 1537 se presentan más sueltos y secos después de cocido el arroz."},{"index":14,"size":134,"text":"Simultáneamente a la evaluación de las lineas en parcelas demostrativas, se efectuó la purificación y multiplicación de la semilla básica de cada una de las líneas, lo cual se hizo bajo condiciones de riego y transplante en Río Hato, Provincia de Coclé. Los parámetros de estabilidad ambiental indicaron que la linea de mejor adaptación fué la UP 1537 seguida por 16404 y 1048. Sin embargo, la linea 16404 se descartó porque en varios sitios presentó ataques tardíos de piricularia al cuello de la panícula. Las líneas UP 1537 y 1048 serán lanzadas como variedades en Panamá; la UP 1537 puede sembrarse tanto en condiciones de riego como de secano favorecido, mientras que la 1048, se recomienda sólo para condiciones de secano favorecido por su tendencia al vuelco en condiciones de riego.    .. , .,.   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" DE CUATRO LINEAS PROMISORIAS DE ARROZ EN PANAMA* "},{"text":"• 6 CONCLUSIONES No hubo diferencias significativas en rendimiento entre las líneas UP 1537, 1048 Y 16404 pero dichas líneas superaron significativamente en rendimiento al testigo del agricultor y a la línea UP 1542. Además, hubo diferencias significativas entre sitios en cuanto a rendimiento. "},{"text":" Vigor escala 1-5; DOS = Días después siembra a Escala 1-9; -No se presentó NBI = Piricu laira P. oryzae) en el cuello lS :: = Escaldado de la hoja (R. oryzae) BS = Helminthosporium oryzae G I = Manchado del grano panícula "},{"text":"9 = FIG 1. RENDll'11ENTO PRa-lEDIO DE 11 SITIOS EN DONDE SE lOCALIZARON lAS PARCELAS DEMOSTRATIVAS DE LAS líNEAS PROMISORIAS DE ARROZ EN PANAMÁ. 1986. "},{"text":" Cua ro 5. Rendimiento promedio y parámetros de adaptabilidad de las líneas evaluadas en parcelas demostrativas. Panamá 1986. = sin centro blanco : 5 = grano yesado.bl Cantidad arroz cocido por una parte de arroz crudo. . . . Cuadro 3. Rendimiento (Ton/Ha) de cuatro lineas promisorias en Continuación Cuadro 4. Prueba de Duncan Diferencias en rendimiento parcelas demostrativas sembradas en 11 sitios. Panamá, 1986. R E P E TI C ION Sitio Linea 11 111 IV V Tocumen, 1048 11.42 3.35 11. 29 4.64 3.96 Panamá UP 1537 11. 23 3.98 4.71 4. lB 5.27 UP IS42 2.94 3.29 3.S1 4.55 3.15 16/¡0/¡ 3.6/¡ 3.78 3.89 3.77 3.82 *CICA-S t.¡.57 5.04 4.06 3.78 /¡.49 La Esperanza, 1048 3.91 3.B/¡ 3.B6 4.18 a Barú, Chiriq. UP 1537 3.73 3.07 4.41 4.03 -a UP 1542 4.92 4.19 4.37 4.93 a -16/¡04 3.22 3.43 2.19 3.87 a *Oryzica 1 2.73 2.65 2.82 2.29 a CEIAT-1048 4.61 4.84 5.53 5.07 4.67 Tocumen, UP 1537 5.32 11.23 11.53 3.69 4.89 Panamá UP 1542 3.110 4. 11 4.13 5.08 3.84 16404 11.15 3.69 3.56 4.87 5.04 *Oryzica 1 3.62 3.59 4.29 3.62 3.03 16404 4.110 4.17 q.22 Q.q3 Q.1Q UP 1542 3.19 3.62 4.70 3.74 3.69 Chepa. Panamá 1048 5.30 4.83 5.04 5.35 4.39 UP 1537 ' 5.19 11.55 5.111 4.46 4.88 NS '\" No significativamente distinto de 1 al nivel de 0.05%. . -REPETI C 10 N Sitio Unea 11 111 IV V Santa María, 1048 5.58 5.58 3.57 3.80 3.50 Herrera UP 1537 4.16 4.70 4.14 11.31 5.117 UP 15112 3.76 2.80 3.68 3.12 3.115 164011 5.01 11.53 5.70 11.29 11.09 *Oryzica 1 3.55 3.117 3.24 4.17 11.20 Los Números, 1048 9.35 9.32 8.00 8.46 9.13 Divalá, Ch. UP 1537 8.73 8.13 8.19 7.65 6.60 UP 15112 4.25 6.32 3.90 6.37 6.62 164011 5.05 8.16 8.29 6.07 8.24 *CR 201 7. 111 3.82 5.37 4.45 4.87 entre las lineas. Rendimiento LInea (kg/ha) Grupo* talla 5.959 A UP 1537 5.634 A 16404 5.699 A Testigo 5.077 B UP 1542 4.871 B * Promedios con la misma letra no son significativamente diferentes al 5% CV 11 .8 Estimación de componente de Rendimiento varianza de la Indice de Error de promedio interacción V x A Líne~ adaptabilidad estimación {kg/haJ excluida la linea 37 0.9939 NS* 0.3961 5.797 0.4359 42 0.6318 NS 0.9531 4.866 0.1970 1048 1.0826 NS 0.6922 5.923 0.3570 1640 1.1414 NS 0.5344 5.654 0.4051 Test o 0.9302 NS 0.8779 5.032 0.2861 Centro a Amilosa Rend. b Contribución Promedio 11.13 4.52 3.55 3.78 4.39 3.95 3.81 /¡.60 3.18 2.62 4.26 3.63 4.11 4.27 4.53 3.79 4.94 4.84 4.98 Promedio 11.49 4.56 3.36 11.72 3.73 8.85' 7.86 5.49 7.16 5.13 a la interacción 0.0997 -0.1392 0.0208 0.0689 -0.05019 Proteína LInea blanco Dispersión (%) Cocción ( %) 1048 2.0 7.0 B 27 Moderad. 3.5: 1 8.2 separados UP 1537 1.4 7.0 B 30 Separados 3: 1 7.7 25702 0.8 3.4 IIA 27 Moderad. 3: 1 9.8 separados Oryzica 1 0.6 7.0 B 31 Moderad. 3: I 5.8 separados Rend. Indice a Arroz integral total pilada partido Línea (%) (%} (%} (%) 1048 80.1 74.0 59.8 10.9 UP 1537 79.7 69.6 49.0 17.3 Oryzica 1 79.1 71.2 56.0 14.1 25702 78.2 68.1 43.0 15.1 al Escala 0-5: Arroz al Grano 100% entero y 3/4. . . .Cuadro 3. Rendimiento (Ton/Ha) de cuatro lineas promisorias en Continuación Cuadro 4. Prueba de Duncan Diferencias en rendimiento parcelas demostrativas sembradas en 11 sitios. Panamá, 1986. R E P E TI C ION Sitio Linea 11 111 IV V Tocumen, 1048 11.42 3.35 11. 29 4.64 3.96 Panamá UP 1537 11. 23 3.98 4.71 4. lB 5.27 UP IS42 2.94 3.29 3.S1 4.55 3.15 16/¡0/¡ 3.6/¡ 3.78 3.89 3.77 3.82 *CICA-S t.¡.57 5.04 4.06 3.78 /¡.49 La Esperanza, 1048 3.91 3.B/¡ 3.B6 4.18 a Barú, Chiriq. UP 1537 3.73 3.07 4.41 4.03 -a UP 1542 4.92 4.19 4.37 4.93 a -16/¡04 3.22 3.43 2.19 3.87 a *Oryzica 1 2.73 2.65 2.82 2.29 a CEIAT-1048 4.61 4.84 5.53 5.07 4.67 Tocumen, UP 1537 5.32 11.23 11.53 3.69 4.89 Panamá UP 1542 3.110 4. 11 4.13 5.08 3.84 16404 11.15 3.69 3.56 4.87 5.04 *Oryzica 1 3.62 3.59 4.29 3.62 3.03 16404 4.110 4.17 q.22 Q.q3 Q.1Q UP 1542 3.19 3.62 4.70 3.74 3.69 Chepa. Panamá 1048 5.30 4.83 5.04 5.35 4.39 UP 1537 ' 5.19 11.55 5.111 4.46 4.88 NS '\" No significativamente distinto de 1 al nivel de 0.05%. . -REPETI C 10 N Sitio Unea 11 111 IV V Santa María, 1048 5.58 5.58 3.57 3.80 3.50 Herrera UP 1537 4.16 4.70 4.14 11.31 5.117 UP 15112 3.76 2.80 3.68 3.12 3.115 164011 5.01 11.53 5.70 11.29 11.09 *Oryzica 1 3.55 3.117 3.24 4.17 11.20 Los Números, 1048 9.35 9.32 8.00 8.46 9.13 Divalá, Ch. UP 1537 8.73 8.13 8.19 7.65 6.60 UP 15112 4.25 6.32 3.90 6.37 6.62 164011 5.05 8.16 8.29 6.07 8.24 *CR 201 7. 111 3.82 5.37 4.45 4.87 entre las lineas. Rendimiento LInea (kg/ha) Grupo* talla 5.959 A UP 1537 5.634 A 16404 5.699 A Testigo 5.077 B UP 1542 4.871 B * Promedios con la misma letra no son significativamente diferentes al 5% CV 11 .8 Estimación de componente de Rendimiento varianza de la Indice de Error de promedio interacción V x A Líne~ adaptabilidad estimación {kg/haJ excluida la linea 37 0.9939 NS* 0.3961 5.797 0.4359 42 0.6318 NS 0.9531 4.866 0.1970 1048 1.0826 NS 0.6922 5.923 0.3570 1640 1.1414 NS 0.5344 5.654 0.4051 Test o 0.9302 NS 0.8779 5.032 0.2861 Centro a Amilosa Rend. b Contribución Promedio 11.13 4.52 3.55 3.78 4.39 3.95 3.81 /¡.60 3.18 2.62 4.26 3.63 4.11 4.27 4.53 3.79 4.94 4.84 4.98 Promedio 11.49 4.56 3.36 11.72 3.73 8.85' 7.86 5.49 7.16 5.13 a la interacción 0.0997 -0.1392 0.0208 0.0689 -0.05019 Proteína LInea blanco Dispersión (%) Cocción ( %) 1048 2.0 7.0 B 27 Moderad. 3.5: 1 8.2 separados UP 1537 1.4 7.0 B 30 Separados 3: 1 7.7 25702 0.8 3.4 IIA 27 Moderad. 3: 1 9.8 separados Oryzica 1 0.6 7.0 B 31 Moderad. 3: I 5.8 separados Rend. Indice a Arroz integral total pilada partido Línea (%) (%} (%} (%) 1048 80.1 74.0 59.8 10.9 UP 1537 79.7 69.6 49.0 17.3 Oryzica 1 79.1 71.2 56.0 14.1 25702 78.2 68.1 43.0 15.1 al Escala 0-5: Arroz al Grano 100% entero y 3/4.   *TOC 5430 3.93 4.32 3.57 4.27 3.03 3.82 *TOC 54303.934.323.574.273.033.82  Talé, 1048 7.1B 5.60 7.08 8.07 6.71 6.93 Talé,10487.1B5.607.088.076.716.93  Antón, Coclé Chiriquí 1048 UP 1537 UP 1537 UP ISQ2 UP 15112 16404 16404 *5685 7.08 7.19 6.67 Q.35 7.18 6.61 6.93 7.29 7.33 7.70 7.00 4.18 8.05 8.22 8.09 7.56 7.48 5.91 7.40 11.311 7.97 7.82 7.311 7.95 6.70 7.28 8.15 11.34 6.71 6.68 7.33 7.25 8.09 8.38 7.51 5.42 7.81 7.24 6.57 7.01 7.29 7.3t.¡ 4.53 7.35 7.31 7.511 7.25 7.41 Antón, Coclé Chiriquí1048 UP 1537 UP 1537 UP ISQ2 UP 15112 16404 16404 *56857.08 7.19 6.67 Q.35 7.18 6.61 6.93 7.297.33 7.70 7.00 4.18 8.05 8.22 8.09 7.567.48 5.91 7.40 11.311 7.97 7.82 7.311 7.956.70 7.28 8.15 11.34 6.71 6.68 7.33 7.258.09 8.38 7.51 5.42 7.81 7.24 6.57 7.017.29 7.3t.¡ 4.53 7.35 7.31 7.511 7.25 7.41   *Anayansi 5.74 6.73 6.68 5.97 6.86 6.40 *Anayansi5.746.736.685.976.866.40  David, 1048 7.65 6.56 5.20 5.61 5.57 6.12 David,10487.656.565.205.615.576.12  Las Guabas. Chiriquí Coclé 10llS UP 1537 UP 1537 UP 1542 UP 15112 1611011 16404 *CR 5272 7.69 6.46 7.05 5.17 6.117 7.27 6.33 6.69 7.71 6.45 7.43 3.87 7.S6 6.45 6.59 5.66 7.12 6.28 6.31 5.17 6.07 6.65 7.34 5.81 8.29 7.21 6.69 5.31 6.67 6.90 7.38 5.36 6.79 5.50 6.79 Q.78 6.29 5.911 7.13 6.49 6.38 7.52 4.86 6.86 6.64 6.67 6.95 6.00 Las Guabas. Chiriquí Coclé10llS UP 1537 UP 1537 UP 1542 UP 15112 1611011 16404 *CR 52727.69 6.46 7.05 5.17 6.117 7.27 6.33 6.697.71 6.45 7.43 3.87 7.S6 6.45 6.59 5.667.12 6.28 6.31 5.17 6.07 6.65 7.34 5.818.29 7.21 6.69 5.31 6.67 6.90 7.38 5.366.79 5.50 6.79 Q.78 6.29 5.911 7.13 6.496.38 7.52 4.86 6.86 6.64 6.67 6.95 6.00 • *CICA B * Variedad sembrada por el agricultor en su finca y utilizada como testigo. 6.16 6.56 7.51 7.112 6.89 6.81 La Barqueta. 1048 5.61 6.18 5.70 6.57 5.S6 5.98 Alanje UP 1537 5.50 6.51 5.38 5.22 6.24 5.77 a No se cosechó 2 2 •*CICA B * Variedad sembrada por el agricultor en su finca y utilizada como testigo. 6.16 6.56 7.51 7.112 6.89 6.81 La Barqueta. 1048 5.61 6.18 5.70 6.57 5.S6 5.98 Alanje UP 1537 5.50 6.51 5.38 5.22 6.24 5.77 a No se cosechó2 2 ~  UP 1542 5.114 5.27 5.08 4.88 4.45 5.02 ~UP 15425.1145.275.084.884.455.02   16404 6.39 7.S3 5.99 7.33 6.01 6.65 164046.397.S35.997.336.016.65   *Oryzica 1 6.00 4.118 4.99 5.36 5.73 5.31 *Oryzica 16.004.1184.995.365.735.31  "},{"text":" RENDIMIENTO PRa.1EDIO DE LINEAS PRa.11 SOR lAS EN PARCELAS DEMJSTRATIVAS. PANAI'lÁ. 1986. ••••••••  011 • 11. ••••••••011 • 11. LP 1537 LP 1542 1048 16404 LP 1537 LP 1542104816404  "}],"sieverID":"9eba25c5-5a51-4463-ad8e-576750cebcab","abstract":"se evaluaron bajo condiciones de riego y secano favorecido en 11 localidades correspondientes a 'a~ principales zonas arroceras de Panamá. Se sembraron parcelas de 1000 m de cada línea en fincas de agricultores con el fin de determinar su comportamiento y aceptación por parte de los arroceros. Las prácticas agronómicas (métodos de siembra. densidades de siembra, control de malezas, fertilización, etc) fueron las mismas utilizadas por los agricultores; las variedades comerciales (CICA 8, Oryzica 1, CR 201, TOC 5430, Anayansi y CR 5272) sembradas por los agricultores en sus fincas sirvieron como testigos. Tanto las prácticas agronómicas como los testigos variaron de una finca a otra. Se efectuaron dlas de campo para promocionar las nuevas lineas y recoger las opiniones de los agricultores.El anéli~ estadrstico indicó que las lineas 1048, UP 1537 y 16404 rindieron significativamente más que el testigo del agricultor y que la línea UP 1542. También hubo diferencias significativas entre los sistemas de riego y secano favorecido. Se está multiplicando semilla de las líneas 1048 y UP 1537 paré! ser nombradas como variedades en 1987."}

data/part_5/01fbd362db2e48b1857d0a7d4776e369.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01fbd362db2e48b1857d0a7d4776e369","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b9cbd179-bd3e-42ea-a719-73c06b9f2d4d/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Food systems for sustainable development: proposals for a profound four-part transformation","keywords":["Food systems","Agriculture","Transformation","Nexus","Sustainable development","Climate change","Koronivia"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":350,"text":"The 2030 Agenda integrates the three dimensions of sustainable development across the 17 SDGs, and within each of the goals, together with human rights, peace, security, and governance. In the words of the then United Nations Secretary General, it represents a paradigm shift and a plan of action for dignity, people, planet, prosperity, justice, and partnerships (UN Secretary General, 2014. paragraph 64). In this framework, SDG 2 aims to \"End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture,\" while SDG 13 urges to \"Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.\" The impact of climate change undermines human rights and reinforces inequalities and injustice. In this way, climate action is also a moral imperative that brings justice to the center of the climate-poverty-development discussion, a message that is at the core of Pope Francis' Encyclical \"Laudato Si\" and the Climate Justice perspective (Robinson 2015). Through the Paris Agreement on climate, 195 countries have established a universal action framework in line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Nature Climate Change 2016). The SDGs set concrete targets for multiple issues and sectors that are critical to climate action. Against this backdrop, the then UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon convened an informal High-Level meeting of experts and policy-makers in Milan on the 2015 World Food Day (\"Milano Group\"), with the mission of laying out shared views on the following: (i) a strategic narrative that links climate, agriculture, and food, (ii) emerging opportunities for bringing this narrative to the climate debate, and (iii) options for action. This paper builds on the outcomes of the Milano Group's deliberations and focuses its main conclusion: the need for the transformation of food systems-at scale-in order to achieve the SDGs and the Paris Agreement. The transformation should deliver multiple and simultaneous social, economic, and environmental outcomes, including poverty eradication and mitigation and adaptation to climate change. This consensus implies a radical shift in comparison with the paradigms that steered the agricultural changes of the XXth century. We therefore refer to a new transformation in food systems, in agriculture, and in rural livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"After examining the links between agriculture and food and nutrition security (FNS) and the evolution of the role of agriculture for development, we conclude with the need to move beyond food supply as the basis for food systems. We identify four essential parts for the transformation of all food systems."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"We also discuss some of the principles that should underpin the transformations, as well as major challenges with implementation."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"2 Food systems: an integrated perspective to address the \"food and nutrition security, ecosystem integrity, climate and social justice\" nexus"},{"index":5,"size":88,"text":"The sustainable development of the world's people and of their planet is only possible if all people are food secure and well-nourished, if all ecosystems are healthy and balanced, if societies are resilient in the face of threats posed by climate change, and if governance of development benefits is fair and just. Food systems \"consist of all the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, and the outcomes of these activities\" (HLPE 2014)."},{"index":6,"size":221,"text":"Agriculture and fisheries are the primary livelihoods for most of the world's people and influence all these realities. One can easily understand the exclusive focus and pressure placed on the agricultural sector by the injunction to \"produce more\" over the past two centuries. It was no easy task to enable the exponential growth of the global population, moving from 1 to 7 billion people in two centuries and from 3 to 7 billion between just 1960 and 2010, while Malthus observed a linear increase in agricultural production (Malthus 1798). Wars and famines were avoided, and the prophecy of Malthus was not fulfilled-thanks to the Green Revolution. While population doubled between 1961 and 2003, global food production increased by a factor of 2.5 (Paillard et al. 2011), leading to a steady increase in the average food available per person, from 2373 kcal/person/day in 1969/71 to 2772 kcal/person/day in 2005/07 (FAO 2012). This increase in production was associated with significant changes in food systems with major risks to food security confined-in the main-to localized populations affected by violent conflict and/or unexpected weather events. However, there are underlying risks associated with a \"high level of corporate concentration in food trade, transformation and distribution\" (HLPE 2017a), unequal endowments in agricultural assets, difference in access to natural resources (De Schutter 2011), and inequalities in people's income."},{"index":7,"size":167,"text":"Agriculture has suffered from a lack of public interest and investment in recent decades. As a consequence of the riots that affected many countries in early 2008 due to the spike in food prices, agriculture was back on center stage in the scientific literature (Godfray et al. 2010;Guillou and Matheron 2014) and in the political agenda (HLTF 2008; reform of the Committee on World Food Security; priority in the G20 and G8 agendas). Evidence shows that global and regional per capita availability of food has constantly increased during recent decades and that the available global supply was not the basis of this food crisis. Rather, it was inequalities of access to food because of extreme differences in people's purchasing power and excessive trade-related volatility in world food prices. This was a result of an erosion of planning and regulatory capabilities at every level: the consequence was a global crisis of the food system (Headey 2011) that threatened the global economy and drove political instability throughout the world."},{"index":8,"size":297,"text":"However, the boost in attention that resulted from the 2007-2008 food price crisis ( MC Arthur 2015) has not led to a sustained increase in the level of political attention given to agriculture and food systems. This is a paradox given that well-functioning food systems are critical for advancing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Hence, there is a need for new narratives and better means for their communication, starting with an explanation of why food systems are so important. Firstly, agriculture and fisheries are the primary means of income for most of the world's poor and vulnerable people (IBRD/World Bank (The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank), 2007). Secondly, food and nutrition insecurity, as well as rural poverty, are root causes of political instability, conflict, violence, and migration (FAO 2016). Indeed, the HLPE (HLPE 2017a) reports that \"unequal access to food is… a driver of many other inequalities and instability… and (leads to) to low levels of investment in the provision of public goods and services.\" Thirdly, agricultural practices are highly connected to environmental health, management of natural resources, and climate change (Smith 2013). Fourthly, the crop, livestock, and fish sectors are resource intensive. They use 70% of freshwater resources (Kabat 2013) and are responsible for around 30% of total energy demand (FAO 2011a). Fifthly, agriculture is at least twice more effective than any other sector in reducing poverty (IBRD/World Bank 2007, op. cit.) and will continue to play a pivotal role in efforts to reduce extreme poverty (Christiaensen et al. 2011). Since agriculture is-worldwide-the main source of jobs (30.7% of the world's workers were employed in the agriculture sector in 2014; FAO 2015a), the rural sector contributes to around half of the total reduction in extreme poverty (de Janvry and Sadoulet 2010: p. 18)."},{"index":9,"size":460,"text":"The agriculture sector has only recently given priority to climate change, in particular to its increasingly dramatic impact on the millions of small-scale family farmers and food processors. This is significant as they produce around 80% of the food consumed in the world (Sourisseau 2015;IAASTD 2009) and represent more than 80% of the 570 million households living from agriculture (Lowder et al. 2016). Climate therefore threatens the food and nutrition security of people living in the most vulnerable ecosystems (Campbell et al. 2016): this is unjust and contributes both to suffering and to forced migration. It threatens both peace and security. At the same time, the agricultural sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is directly responsible for 14% of emissions and contributes 24% if related land use changes are taken into consideration (IPCC 2014). At the 17th Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (COP17) in 2011 in Durban, the conference requested its Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advise (SBSTA) to consider issues related to agriculture. The landmark 2015 Paris Agreement has subsequently underscored the importance of ensuring food security for all: the Parties recognized \"the fundamental priority of safeguarding food security and ending hunger, and the particular vulnerabilities of food production systems to the adverse impacts of climate change.\" However, Article 2 of the Agreement reflects the potential trade-off between fostering low GHG emissions and ensuring that sufficient food is available for all people. This paradox is unsurprising. It reflects some of the difficulties observed in successive negotiations at the UNFCCC (Campbell 2014) and results from well-developed national positions (Caron and Treyer 2016) related to people's food and nutrition security, to the organization of international trade, and to the need for increases in agricultural productivity. However, the need for attention both to agricultural practices and to land use is clearly identified in the vast majority of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC; Thornton et al. 2017) to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This reflects the capacity of changes in agriculture to contribute to climate change mitigation as well as to enable food producers to adapt to new weather patterns. The particular relevance of agriculture for adaptation is also reflected in the context of the National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) alongside the NDCs, where agriculture is a prime consideration. The 23rd conference of the parties in Bonn, 2017, has reflected the political will of parties to intensify work on agriculture with adopting the Koronivia joint work on agriculture by which the COP requests both SBSTA and SBI to jointly address issues related to agriculture (4/CP23). The recent Koronivia decision recognizes and highlights the additional challenge of achieving food security under a changing climate and specifically addresses vulnerabilities in the agriculture sector."},{"index":10,"size":152,"text":"Hence, there are many reasons why it would not be correct to continue addressing Food and Nutrition Security solely as a global supply issue (Fouilleux et al. 2017). Population growth is no longer the main driver of demand in agriculture and food systems. Increasing per capita incomes, cash-cropping, urbanization, and changing dietary preferences are exerting ever stronger influences (HLPE 2016). Despite the need to boost food production in certain regions, most importantly in Sub-Saharan Africa, the world is not currently suffering an overall food shortage. When it identified critical and emerging issues in 2017, the HLPE highlighted the need for transformation of both production and consumption patterns and the organization of food systems. It also focused on the challenge of social and economic inequalities and the suffering of small-scale food producers and processors, especially women, who have tended to be left behind by initiatives geared to increasing production (HLPE 2017a, op. cit.)."},{"index":11,"size":151,"text":"There is no reason for the future to reflect the past (Paillard et al. 2009, op. cit.). There are numerous reasons why the evolution of food systems should shift from an exclusive focus on boosting production so as to increase the supply and availability of food. Future generations will be better served if such food systems are designed so that they contribute to achieving the SDGs. The focus of food systems should be on eradicating poverty, increasing resilience, ensuring people's food and nutrition security, promoting good nutrition and health, reducing inequalities, contributing to peace, promoting political stability, regenerating ecosystems, and mitigating climate change. The full diversity of food systems must be taken into account as they are redesigned (Ingram 2011): the starting point must be to shift the focus from \"feeding people\" to \"enabling people to nourish themselves\" and doing this in a way that is sustainable (Haddad et al. 2016)."},{"index":12,"size":44,"text":"The overall purpose is for agriculture and food systems' to make the greatest possible contribution to achievement of the SDGs: food systems transformation should reflect a consensus on pathways to be pursued and their potential impact-in terms of environmental, social, nutrition, and health outcomes."},{"index":13,"size":46,"text":"3 Food systems transformation for sustainable development: the four parts Food systems provide a powerful lever for economic and social development. Agriculture, food processing, and distribution have evolved substantively in the last century because of urbanization, mechanization, and modernization. Their performance has deeply transformed most economies."},{"index":14,"size":128,"text":"The evolution has involved the industrialization of processing, commoditization of all types of food, globalization of markets, increases in distant exchanges, and reorganisation of distribution. Even if such changes have touched only part of the agriculture sector, the dynamic that has been generated is very strong. The challenges faced by farmers, especially small-and medium-sized landholders, have been highlighted: appropriation of biological resources (Godfray et al. 2010, op. cit.), land tenure and grabbing (HLPE 2011b; www. landmatrix.org), increased competition, exclusion linked to standards and specifications (Reardon et al. 1999), market instability and excessive price volatility (HLPE 2011a), reduced access to credit, dismantling of support mechanisms and services (IBRD/World Bank 2007, op. cit.), growth and emergence of risks-particularly climate (Beddington et al. 2012), and emerging diseases (Morand and Figuié 2016)."},{"index":15,"size":124,"text":"The evolution of food systems has brought unprecedented increases in production and wealth, but many concerns have emerged regarding externalities. This has led to questions about the long-term sustainability of current agriculture and food production. They include-firstly-concerns about environmental issues and more specifically to threats regarding species diversity, ecosystem integrity, and ecosystem based services (Conway 1997;Steffen et al. 2015;Maxwell et al. 2016), as well as to related trade-offs (Phalan et al. 2011;Byerlee et al. 2014). Secondly, there are concerns about rural impoverishment, vulnerability, and human rights (Pingali 1993) which call for attention to dependency on imported food, technologies, or inputs, to health impacts of inappropriate food consumption, and to risks linked to concentration of food processing and of distribution chains (Murphy et al. 2012)."},{"index":16,"size":201,"text":"In a world increasingly focused on sustainable futures for people and planet, there is growing recognition of the important role played by agriculture. Following the food price spikes in 2008, there was increased awareness of the multiple interrelationships between agriculture and key social, environmental, and economic issues. The sector is less and less considered as a problem, and more and more is seen as a solution (Brussaard et al. 2010;Lipper et al. 2014). The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development offers new momentum for work on the potential contributions of agriculture to public goods. It can be viewed as a powerful lever for the achievement of the overall 2030 Agenda. For this to happen, there has to be a transformation of food systems as a whole and not only from a sectorial point of view throughout the world: this has four interdependent parts that must be initiated and managed. This applies despite the diversity of local contexts as illustrated by Fig. 1, the pathways being followed, and the solutions that are developed. It means taking account of trade, climate change, global health, ecosystems, migration, actions of corporations, and of global social movements: all these elements justify the use of a global framework."}]},{"head":"Healthy and sustainable food consumption patterns","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"The first part of the transformation relates to food consumption patterns. This challenge is amplified by the unprecedented questions raised by the supply of an increasing urban population. What must be produced in the future, both in terms of volume and quality and the social, health, and environmental footprints of production modes, will mainly depend on what is consumed, wasted, thrown away, or recycled. Unhealthy diet is now recognized as a universal problem and the number one risk factor driving the world's disease burden (Forouzanfar et al. 2015). Malnutrition irreversibly prevents hundreds of millions of people from reaching their full potential capabilities of living a healthy and productive life and is broadly recognized as a social injustice. Food consumption is an important area of innovation and public policy due to its links with production, value chains, the environment, nutrition, and health (Porter et al. 2014). Sustainable and nutrition-sensitive food consumption patterns should be supported through favorable food environments (HLPE 2017b). Dietary changes and reductions in food wastage are core elements of the SDG for sustainable consumption and production (goal 12) and, more broadly, of all SDGs."}]},{"head":"A new vision of sustainable agricultural production and food value chains","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The second part of the transformation involves the promotion of inclusive, sustainable, and nutrition-sensitive agricultural production, processing, distribution, and marketing. It should consider the multiple functions of, and demands made on, agriculture and food. Sustainable agriculture can create decent jobs, support inclusive growth, improve livelihoods, and adapt to climate change. It must be implemented in ways that are tailored to each context. FAO estimates suggest that the economic empowerment of rural women through an equal access to productive resources (reflected in SDG 1) could increase yields on their farms by 20-30%, lifting 100-150 million persons out of hunger (FAO 2011b)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"None of these changes are attainable in the absence of healthy ecosystems and their associated services. The challenge is to increase agricultural production on existing agricultural lands in ways that ensure biodiversity, maintain the integrity of ecosystems, and sustain ecosystem services: it is one of the world's core sustainability challenges. Patterns of agricultural production and the measures of agriculture's performance and effects must be reconsidered in ways that take account of the multiple functions expected from agriculture, including adaptation to and mitigation of climate change, biodiversity management, the provision of ecosystem-based services, people's incomes, and just societies."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Pioneer farmers are pursuing ecologically sound agricultural practices and are well able to contribute to this part of the transformation. Numerous technical advances have been developed and subjected to scientific analysis-including agroecology (Wezel et al. 2009;IPES-Food 2016) and organic agriculture (Halberg and Müller 2013). Agroecology-in its many incarnations-is now considered by many global leaders as an approach that can promote the transformation, as stated during a symposium organized by the FAO in April 2018."},{"index":4,"size":226,"text":"One promising approach is to understand biological and ecological regulatory mechanisms and to amplify them to increase the efficiency of resource use in agricultural systems. This approach can help to design (and then assess) sustainable production systems: it involves the use of multiple criteria and many different measurement scales. It calls for the analysis and strengthening of systems for innovation: this is a challenge for scientists to better consider local knowledge and expertise (Hainzelin 2013;Caron et al. 2014;Tittonnell 2014). There is growing evidence regarding the impact of such approaches on increasing incomes and improving food and nutrition security (HLPE 2016, op. cit.), on improving the resilience of smallscale farms, and on reducing greenhouse gas emissions (FAO 2013, op. cit.). As this is an emerging area for scientific analysis, there are controversies about the potential impact of different production models and the best pathways to pursue in different settings. This leads to the co-existence of differentsometimes conflicting-narratives (Petersen and Snapp 2015). There is therefore a need for stimulating innovation that is adapted to each situation, which addresses barriers and obstacles and that generates impact at scale.  GHG emissions and the limited capacity of existing agricultural and food systems' practices to lower their climate footprint. Simply put, if climate action is to be effective, there must be profound changes to agricultural systems (Lipper et al. 2014, op. cit.)."}]},{"head":"Contributing to mitigate climate change","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Climate-compatible and sustainable agriculture, in particular Climate-Smart Agriculture (FAO 2013), identifies the synergies that can result from agricultural practices that mitigate emissions of greenhouse gases (and reduce emissions through carbon capture), strengthen the social-ecological resilience of agricultural landscapes and rural communities in the face of unpredictable weather patterns, and contribute to improvement in rural livelihoods through sustainable improvements in productivity. Thus, although farming and land use changes are important drivers of climate change, they can also contribute to reduced emissions (Lipper et al. 2014, op. cit.). Provided that opportunistic behavior, in particular greenwashing, is avoided, transformed agriculture and food systems can be important levers for effective climate action."}]},{"head":"A renaissance of rural territories","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"The fourth part of sustainable food system transformation reflects the extraordinary potential for territory-based institutions to stimulate people's well-being through providing a range of social, economic and environmental functions and services that are essential to the whole of society (OECD/FAO/UNCDF 2016). Effective action at territorial level contributes to the food and nutrition security of rural and urban populations, to steady and shared economic growth, to decent jobs for young people, and to reducing root causes of frustration and conflict, which can lead to unrest, violence, and forced migration (Mercandalli and Losch 2017). In practice, this requires the establishment of trusted means to encourage-among others-greater equality of opportunity including gender equity, the sustainable management of natural resources, resilience in the face of climate change, as well as access to clean air, to water and sanitation, to renewable energy sources including wind and solar radiation, and to telecommunications."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"At the heart of vibrant territories are strong political institutions and a wealth of social capital-at the local as well as at national and regional levels. The institutions need to be strong enough to support food systems transformation (Rigg 2006). This requires people within territories being empowered to develop their visions for sustainable development and then to implement meaningful activities. This is particularly important in rural areas, since, after decades of public disinterest, rural areas and their inhabitants are at high risk of being left behind. When this happens, it has a negative impact on all dimensions of sustainable development. The alternative is a rural renaissance, in which the relationships between rural and urban populations are recrafted within a renewed rural-urban social contract. It is central to the achievement of the SDGs, and the alternative-a process of urbanization that is built on the deprivation of rural areas-is widely seen to be unsustainable and likely to drive the migration of people from rural areas to towns and cities (HLPE 2017a, op. cit.)."}]},{"head":"The new food systems transformation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":268,"text":"These four parts together make up the food systems transformation that is required if the SDGs are to be achieved. The use of the term \"transformation\" is deliberate as incremental change will not be enough. The breadth and depth of the transformation required suggest that it must be supported by people who are committed to radical, collective and long-term change. We do not refer to it as a revolution, since it must happen as a well-conceived and carefully planned process that engages all stakeholders. Considerable intellectual and material investment is required to make it happen. The investment should result in exploration of a broad range of options and should be explored as a basis for developing novel strategies and practices (Godfray et al. 2010, op. cit.). Barriers and obstacles that impede action must be identified and overcome. This includes power imbalances and conflicts of interest across food systems (HLPE 2017b), as well as the trade-offs needed to align local systems with global priorities for sustainability. Managing the trade-offs calls for enlightened governance and political arbitration. The investment includes an exceptional national and inter-national mobilization of people with the capability to do this work and to establish means to build inclusive, sustainable, and safe agriculture, food, and rural systems. The people who lead it must be able to embrace the four components of food systems transformation and to create optimal conditions for their implementation. The transformation will not occur spontaneously: it must be planned, designed, implemented, and monitored by those who will be locally involved in implementation working within agreed parameters for sustainable development at national and global levels."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The first stage of implementing the transformation depends on the existence of agreed orientations that are shared among the actors. Context-adapted goals need to exist at all levels, from local to global, that are fully in line with the SDGs. There will be tensions between different interests and handling them calls for political management of trade-offs between stakeholders and among processes of arbitration. A consistent framework is needed to promote the transformation while addressing the complex and interrelated challenges, particularly the synergies and trade-offs between what is expected at local, national and global level."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The second stage of implementing the transformation requires the involvement of scientific groups and political actors through enabling them to access new knowledge to learn new processes and to implement them intensively (Caron et al. 2014, op. cit.). In recent decades, agricultural innovation has tended to promote homogeneity and uniformity: the transformation recognizes the virtues of diversity and context-adapted solutions. \"Context-adapted\" and \"place-based\" solutions should be favored over \"one size fits all\" prescriptions (IAASTD 2009)-even if the latter maintain the illusion to be easily taken to scale."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"The third stage of implementing the transformation relies on shifts in the governance of food systems so that they prioritize human development and people's food and nutrition security, the stewardship of renewable resources, long-term ecosystem health, as well as equitable growth, trade, and consumption (Lambek et al. 2014). This requires the design of new policy frameworks at national-and global-levels. Such shifts can only take place if they are supported by all stakeholders-including businesses. While it is the role of Government to establish policy and define standards, the governance of food systems has to be both multi-scalar and multi-stakeholder, and this adds to complexity (Lang et al. 2009). It is important that the interests of the many people who are poor, vulnerable, and at risk of being left behind are prioritized."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"Finally, the fourth stage of implementing the transformation relies on new ways of thinking, planning, and managing policies and programs for production, consumption, innovation, and rural development. Linear thinking and logic models that seek to prescribe results need to evolve into approaches that embrace complexity, focus on socio-political processes and transitions, take account of the multiple relationships between stakeholders, and consistently commit to the empowerment of all peoples in ways that enable them to realize their human rights (Ferrero and Zepeda 2014)."},{"index":6,"size":127,"text":"The four stages of implementing the transformation remind us that success results from multiple actions along a range of pathways. The transformation cannot be advanced through one universally applicable technical model: pathways must be context-specific, multi-dimensional, and integrated. Advancing the transformation requires the design and implementation of new and differentiated actions at local level, responding to expectations of different stakeholders, reflecting national policy, and-at the same time-seeking to impact at scale, so contributing to achievement of the SDGs. The affirmation of this plurality, like the uncertainties regarding the paths to follow in each place, reflects the pre-eminence given to local knowledge and innovations, including from farmers themselves, as well as the local application of scientific expertise. It will result in the revaluing of different forms of knowledge."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"There are three prerequisites for successful implementation of the four-part transformation, which needs immediate attention. First, metrics that aid planning, implementation, and monitoring must be designed and tested. Second, links between local and global action must be organized to enable coherent changes on a significant scale. Third, territorial approaches must be used to incentivize actors so that they adopt new practices."}]},{"head":"Assessing contributions of food systems to the SDGs","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"To appreciate the contribution of food systems to the SDGs, we need (a) to be able to describe their characteristics with a common language and (b) to measure systems performance in relation to the SDGs. There is still much to be done on how to measure performance: this need is leading numerous authors to propose new methods and indices. The explosion of indices is unsurprising because of the wide range of issues involved. Many countries are already implementing multi-dimensional poverty measures (Alkire and Robles 2016). The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) has proposed a Food Security Index (http://ghi.ifpri.org/) to serve as a dashboard. More recently, FAO has developed the Food Insecurity Experience Scale: this has been adopted in the SDG indicator framework (FAO 2016c)."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The articulation of the 17 SDGs requires us to completely modify how performance is conceived and measured. The UN Statistical Commission has developed an indicator framework for the SDGs that is expected to be further refined in the coming years to include some of these complex variables (UN 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"It will be critical for the food system transformation that the SDG indicators integrate the core variables that define the overall transformation and its four constituent parts. This calls for further work to ensure that frameworks and indicators can fully describe the nexus of food and nutrition security, environmental health, climate and social justice, as well as the impacts of food systems on the nexus. The frameworks and indicators must be applicable at local levels and-at the same time-contribute to analysis at global level. The metrics that derive from these frameworks should be publicly available so that those who make investments can assess the extent to which they succeed in transforming food systems and to which they will contribute to change at scale."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"We propose a framework that has two overarching characteristics. First, it takes interactions between food and nutrition security, environmental health, climate, and social justice into account. Second, it focuses on ways in which the nexus is influenced by changes in food systems. We believe that the framework can help with identifying potential indicators and developing them. The combination of framework and indicators should encourage the production of evidence that can support policy decisions and action in different contexts. The framework is described in Fig. 2."}]},{"head":"Achieving impact at scale through local-level action","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The combination of research-based innovation and traditional knowledge yields multiple options for transforming food systems at the local level. For example, many rural communities permanently adapt agricultural practices so that their livelihoods can become more resilient in the face of climate change."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Local-level change contributes to the overall transformation of food systems. Ideally, this local knowledge and experience should be made more widely available so as to examine the extent to which they can be applied more widely across nations and regions. Yet, most of these local experiences are not directly reproducible in different agricultural-sociologicaleconomic systems and this limits the extent to which they can be taken to scale. This suggests that the transformation of food systems cannot rely exclusively on universal approaches or the scaling-up of local specific solutions."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"The food system in each locally setting is characterized by context-specific environmental, cultural, and agronomic features. There may also be locally specific patterns of financial investment and of trade. The local system is influenced by its interactions with large-scale processes, such as specific consumer demand, via the retail sector. The local system functions in ways that reflect the interests of the agriculture and food sector: these are determined by power relations and social structures and are affected by long-standing agreements, trade-offs, and conflicts. Because of the heterogeneity of local food systems, and the ways in which they are shaped by the contexts within which they operate, it is necessary to establish context-specific and localized pathways for transformation. In order to design and implement such pathways, it is the responsibility from political bodies and associated institutions to establish legitimate relevant objectives, assessment metrics, and indicators for food system transformation."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"The large-scale impact of local food systems changes does not just result from the summation of local-level initiatives and processes: it depends on the simultaneous application of interventions at different levels. To assess the contribution of local changes to global impact, two other types of metrics will be needed."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"The first is to quantify interaction between the different levels of intervention that contribute to system transformation (Gunderson and Holling 2002). This is needed because successful transformation depends on the successful integration of local and regional policies and initiatives. This includes the resolution of tension and sometimes conflicts between internationally agreed goals and local realities, interests, agreements, and habits. This involves effective governance and political arbitration in the event of trade-offs."},{"index":6,"size":217,"text":"The second is to quantify the degree to which frameworks are being applied to support (a) policy coherence between local and national levels and (b) the management of tradeoffs and compromises required to make coherence happen. One issue that has been highlighted is the intersection between local agriculture and food systems with the globalized market. This is critical-and quite controversial-given the Fig. 2 Assessing the food systems transformation capacity to address the Agenda 2030 through the agriculture-food and nutrition securityenvironment health-climate-social justice nexus. Suggests a general framework for food systems transformation by highlighting the four parts, each of which can be characterized with specific variables. These can be used to design relevant indicators for assessing the impact of system transformation concentration of food corporations, the homogenization of markets, and the expansion of international trade in food associated with the multiplication of international trade agreements. \"Many economists argue that the environmental and social concerns associated with freer trade are best addressed with domestic policies that do not distort trade… Others encourage markets but support market interventions …, while the food sovereignty movement argues that local markets are the priority\" (HLPE 2017a, op. cit.). The multi-stakeholder United Nations Committee on World Food Security should be sufficiently empowered by its members to provide global-level political governance for food systems transformation."}]},{"head":"Managing the intersection of global and local priorities through territorial approaches","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"A territory is much more than an administrative area. It is a bounded space that has stood the test of time, is owned by a social group that identifies with it, and which accepts specific forms of governance and control (Caron et al. 2017). A territory offers its inhabitants a form of social regulatory capacity that has been established at the interface between collective action and public administration: that latter represents an increasing commitment to sustainability. In practice, territories may be defined in different ways: a municipality or a coalition of municipalities, a traditional area for indigenous people, habitations around a watershed, a value-chain corridor, a production basin, and so on. Its people have a similar vision of their destiny and common concerns about the threats they face. They support the rule-based administration of public affairs and favor strong and well-directed collective action: this can buffer the impact of market and state failures on the territory and its people (Ostrom 1990). It usually involves a link between collective action and public administration, with efforts to resolve contradictions between them."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"When food systems are transformed in ways that encourage resilience in the face of adverse weather, they bring multiple benefits both to people and to landscapes (Scherr et al. 2012). Such changes are dependent on the effective organizations of individual territories, on constructive relationships between rural and urban areas, among territories, with national authorities and with international institutions. Implementing a territorial approach to food systems (Benoît et al. 2006) involves working in five dimensions: (i) establishing an operational definition for what is meant by a territory; (ii) creating functioning institutions and governance platforms through building social capital and empowering local stakeholders; (iii) encouraging improvements in production through better rural infrastructure, links to markets, climate-compatible agriculture, and stimuli for non-farm economy; (iv) providing support for poorer people including safety-nets, conditional cash transfer programs, and other forms of social protection; as well as (v) implementing of territorial development as a national strategy through rural development policies and financing instruments."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Inclusive and sustainable food systems are necessary not only for achieving SDG 2 but also as a contribution to the whole of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Sustainable food systems may contribute to four outcomes: (i) enabling all people to eat nutritious and healthy diets, (ii) regenerating ecosystems, (iii) mitigating climate change, and (iv) encouraging social justice through focusing on the resilience and well-being of poorer rural communities. There are economic and political interests which will influence the realization of these outcomes: transformation efforts will be contested and need strong political support, including from within urban areas, if they are to succeed."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Vibrant rural territories, within which people produce food, deliver essential services, and contribute to the whole of the society, are indispensable. The SDGs will simply not be achieved without rural prosperity. The interdependence of rural and urban areas should be recognized and form the basis of a new rural-urban social contract. This will be the basis of society remunerating rural dwellers and their territories both for the functions they perform and for the public goods they provide to societies, the planet, and economies. To this end, it is important that relevant metrics are used to illustrate the benefits of sustainable, inclusive, and resilient food systems."},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"Although the pathways for most food systems changes are designed at local and national levels, the universal implementation of this four-part transformation should be pursued in global forums and advocated within global governance processes. The four parts should be mainstreamed in existing institutions, agreements, and conventions, in particular the UNFCCC. The newly established Koronivia joint work for agriculture might provide a relevant space within the process where analyses, metrics, knowledge platforms and learning could be encouraged. The four part transformation should feature strongly within national policies, societal norms, integrated management of territories and systems for public accountability. All actors, whatever their modes of production and consumption, should be encouraged to engage. There are no universal technical \"fixes\" for such a food systems transformation: the approach must always be adapted to the specificities of different locations. This means encouraging analyses, metrics, knowledge platforms, and learning that are locally relevant in ways that include all stakeholders."},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"There is always more to be learnt about the links between agriculture, climate, food and nutrition security, ecosystem regeneration, and social justice, given the constant evolution of humanity and the planet. Science is invited to help understand the links and the ways in which change is taking place over time and to enable decision makers to anticipate and appreciate what was not known before. Implementing the food systems transition will be knowledge intensive. But knowledge generation has a cost; it calls for well-directed investment in research that does not only deliver technology but also helps with understanding of dynamics, transitions, and interfaces. The research should help to decode each nexus, use metrics, quantify progress, and dissect out the basis of any disagreement. It should contribute to explore possible futures through foresight analysis, the identification of critical and emerging issues and to the formulation of policies."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"The food systems transformation depends on enlightened policies, well-adapted processes, local to global integration, and value systems based on justice and human rights principles for arbitrating trade-offs. All concerned will need to think in interconnected ways that link systems, use novel data sets, and aid decision-making. These are substantial demands, but unless such changes are made, the transformation will not succeed. The experience of the Milano Group demonstrates how regular interactions among diverse leaders from different stakeholdersdecision makers, implementers, scientists, farmers, civil society organizations, businesses, and consumers-can develop new narratives and result in collective action for transformation."},{"index":6,"size":125,"text":"The process could be accelerated through multistakeholder coalitions to encourage greater alignment among actors in the framework of the UN system action as in the Committee on World Food Security, through encouraging science-based systems changes, curated Food Systems Dialogues, and high-level advocacy such as a global panel for Food Systems Transformation. This could follow the example of the Global Commission on the Economy and Climate led by former President of Mexico Felipe Calderón. Such a concerted effort for food systems transformation is key to the implementation of the Paris Agreement on Climate and the 2030 Agenda. It will also be an opportunity for the diverse actors that share a common vision to explore the links between evidence and policy and between local and global processes."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Comm ons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1. Introduction 2. Food systems: an integrated perspective to address the \"food and nutrition security, ecosystem integrity, climate and social justice\" nexus 3. Food systems transformation for sustainable development: the four parts 3.1. Healthy and sustainable food consumption patterns 3.2. A new vision of sustainable agricultural production and food value chains 3.3. Contributing to mitigate climate change 3.4. A renaissance of rural territories 4. The new food systems transformation 4.1. Assessing the contributions of food systems to the SDGs 4.2. Achieving impact at scale through local-level action 4.3. Managing the intersection of global and local priorities through territorial approach 5. Conclusion References 1 Introduction An exceptional process reached its conclusion in 2015. For the first time in history, world leaders have unanimously agreed on a vision for the future of humanity: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Through a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets (UN 2015), the agenda articulates a universal and integrated plan of action of application in all countries, developed and developing alike. "},{"text":"A concerted response to the challenge of climate change is at the heart of the 2015 Paris Agreement and is central to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It is the third part of the sustainable transformation of food systems. The starting point is the contribution of agriculture and land use changes to "},{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig.1Vibrant and innovative local-specific human-driven systems as engine for a profound food system transformation (source: N. Le Gall/ Cirad-Année international des Forêts 2011). Illustrates the profound food system transformation that is required to achieve the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development and the Paris Agreement on Climate and that is made of four parts (nutritious and healthy food, sustainable agricultural production and food value chains, mitigation of climate change and resilience, renaissance of rural territories). Such a transformation relies on the capacity to design and implement local specific innovation based initiatives to address local and national expectations through diverse adapted pathways. It also depends on the capacity to stimulate such initiatives and to orchestrate such a transformation at the global level to ensure orientation and consistency among scales "}],"sieverID":"442c0189-a20d-4fdb-9882-5e367a5b3f46","abstract":"Evidence shows the importance of food systems for sustainable development: they are at the nexus that links food security, nutrition, and human health, the viability of ecosystems, climate change, and social justice. However, agricultural policies tend to focus on food supply, and sometimes, on mechanisms to address negative externalities. We propose an alternative. Our starting point is that agriculture and food systems' policies should be aligned to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This calls for deep changes in comparison with the paradigms that prevailed when steering the agricultural change in the XXth century. We identify the comprehensive food systems transformation that is needed. It has four parts: first, food systems should enable all people to benefit from nutritious and healthy food. Second, they should reflect sustainable agricultural production and food value chains. Third, they should mitigate climate change and build resilience. Fourth, they should encourage a renaissance of rural territories. The implementation of the transformation relies on (i) suitable metrics to aid decision-making, (ii) synergy of policies through convergence of local and global priorities, and (iii) enhancement of development approaches that focus on territories. We build on the work of the \"Milano Group,\" an informal group of experts convened by the UN Secretary General in Milan in 2015. Backed by a literature review, what emerges is a strategic narrative linking climate, agriculture and food, and calling for a deep transformation of food systems at scale. This is critical for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Agreement. The narrative highlights the needed consistency between global actions for sustainable development and numerous local-level innovations. It emphasizes the challenge of designing differentiated paths for food systems transformation responding to local and national expectations. Scientific and operational challenges are associated with the alignment and arbitration of local action within the context of global priorities."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02a63a4ae7f9a110ffb9a9540775fda5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/212a7bdf-a7c0-4510-8aea-bc95f188f5b7/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"What does CGIAR do to address climate change? Perspectives from a decade of science on climate change adaptation and mitigation","keywords":["Agriculture","climate change","research","outcomes","policy","investment","partnerships"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The need to transform our food systems is clear, if we are to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 and keep up with the global climate targets (Webb et al., 2020). Several recent reports expand on the transformation agenda and on actions needed to keep us within key planetary boundaries in the face of climate change and other global challenges (GCA, 2019;GLOPAN, 2020;HLPE, 2020;Pharo et al., 2019;Rockefeller Foundation, 2021;Steiner et al., 2020). The costs of the transformation are estimated at more than US$1.3 trillion per year (Steiner et al., 2020), a budget more than twice as high as current global climate finance flows (Climate Policy Initiative, 2021). This begs for drastic changes in existing delivery mechanisms, from finance, to policy, to research and development, and partnership models."},{"index":2,"size":251,"text":"Research can play a key role in food systems transformation. Public and private investors need robust and timely evidence on what to prioritize, how, for whom, and at what costs/benefits. They require reliable data to set bold, credible, and practical targets and to translate ambitions agendas into actions. Technologies and innovations need to be rigorously co-designed, tested, monitored, and evaluated to ensure a just transition for all. Decades of participatory action research have left an important legacy of learnings about science-driven approaches to catalyse change (Nowak et al., In press). Science, technology and innovation can create impact when designed with context (Oliver and Cairney, 2019); when stakeholders are strategically engaged throughout the research process, from design, co-production, to dissemination (Dinesh et al., 2018;Kristjanson et al., 2014;Norström et al., 2020;Oliver and Cairney, 2019); when research questions respond to intermittent openings of \"policy windows\" or opportunities for informing new agendas (Dunn and Laing, 2017;Rose et al., 2020); when findings and solutions are reliable, available, accessible, and effectively communicated to users (i.e., rigorous methods, short time span between research and publication, non-technical language, open access publications, etc.) (Cvitanovic et al., 2015;Dunn and Laing, 2017;Khoury et al., 2019); or when researchers become part of influential networks that facilitate uptake and scaling of findings (Ball and Exley, 2010). The principles listed are not exhaustive; they have proven effective in bringing returns to the society (Alston et al., 2020;Pardey et al., 2016) and will be critical elements for implementing transformation agendas moving forward (Hall and Dijkman, 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":293,"text":"CGIAR is a network of international publicly funded agricultural research for development institutes, established in 1971. Over five decades it has worked to increase food abundance, reduce rates of hunger and poverty, and lower the geographical footprint of agriculture in many lower-and middle-income countries, returning ten times the costs as benefits (Alston et al., 2020) and making important contributions to the global agenda on SDGs. CGIAR's first formalised research program on the challenges of climate change, the research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), was set up in 2009 and ran to the end of 2021. The program invested some US$ 350 million in action research involving all the international agricultural research centres of CGIAR and integrating thematic work across multiple global, regional, and local partners. Pro-poor climate change adaptation and mitigation practices, technologies, and policies were worked on to enhance food systems, adaptive capacity, and rural livelihoods. CCAFS aimed at benefiting the rural populations; it provided diagnosis and analysis to guide cost-effective investments, the inclusion of agriculture in climate change policies, and the inclusion of climate issues in agricultural policies, from the subnational to the global level (Vermeulen et al., 2012). CCAFS worked for more than a decade with hundreds of partners on a food system transformation agenda, showing how research can make a big difference relatively quickly (Meadu et al., In Press). This was accomplished in part through maintaining a strong focus on outcomes, especially behavioural changes in people, and implementing activities following the 'three thirds' principle: a third of the effort spent on working with next-users to build relationships and define their needs, a third spent on the research itself, and a third spent on enhancing next-users' capacity to take up research outputs (Vermeulen and Campbell, 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Early on, CCAFS put in place a relatively sophisticated monitoring and evaluation system, which evolved through time. This allowed program staff to monitor progress towards a set of targets and to record outcomes throughout the life of the program in a relatively consistent manner. In this paper, we use this information for two purposes:"},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"• To distil typologies of outcomes and impact pathways enabled by CCAFS research and critically reflect on its contribution to increased productivity for food and nutrition security, increased climate adaptation and greenhouse gas mitigation efforts worldwide; and • To highlight key learnings for the design of outcomeoriented agriculture research for development (AR4D) programs of the CGIAR and beyond."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"In the next section, we outline the methods and data used."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"Following this, we present some of the characteristics of the outcomes achieved. Here, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses of CCAFS approaches to outcome-oriented work. We conclude by highlighting the necessity of agricultural research for development addressing the enablers of change as well as developing and testing technical solutions: informing policy change, guiding investment, and implementing the novel partnerships that are necessary for enabling impact at scale."}]},{"head":"Outcome harvest","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"We used the outcome harvest approach to collect information on outcomes achieved by CCAFS throughout the years."},{"index":2,"size":268,"text":"Outcome harvests are evaluation approaches used for identifying and analyzing types of changes occurring from one or more interventions (Wilson-Grau and Britt, 2017). The approach is typically used in assessing programs with extensive timeframes, geographical spaces, and thematic areas, and represents a viable, cost-effective alternative to more robust, yet resource-intensive impact evaluations. In view of the outcome orientation of CGIAR and its constituent programs such as CCAFS, we judged this to be an appropriate method of analysis to help us critically reflect on achievements and lessons learned. We screened documents with narratives of project outcomes submitted by CCAFS personnel as part of annual reporting processes between 2011 and 2020. Here we define an outcome as a change in knowledge, skills, attitudes and/or relationships, manifested as a change in behavior, to which research outputs and results (i.e., publications, methodologies, datasets, etc.) and activities have contributed (Szilagyi et al., 2020). Outcomes were included from all four CCAFS's flagship programs, namely Priorities and Policies for Climate Smart Agriculture (FP1), Climate Smart Technologies and Practices (FP2), Low Emissions Development (FP3), and Climate services and safety nets (FP4). The outcome documents describe the activities conducted, the related research outputs, partners, as well as quantified progress to targets (where available), such as number of beneficiaries, of research outputs produced, of area covered, and innovations developed. The reports also provide evidence on the contribution of the research efforts to the outcome, reported in the form of narratives and supporting documents. The structure and content of these outcome reports changed with time, with more detail and more rigorous documentation of outcomes observed in the period 2017-2020."},{"index":3,"size":213,"text":"We assessed the eligibility of outcome reports for analysis in two stages (Figure 1). First, we assessed the level of information provided. Reports were excluded if they provided inadequate information describing the outcome and its associated outputs and activities. Second, we evaluated the outcome narrative and excluded those reports that omitted any documented effect (such as the publication of a scientific article, a progress report, dissemination of a methodology, a training course) and that were duplicated (i.e., submitted twice for the same year and project and with the same level of detail). Our aim was to collect information describing what changed (the outcome), where (the geographical context and decision-making level), when (the year), for whom (the next users of the outcome), to what extent (stage or maturity level of the outcome), and how (which activities, outputs, partnerships contributed to the change). In addition, we aimed to collect insights into the relevance of CCAFS outcomes to broader institutional and global-level targets. These include system-level targets of the CGIAR, most of which are mapped on to the SDGs (e.g., reduced poverty, improved food and nutrition security for health, and improved natural resources and ecosystems services). A visual summary of the protocol with data sources, selection, exclusion criteria and information extracted is shown in Figure 1."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"The outcomes harvested from the reports were categorized to enable a systematic analysis of the qualitative information extracted. To this end, we created several outcome typologies, which are detailed in Table 1. Typologies refer to: the climate objective covered by the outcome, which is linked to the three pillars of climate-smart agriculture; the scope of the outcome, which gives an indication of the type of work carried out and the next user(s) of the outcome; the maturity level, which approximates the level of development of the outcome, from design to testing/piloting, and scaling; the activity, which is linked to the CCAFS 'three-third' principles and offers insights into the outcome delivery model used; and the contributing partner, which highlights the partnership strategy used to deliver on outcomes. We drew on the knowledge and reflections of program staff and other personnel to review and validate the typologies and the findings, as well as to enrich the results, by substantiating the outcome claims reported (see next section)."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"In the following paragraphs we present and discuss findings from the outcome harvest. These are organized in six themes that describe key characteristics of the outcomes observed and of their impact pathways, namely: harnessing diversity, balancing strategy with opportunism, planning flexibly, working across vulnerability contexts, and resourcing outcomes for global relevance."}]},{"head":"Harnessing diversity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"The research programs of CGIAR have produced a wide range of high-quality research outputs over the last decade. Apart from producing high-quality publications (Rünzel et al., 2021), these research programs have also worked successfully to unlock change in food systems. An overview of the outcomes produced by CCAFS is shown in Figure 2, in relation to the country associated with the reported outcome, the climate objective being addressed (adaptation to climate change, increases in productivity, and mitigation of climate change), the scope of the outcome (policy, program, services, global, farm), and the maturity level (1, 2, 3). A substantial proportion of the outcomes reported were associated with multiple classes of the typologymore than one country and multiple climate objectives and/or outcome types. Several outcomes were reported more than once across years as the maturity level increased through time. For such reasons, the numbers in Figure 2 sum to more than the total number of outcomes analysed (300)."},{"index":2,"size":210,"text":"The outcomes produced are highly diverse. They span 57 countries, with a large proportion of outcomes concentrated in CCAFS's five target geographies: Southeast Asia, South Asia, East Africa, West Africa, and Central America / northern South America. Despite this concentration, some outcomes (spillovers) were also achieved in other regions that were not a focus of effort, including southern Africa and southern South America. Many outcomes were not linked to a specific country, but had a wide geographical scope (regional, continental or global). Outcomes were achieved across the three objectives: 86% were associated with adaptations to climate change, 52% with increases in productivity for food and nutrition security, and 50% with mitigation (See Table 1 for examples). Half of the outcomes were associated with more than one objective, especially targeting adaptation and productivity. On outcome types, 52% were policy-and investment-related, 26% were associated with climate information and financial services, 22% with organisational plans and programming, 15% with observable changes at the farm level, and 9% each with global processes. Almost a quarter of the documents analysed (24%) reported two outcome types, typically combining policy and programming or policy and services. Most outcomes (55%) were reported at maturity level 1, with 41% at maturity level 2 and 3% at maturity level 3."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"These observations highlight the broad operating mandate of CCAFS, which in turn reflected the high-level theory of change that guided the program's operation within four action areas: (1) Working with partners, especially implementing partners and local organizations, to build field-based evidence; (2) Working with partners, especially climate risk management service providers, to understand how to strengthen institutions and services through better use of climate information; (3) Working with partners, particularly policy partners, to understand what works for coordinated policy and governance; and (4) Working with partners, particularly the large agencies and companies driving implementation, to understand what works for investment to reach scale (CCAFS, 2016)."}]},{"head":"Balancing strategy with opportunism","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"Figure 2 highlights a key learning with respect to the balance needed in an AR4D portfolio. To help bring about food system transformation, outcomes with different time horizons and effort levels are required. Short-term gains, as indicated by outcomes at maturity level 1, are key; they provide the foundations, experiences and learnings necessary for building impacts at scale. For AR4D projects that operate in three-year funding cycles, short-term gains are vital in keeping funders on board. But more difficult work is also critical, which may require longer periods of time to ensure benefits to end-users such as farmers. This mix of relatively low-hanging outcome opportunities and much more resource-intensive outcome work is reflected in Figure 2. That nearly half of all outcomes related to policies and investment may seem surprising, but the period when CCAFS was operating coincided with (and may indeed have been partially responsible for) the rise in prominence given to climate-smart agriculture (CSA) (Lipper et al., 2018;Steenwerth et al., 2014), particularly in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. There were thus many opportunities for policy and investment outcomes while CSA interventions were being designed and implemented. At the same time, this also highlights the fundamental shift in focus of the CGIAR towards an outcome orientation and the necessity of addressing the enablers of change."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"Some outcomes, and the beneficial development impacts that may ensue, can take considerable time to mature; only three percent of the outcomes were at level 3 during a twelve-year program. Moreover, only 15% of outcomes were at the farm level. Other evaluation of the work of CCAFS and partners have highlighted the often slow progress made in the wider implementation of climate-resilient practices at the farm level (Niles et al., 2021;Thornton et al., 2018). Taken together, these points suggest the need for relatively long funding cycles if AR4D is to  achieve impacts at scale, both on farm and policy-wise. They also highlight the need to establish low-cost monitoring mechanisms to track outcomes over time, beyond the life of the project or program. This applies both to policy processes, where the time lags between policy design and implementation may be very long, and to adaptation measures on the ground, which may have short-term benefits but may be maladaptive in the long run."}]},{"head":"Planning flexibly","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Several factors drive the need for outcome planning to be flexible. One is making the most of opportunities for achieving potential outcomes as and when they arise, often with short windows for action, as discussed above."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"On other occasions, changing circumstances may require revisiting the impact pathway that was designed at the start of the project. There are many examples of such changes in the outcomes reported. Two examples follow and both related to what may be termed a \"missing middle\" in the CCAFS theory of change as originally envisaged: the need to strengthen the links and flow of information between local farmers' needs and contexts on the one hand, and policymaking for climate action (adaptation and mitigation) on the other. The first example relates to policy and investment outcomes, for which there was no general recipe for success (Nowak et al., 2021). Such outcomes were generally informed by a mix of participatory, stakeholder-focused activities and science-led outputs. These ranged from robust climate analyses to user-centred decision-support tools for priority setting, to capacity building and awareness raising. As our findings revealed, more than 70% of the outcomes were achieved through combining evidence generation, with stakeholder engagement (planned or ad-hoc) and science communication and outreach. In West Africa, the disconnect between national policy makers and local food system actors on the ground, and the difficulty of getting local voices heard in national policy debates, was identified as a key challenge."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"To bridge this missing middle, science-policy dialogue platforms were set up in five countries of the region. This (unforeseen) mechanism required a great deal of time, skill and resources to set up, but proved crucial to achieving several policy and investment outcomes across the region, from improved delivery of climate services, to increased finance for climate-smart agriculture, or adoption of on-farm climate-smart management techniques (Zougmoré et al., 2019)."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"The second example of a missing middle refers to the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA), an approach to support and empower farmers in their decision-making processes for their own contexts (Clarkson et al., 2022). The success of PICSA in Rwanda was dependent on new, bespoke partnerships that were not anticipated in project design; partnerships which linked information dissemination, via radio listening clubs throughout the country, with effective use, through training \"farmer promoters\", and thence to well-documented positive livelihood outcomes for more than 100,000 Rwandan farmers. This missing middle here refers to bridging the gap between production of knowledge and farmers' being able to use it, facilitating changes in behaviour that which in turn unlock higher-level outcomes leading to positive development impacts (Nowak et al., 2021). These are just two examples from the outcome database that reaffirm the importance of periodically and critically reviewing theories of change and their embedded assumptions, as a key strategy for adaptive management and learning, so that programs can effectively and rapidly respond to, and align with, emerging needs and changes in context, to maximize impact."}]},{"head":"Working across vulnerability contexts","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"We explored CCAFS' work across vulnerability contexts, considering CGIAR's mandate to work for rural, vulnerable people in lower-and middle-income countries. Figure 3 shows the number of CCAFS outcomes achieved per country between 2011 and 2020 plotted against the ND-GAIN country index averaged for 2011-2020. ND-GAIN summarizes a country's vulnerability to climate change and other global challenges along with its readiness to improve its resilience (Chen et al., 2015). A low ND-GAIN score suggests high climate vulnerability and low readiness to build resilience. Although it has been criticised as being somewhat arbitrary, the index is comparable with other indicators related to climate change and development (Miola and Simonet, 2014). Figure 3 suggests an unclear relationship between the ND-GAIN index and the number of outcomes achieved; fewer outcomes were observed in countries with lower (<30) and higher index (>55), while a higher concentration of outcomes occurred in countries with medium index scores (35)(36)(37)(38)(39)(40)(41)(42)(43)(44)(45)(46)(47)(48)(49)(50). Colombia stands out as the country with the greatest number of outcomes achieved and a mediumhigh ND-GAIN (NW quadrant of Figure 3). Kenya and India follow closely in the number of outcomes, yet with lower ND-GAIN scores (SE quadrant), suggesting a broad portfolio of high-impact, vulnerability-focused work. The NW quadrant illustrates spillover effects in more than 17 countries (medium-high ND-GAIN, few outcomes), while the SW quadrant includes the countries where most CCAFS work has been carried out."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"The \"ideal\" nature of the relationship in Figure 3 is not easy to articulate. On the one hand, it might be imagined that countries with a higher ND-GAIN index would have fewer outcomes. On the other, even countries with a relatively high ND-GAIN index (61 for Chile, 55 for China, 54 for Uruguay and 53 for Costa Rica) may have quite high levels of vulnerability coupled with low levels of resilience readiness compared with most high-income countries with index scores above 70. Moreover, national measures of vulnerability and readiness may hide considerable sub-national variability and may not necessarily equate with ease of achieving outcomes. Short-term gains may more easily be achieved in familiar environments, which would explain the large number of outcomes achieved in countries such as Colombia, Kenya and India, home to large CGIAR centres and long-established partnership networks. Nevertheless, CCAFS outcomes were often (though not always) targeting highly vulnerable situations."}]},{"head":"Resourcing outcomes for global relevance","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"Outcomes in the database were evaluated in very general terms with respect to the resources used and contributions to development impacts. Figure 4 illustrates the contribution of CCAFS outcomes to the SDGs (4a) and linkages between CCAFS AR4D budgets and SDG targets, based on number of outcomes reported and their major link to one of the SDGs (4b). Because CGIAR claims contribution to key SDGs through its system-level targets, we considered it pertinent to explore the extent to which CCAFS, as the main climate-oriented programme of CGIAR, has aligned its outcome-oriented work to these global efforts. Three caveats should be made about these data. First, we did not Note: Numbers represent frequencies with which the outcome types were reported in relation to the geography (global or country). In some cases, the total number of an outcome type (e.g., adaptation) is higher than the total number of outcomes reported, because of double (i.e., same outcome occurring in different countries) or triple counting (i.e., one outcome addressing all three CSA pillars)."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"have details on the actual costs of these activities; this is not surprising, given that over the life of CCAFS there were more than 400 projects. Second, the information on outcomes presented does not indicate the magnitude of their reach, such as number of beneficiaries reached; one outcome is no less significant than ten outcomes, if it reaches meaningful amounts of beneficiaries or covers large geographical or agro-ecological areas. Third, the number of outcomes may be only a poor predictor of the importance of the CCAFS work associated with each SDG and SDG target. Reporting contributions to SDGs and related targets was not consistent during the lifespan of CCAFS, and some valuable linkages between CCAFS's work and SDGs may have been missed. Nevertheless, the findings in Figure 4 are important in three ways."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"First, Figure 4.a suggests significant alignment between CCAFS's R4D agenda and the global Agenda on Sustainable Development. In total, CCAFS outcomes contributed to 14 out of the 17 SDGs, to different extents. As expected, most outcomes were reported in relation to action to combat climate change (SDG 13), followed by partnerships for the goals (SDG 17), ending poverty (SDG 1), ending hunger and achieving food and nutrition security (SDG 2), and responsible consumption (SDG 12). SDGs related to the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15), gender equality (SDG 5), decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), health and well-being (SDG 3) were less prominent in outcome reports, each receiving less than ten mentions. These findings illustrate the global relevance of CCAFS's mandate and work, particularly in the context of supporting climate action in the agricultural sector. It also highlights some critical gaps that need to be addressed more thoroughly in a food system transformation agenda, which places increased emphasis on gender empowerment, health outcomes, and formal education for sustainable development."},{"index":4,"size":176,"text":"Second, results indicate no discernible relationship between size of budget allocation and the frequency of CCAFS outcomes achieved and SDG targets contributed to (Figure 4.b). We found no golden rule or ideal amount of finance required to produce an outcome or to contribute to a globally relevant target. As our findings highlight, AR4D can produce different types of outcomes, at different maturity levels, in different geographies, and within very complex socio-economic and institutional environments; and each of these individual cases comes with a casespecific price tag. In addition, the value for money of an investment can be significantly underrated. Steep budgets are often required for setting up project infrastructure and processes that may eventually help to unlock outcomes. This is especially the case when working in new environments, on new topics (such as CSA was in 2010), or with new partners who require significant engagement and trust building. However, as illustrated previously, outcomes can be slow to appear, and without any mechanisms to track their development (or evolution) beyond the project lifespan, they may pass unobserved."},{"index":5,"size":192,"text":"Third, Figure 4 invites reflection on the delivery model of outcome-driven research, particularly in the case of complex AR4D programs. While finance plays the fundamental role of the engine that sets the mechanism in motion, research stakeholders are the passengers that give direction and perspective to the process. Across its projects and programs and over the years, CCAFS has sought to engage with a large diversity of partners, as a key strategy to build a bridge between knowledge and action and to drive impact. Our analysis revealed that, in 47% of the cases studies, outcomes were delivered in partnership with governmental institutions, 46% in partnership with non-CGIAR research partners, 39% with development organizations, 17% with other CGIAR research centres, 14% with financial institutions, 12% with private sector actors, 9% with bilateral donor governments, 7% with community-based organizations, and 3% with national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES). More than half of the outcomes reported involved more than two partner types (typically government and academia/ research). There has been an evident under-representation of private sector and grassroot organizations, which are critical for creating enabling environments for scaling and for building value for money."}]},{"head":"Future perspectives","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Our analysis indicated that more than half of the outcomes analyzed were related to the development or modification of national and local policies for agriculture development under climate change. A quarter of the outcomes related to climate, information and financial services, and the remainder were related to organizational programming. Although most outcomes were at an early stage of maturity, a few demonstrated evidence of impact at scale. Our results highlight the value of outcome-oriented science in harnessing diversity, balancing strategy with opportunism, allowing for flexible  planning, working across multiple vulnerability contexts, and providing a basis for allocating resources for impact."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"A wide range of outcomes will be needed to achieve transformation of the food system. This diversity is important not only in relation to the types of outcomes targeted (i.e., science-informed policy targets and plans, financial and information services, changes in farmer livelihoods, etc.), but also with regards to the level of maturity reached by those outcomes. Changes in behaviour achieved at scale are critical for transformation. However, design of new plans, policies, changes in attitudes and knowledge, and livelihood improvements in pilot contexts are important in their own way, as they provide the foundations, experiences, and learnings necessary for bringing change to the next level. This approach can help to provide a healthy balance between achieving outcomes at scale with more strategic, low-hanging outcome opportunities, which are highly valuable in sourcing additional funds and providing the necessary groundwork for scaling."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"Unlocking the richness of outcomes will increasingly involve new and more varied partnerships; these would complement traditional partners that in the past have proven fundamental for delivering, disseminating, and using research for achieving outcomes on the ground. Many of the outcomes highlighted here have demonstrated the benefits of engaging new stakeholders in the research development and dissemination process. The partnerships and alliances forged not only helped to co-design the research agenda and to increase its visibility, but also facilitated its use in concrete actions in policies, programs, investments, and on-farm actions. Wider and more diverse webs of partnerships can be challenging to set up and manage, but they are likely to be necessary for an ambitious agenda for transformation."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"Significant investment in strengthening monitoring, evaluation, reporting, and learning capacity will be needed to further realize the potential for outcome-oriented research. Providing compelling evidence of outcomes requires adequate tools, time, skills, and generous financial resources, which need to increase proportionally with project ambitions. For large-scale programs or institutions, a common monitoring and evaluation system is fundamental to ensure coherent and consistent reporting and to enable adaptive management and learning through periodic revision of theories of change. At CCAFS, a bespoke online system was developed only during its second phase, in response to the increasing complexity of projects being developed (i.e., multiple and interlinked research activities, partners, outputs, and outcomes). Its late set up hampered our ability to map the evolution of outcomes and innovations over time; consequently, important learnings about these evolutions were likely overlooked in this analysis."},{"index":5,"size":150,"text":"To be useful and usable, sophisticated tracking systems require adequate incentives, particularly when reporting frequency is demanding. At CCAFS, budgets for project continuation or scaling were decided partly based on outcomes reported. This provided staff with incentives to be more results-oriented but also to allocate efforts towards periodic monitoring and evaluation activities. In addition, investments in strengthening capacities should not be underestimated. While reviewing the reports we noticed highly variable quality of outcome evidence; this made it challenging to draw definite conclusions about linkages between outcomes reported, targets set and achieved, and budgets allocated. While evidence quality is typically linked with time and financial resources to conduct rigorous impact assessment, it is also influenced by people's skills and knowledge to report on findings. Building human capacity to track outcomes and to periodically revise theories of change will be critical for improving the quality of reporting and the effectiveness of AR4D."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"Without implicating them in any way, we thank Valerie Nelson and John Morton for originally suggesting a synthetic review of program outcomes. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) was carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements (see https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Overview of outcome harvest process. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. CCAFS outcomes span different geographies (at global and national levels), climate objectives, scopes, and maturity levels.Note: Numbers represent frequencies with which the outcome types were reported in relation to the geography (global or country). In some cases, the total number of an outcome type (e.g., adaptation) is higher than the total number of outcomes reported, because of double (i.e., same outcome occurring in different countries) or triple counting (i.e., one outcome addressing all three CSA pillars). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. CCAFS outcome-oriented work targeted vulnerable contexts to different extents. Based on ND-GAIN (2011-2020 average) and total outcomes achieved by CCAFS (2011-2020). Circles with flags represent country short names, based on ISO3. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. SDGs targeted by CCAFS outcomes (a, top) and CCAFS AR4D budgets mapped against SDG targets, based on the outcomes reported (b, bottom). Notes: Figure 4a: Numbers represent frequency of SDGs reported in relation to a CCAFS outcome. SDGs 15, 5, 8, 3, and 4 had less than 10 outcomes mapped, and were not included in the figure.Figure 4b: CCAFS outcomes are mapped to SDG targets. Each outcome (and hence SDG target) may have received budgets from one one or more activity lines. SDG targets refer to: SDG 1.4: access to economic resources, basic servives and to productive resources and assets; SDG 2.1: access to safe, nutritious and sufficent food; SDG 2.3: double agricultural productivity and incomes; SDG 2.4: sustainable food production systems and resilient agricultural practices that ensure productivity, environmental sustainability and adaptation to climate change and variability; SDG 12.2: sustainable, efficient management of natural resources; SDG 13.2: national policies, strategies and plans taking into consideration climate change; SDG 13.b: capacity for climate change-related planning and management in low-income economies; SDG 15.3: combat desertification, restore degraded lands and soils; SDG 17.16: multi-stakeholder partnerships to exchange knowledge, expertise, technology, and financial resources for achieving the SDGs. Source: adapted from (UNSTATS, 2022). "},{"text":" Figure 4. SDGs targeted by CCAFS outcomes (a, top) and CCAFS AR4D budgets mapped against SDG targets, based on the outcomes reported (b, bottom). Notes: Figure 4a: Numbers represent frequency of SDGs reported in relation to a CCAFS outcome. SDGs 15, 5, 8, 3, and 4 had less than 10 outcomes mapped, and were not included in the figure.Figure 4b: CCAFS outcomes are mapped to SDG targets. Each outcome (and hence SDG target) may have received budgets from one one or more activity lines. SDG targets refer to: SDG 1.4: access to economic resources, basic servives and to productive resources and assets; SDG 2.1: access to safe, nutritious and sufficent food; SDG 2.3: double agricultural productivity and incomes; SDG 2.4: sustainable food production systems and resilient agricultural practices that ensure productivity, environmental sustainability and adaptation to climate change and variability; SDG 12.2: sustainable, efficient management of natural resources; SDG 13.2: national policies, strategies and plans taking into consideration climate change; SDG 13.b: capacity for climate change-related planning and management in low-income economies; SDG 15.3: combat desertification, restore degraded lands and soils; SDG 17.16: multi-stakeholder partnerships to exchange knowledge, expertise, technology, and financial resources for achieving the SDGs. Source: adapted from (UNSTATS, 2022). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Description of outcome typologies and example from the CCAFS outcome database. Sources of typologies:(CCAFS, 2016;  CGIAR, 2021;Dinesh et al., 2018)  Variable Typology Definition and examples VariableTypologyDefinition and examples Climate objective Adaptation Reduce exposure to climate risks and/or strengthen resilience of farmers and systems Climate objectiveAdaptationReduce exposure to climate risks and/or strengthen resilience of farmers and systems   by building capacity to adapt, absorb, and recover from variability and shocks. by building capacity to adapt, absorb, and recover from variability and shocks.   Examples: adoption of drought-tolerant crop varieties; improved weather and Examples: adoption of drought-tolerant crop varieties; improved weather and   climate forecasts, etc. climate forecasts, etc.  Productivity Increase/maintain agricultural productivity and incomes in a sustainable way to ensure ProductivityIncrease/maintain agricultural productivity and incomes in a sustainable way to ensure   food and nutrition security. Examples: increases in farm yields; improved seed food and nutrition security. Examples: increases in farm yields; improved seed   storage, etc. storage, etc.  Mitigation Reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from farm activities. MitigationReduce and/or remove greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from farm activities.   Examples: reductions in GHG emissions from rice cultivation; updated national Examples: reductions in GHG emissions from rice cultivation; updated national   emissions targets, etc. emissions targets, etc. Outcome scope Global process Global/regional/continental processes, negotiations, discussions, decisions, guidelines Outcome scopeGlobal processGlobal/regional/continental processes, negotiations, discussions, decisions, guidelines   on climate change, agriculture and food security, with a wide impact. Examples: on climate change, agriculture and food security, with a wide impact. Examples:   inclusion of gender dimensions in United Nations Framework convention on inclusion of gender dimensions in United Nations Framework convention on   Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations; GHG accounting methodology adopted Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations; GHG accounting methodology adopted   globally, etc. globally, etc.  Policy National or sub-national policies, plans, budgets, investments. Examples: new Low PolicyNational or sub-national policies, plans, budgets, investments. Examples: new Low   Emissions Livestock Strategy; inclusion of CSA included in Nationally Determined Emissions Livestock Strategy; inclusion of CSA included in Nationally Determined   Contributions Contributions  Programming Investment strategies, projects or programmes enhanced or designed. Examples: ProgrammingInvestment strategies, projects or programmes enhanced or designed. Examples:   Updated investment strategy of the World Bank; new Rainforest Alliance standard, Updated investment strategy of the World Bank; new Rainforest Alliance standard,   etc. etc.  "}],"sieverID":"2a09e70b-8ca4-424d-983e-2d3547bad193","abstract":"CGIAR consists of a network of international publicly funded agricultural research for development institutes. Over five decades it has worked to increase food abundance, reduce hunger and poverty rates, and lower the geographical footprint of agriculture in lower-and middle-income countries. CGIAR's first formalised research program on climate change was set up in 2009. Here we report on an analysis of 300 outcomes generated over the lifetime of this program, which ran until 2021. Outcomes were characterised in relation to the climate objective, geography, thematic scope, and contribution to global goals. More than half of the outcomes analysed were related to policies for agriculture development under climate change. Twenty-six percent of outcomes related to climate, information and financial services, and 22 percent were related to organisational programming. Most outcomes analysed were at an early stage of maturity, focusing on design and planning stages of policies, strategies, and investments. Fewer than five percent of outcomes had evidence of impact at scale. Outcomes were facilitated by a wide network of partners and contributed to more than ten Sustainable Development Goals. The results of the analysis show the value of outcome-oriented science in being able to harness diversity, balance strategy with opportunism, plan flexibly, work across multiple vulnerability contexts, and allocate resources towards outcomes. These elements have played a significant role in fostering change across contexts, in adjusting research to emerging needs and context changes, in creating conditions for spillovers, and in ensuring global relevance. To transform the food system, the research for development agenda needs to be bolder. It will require more outcomes of various types, achieved through diverse partnerships, spanning a diversity of geographies, vulnerable contexts, and priorities. Significant and intentional investments in strengthening monitoring, evaluation, reporting and learning capacity will be required to further realize the potential for outcome-oriented research."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02a99d87f4c67f19410c9331096857f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77db6e4d-d8ae-4ad1-8deb-984b73d087f6/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduc)on","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"! Meat is an important source of protein in human nutrition. The production and consumption trends show an increase in the demand for meat in developed and developed countries (de Haan, 2009). Population increase in Kenya may push the industry to process most of the meat for preservation and distribution instead of consuming freshly slaughtered meat. This offers a challenge especially due to the zoonoses arising from contamination with pathogenic microorganism during handling and processing.! Escherichia coli O157:H7 has been associated with food poisoning outbreaks in various parts of the world. Most of them are from contaminated meat that has being undercooked (Lake et al, 2002). Prevention of contamination and cross contamination of meat during slaughter and distribution is critical in prevention of these outbreaks. As carcasses in Kenya are distributed to various retail shops after slaughter, the transportation chain need special attention!! The objectives of the study were to determine the probability of and identify the risk factors that lead to carcass contamination with E. coli O157 serotype during transportation to the butchery. "}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Two slaughterhouses from Nairobi and one from Eldoret were purposively chosen. Randomly selected 250 beef carcasses were sampled in a cross sectional study. Swab samples from a single carcass were obtained from three sites during loading and off loading of meat to carriers. A fault tree was used as a guide on possible areas of contamination. A total of 1500 samples were obtained. E. coli O157 serotype was isolated and purified using sorbital MacConkey, MacConkey and nutrient agar. Serotyping was by card agglutination test. Oxoid verotoxin test kit was used to test for verotoxin (VT1 and VT2) production. The meat carrier environment (humidity and temperature) was monitored. Knowledge, attitude and practices of meat transporters was assessed through a semi structured questionnaire and observations. The probability of contamination was modeled and run through Monte Carlo simulation using winBUGS ® . Prevalence of E. coli O157 serotype contaminated carcasses and data from the questionnaire were analysed using SPSS ver17."}]},{"head":"Results! E. coli O157 serotype carcass contamination!","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The level of Escherichia coli O157 serotype contaminated carcasses was significantly higher at offloading than at loading (p=0.05). The prevalence of contaminated carcasses at loading and offloading was 0.4% and 2.4% respectively. There was no significant difference on level of contamination among the three abattoirs at the two levels of sampling.! Monte Carlo simulation gave the probability of obtaining an E. coli O157 serotype contaminated carcass as shown in figure 2.! !  The kraft papers used to separate carcasses could be contaminated. The carcasses should be transported hang on rail. Other easily sterilized food grade material like films and aluminium foils could be used.!"},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The risk the E. coli O157 contamination pose to the consumers has not been quantified. The actual burden of the disease this could be causing in Kenya needs to be quantified and the control measures identified. The effects may not be so pronounced now as few reports on illnesses have been reported. The increased population and demand for food that require minimum preparation time, may revert this situation unless carcass contamination and bacterial proliferation is controlled.!"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Escherichia coli O157 serotype in beef carcasses post slaughterhouse in Nairobi and Eldoret, Kenya "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure  "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Graph showing the probability of obtaining an E. coli O157 serotype contaminated carcass.! "},{"text":"Figure 4 :-Figure 5 : Figure 4: Meat being offloaded from transportation box! "},{"text":" Figure 3: A picture of carcasses inside a transportation box! "}],"sieverID":"8e2e0b10-1b4a-49ce-bdf6-058d87314861","abstract":""}

data/part_5/02bc2942de6ff56c1c4168b9d2aa5243.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02bc2942de6ff56c1c4168b9d2aa5243","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/750/3949_AAS-3949.pdf"},"pageCount":17,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"The aim of the CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS) is to improve livelihoods and food security by enhancing the productivity and diversity of aquatic and agricultural systems. 1 The AAS program in the Barotse floodplain of Zambia, which is being implemented in ten communities including; Kabula, Kapanda Lealui, Mapungu, Mwandi, Nalitoya, Nembwele, Senanga, Sifuna and Situlu in December 2014, in Nanikelako in April 2015 and in Mwandi, evaluates changes in seasonal flooding patterns and the availability of natural resources to strengthen the productivity of aquatic agricultural management practices and improve the livelihoods of the poor and vulnerable. 2 It is essential to understand the current food and nutrition security situation in the Barotse floodplain in order to support the AAS program objective. Food availability in the Barotse is highly seasonal; it becomes limited from August or September to January, during which time food and nutrition insecurity worsens. 3 It is therefore necessary to identify opportunities to promote sustainable and diverse dietary options. This narrative provides an explanation of how the market research was conducted and some preliminary results. Overall, our research indicates that poor market access is a significant constraint in the Barotse floodplain, inhibiting AAS community members from securing proper nutrition and food."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Market sampling was conducted in 2014 to assess AAS community members' access to food items in markets as well as record seasonal price trends. In total, ten markets frequented by community members in AAS research sites were surveyed. Markets sampled in the city of Mongu, located in Mongu District in Western Province, included the Black and Green Markets, Main Market, Harbor Market, Mandanga Market, Kapulanga Market and Mbuywana Market. Additional market sampling in Mongu District was conducted in the community of Lealui, located 20 to 30 minutes from the city of Mongu by vehicle, at the Lealui Market. The remaining markets sampled in Western Province included the Senanga Main Market, Mapungu Shops and Old Lukulu Market. Coordinates for each market were recorded using a GPS device."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Vendors were interviewed on the food items sold, daily profit, and prices and availability of food items. They were encouraged to share information on changes in prices and availability, as well as on the origin of the food items. High and low seasons of availability were identified as well as fluctuations in prices based on seasonal changes. Approximately 20-30 food items were surveyed in each market. A nutritionist, nutrition officer or extension officer from the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock participated in the sampling of markets."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The ten completed market surveys were then organized into one comprehensive document in order to observe trends and differences in food prices and availability across markets. Food items were organized into the categories of \"energy,\" \"protective\" and \"body-building.\" Annex 1 illustrates seasonal trends in food prices and availability across all markets."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Market characteristics","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"A total of 89 food items were surveyed across 10 markets. The greatest number of food items were surveyed in Old Lukulu Market (39), followed by the Black and Green Markets in Mongu (31), Mongu  Main Market (30), Kapulanga Market (27), Mandanga Market (25), Lealui Market (24), Mbuywana  Market and Senanga Main Market (23), Harbor Market (19) and Mapungu Shops (11). Figure 1 indicates the number of food items surveyed in each market, organized into five categories. Mapungu, as well as those living in Mwandi, also frequent the market in Kalabo. There is no market in Mwandi."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"The AAS communities located in Mongu district frequent the markets of the provincial capital, Mongu. Crops are often sold within the communities or taken to the markets in Mongu. 4 There is no market in Situlu or Nanikelako. However, households in Lealui have access to a market located in their community. The Lealui market includes a number of vendors who display their products outdoors in stalls or on mats on the ground. There are also a number of stores that sell processed food like maheu (a processed drink made from maize mealie meal, milk, and sugar), soft drinks and biscuits, as well as other food products like eggs and groundnuts. Due to recent road construction and the presence of construction workers in the area, the demand for food items in the Lealui market has increased."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Community members explained that this has led vendors to increase their prices, which has caused concerns among local people since not all are able to afford the new prices. Vendors also explained that sales grow annually in July. Since water levels decrease during the dry season, there is an increase in travel between Mongu and Kalabo by road and therefore an increase in consumers that pass by the Lealui market."},{"index":4,"size":242,"text":"Community members in Lealui also explained that Mongu is the main market for selling and buying fish. 5 Markets in Mongu include the Black and Green markets, Main market, Harbor market, Kapulanga market, Mandanga market and Mbuywana market. While the AAS team was conducting the market survey in the Kapulanga market, they found that some vendors were not willing to give information because previous surveys on food safety had already been undertaken in the area and vendors did not find it necessary to answer additional questions. In contrast, vendors in the Mandanga market were willing to give information. However, it was difficult for some to calculate their daily profits for each food item since they combine the money earned from all food items. Vendors in the Mandanga market also stated that fish is the most frequently purchased food item that is a rich source of animalbased protein. Consumers begin purchasing other sources of protein, such as beans, kapenta and eggs, when fish is less available during the fishing ban that lasts from December to March. As the demand for these products increases, so do the prices. Since local consumers are easily affected by price changes, vendors often keep prices constant but reduce the quantity sold at that price. In the Mbuywana market, which is small with few vendors, vendors stated that they ordered most of the food items from the Main market in Mongu, which is fairly large and accessible by bus."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"Since there are no markets in Kabula or Kapanda, community members frequent the Old and New Lukulu markets. While many sell vegetables door to door in their communities, the lack of market access inhibits individuals from selling crops outside of the community. 6 Similarly, there are no markets in Nalitoya, Nembwele or Sifuna. The closest markets are in the town of Senanga. During focus group discussions, community members stated that the primary market for fish products is in Senanga, where they can set higher prices. 7"},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Throughout the ten markets surveyed, prices normally increase during the low season or when a food item is in high demand. Figure 2 illustrates the seasonal changes in price for a variety of food items."}]},{"head":"Figure 2. Food items with seasonal price changes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Some items, which do not vary in seasonal availability, maintain constant prices throughout the year, as illustrated in Figure 3. Trends in prices and availability"}]},{"head":"Energy","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Maize \"mealie meal\" is commonly purchased to make nshima, a thick porridge eaten with vegetables, fish or meat. The price for a 25 kg bag of breakfast mealie meal ranges across markets from K58 in the Mandanga market to the highest price of K76 in the Lealui market. However, it is more common for consumers to purchase smaller quantities of breakfast mealie meal than a 25 kg bag. Quantities are measured in local containers and prices span from K1 to K15, depending on the amount purchased."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Overall, vendors stated that breakfast mealie meal is available year round and that the price remains constant. However, a vendor in the Old Lukulu market differed from the rest, stating that the price of breakfast mealie meal increases when maize is low in season."},{"index":3,"size":179,"text":"There is generally a higher demand for breakfast mealie meal than roller meal, which is also produced from maize but is less processed and less expensive. Roller meal is available year round with prices that range from K60 to K65 for a 25 kg bag. It is interesting to note that breakfast mealie meal is usually preferred over roller meal, even though it is more expensive. Grinded maize mealie meal is also available year round. However, grinded maize mealie meal was only recorded in one market in Mongu and therefore no comparisons can be made on this food item across markets. The price of maize grain is fairly similar across the markets in which it was surveyed. Consumers purchase maize grain to take to a hammer mill and later produce mealie meal, samp, beer or local beverages like maheu. Cassava mealie meal is generally available year round and prices are fairly constant. According to a vendor in Mongu, if cassava mealie meal becomes less available, the price will remain constant but the quantity sold at that price will decrease."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Rice is available year round in markets, with the low season coinciding with the rainy season (from November to April). During the low season, prices either increase (for larger quantities of 5-10 kg) or vendors decrease the amount packaged and keep the price constant. Wheat flour is also available all year. A vendor in the Old Lukulu market stated that wheat flour is ordered from Lusaka; during the cold season (from June to July), the order price for flour increases."},{"index":5,"size":285,"text":"In terms of tubers, roasted cassava was surveyed in only one market in Mongu, the vendor of which explained that cassava is not in season during the rainy season since it cannot be harvested during this time. Likewise, locally processed cassava flour is less available during the rainy season. When it is less available, a vendor in the Mandanga market in Mongu explained that the price remains the same but the quantity packaged decreases. In contrast, a vendor in the Lealui market stated that the price and quantity do not change when it is less available. This may reflect differences in consumer demand and producer needs between those living in rural Lealui versus those in urban Mongu. The vendor in Lealui also stated that cassava becomes more available from June to August because vendors from Kaoma arrive to exchange cassava for fish. Dried cassava, which was surveyed only in the Old Lukulu Market, and there it is available year round since the cassava has been processed. Vendors in numerous markets stated they bought Irish potatoes from Shoprite, a large supermarket chain located in Mongu, or ordered them from Lusaka and resold them in the markets. When Irish potatoes are less available, the price increases or less potatoes are sold for the same price than during the high season. The low season for sweet potatoes, which can depending on the variety rich in vitamin A and also energydense, coincides with the rainy season. The price for sweet potatoes remains constant throughout the year but fewer potatoes are sold at that price during the low season. Sweet potatoes are also often dried to increase availability during the low season. They are obtained from the floodplain and Kaoma."},{"index":6,"size":81,"text":"Other energy-dense foods sold in the markets include buns, butter scones and fritters. These are all locally produced, have constant prices and are available all year. Sugar, which is also available year round, holds constant prices across markets; a 1 kg bag is normally sold for K7 or K8. A vendor in the Mapungu shops stated that sugar sales increase during June and July because the wild fruit used to brew beer is less available and people substitute it with sugar."}]},{"head":"Protective","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Vitamin A rich food Only two other vitamin-rich food items were observed in the market besides sweet potatoes. Carrots were only surveyed in the Mongu Main Market and Senanga Main Market. There is generally a low availability of carrots. A vendor in Senanga stated that she bought carrots from Shoprite and then resold them at the market. Although the price remains constant throughout the year, the quantity sold at that price decreases during the low season. Paw paw was only surveyed in two markets in Mongu. While vendors gave slightly different descriptions of when paw paw is available, their responses overlapped to show that it is not available from October to December and that availability is lower from January to May. Even during the low season, one vendor stated that the price for paw paw does not change."}]},{"head":"Dark leafy greens","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"There is a variety of dark green leafy vegetables available in markets. The high season for pumpkin leaves, sweet potato leaves, cassava leaves, amaranthus and hibiscus coincides with the rainy season. Pumpkin leaves are generally available year round. The price for a bundle of pumpkin leaves is the same across markets at K0.50. When it is less available, a vendor in Old Lukulu Market stated, the price remains constant but the bundle contains less leaves. In Senanga, the price for a bundle of sweet potato leaves increases from K0.50 in the high season to K1 in the low season. Cassava leaves were only surveyed in one market in Mongu, where a vendor stated the low season is from June to August and the price for a bundle was K1. The price of a bundle of amaranthus ranges from K0.50 to K1, depending on the market. Hibiscus is available year round and the price for a bundle ranges from K0.50 to K1 across markets. During the low season, the price of hibiscus usually remains the same but the size of the bundle is cut in half by a handful. Unlike other the dark green leaves, rape is available year round with the high season lasting from about May to August or September. Rape was surveyed in all markets except for the Lealui Market. In most markets, vendors stated that they keep the price constant but reduce the number of leaves sold in a bundle. Prices range from K0.50 to K1 for a bundle."}]},{"head":"Other vegetables","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Other vegetables observed in the markets include cabbage, Chinese cabbage, tomatoes, onions, okra, African eggplant, eggplant, green pepper and green beans. Cabbage, which was surveyed in most markets, is available all year. A vendor in Harbor Market stated that availability does not vary much because the cabbage comes from many places, including the floodplain, upland and Lusaka. If cabbage becomes less available, it is normally sold at a higher price. Chinese cabbage is also available year round, with the high season lasting during the dry season, from about April to August. The price remains constant at K1 for a bundle of leaves throughout the year but the number of leaves sold at that price decreases during the low season."},{"index":2,"size":195,"text":"Tomatoes, which were surveyed in all markets, are available year round with the low season lasting from January to March. There were, however, some inconsistencies in vendors' descriptions of the low and high season for tomatoes. Tomatoes are sold in bundles of 2 or 4, depending on their size. The price of tomatoes is relatively similar across the markets. For example, 4 medium tomatoes are sold for K2. During the low season, 4 medium tomatoes are sold for between K3 and K5. When tomatoes are very scarce, a vendor in Mongu's Main Market stated that the price of one tomato can increase to K5. In contrast, when tomatoes are highly available, they go to waste. Onions are also available year round, but the low season occurs near the end of the year. A vendor in the Harbor Market explained that there is less availability of onions during the rainy season because the onions rot during this time. The price and number of onions sold in a bundle depends on their size. One bulb is usually sold for K1. In most markets, vendors stated that the price remains the same, even when onions are less available."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"In contrast to onions, the high season for okra coincides with the rainy season with lower availability during the dry season. A bag of okra that has 10 to 12 fingers is sold for K1 or K2, depending on the market. During the low season, the price will increase or it will remain the same and the number of fingers packaged in the bag will decrease. African eggplant is available year round and appears more available during the dry season. A bag of African eggplant, which may contain 15 to 25 eggplants, is priced at K1 or K2, depending on the market. During the low season, either the price increases or the price remains the same and the number of African eggplant packaged decreases. Eggplant was only surveyed in one market, where a vendor stated that it is only available from December to January. Four eggplants, ranging in size, are priced at K5."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"A vendor in Mongu stated that since green pepper is not high in demand, its price and revenue is relatively low. For example, 4 to 5 green peppers are sold for K1 or K2, depending on the market. The price remains constant even when it is less available. In contrast, green peppers are priced higher in Senanga at K1 per pepper during the high season and K3 during the low season. Green beans were surveyed in only one market in Mongu; a bag of green beans is sold at K2 and the price is constant throughout the year. Garlic was also only surveyed in one Mongu market; 5 bulbs are sold for K5 during the high season. During the low season, the number of bulbs sold for K5 decreases to 4."}]},{"head":"Other fruits","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Few types of fruit were observed across the markets. Oranges were only surveyed in one market in Mongu and the price ranges from K0.50 to 1.50 per orange, depending on its size. The high season for oranges lasts from April to August and the low season from September to March, which coincides with the rainy season. Pineapples were also only surveyed in one market, in the Old Lukulu Market. One pineapple is sold for K4 or K5. The vendor in Lukulu explained that pineapple is only available from January to February and that it comes from North Western Province."}]},{"head":"Body-building","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"Animal-source food Fish was the most commonly surveyed animal-source food across the markets, including fresh and dried types. Fish is more available from June to August, during which prices are lower. Some vendors stated that fish is not available during the fishing ban from December to March. However, others stated that fish is still available during this time, but at a lower level. This perhaps serves as evidence that fishing still occurs during the ban. During the low season, prices for fish increase or prices remain the same but the number of fish sold at that price decreases. When the fishing ban begins, the demand for kapenta increases as consumers seek a substitute for fresh fish. As the demand for kapenta increases, vendors keep prices constant but decrease the amount of kapenta that is sold at that price. Sales decrease once there is plenty of local fish on the market again. Vendors also mentioned that kapenta is obtained from Siavonga, Mpulungu and Lusaka."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Beef was only surveyed in the Kapulanga Market in Mongu. One kilogram of mixed cuts was priced at K27. The vendor stated that beef is available all year, but that sales increase during the fishing ban. Pork was surveyed in the Mandanga Market in Mongu. It was sold by the vendor as fried pork chops and priced at K20 for 1kg. During lower availability from October to May, the price remains the same but the pork chops are reduced in size."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Eggs are available year round, with some vendors stating that the low season lasts from June to August. Like kapenta and beef, vendors mentioned that sales increase during the fishing ban. During the low season, the price of a tray of eggs increases slightly, but individual eggs are consistently sold at K1. Multiple vendors mentioned that eggs are ordered from Lusaka."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"In terms of dairy products, fresh Parmalat brand milk is available year round and prices do not fluctuate; a container of 250 mL is sold for K4 and of 500 mL for K6. Sour milk was only surveyed in the Lealui Market and Old Lukulu Market. The vendor in Lealui stated that the price does not change as the availability changes, which becomes lower in March, but the quantity sold at that price is reduced."}]},{"head":"Legumes, beans, seeds & nuts","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":303,"text":"Beans, cowpeas, groundnuts, bambara nuts and soy pieces were observed during the market sampling. Beans were surveyed in all markets except the shops in Mapungu. The demand for beans is higher during the fishing ban when less fish is available for consumption. Prices vary depending on the quantity sold, which is often measured in local containers, and increase during the low season or when the demand for beans is higher. Cowpeas were only surveyed in two markets, in the Kapulanga Market in Mongu and the Old Lukulu Market. While cowpeas are available throughout the year, a vendor in the Kapulanga Market stated that the low season lasts from December to April, which coincides with the rainy season. The price of cowpeas increases during the low season. Groundnuts were surveyed in most markets. Similar to beans and cowpeas, the low season for groundnuts is during the rainy season, generally from November to March, with the high season occurring during the dry months. However, even when groundnuts are less available from the floodplain, vendors can obtain them from Sesheke and Kaoma. The price of groundnuts increases during the low season or the quantity packaged is reduced and sold at the same price as during the high season. For example, a 250 g bag of groundnuts is sold for K2 during the high season but for K3 during the low season. Powdered groundnut is available all year and is often purchased by consumers to add to samp, vegetables and dried fish. Bambara nuts were only surveyed in the Kapulanga Market. The vendor stated that they are available all year and that prices range from K2 to K3 for quantities measured in local containers. Soy pieces, purchased from Lusaka, are also available year round. A 100g bag is priced at K3; prices of soy pieces remain constant."}]},{"head":"Other","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Other food items sold throughout the markets include cooking oil, salt, anthill soil, baking soda, baking powder, paprika, curry, soft drinks, maheu, D'lite (mix used to make porridge for children) and Instant Thobwa (maize and soybean mix to make drinks or porridge). These items are available year round and the prices remain constant. Cooking oil is often sold in small bags or reused bottles at varying prices ranging from K0.50 to K10. A new 750mL bottle of cooking oil is sold for K10 to K13. Anthill soil is purchased by pregnant women who believe it satisfies cravings. It was observed that at Mongu's Main Market, more soil is sold than powdered groundnuts, even though powdered groundnuts are available all year at constant prices and are an excellent source of protein and energy as well as certain micronutrients."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The research on the location of markets and fluctuation of food prices and availability indicates that AAS communities have poor access to markets. This lack of market access inhibits community members from consistently obtaining food items and from exploring opportunities to diversify their diets. It is therefore a major constraint to improving the nutrition situation of households in the Barotse floodplain, especially during the hunger season."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"During focus group discussions led by the AAS team in the ten communities, individuals discussed the need to improve access to markets as a priority area to enhance the well-being and livelihoods of households. Proposed actions included training households in the production of quality products, strengthening linkages to markets, improving transportation, lobbying the government for better road and market infrastructure, and facilitating the establishment of market information centers. 8 These actions may be further explored to identify opportunities to improve market access and therefore open up entry points to increase dietary diversity and improve nutrition."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Number of food items surveyed by market ..............................................................................Figure 2. Food items with seasonal price changes .................................................................................. Figure 3. Food items with constant prices over the seasons ................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 1. Number of food items surveyed by market ..............................................................................Figure 2. Food items with seasonal price changes .................................................................................. Figure 3. Food items with constant prices over the seasons ................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Food items with constant prices over the seasons "}],"sieverID":"7af9e861-5a52-40e1-9dd7-03c40be5c1c5","abstract":""}

data/part_5/02e87a432e21834172c1b4012711bc9f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02e87a432e21834172c1b4012711bc9f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aa88845f-5219-40aa-9543-4be33014f13e/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Busia County Biodiversity Policy -the first for Kenya's 47 counties -recognizes the importance of native species for nutrition and food security and allocates resources for the conservation of regional food biodiversity, and the incorporation of native species into school meals linked to direct procurement from smallholder farmers","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"81952709-b2a1-4350-80ef-376690d3e31f","abstract":""}

data/part_5/02fc5afa22ece141ecadc87220c6fe57.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02fc5afa22ece141ecadc87220c6fe57","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b85790cf-25f7-438b-ab9f-2bcae07173ac/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"\"GENNOVATE: Enabling gender equality in agricultural and environmental innovation\" is a collaborative study that represents an unprecedented initiative in the CGIAR in its scale and comprehensiveness for examining gender norms, agency, and capacities for innovations. A qualitative study, it brings to life the voices, challenges, and aspirations of local people differentiated by gender, socioeconomic class, and generation under diverse cultures, religions, ecological circumstances, and agricultural systems. The research design was developed collaboratively, and Principal Investigators (PIs) from","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"One unique aspect of GENNOVATE is its ability to catalyze collaboration: It brought together a multidisciplinary team of researchers across the CRPs and enabled them to carry out a study that covers the many regions where the CGIAR is active. GENNOVATE researchers worked with 137 agricultural communities from 26 countries across the Global South. In this way, the initiative moved beyond the small, isolated studies which have characterized much gender case research towards real time comparisons across many qualitative cases. This has allowed for new patterns to emerge while maintaining emphasis on contextual specificity. The success of the study has rested considerably in its driving principles of systematic collaboration and learning."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Photo: Women's focus group in DR Congo. Bioversity Int. Photo: Anne Rietveld."}]},{"head":"FOSTERING COLLABORATION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"in cross-CGIAR research projects and platforms: Lessons from the GENNOVATE initiative As it enters its fifth year, the GENNOVATE research community shares lessons learned and success factors for other types of collaboration."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"This note offers reflections on:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• The value-and value added-of the collaboration."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Challenges with the collaboration."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Good practices for other collaborative research efforts."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Four types of collaborations were prominent within the GENNOVATE initiative:"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"1) Among PIs and their research teams across the CGIAR;"},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"2) Among CGIAR PIs, other PIs (gender scholars and consultants), and resource persons;"},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"3) With partner organizations and field teams responsible for data collection across study sites;"},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"4) At the village level between the research field teams, women and men farmers (young and adult), and other diverse community members."},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"In this note, we reflect primarily on the first two types of collaboration, offering insights to Platforms, CRPs, and other collaborative research endeavors in the CGIAR."},{"index":12,"size":48,"text":"Box 1 lists some of the key collaborative activities and outputs from GENNOVATE. Although a loose timeline is provided to offer a sense of flow and consolidation of the collaboration over time, activities were in fact highly iterative and often occurred in parallel, over more than one year. "}]},{"head":"Value -and value added -of the collaboration","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"According to PIs, the value of the collaboration was on several levels:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Enhanced scientific opportunities, achievements, and outcomes"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Teamwork and collaboration:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Contributed to more rigorous and relevant research on a large scale."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"• Brought different ideas and perspectives to the fore and fostered intellectual exchanges in a safe environment as well as a forum for open dialogue. External resource persons (from non-CGIAR organizations) brought invaluable knowledge to bear on the study and helped increase the relevance of the study."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"• Fostered methodological and conceptual innovations, especially the chance to develop and apply a rigorous, qualitative methodology for a comparative study."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"• Allowed abundant and rich data that is both comparable yet contextualized to be collected from men and women producers from different classes and generations, and of diverse cultures, religions, ecological circumstances, and agricultural systems. Discussions among PIs amplified the interpretive power directed towards data as contextual specificities and commonalities were brought into view."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"• Allowed participating scientists to pioneer a qualitative comparative methodology in a way that none of the PIs could have done on their own."},{"index":9,"size":52,"text":"• Resulted in multiple, diverse outputs, ranging from reports, presentations, and articles to methodology tools and data-many of which were integrated in other CGIAR research projects-as well as follow-up (Ph.D.) research projects. More research outputs were produced than originally envisioned as collaboration led to the generation of new ideas throughout the initiative."},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• Mobilized funding and ongoing support across the CGIAR."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"GENNOVATE fieldwork in Nepal. Photo: Marlène Elias, Bioversity International."}]},{"head":"Implementation efficiencies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"• Efficiencies resulted from collectively designing the shared GENNOVATE methodology, organizing trainings of lead national field researchers for multiple field teams for the data collection, and strengthening capacities of multiple PIs in data collection, analysis, and writing of major findings."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• In the context of open access policies, a common approach and agreements were developed to share and manage data ethically, given the type of data collected (narrative data on sensitive topics elicited from human subjects rather than statistical or biophysical data)."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• As a result of GENNOVATE work on ethical handling of sensitive data, some of the CGIAR Centers strengthened their open access data management approaches."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"• Having a large number of cases to code reduced costs per case, as it was possible to train two central teams of coders, based in Mexico and Peru, to code all cases. Importantly, this also allowed for enhanced inter-coder reliability (minimizing differences in interpretation that different people bring to the coding), and allowed teams to benefit from the growing experience of the coders as the coding progressed."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Moral and intellectual support, networks, and friendships"},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"• Positive feedback from colleagues within the GENNOVATE network encouraged scientists to keep going when back at the desk, even in the absence of funding to cover their time in the study."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"• Friendships and intellectual support, and the sense of being part of a large initiative and community, offered strength in the face of institutional challenges and politics."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"• Made a significant contribution to CG gender research and networks through wide-ranging expert cooperation, innovations with gender-responsive methodologies, and expansion of the gender knowledge base. This contribution was recognized in the System-wide 2017 Evaluation of Gender in CGIAR, led by the Independent Evaluation Arrangement (IEA)."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"• Enhanced the scientific foundation and engagement for considering gender norms and integrating gender aspects and qualitative methodologies in research and development interventions across CRPs and throughout the CG system."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"• Increased exposure of the study beyond the CGIAR researchers involved due to the scale of the initiative and the number of 'spokespersons' and research products."},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"External resource persons and partners brought some of the thinking from the initiative back into their institutions."}]},{"head":"Capacity strengthening","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"• Collaboration enabled enhanced interactions between junior and senior researchers as well as mentorship; and proved to be an effective way to strengthen capacities through knowledge sharing around practical experience and contrasting disciplinary backgrounds."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• External resource persons contributed to strengthening capacities of staff within the CGIAR."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"• Regular GENNOVATE workshops allowed the team to i) strengthen both 'soft' and 'hard' skills, such as in the use of a qualitative data analysis program (NVivo) and ii) develop a forum for enhanced capacity and critical thinking around how to ensure rigor and thus quality of qualitative research, and the role/potential and challenges of qualitative research in the context of the CGIAR and agricultural research for development (AR4D). Structured discussions and presentations during workshops allowed participants to benefit from peer review of their research and to raise issues for reflection. Related informal down-time discussions further contributed to strengthening the quality, and confidence in, qualitative research and findings. Pressure for quality resulted in better quality research."}]},{"head":"Challenges of the collaboration","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The following challenges to collaboration were encountered during the life of the project:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"• Lack of researcher time, as funding was limited and short term. Many PIs had no time formally allocated in their work plans for GENNOVATE data collection, analysis, and write up, or even for participation in workshops."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• The need to balance inclusive decision making with timely decisions and moderate transaction costs, as well as the time and efforts required to produce team deliverables."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Ensuring high quality data collection, analysis, presentation of findings, and outreach across the initiative with researchers and research teams (PIs, partners, field teams) of varied experience levels and strengths."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"• Authorship and data sharing-see Box 2. PIs and resource persons worked together and shared knowledge and ideas over several years, with some PIs leaving and new ones coming in. In some cases the origin and originator of specific ideas became blurred. This had to be taken into account and discussed when it came to publishing articles."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• Maintaining efficient and multidirectional information flows and feedback loops among all the parties involved, while managing transaction costs."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"• Unequal carrying of responsibilities and engagement across PIs, and nonresponsiveness or lack of timely responses of some."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"• Occasional turnover of people involved in the collaboration, as people moved to other work or organizations, leaving some researchers interpreting data, which they did not collect."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"• Because data collection teams worked on different timelines, time lags or bottlenecks sometimes occurred, e.g., in relation to data coding, or joint analysis and write-up."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• Different visions or hopes for GENNOVATE among PIs and over time."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"Recognition of the value of the collaboration, described above, helped researchers work through these challenges more readily and identify some of the solutions listed in the next section."},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"Box 2: Data sharing and authorship"},{"index":13,"size":18,"text":"Due to the comparative nature of the study, PIs were very interested in sharing their own teams' data."},{"index":14,"size":181,"text":"At the same time, they wanted to maintain control over the data and its interpretations and give/ receive credit where it was due. To address these and other concerns regarding data sharing, a joint collaboration agreement (available upon request) was established and formalized. This included data sharing and authorship principles and procedures aligned with CGIAR and donor standards. It was agreed that using the data of another PI would entail joint authorship of the research output, unless the PI who oversaw the case chose to decline authorship. This was done to recognize the PI's work in the shared case study and to validate interpretations of the data with the PI's knowledge of the context for the case at hand. Data management rules were established. For example, all data had to be safeguarded confidentially by the center with which its PI is affiliated, and access to data collected by PIs from other Centers had to be formally documented using the GENNOVATE data-sharing agreement and template (available upon request) with clear indication of the specific purpose for which data access was being granted."}]},{"head":"Good practices for collaborative research","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Resource allocation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Find ways to provide an agreed minimum of staff time to support participation, engagement, and commitment of team members or partners to a minimum of expected deliverables and effective engagement in the collaboration."}]},{"head":"Team or partnership composition and external support","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Engage committed senior and junior scientists in the initiative and invite a diversity of other contributors who can bring different perspectives, learn from each other, and give the initiative a voice within and beyond the CGIAR."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Establish a dedicated, diverse, and inclusive leadership team, and a clear governance approach, for example in the form of a project charter, to ensure efficient and transparent management and implementation."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Garner the recognition and buy-in of research directors and senior managers by organizing important meetings in participating Centers, on a rotating basis, and inviting participation by these senior managers. This will strengthen their awareness, support, and advocacy for resources and visibility."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Create an external scientific committee and/or invite external experts to meetings to inject new ideas and provide critical feedback."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Engage early on with decision-makers and partners who can help shape the agenda and adopt the findings."}]},{"head":"Process","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Invest in a robust research process to set the stage for strong products. Skilled steering and advance preparatory work by a core group is needed to provide the foundation for effective teamwork; as is the process of ongoing bottom-up exchange and peer-based capacity building for ongoing engagement and high quality outputs."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Virtual interactions do not replace face-toface meetings. It is difficult to have meaningful relationships and discussions without some face-toface interaction. Allocate space, time, and funds for collective sharing, learning, and reflection as well as informal interactions that foster a safe and stimulating environment for cooperation, building strong relations, ongoing engagement, mutual support, and creativity, diversity, and quality."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Agree on timelines and arrangements in order to minimize bottlenecks and respect each other's time."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Clarify (with a long-term vision) the conditions and working arrangements of the collaboration, as well as the procedures for data ownership, management, and sharing, and those around authorship from the very beginning of the initiative. Dedicate time to revisiting those issues at meetings, talk through doubts and concerns, and allow for adaptations as needed. This will help increase collective adherence to agreements."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Share responsibilities equitably. In some cases, rotating management and leadership responsibilities within the management team and larger group may be useful for longer-term collaborations."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"Invest in strong communications mechanisms to keep all engaged and well informed, promoting Establish a regular schedule of face-toface meetings alongside virtual correspondence to maintain the initiative high on everyone's agenda."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"Within face-to-face meetings, ensure space for 'sharing and transparency sessions' to enable both participants and organizers to constructively voice positive and negative feedback about specific decisions and directions of the initiative and levels of participation. This can generate discussions about information and resource flows, which are frequent bottlenecks and can resolve many issues when they are still small scale."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"Provide ample and constructive peer-to-peer review and feedback on written and oral presentations of the work."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"Recognize, appreciate, and acknowledge each other's contributions and reference each other's work to give visibility to the collective initiative."},{"index":10,"size":23,"text":"These good practices can guide future collaborative endeavors and improve the ability of researchers to contribute to larger research questions and global challenges."},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"Several lessons from the GENNOVATE initiative may offer good practices that can contribute to fruitful research collaboration:"},{"index":12,"size":15,"text":"This publication was made possible by the support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation."},{"index":13,"size":84,"text":"To learn more visit: email: [email protected] Correct citation: Elias, M., Badstue, L., Farnworth, C.R., Prain, G., van der Burg, M., Petesch, P., Elmhirst, R., Bullock, R., Feldman, S., Jafry, T., Mudege, N., Umantseva, A., Tegbaru, A., Najjar, D., & Yila, J., with Behailu, L.A., Kawarazuka, N., Kandiwa, V., Kantor, P., Luis, J., Lopez, D. E., Njuguna-Mungai, E., & Rietveld, A. (2018). Fostering collaboration in cross-CGIAR research projects and platforms: Lessons from the GENNOVATE initiative. GENNOVATE resources for scientists and research teams. CDMX, Mexico: CIMMYT. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" gender.cgiar.org/collaborative-research/gennovate/ Contact: Lone Badstue International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) "},{"text":" Some of the GENNOVATE PIs at the workshop on research achievements, lessons learned and emerging outcomes. Amsterdam, June 2018. Photo: CIMMYTThe portfolio of CGIAR Research Programs has changed since 2017, please see here. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"0e591e37-5a90-4a7f-8d26-35e73655e1f7","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"037fd12a86d600ebda999483447b82de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/878858cf-0839-4b3a-af1b-cff2a94caeec/retrieve"},"pageCount":104,"title":"CIAl is a nonprofil organization devoted to the agricultural and economic developmen1 01 1he lowland !ropics. The Government of Colombia provides suppon as hOS1 counrry for CIAT and furnishes a 522-hec1are larm near Cali for CIAT's headquarters. In addilion, the Fundación para la Educación Superior (FES) makes available lo CIAT Ihe 184 hectare substation 01 Quilichao, situated near Santander de Quilichao, Departamento del Cauca. Collaborative work with the Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA) is carried out on several 01 its experimental stations and similar work is done with national agricultural agencies in other Latin American countries. CIAT is financed by a number of donors represented in the Consultative Group for","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"This manual is designed lO help farmers and technicians identify th e most common ins ect, disease and so il probl ems of rice in Identification of problems affecting rice production in Latin America MOS l of the problems affecting rice prod uction can be idcntified by knowledge of the varieties auacked, care ful observation of the symptoms and lhe;r panern o f distribution in lhe ficld , and vis ual association o f lhe affeclcd pl a nls or areas with dif-(e re nces in soí l5, irrigation or fertilization practices. Information on soil pH and fertilit y hclps identify nutritional problems\""}]},{"head":"Insect problems","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Most in sec ts are Jarge enough lo be observed; a few are minut e or difficult te detect bul can be identified by lheir feeding habits."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Damage is caused by chewing, suck ing and rasp ing in sec ts, lhe first two classes being lhe mast impo rt ant."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Damage to Icaves a nd panicles is easily detected, bUI damage 10 rools and ste ms cannO l be determined without pu lling up the plant or cutting open the stems."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Many insects inhabit rice fields but not all darnage rice; sorne are beneficial as they fced on other insects. Not only must the ¡nseet and [h e damage eaused be reeognized, but it must also be determined whether the insect populati on can cause economic damagc. Frequently. the damaging insecls a\"re nOl present in suffici ent number to apply in sec tieides."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"It should be pointed out that specific insectici des have nol been recomrnended for (he control of lhe inseet pests des cribed for three reasons: (1) New prod ucts are continually being developed lo replace exi<ling ones; (2) frequenlly, lhe aVdil ab ility of specific products varies from o ne co untry to another ; (3) nomenclature is not standard ."}]},{"head":"Disease problems","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Diseases can attack leaves, stems, panicles and roots; their preso ence is con firmed by discolored, rolted are as of plant tissue in the affected parts. Some diseases are worsened by high nitrogen tert'l'• zation and water stress while in others the presence of thc disease signals a fertilizer deficiency. The hoja blanca disea se is transmittcd by insects whosc presence in large numbers may indicate rhat the di sease will soon appear."}]},{"head":"Soil problems","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Soil problems are usually invol ved when (1) all plants within the area are affected, (2) insects and fungus diseases are nol obvious and (3) the problem is allevialed or intensified by fertilization or by flooding afler symptoms have appeared ."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Soil problems occur becausc th e plants cannot absorb adequate amounts of a specific nutrient or becausc some nUlrient is ab sorbed in taxic amounts. The following rabie shows the most ¡mportant nutrients and the conditions favoring (he nUlrienl dcficiency or to xicit y. When new lan d is first pUL into rice, many ¡nseels that have been li vi ng in the soil and feeding on the rools of othe r craps are already present in th e field s and can cause severe reduction in the rice stands by eating the ri ce rools and killing th e young pl ants. Commonly found in these areas are large, thick •bodied whitish worms that are always curled up in a U-shaped rorm (P ho to 1) ."}]},{"head":"Nutrient","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Th ese are larvae of rather large brownlo black-colored bectles that range in size from 13 lo 25 mm . In sorne cases, the ad ults also reed on the ric e rooLS. The dead plant illustrated (Photo 2) has had ma st of jts roolS deslro ye d by the ¡meets. These ¡nseets attack upland rice roo t5 al any stage of.gro wth but cannot survive in irrigated rice."}]},{"head":"Rice water weevil","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"PhOIOS 5 and 7 . Adult and larva of UssorhOPlrU$ orvzophi1vs"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Thi s ¡nsect is a major pCSl o f flooded ri ce in many counlries."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The adult wee vils (Photo 5) feed o n rice leaves leavi ng while lo ngitudinal scars parallel lO the midrib. The adults measure about 3 mm, but in Srazil o ne speci es is ab out 5 l O 6 mm in length. Eggs are laid bclow th e wa ter leve l and th e lar va fee d o n the rice roots (PhOlO 6). The leg less white larvae measure ab out 6 to 12 mm in length (Photo 7)."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"When a considerable portíon o f the roOl system is de stroyed , th e older lea ves become yellow (Photo 8), and the plants may lodge."}]},{"head":"Chinch bug","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PhOIO 9 Blissu s feucoprerus","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Chineh bugs are small (3.5 mm) blaek in seel' wilh whili sh "}]},{"head":"Fall armyworm","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":243,"text":"Phot o 10. Larva of Spodoptera frugiperda Thi s inseCl IS faund in all ri ce-grow ing areas. The larvae (Photo 10) reed on ¡he le aves or you ng rice plants (Photo 11) . They va ry in co lo r fro m light brown lo green , to almost black and have three yellowish lines on th e back that ex tcnd from lh e head lo the tip of the abd omen. Two of these lines unite 10 form an ¡nverte d \" Y\" on lhe fronl pan of lhe head. The lar vae of a few relat ed species feed d urin g lhe night an d hide in lhe soil during lhe day. This is lhe mast seri o us o f lhe leaf-ea ting ca terpill ars as it is generally prescnt in large numbers and can defaliate a rice field in only a fe w days. The adult butterflies are usually brown in color with sorne yellowish spots on the forewings. The antennas are hooked al the tips (Photo 12). The damaging state is the larva, whi ch is easily recognized by il' green color , by Ihe large hearl-,haped he ad, and by the necklike thorax which ca n be extended or retracted . The tip of the abdomen i, also flattened (Photo 13). The larva rolls ¡he leaf margins of one or more leaves together (Photo 14) lo provi de a protected feeding area."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The ¡nsee! is nol considered lo be a serious pes! of rice and is rarely found in numbers sufficient to cause economic damage. This small ¡nseet has caused tremendous damage to rice fields."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"It transmits (he hoja blanca virus disease a nd is often present in sufficient number to destroy entire fields as a res ult of its feeding. AdullS and nymphs (PhOlO 15) suck the sap from rice leaves and stems and fro m developing panicles during Lhe boot stage. The insects excrete a honey dew substance which attracts (ungí, causing soo ty black spots on the surface of the [ca ves and stems (')hoto 16) . The males are smaller and darker than the females, and l. . nymphs (immature stage) are wingless and have two black stripes running the entire length of the body . This species is distinguisned fram a similar insect, Sogatodes cubanus, whi ch has two black spots on (he back corresponding to the tips of lhe fronl wings (Photo 17).5. cubanu5 is co mmon in rice fields but feeds on grasses and neither transmits the hoja blanca virus to rice nor causes feeding damage."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Protection against attacks from thi s inseet and from the virus is obtained by the use of resistant varieties. The varieties in the cenler and on the righl of Photo 18 are susceptible lo mechanical damage by the ¡nseel while the variety on the left is resistant."}]},{"head":"\"","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":". . These are small , shin y beetles that feed on the rice leaves."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"They vary in size from 2 lo 6 mm, and the co lor may vary from bright yellow lo black . So me have characteristi c spots, others may have stripes, while others may be of a salid color. The \\arvae of sorne of these insecls al50 attack the root5 of upland rice. There are a nu m ber of bO lh long-and shon -antenn ae d gra sshoppers th at attac k ri ce. Ph oto 29 shows a common lo ng•horned grassho pp er, Caulopsis cuspidolo. Long-horned grassho pper adults and nym phs reed on leaves (Ph olo 30) and sle ms (Pho to 31 ), produ cing white he ads. Shon -horned gr.sshoppers (Pho to 32) m. y al50 ea l Icaves bUl occasionall y feed on th e developing gra ins (Pho to 33). In mas t rice•gro wing areas, th ese insec ts do no l ca use eco no m ic damage; bU l in Gu ya na and in the Caribbean area, they can ca use significan t damage if no t con trolled. There are four or five species of stem bo rers [hat attack rice in Latin America, bU I only three are cons idered to be important."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"The mast dam aging and th e most widel y distri bu ted is rhe sugar ca ne bo rer. Th e adult moth (Photo 34) is se ldom seen since it is hidden during lhe day . Eggs are raid on lhe Ic aves, and lhe newly hatched larva may feed on Ih e surface of lh e leaves for a few days befare ente rin g lhe plant through lh e lea f sheaths and lhen boring into lh e stems. The mature larva (Ph oto 35) has brown spo ts o n each scgment o f rhe abdomen but no stripes are prescnt."},{"index":4,"size":287,"text":"When lh e plant is attack ed at an carly stage, lhe growing tip may be desl ro yed, producing dead hearts (Pholo 36) . Later altacks produce white hea ds (Pholo 37 ). The white rice stemborer is found from Mexico to Peru and across northern South American from Colombia to Surinam. The white moth (Photo 38) is commonly seen on the uppermost leaf tip,. The whitish or eream-eolored larva (Photo 39) is easily reeognized by its small head, tapered abdomen and the absence of spots or stripes on its ribbed body. In upland rice it can be a serious pest attacking at ground level and feeding upward in the stem. This inseet is not normally a serious pes! in irrigated rice even though present in high populations. Plants attaeked by the inseet usually show a yellowing of the lower leaves (Photo 40). After che pupa stage is complete, the adult exits through a hole (Photo 41). The lesser corn sta! k borer al times seriously damages upland ri ce in Central America and in Brazil. The larva attacks th e base of the plant often ca us ing dea th (P hoto 42). The adult insecl is a slender moth (Photo 43) with grayi sh brown front wings and white rear wings. In the resting posi tion , the wings are folded over the back. The mature larva is blui sh gree n with brow n stri pes and measures about 15 mm . The lar va remains in [he stem only during feeding and is found in the soil at the base of the plant when not feeding. Since the lar vae li ve in the soil , they are controlled by heavy tains."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"., .,"}]},{"head":"Stink bugs","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Photo 44. Tibraca limba tiven tris. empty grajn and sjgnificantly reduce yields . later attacks produce lighl and ch.lky grains lhal break during milling (Photo 47). Stink bug damage to rough rice can be detected by the presence of the brown fungus spots which appear at the point where the grajns were piereed by lhe inseel (Photo 48)."}]},{"head":"These insects can be recognízed by their shield -shaped bodi es","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The pr:ncipal stink bug in northern South America and Brazil is Oebalu5 poecilu5 (Photo 49), which closely resembles other specie5 in Cent ral America and in the Dominican Republic. The small black stink bug is found in Colombia and other parts of Central America . This insect, Alkindu5 otralU5, resembles a 5mall black beetle but belongs to .nother slink bug f.mily (Photo 50) . "}]},{"head":"\"","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rice blast","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pyricularia oryzae","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Rice blast is caused by a fungus that attacks all stages of plant growth. 11 is mest damaging in nursery beds for transplanting. It also attacks the leaves of actively tillering plants, the nades of stems and panicles."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Typieal leaf lesions (Photo 52) are diamond shaped (re ae hing 1.5 cm in leng.th) and the center of the lesion is grayish; whereas early ¡nfeelion and resistant reactions cause smaH brown spots that are difficult to distinguish (rom other leaf diseases. Large leaf lesions often coalesce and kili the plants. When nades are infected (Photo 53). the upper portion of the stem dies. Infeetion may occur in any part of the panicle or al the base of the panicle, eausing neek rot (Photo 54). Severe neck rot causes heavy yield losses as the panicle may produce sorne grains that are usually light and have poor miJling reCQvery. Blast spots on (he glumes of seeds are often confused with Helminthosporium and other fungi."}]},{"head":"\"","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Th e disease is di sse mínated by spore5 ca rri ed by wínd . Hígh humidíty¡ prol o nged 50ft rains and co ol níghts favor dise ase development. Hea vy nitrogen supply and den se populati o ns stimul ate the disease . 81 as t is more damaging o n upland than on irrigated ri ce."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Vari etal resis tance (PhOIO 55) is the most econom ical way 10 control blast. However, the fungus readily pro duce s new forms that attack re sistant varie ties after one or two years of planting. Car eful water control fo llowing establishment of seedlings and split applications of ni(roge n redu ce leaf blasL Fungícides are frequ ently use d to redu ce ne ck rot loss es and to improve milling quality ."}]},{"head":"Narrow brown leaf spot","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sphaerulina oryzina fCercospora oryrae)","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Narrow brown lea f spot is primarily a leaf disease that occasionall y causes minor spotting on glumes. The fungus causes ver'l narrow, linear, brown lesions pa ra \\\\ el lO the veins of leaf blades (Ph o to 58) . The lesion s on susceptibl e var;eties are somewhat wider an d lighter brown. Th e di sea se ;5 comman but rarely important. It can cause numerOU5 lesions and leaf drying on matur• ing plants of highly susceptible va ri eties, resulling in so rne yield 1055."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Varietal res istan ce is [he onl y prac ticabl e mean s of di sease control. Mest modern varieties are moderately to highly resis tant."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Highl y susceptible varieties should be avoid ed in high humidity areas where th e dise ase is co mmon."}]},{"head":"Leaf scald","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rhynchospon'um orvzae","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Leaf sea ld is. fungus dise.se that attaeks the o ld er lea ves. The les ions usually begin al the leaf tips and progress down lhe leaf blade . The lesions commence as water-soaked blotches and develop into large are as encircled by dar k brown bands with lighter brown halos (Photo 59). The zonation eaused by d.rk brown margins and lightcr ¡\"ncr areas is diagnost ico Lesion enlargement results in the drying and death of severely infected leaves. The fu ngus may attack grains , causing glume discoloration and ste rility ."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The disease is camman on upland rice in Central and Sourh America. It is nol serious on irrigated ri ce. Severe attacks of leaf scald may cause yield 1055, but it is nol gene rally regarded as econo mically important outside of Central America."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Heavy nitrogen applications favor disease developrnent, Sorne var ieties are susceptible whHe others are considered to be toleranl or resistant. No efficient fungicide control programs are known ."}]},{"head":"\"","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Stackburn disease","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Alternaria padwickii, (Trichoconls padw;ckii )","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Stackburn disease, caused by a weak fungal pathogen, is an uncommon leaf and grajn problem of minor economic importance . Leaf spots which rarely cause much damage are large and rounded, with dar k brown and narrow margins that encircle the pale centers of the spots like a ring (Photo 60). The light straw-co lo red centers may show numerOU$ 5mall black sclero ti a. The lea f spots rarely , if ever, occur in abundance."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Infe c ted grajns show pale spots wjth black dots in the center surrounded by a dark border. The spots are djfficult to distinguish from other di seases. Under favorabl e conditi o ns the fungus may attack a high percentage of grains in the field , ca using seed dis eol • oration. Whe n planted, these grains may result in seedling blight and death of young plants ."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Specjfjc control methods are unknown."}]},{"head":"Leaf smut","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Enryloma oryzae","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Leaf smut , caused by a fungus, is a widespread , fairly common disease of linle or no economic importance. The fungus causes ,maJl, black ,pots on both sides or the leaves or older plants. The spots are usually linear or rectangular and rarely coalesce (Photo 61). Heavily infected [eaves may lurn yellow . Each spot is covered by an epidermis that when removed by soak ing in water, reveals a black mas> of spores. No co ntrol measures are k-nown or necessary."}]},{"head":"\"","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Stem rot","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Leplosphaeris salvinií (HeJminthosporium sigmoideum,ScJerotium Oryz8eJ Stem rOL is an important disease of rice. ¡nfeetion of stems begins near the water l¡ne through wounds, as a black, irregular lesion that enlarges as the disease advances. The fungus produces sclerotia ¡nside the leaf sheath and eventuall y penetra tes the culm (Photo 62). One or two internades are rotted, and tissues are covered with numerous, 5mall , black sclerotia that are diagnostic (Photo 63). The upper leaves of infected stems frequently become yellowish and may die (Photo 64). Rotting stems lodge and yi eld 1055e5 can be high."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Sclerotia are distributed in ¡rrigalion water . High levels of nitrogen and wounds caused by ¡nsee!s or o ther agencies favor disease development ."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Chemical control of stem rol is nOl effective. Burning of straw and stubble reduces the level of sclerotia. Large differen ces in varietal reaction to the pathogen are known, and the use of resislant and/or nonlodging varieties is the most effecti ve control measure . The le,ion, may coale,ce (Pho to 66) and kili ¡he upper lea ve,. Brown sclerotia are often attac hed loosely to {he lesions. Severe ¡nfeelion causes reduced panicle size, sterility and grain losses. Typical leaf blade lesions are shown in Photo 67."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"The di sease is favored by warm weather and al! factors that give high humidity: heavy density, high {illering and heavy fertilizatíon with nitrogen. The disease appears to be increasing in severity, parallel to the ad op tion of the modern, short va ri eties. It can be severe on upland as well as on irrigated rice ."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Although no highly resistant varieties are av ailable¡ many are considerabl y more tol era nt than others. The avoidance of highly susceptible varieties and reduced nitrogen ar e the most effective mean S of co n1rol."},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":".. .."}]},{"head":"False smut","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ustí/sg;noidea virens","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"False smut is caused by a fungus that causes conspicuous symptoms, The disease is frequemly observed but has little or no econamic importan ce."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Symptoms are seen only in maturing panicles. Infeelian occurs in young panicles; and few (occasionally several) grains are affected per panicle (Photo 70) . Individual grains are tran sformed into greenish yellow spore balls mal eventually turn dark. The spore masses may reach 1 cm or more in diameter."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Humid weather fa vors dísease development. Sorne varieties of rice appear to be more resistant [han others, but special control mea sures are not necessary."}]},{"head":"Hoja Blanca","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Hoja blanca, the only rice virus disease in Latín America , is cyelical in nature, causing severe economic losses for several years followed by a period of relative unimportance."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The ea sily identified freid symptoms ¡nelude long yellowish white stripes and mottling on leaves (Photo 71 and 72L stunting of the plant (Photo 73), and small, deformed, highly sterile panicles with discolored spikelets. The disease rarely appears befare planls are about tWQ months old and begins in isolated patches that rapidly sprea d to cover the field."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"The only important vector of the virus is Sogatodes oryzicola."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"The disease is nal transmitted by seed, soi] or other agents. Fertil-¡zer, density and water have little effect on di sease development and spread ."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"Hoja blanca is controlled al present through plant resistance to the insect vector. A few varieties are also highly resistant to the virus. In sec ticide control of the vector does not satisfactorily control hoja bl anca."}]},{"head":"\"","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"\"","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nematode diseases","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"White tip , causect by a seed -borne nemato de , Aphelenchoides besseyi, is identifi ed by chlorotic or white leaf tips of o lder planls ( Pho to 74) . Flag lea ves may be twisted, causing incomplete panicle emergence (Ph010 75). Affe cted pan icles are small , hi gh ly ste rile and show di slorted glumes. Resistant vari eties and th orough draining and dryi ng of the soil fo r a fe w day s wh en the rice is about 50 day s old successfufly control st ra ighthead."}]},{"head":"\"","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Bird damage","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Many species of birds cause damage lo rice. Ducks and other waterfowl uproot and destroy seedlings in írrigated fields. Many seed ea ters, especially migratory species, cause heavy losses by feeding on grain in th e milk stage (Photo 83) and on mature seeds. Damaged panicles in th e rnilk stage show a typical whitish discolora tion of ¡he glumes (Photo 84)."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"The best control is lo schedul e pl anting lo avoid heading during migratory flights. Varieti es show clear differences in panide damage . AII older, tall varieties having their panicles above the flag leaves are susceptible to bird damage . Short, modern varieties ha ving long flag leaves extending over the panicles escape extensive damage so long as th ey re main ereet and do not lodge. 70"}]},{"head":"\"","index":36,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nitrogen deficiency","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Nitrogen defi cie ncy is the mast camman nutr;ent problem in rice fields. The Icaves may vary from pale grec n lo yellow (Photo 85), and tillering and growth are poor (Photo 86)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The problem is more serious in upland rice , in fields Wilh poor water control, and in cold or light so¡!s. Nitrogen does nOl persist in lhe soil fo c more than a few weeks and should be applied two to threc times during the growing period lo maintain good leaf color and vigor."}]},{"head":"\"","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":".."}]},{"head":"Potassium deficiency","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Potassium deficiency is difficult to diagnose in young rice si nce the only symptom is a difference in the color of the lower leaves. Plants may be moderalely stunted , but tillering is only slightly reduced. As the plants become older, the lower leaves become yellowish gree n, starting fro m the tips, and begin to droop (Photo 89). With increasing age, the lower leaves turn brown ; and the ye llowish coloratían extends to the upper leaves. In some cases brown spots occur on th e dark grecn leaves. Applications of potassium sho uld be made to the so il shor tl y befare or after seeding."}]},{"head":"Iron deficiency","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Iron deficiency is a comman seedling disease on neutral or alkaline upland soils (Photo 90), but can also occur on acid soils during periads with little or no rainfa11. The deficiency may persist after flooding alkaline soil (Photo 91) . Mildly affected seedl ings often grow out of the problcm with little damage lo yield."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Many abando ned banana planta tions show iron defi cjency symptoms when planted to rice (Photo 92). This is due to copper toxicity caused by the application of Bordeaux mixture over many yea rs. The exccss copper inhibir') th e absorption of iron and produces iron defici ency sym ptoms ."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Iron deficiency 00 alkaline soils can be avo'ided by transplanting healthy ri ce seedlings into a floo ded fi eld or by a pplying sulfur to lower the pH of [he soil ."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"Preger minated rice may be SQwn iota water if th e field has beeo preflooded for a periad of four week s aod ir the soil is not allowed to dr y during the seedling establishment periodo \" \" \""}]},{"head":"Manganese deficiency","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Mangenese defici ency is nol comman o n the soils currently h eing planred lO rice in Latín Am erica. lt occurs on sandy , highly permeabl e, upland soils where the rapid perco lation o f rain water ¡eaches the ava ilabl e manga nese. Damage does not Qc cur on im pe rm ea ble , flooded so ils."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"The symptoms are diagnostic and appear as reddish brown strea ks in the leaf blades (Photos 93, 94) ."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Probably the most practica l control is th e use of foli ar applica. tions of manganese. Soil applicati o ns of 50-75 kg/ha of manganese sulfate can also be used during th e land preparation."}]},{"head":"\"","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":". ."}]},{"head":"\"","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":".."}]},{"head":"Iron toxicity","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"lron toxicity is a serious problem that occurs only in strongly aeid, flooded soils with a pH generally below 5.5. Iron toxieity is not a probl~m on upland rice. Two types of iron toxicity -indirect and direct-are recognized and can result in severe damage. In the indireet or yellow type, the roots (Photo 99) are inaetivated by a coating of iron oxide, and the older leaves (Photo 100) become yellowish or orangish in color. The problem is associated with phosphorus deficiency and insufficient development of new roots. In this case, the [eaves have not absorbed excessive amounts of iron . Varietal resistan ce is being observed under ficld conditions (Photo 101)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Direct iron toxicity occurs wh en the leaves abso rb excessive amaunts of iron. The first sy mptom is the appearance of many small rust-eolored spots on the tip s of the lower leaves. These spots enlarge and progress down the leaf in rows between the veins of the blade (Photo 102). The mid-vein usuall y remains green and unaffected for severa! weeks after the appearance of the problem . lron to x icity can seriously affect plant growth (Photo 103)."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Iron toxieity is usually eontrolled by the application of lime to increase the pH¡ by preflooding for four to five weeks prior to planting, or by draining off the flood water without allowing the soil te dry excessively whenever the symptoms begin to appear."}]},{"head":"Aluminum toxicity","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Generally ,aJuminum toxicity is nol a serious problem in rice in the western hemisphere. It may be severe in strongly acid (beJow pH 5.0), upl and rice soils; bUl usually after failures with exp erimental plantings in new unknown areas, farmers do nol reptant upland rice."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Root growth is greatly reduced and the leaves become yellow with dead leaf tips (Photo 104). These symptoms may be confused with cold temperature damage in tempera te elimates . Symptoms usually accur in the lower parlS of the field where there is a greater amount of water 10 evapora le. Leaf lips 1urn whitish and di e (Photo 105). Ir th e rice is nea ring maturity , white and emply panicles may emerge al heading time."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo 1. Larva 01 Phyllophaga sp. "},{"text":" wings. Th ey are most co mmonly found in the soi l feeding on roots o( upland ri ce but may al50 atta ck stems . Adults and nymph s suck plant sap fr om th e roots and stems;and ifpresent in large numbers, lh ey ma y cause lh e pl an ts to be co me yell ow and die. Thi s in sect may attack and damage grain s of developi ng paniel cs (Ph OlO 9). "},{"text":" PhOtos 12 and 13. Adult and larva of Panoquina sp. "},{"text":" Draeculacephala c1ypeata. Photo 20 Horrensia similis Several speci cs of gree n leafh o ppers, along with the Sogatodes planl hoppers, are camman in rice fields. Although sometimes found in great numbers, they cause littl e damage except lO very young rice. The spe cies Draeculacephala clypeata (Photo 19) ca n be distinguished by its long pointed head. Th e head of the Horten sia simili5 (PhOlO 20) is rounded and has a c haraCler istic pattern of black spots and designs o n ihe (ronl. \" Leaf (flea) beetles Ph otos 21 and 22. Adult and larva of Disonycha sp. "},{"text":" Photo 24 . Hydrellia sp.This pest of fl ooded ri ce is widespread, and a number of species are known. It usually attacks young flooded rice or newly transplanted ri ce. The ad ult is a small fly about 3 mm in length (Ph o to 24). Th e adult lays one egg on lhe newl y e merging lear blade; and upon hatchíng, the 5m all larva tunnels into th e leaf blade, leaving lo ngitudinal white scars (Photo 25). By holding lhe lea r blade up "},{"text":" Photos 34 and 35 . Diatrae;} sacchara/is. "},{"text":" Photos 38 and 39. Rupella albinella "},{"text":" Photo 43. Elasmopalpus lignoselJus "},{"text":" an d by the disagreeable od or given off when they are ca ught and mashed. Both adults and nymphs cause damage. The large plant stink bug, Tibraca Iimbativentris, (Photo 44) is present in most rice-growi ng areas} but is a serious pest of rice in southern Brazil, Argen tina and Bolivia. It is identified by it5 si ze, brown color and by the tWQ 5ma!! triangular pits on each sid e of the front of the scutellum . Earl y attacks produce dea d hea rts whil e late atlack s cause white heads (Photo 45) similar lO th e damage caused by the stemborers. But ¡nitial damage 1$ made on th e uppermost internode (Photo 46). Many species o f stink bugs atta ck th e d eve lo pi ng grains in the milk or dough stage. MOSl have the typical shield -shaped body but va ry in size and co lor. Early attacks may produce PhOIO 49. Oebalus poecilus PhOto 50. Alkindvs atratus. "},{"text":" Although these are not true inseC lS, as they have eight legs instead of the six characteristic of insects, the damage caused is similar (O th e damage caused by the farmer. The almost microscopi c mi tes feed on the leaf blades (Photo 51) . They usuall y appea, during periods with littl e or no rainfall and can cause considerable damage to leaves ir 001 controlled. "},{"text":" Thanatephorus cucumeris. (Rhizoctonia solan;,Corricium sasakii, Pf:lll iculeria sasakii)The fungus causing shea th blight causes lesions on leaf sheaths and occasionally on leaf blades. Infeelion is observed on ly on c lder planls. Typicallesions are irregularly elliptical, ab out 2 to 3 cm lo ng, an d arc gray-white , surrounded by brown margins (PhOLO 65) . "},{"text":" Th e nematod e su rvives well on infected seed and in soil and spread s in the field from infecled 10 healthy plants. Heavily infes ted fields suffer considerabl e yield rcd uction .The disease may be conlrolled through (1) varietal resislanee, long-g rain va rieti es being mo re resi stant than sho rt-gra in types;(2) ho t water treatment o f see d at540C fo r 15 minutes; (3) seed treatment with any of seve ral chemical s; and (4) seeding in wa ter with preger minated seed. A min o r dise ase cau sed by a root-knot nematode ( Ph o to 76), Meloidogyne jovanico, incites tea f discolora ti on and death and plant stunting in upland ri ce in Argentina and Bra zil. Upland rice in Braz il following success ive cro ps shows yellowish leaves) retarded growth, redu ce d till ering and yield reduction . The nematode ¡nvo lved has been identined as Pra tylenchus brachyurus. Cro p rotation o r land fall owing results in normal yield s. physiological di sease o f unknown cause aSSQciated with flood ed soil 5. It does n Ol occur on upland rice. The di sease is mast severe and can ca use drast ic yield redu ction on undrained, sa ndy soi!s containing a great deal o ( organic maller o Affected panicles are hig hl y sterile and remain ereet (Photos 77,78) . The hull s are di,torted and the glumes m,y be reduced in si ze or absent. Severely affected plants show ¡ncomplete pani cle development and em er gen ce or remain in the vegetative stage an d occasionally produce tillers from ste m nad es. "},{"text":" The problem is corrected by Jimiog Lo raise the pH or by flooding prior lO planting. However, on 5uch strongly acid soils, iron toxicity usually occurs as a result of flooding.88\".SalinitySalinity usually accurs in arid ¡rrigated regions during periods of low (ajnfa\" . During these periods, water flow in the rivers is inadequate lo re place evaporatíon losse s and to díJule the sa linc drainage water which conlinually enters the rivers. When the soil drjes, a white erust o( evaporated salts is deposited on the surface due {Q movement upward from the híghl y saline water table. "}],"sieverID":"cd240989-530c-408e-9958-393b7589c170","abstract":""}

data/part_5/03a7c1ce099b13a7edb95d6848369605.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"03a7c1ce099b13a7edb95d6848369605","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d8180eb-6a4c-4099-9620-69a4c4da3bd8/retrieve"},"pageCount":78,"title":"","keywords":["Fi~.2 rRD~","/~j breedin~ ¥::rocedurf's S',_r,.'l'ni!q~ f(lf\" r('~,is~","In~ tl' di~l~aS(•s and rt's!.~"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":",u,.. ;.-d Zaire is theAlargest cassava producing country in the world and the largest in Africa. Cassava is the nest impJrtant staple crop in the country. It is grcMI1 on about 50% of all cultivated land and its' daninance is deronstrated by the fact that at least a third of the cultivated land in each of the eight regions is planted to the crop."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Cassava roots provide nere than 60% of the caloric needs for two-thirds of the population. Cassava leaves are the nest popular vegetable in the country and are a very inq::ortant source of good quality Frotein."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"A serious disease of cassava appeared in the Region of Bandundu in 1969 which soon spread in epidemic proportions to Bas-Zaire and the two Kassai Regions. In these regions, rrany cassava fields were ccrnpletely destroyed by the disease and prices went up as much as 10 fold. The overall objective of the Project was to support and expand the capacity of PRONAM to conduct research in development of new technology for cassava production and to make this technology available for dissemination to the srrall famErs in Zaire. This was expected to play an iIrportant part in the effort to achieve the national goal of self sufficiency in food production."},{"index":4,"size":172,"text":"Prior to the commencement of the Project, research activities were nainly concentrated at the Mvuazi research station. Under the Project, the research program at the Headquarters site was to be furthur developed while regional programs were to be established at substations representing prinCipal agroecological wnes. MIen the Project began, PRCNAM was just five years old, but potentially useful research results were already being generated. Thus, the second najor objective \\<i\"iiS to provide a link between the research program and various agencies and organizations that Can serve an extension function in order to ensure that the research results of PRONAH are nade available to the cassava growers. The specfic activities carried out to meet these objectives are described in the following section.         There are certain constrait1ts inherent in casscl.\\;\"':\"\" breedi..l1g \\J.1ich limit Lhe rate at \"\"'nich genetic iJrprovellent can be rrade. Cbe constraint is the lengt--.h of time required to can:::;lete each selecticn cycle. For cassava, tllis is one /ear while for ItD~':: of the otl1er Ca:1,lOn Lx::>d crops, it is much shorter."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"F,or theSE otJler crops, canpletion of two or more selection cycles may be p::lssible r,.  Kinuani is also rrore responsive to fertilizer than the local variety."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"Kinuimi is in high del1Bnd and has been under large-scale multiplication."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"PR~lJ-l is c=perating Hith V'cl\"ious organizations urv-ol ved in agricultural developrrent \\''Ork to distribute it to famers.      decayed tuberous roots between I_J.ants from cutt:L'1gs from heal thy plants and"},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"thc~;e from cuttings of pla'1ts affected y;ith the disorder."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"-Rog-ling of affected plants at the first occurrence of synptoms did n::>t prevent appearance of syrrptoms in other plants."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"-It was observed that the incidence of st~~tip di~,ck varied regularly wit.l) planting date. Cassava planted late in the rainy season \\'BS less affected than early planted cassava."},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"-Hulching has reduced t11e incidence of affected pla'1ts."},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"-Redustion in dieback L'1cidence and percentage of d,,-~ayed tuberous roots occurred with L'1Creasing rates of potassiuJ!1 fertilizer up to 150 kg KP/ha."}]},{"head":"g) Post ~rv~st deterioration","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Severe deterioration of cassava roots can occur during drying and storage. Several fungi have been identified as being associated with t.':Jis spoilage. Sone of these are known to include strains that prcx1uce toxins"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• .hich my cause chronic illnesses. There appear to be differences betW2E'.'1 cassava clones in fungal colonization. There are great differences in deterioration associated with different rtethods of processing."}]},{"head":"h) Root rot","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Incidence of roct rot was found to increase \"hen harvesting was delayed beyond twelve rronths. The earlier developed variety 02864 was observed to be the lTDst susceptible of those tested ;..hile Kinuani had a very low incidence."}]},{"head":"i) Effect of mixed cropping on disease severity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Studies showed that the severity of CBB and CMD was reduced ;..hen cassava was intercropped with rmize BE cOITpared to cassava grown as a rronocrop. Intercropping with groundnut did not affect disease severity."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"It seems that maize may provide a physical barrier restricting dispersion of Inoculum. Planti.'1g material becarre scarce, and that which was available was contaminated by small, iImature rrealybugs ready to infest the next cassava crop."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"A second pest native to South Arrerica, the cassava green spider mite, arrived in eastern Zaire in the mid-1970s. Although clanage caused by the green mite was not so spectacular as that caused by CM, i t nonetheless ranked as a major pest."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"By the tirre that AID begun its suppJrt for PRaWI in 1980, the green mite had spread throughout most or all of Zaire. Its clanage in most areas was not known. The CM was assurred to be still expanding its range, but its actual distribution and clanage were unknown. Insecticidal control was not feasible because of the great expense, low effectiveness, dangers in application, and risks of jUisoncus residues. Cultural control rreasures were effective but extrerrely liIrtiteci in applicabilit.y because of patterns of land use and economic restrictions. P£sistant varieties were unlmown in Zaire."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Native natural enemies were of lIDknown effectiveness."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"To define Zaire's cassava pest problems and to develop effective    . d~~~i.~i~ii;:r~: Each dot repres~~ts 1% of estimated cass~a root production."},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"• llDnth of CX:tober in three years  corresponds fairly closely to the CM's area of dlstribution. The details of the reasoning are not crucial he1-e; the inportant point is that this c,rresp::ll1da.-,ce indrectly sugqests the inportance of weather factors in determining the CM's distribution, and, presunably, also the arrount of da.rTege. Therefore, it seems likely that, in the absence of effective controls, the devastating outbreaks seen in Bas Zaire a\"ld Bandundu WJUld eventually recur. A similar situation appears to exist in the North Kivu Subregion."},{"index":8,"size":166,"text":"In Shaba, as in Zaire's western regions, severity of CM da.rTege varies greatly fran one geographic area to another. Widespread, heavy da.'TBge occurs in the clear Zarrbezian forest of the ext.rerre South. Large losses also have been reported at Bukana and at M3.lemba-NJrulu, which lie at opposite ends of a marshy area several hundred kilareters north. Darrage in other parts of Shaba where CM occurs is generally light, although in individual fields or in small groups of fields da.rTege may be very severe. The CM's total depressive effect on manioc production cannot be estimated solely on the basis of losses in yield. In sare areas, such as Kaze.\"lze to the west of Kolwezi, production is declining partly as a result of famers'fear of yield losses, even though yield losses averaged over large areas may be small. Apparentl y, heavy CM da.rTege to a single field can frighten neighboring famers into alxmdorming the cultivation of rra'1ioc, even when fields of t..'1ose fanrers never have been heavily da.rTeged."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"A calculation of annual national yield loss requires some ass~ tions a.boJt yield losses in the different regions illustrated in Fig. 6 ."},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"One set of reasonable aSS1.lIlptions leads to an estimate of 5% average annual loss to cassava lTEalybug in Zaire."},{"index":11,"size":109,"text":"If the aJL'1ual yield loss held constant at 5 ~ every year, and if the burden of loss were distributed evenly allDng the pap.1lace, t..'1en CM v.alld not be a major proble.rn in Zaire. Unfortunately, as already pointed out, yield losses can va.\")' greatly fran year to year, a\"ld llDst of tile known variation in the past has occl.L.'T€d in Bas Zaire a\"ld central Bandundu, the tWCl regions that SJpply the inhabita'1ts of t:inshasa with tJ1cir staple fCDd. Several factors L\"1crease tl12 p0te.\"1tial dc:\"\"\"L'lger of this situation.  3. The roa.ds iJl t:~e interj,or are deterioratiJ1'j so tJ1at ruch of tJle cassava preduced Cah'1ot be b:cought to market ill Kinshasa."},{"index":12,"size":75,"text":"Thus, the corr£ortably low estiIr8te of 5% 2J1J1Ual yielj loss actually disguises the p0ssibility of a fcod crisis in Kinshasa and serio:Js food shortages in parts of Bandundu and Bas Zaire. Such a crisis might appear suddenly--in the tim2 beth>een t.'1e 2 nd and 4th rrealybug gene:cations follo,,\"ing L'1e erld of the arcrlUal raiD), season. The prevention of a fCDd crisis has been a !Tajor goal of the biological control prcy;ram against the cassava rrealybug."}]},{"head":"3.2.3.3.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The green mite it\") Zaire 1\"ne pests L'1 Zaire corrn::mly refered to as \"green mite\" actl1-:illy can be assigned to at least h-c> species, ~I:::ln)nychellus tanajoa anc: M. prCX)resivus. There is considerable c:isagreerrent a.=ng taxonomists over the identities of particular specirrens, so t.l-Je distributions of tJ1e species in Zaire is still lIDC,:cta:L'1. EcolCX)ical differences nust certainly exist, but t.'1eir nature is unknown. Studies are lIDdeD-BY that may help to define these differences, but no p:celir.Jnary results are available."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The green mite has been fOW1d in all parts of Zaire sur,reyed except the rrDlL'ltainous regions arOlU1d G<:tra. USJally it is rrost severe in South Central Zaire, an area t!).at includes the population ce.'1ters of Mbuji M'lyi, Gandajika, Kananga, KanizuTI3, and Kamina. Losses in these places L'1 1984 \"\",re especially high. In parts of East Africa losses lTBy reach 70%."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Since tl1e aforerrentioned areas of South Central Zaire produce about 18% of Zaire's cassava, a 50% loss to green mite there \\\\QUId represent a 9% loss for Zaire as a whole. Indigenous natural enernies of the green mite sorretines are ablmdant, but they do not appear to give control."}]},{"head":"Releases of natural enemies of CM and green mite","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Seven species of natural enemies have been inp::>rted from Sout!)."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Alrerica by way of IITA for the biological control of cassava pests in Zaire (Table 2). Five species have been released against CM and t'nD against the green mite. Fifty-nine separate releases have been made in five of Zaire's nine administrative regions (including Kinshasa). A total of about 90,000 insects and mites have been released. MJst of the releases have been direct;  CJ:"},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"q-':\"\"t?'2n    Several of G~ese research areas re~:r1.lire observ\"ations over aP extended rericC.  -Residue Manaaeirent. Pla'1t residues are often bl.ll\"Tlo(l before land preparation. Alternatively t..\\)ey rmy be buried when rraking ridges. A corrtlDn ID2thod of handling residues in Bas Zaire, called \"rrafuku\", is to burn the residues under a mvering of soil which results in inmmplete combustion. In Cassava is the less (Xl:lpeti ti ve crop i11 these mixtures. Rapid est.ablishment and gcod early grov.th and viger are inp::Jrtant c.C]aracteristics for cassava tJ1ilt is grown :in :intercropp:ing."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"-L'1 cassava/groundnut L\"ltercropping, cassava plant:ing arrange-ITE:1t (double ITMS or e::fU.idistant rows) did not have a significant effect on yield of either crop. D::>uble row plant:ing, however facilitates pla'ltL'1g, cultivation and hcLrvest:ing of the groundnut."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"-Delaying cassava planting after planting of grou,\"ldnut results"},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"In decreased cassava yields."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"-Yields of intercropped groundnut are higher when planted at 166,666 than at 83,333 plants/ha ....nile cassava yield is no affected by these differences in groundnut density."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"-Harvest:ing cassava leaves at 3 months after planting increases yields cf intercropped rraize but decreases cassava yields."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"-In cassava/!Laize interc~opl:;in9 1 these was not difference in cassava yields betW2en densities of 10,000 a\"ld 20,000 plants/ha. Ho-wever rraize yields W2re significantly higher at the lower cassava density."}]},{"head":"d) Laid p~eparatioD","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"When la\"ld preparation vlaS by hand, 0:1 a sane'y clay 1=\" pla'lt~inq on ridges gave higher cassava yields than pla'1t:ing on the flat. When land preparation was by tractor t.'1ese was no difference betweeJl planting on ridges "}]},{"head":". • 2 . ST?~,TEGY","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PRCN.t:V'1 d02S not, have the resources to carry its'research results","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"directly to the large popllation of srrall fa.rrrers tl-Jat could re,efit from them. The strategy t.l-Jat has been adopted to a=omplish this transfer is to   "}]},{"head":"1. ~l1tiplication of inr,:>roved varieties","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"As inproved varieties have been developed by PRCNAI1, a maxinum effort has been llBde to make them quickly available to famers. A very llBjor constraint in this activity is the low rate of rrultiplication of cas-saVeL Under the usual lTEthod of pro]Xlgation in 1>A1ich the nature hardv:ood of the plant is cut into pieces about 25 = long for planting, one plant will produce in one year, alx:>ut ten cuttiI1,]S. Canpared to ITDst =ps, this is a very slow rate of multiplication. Maize, for example, has a rrultiplication rate of about 1 :300 rer generation. Where the rainy season is sufficiently long or irrigation is available, allowing two crops in one year, the rate bec01lES 1: 90,000."},{"index":2,"size":397,"text":"P~~ has utilized special lTEthods for rapid multiplication to generate planting naterial as quickly as possible once new improved varieties have been identified by the breeding program. (be such lTEthod is pro]Xlgation from two node cuttings of nature ha.rdw::xx1 instead of using the norllBl 25 em cuttings. Hov.ever, special care is required to establish plants from these SllBll cuttings. They are planted in plastic bags filled with soil, placed in shade a'ld watered regularly. After they are established, they are hardered of: by increasing exposure to sun and t.'len transplanted in the field at about ten weeks. ./'nnt.'ler teclmique used to increase the rate of rrultiplication is to use, iT! addition to the llBture har<Thocxl, the stems above t.he hard-WJOd for planting llBter:Lal. This requires still ITDre attention in establis.1-jrrent. The cuttincpfrom the tops are planted in beds filled with heat sterilized sand and covered with a polyethylene ccver to make a humidity dumber to prevent the cuttings from drying out. After t.l-Jree weeks they are transferred to plastic bags filled with soil and then after another eight or nine weeks they are planted in the field. By USiTlg t= node cuttings and all the plant tops the nultiplication rate is increased froIT, the nonm.l rate of 1: 10 to A rrul tipl icatioo fann of 100 ha has been establis.'led by PRCNlI.1>1 near the Mvuazi station. Another t.en hectares for rrultiplication is planted each year near Kisantu to serve that area of Bas Zai.r£. By July 1985, 750,000 l1l2ters of cuttings of improved varieties had been produced and distributed to collaborating org~~izations. This is sufficient to plant 300 ha but the area now pl~~ted to improved varieties in Bas Zaire is estimated to be two to three til1l2s greater conSidering the contLnued multiplication L'lat occurs each year as the new varieties are harvested and replanted. At the Kiyaka, 15 ha are presently r1ante<'! for nultiplication of FlOD. At Gandajikil, four [,remising varieties at adva.nced le'Jels of testing nrc r-la.,ter or: hJO hectares, each, for nultiplication. Even with this effort in QUltiplication, PRONAM can su!\"'rly only a nucleus of );laterial \\mch must be taken by OLr,cr agencies and inriivic'u\",l fan:ers for futher increase. PIDNA.'1 \\.Qrks .. \"ith a n1.lDber of organizations to assist b\"em in L'leir nultiplicaLion efforts. -Church mission projects. Catholic missions at Kolo, Sonabata, and Luvaka, CEDIrO at Kinp:ese and the Salvation .l\\rrnj' at Mbanza"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Ndundu have taken planting rtBterial for llllltiplication and distribution."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"These groups took 3\" 250 rreters of cuttings in 1984/85."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"-~ large industrial enterprises, the cerrent factory at Lukala and CNATRA (railroad) at Lufu-toto are !1llltiplyil'1g KINUANI for distribution of planting rtBterial to their workers."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"-The Depart:nent of Agriculture Sub-Regional Offices at  An agronomist (Msc) S?2l1t six weeks w:lrking on soil microbiology and nitrog~l fixation to learn techniques applicable to his ,,'Ork on alley cropping. An enton:olo.]ist (i\".5c) spent three weeks lean,ing rrethodology for assessing effec-tivenC'ss of biolog'cal control of cassava rrealybug.    "}]},{"head":"LAND","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"As PRONAr'l's activities grew, limitations on the aJlDunt of suitable land for research and multiplication needs beoaIlE an increasingly serious pro-blB\"TI. M\\UdZi station has only a.}:X)ut 40 ha which caJ1 be use::i for a..'1Jlual crops an:l this had to be shared betw2en PRaJA'I and INERA. r-ruch of the land wnich lies between the W:okozi and Mvuazi rivers had a history of flo:xiing problems."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"At one tine, an extensive system of dikes had been constructed to protect the area. Hcrwever, aver the years, these had been eroded and broken do,.   Single side band radio uoonsceivers were purchased and installed at •the tJrree stations and the administrative SUfJlXlrt office in Kinshasa. This provides a cc:mnunications network essential for proper operation of the Program."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Office equir::rrent and furniture were also provided. Thus by the canpletion of the project, PR'::NAM had the equif-ID2Jlt necessary for transport, all normal fann operations, repair and maintenance of machinery, essential laboratory procedures and off ice functions. Several of the problems encountered have been previously rrentioned."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"These were:  (Section 3.6.2.) ."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"Other problems 1f>C:re:"},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"(a) Inad~te budgetary supp:Jrt from L~e GOvernrrent of Zaire.   It IS reccmnenclations for the future developnent of PRCNA '!, v;ithin the prcject, are reflected in the project design and need not be repeated here."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"However, suggested guidelines for future research efforts are given below.  e) \\\\ith the arrival of equ.iprnent on order for cnz~ry.Btic assay for cya'1ide content, breeding for low cya'1ide is to be f=tlur intensified. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"throogh the 5 year, 3 rronth period of t..'1e contract with IITA. ~en the contract was signed in May, 1980, the plant Breeder and the Physical Plant Services Officer were already in place, having been carried over from the former roZ/IITA project. '!he Plant Breeder served as acting Director until the Director/Agronomist position was filled in April, 1982. With the return from training of a national staff ITE!Tber with a PhD in plant breeding in 1983, it was reccmrerlded by IITA that the Plant Breeder position on the technical assistance teaJL1 be conYer ted to a position for a Farm Manager. 'l11is was a=epted by USAID and a Farm 11anager was pro\\'icieJ, SEe.Lving first on a three I!01th consultancy and then asswning a long term position in o::td:ler, 1984. '!here was a change of personnel in the Extel1Sion Agronomist (Kiyaka) position in O::tcber, 1983, but this was done v,'ith no discontinuity and there ,,'as an orderly handing over of the job. Because of the lcng delay experienced in construction of a training facility at Mvuazi, the Training Officer pcsition was not filled until January, 1985. At this t.i.ne, the training facility was near ccxrpletion and althoogh it was close to the end of the centract, it was deened desirable to fill it as a ccrrparable position WJUld exist in the successor project. It I1BY be seen that once positions were filled there was good continuity in staffing. All eight staff IlEI!bers present at the end of the contract are continUl..'lg on in positions in t..'le follow~up proiect. Tablr 1. Staffing of IITA technical a •• 1stanca positions. "},{"text":", Length of lprOject-+ _ _ +-~1 I I AP'-+-! --+ --+ --1 I I Jul I I I--iI---iI----;.!.~t8Y(P081110n dhCOlitfnaed)     "},{"text":" Fig .~., ) . Because-of its disease resist.a.'1ce, it h been narred \"KnrLiA\"JI\" which rrear1S \"disease fight-er\" in tile lCX\"~l l:mguage of Bas Zaire. The f(~-xi preparations from r=ts imd leaves are highly appreciated. The gcxxl perforTIllilce of Kinuani is well illustrated by data from on-farm demonstration/trials carried out in collaboration with the National Fertilizer Program. In these trials, Kinuani has been corrpared with the local variety at t'rree rates of fertilizer. TIle results from 135 of t'1ese demonstration/trials carried out over the past three years s.'1O\\\" 'hat, on the average, Kinucmi has given 35 per cent rrore yield t'1an the local variety (Fig A). "},{"text":"3 • 2 • 3 • Et ;:r'JH)UX;Y 'Ii\"1e PRaPJ1 entolTDlCXJY section was establ ished in 1976 as a response to the threat [Dsed by the introduction into Zaire of a new pest insect, the cassava rrealybug (C1,1).mi te, i'waded Zaire.Several years later a second pest, t.'le cassava green The control of these two pests remains the prinary goal of the PRa{,,'<11 ento=lCXJY staff. This work was carried on into the cassava Outreach Project. The m\"lin rrethod of achieving control has been the introduction of natural enemies from the pests' native home, a rrethcx:l knmm as \"classical biological control\". l'Uso, an effort has bs~ m\"lde in C'JOperation with L'le PRaPM breedi'1g section to l=ate sources of pest-resistance in cassava varieties. The pursuit of the prinary goal and the e\"'f.'loyn!2nt of the blo cor~lementary strategies--biological control and resistance breeding--hGs invol ved studies in natural history, biogeography, [Dpulation dynamics, and insect/host-plant interrelations.3 . 2 . 3. 1 . History of the cassava pest problem in Zaire. The cassava rrealybug, Phenac=cus m\"lnihoti, a minor pest of cassava in South Arrerica, was accidently inp::lrted to Zaire in the early 1970s. In 1973 it was discovered in Kinshasa. From there it spread rapidly througout much of the African cassava belt, causi.r1g different. arrounts of damage in Africa's diverse ecological zones. Worst-case estim\"ltes of the annual economic loss to the CM have been as high as $ 1.8 billion. The P~~ entomology section waS established in 1976 specifically as a resjUnse to the threat jUsed by eM. In that year devastating outbreaks =rred in Bas Zaire. M:Jre outbreaks occurred in 1977. Heavy lusses in BandlIDdu aCCO!1panied the spread of the pest into that regiull in 1978. Root yields dropped drastically. In the dry seascm leaves becarre contaminated with rrealybugs and rrealybug products such as wax and honeydew. "},{"text":" rret-hods of control, the In•ternational Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) with flIDding from AID engaged an entarologist to replace the entorrologist who had left PR~l in 1978. The resullption of work in entonvlogy early in 1981 followed shortly after the initiation of an Africa-wide cassava pest biological control program at IITA. This program was to furnish exo\"cic natural enemies of the two cassava pests for release in Zaire. Since 1981, work in entomology has concentrated on determining the distribution and danBge of the t\\\\D rojor cassava pests (especially the nealybug), releasing exotic natural enemies, assessing the effectiveness of the natural enemies, and screening clones for resistance to nealybug. 3.2.3.2. Distribution and dal!Bge of the CM In a huge country such as Zaire, the detennination of an insect's distribution can be a formidable task--doubly so if the distribution is continually changing. Nonetheless, over a period of four years a r8asonably accurate picture of the CM's distribution has been pieced together through surveys (Fig. 5), by corresp:mdance with knowledgeable people in renote areas, and by studies of clillBtic and vegetation maps. The known distribution of the CH is presented in Fig. 6. The figure also indicates qualitatively the arrounts of dal!Bge occuring in various parts of the CM's range. The status of CM in central Bandundu and the cataractes Subregion of Bas Zaire is a matter of special interest.years 1976-77 (Baz Zaire) This is the area that was devastated during the and 1978 (Bandundu). Since that tirrE, CM dal!Bge has declined drastically, and CM there can no longer be considered a severe pest. The effectiveness of a CM control program in this area can be evaluated only if the reasons for the decline are understood. If CM has subsided to the current low level as the result of predation by native insects, the control might be perl!B11ent, although certainly fluctuating soneYhat from year to year. If, on the other ha'1d, '-\"2ather factors are responsible, ~ v.ould expect further pest outbreaks Yhen periods of '-\"2ather favorable to the nealybug return. The existing evidence points strongly to the second explanation--~atl,er. In the Mvuazi area, fluctuations of CM dal!Bge from 1976 to 1983 'M're correlated with the nunber of days with neasurable rainfall during the dry season. If the nunber of rainy days/dry season is taken as the key factor, five years bet~ 1950 and 1984 have been dry enough in the Mvuazi area to provoke outbreaks causil,g severe dal!Bge. other evidence, more indirect but potentially of great value, is fO\\md in data collected by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration meteorological satellites. Images ~sed on these data show the arrount of green-leaf biorrass over the entire African continent. The area of Zaire wit.1]. low-t:o-moderate biOllBss in the(.,.- "},{"text":" Fig. 6. "},{"text":" 1. A r:;y-e-at rra.'lY !-=€0ple in FiIlSl\"1::1sa are alr~.:ady rrelnc1urished and cou:d !\"lot ... dthstand a'1Y cor:;:\"ider?])le reduction jJ1 their inth1.:e of calories (cassava tubers) or proteins ald vit.arr . .ins (cass•:'!v2. leaves). "},{"text":" 2. TheSXJP'~l.laLLon of KiJ1Shasa has gro'\\tlll since the last eM outb!\"\"2aJz L\"1 197B f o..\"lQ further grO' .. t..1-) is liJ-:ely (Ll--}e urbaIl pJI-JUlation of Zaire grew at atl tL'lIJ'Bl rate of 61. in the 1970s). "},{"text":" i.e., the IIT.1\"; Biological Control unit has shipped the natural enemies to Zaire, where they have been released promptly in the field. A few releases of DiOlTUs sp. and Hyperaspis jucunda were indirect; i.e., nTh shipped the insects to Mvuazi, where they were first nultiplied in rearing cages. Cl1e release of Eoidinocarsis lopezi was rrade by collecting iImlature individuals i!1 the field and transporting thern to another locality. Thirty-three releases wer-a trade solely by PRCNN1 personnel, ten solely by ent=logists of the Biological Control Unit, and sixtee.'1 by a corrbined PKNI\\l'1--Eiological Control Unit tearn~ 3.2.3.5. Establisl1rrB'1t of Diarus sp. The predatory ladybird beetle PiOf'US sp. was first released in Zaire sir,ulta'1eOtlsly witl!. Epidinccarsis in July, 1982. Since t.~at tiIn::;, it has been released at a total of 13 si.tes in five admi11istrative regions. So far, Kins)1asa is the only place in Zaire \\<,'1.ere DioITUS has becOITl2 established, and L'1 fact, it is the only place L'1 Africa where Diorcus has becolTe :-able 2.. --r.:eturCl2. er.e:'\",ies of CFlESflva PE'Ets released in Z~ire, 19S2-19tS. "},{"text":": Di O!T1US .sp. t\"' ; '';y\\ ,...~,.,..,.c~C\"' .:::E.=..'L.O -• ,_~ __ ~\"~«~ -J.l....~ __ .~ _~_. "},{"text":" c.:>!1-:::rol 2~ a sol ution to the prob:em of t.~e eM, a:1G sinCE E:-::idi;:':C-3TSlS _ ....... _-----.. -.--~-----Intensi-L~e SJCCt.--':=:S of studies "},{"text":"PRCNI~\\~' s breeding section is perfonni.n9 crosses to detennine v.net..~er 0:-not 704:,3'5 tcle~ance ~ld reE::istance can be COmbLied with high yield and ether dE-sirable trait£. iJ1 oUler clones. Clone 70453 has :1:;t t>eeTI releaseJ. tc fa...r:rers Dec2.USe of its sensitivity tc green mite and low yield.•UOn2i-3d~-U-r: ..:a=+;-e S:{;:nr,\\ :tl\\D-;:3 32>UQ1:J :tGt;:;.'.) 'U-a:,.ala tJt:.--e £Sv0L aUOt:0 =+linS-;:;a.I ue ;;l:,rq+~L\"23Ll ;0 ..:rc-•:lwL~.[ ion, t112 rc?.j'J,~~e insect 2nd d~S2ase da..:~Bge. Research ca:~riEd O'Jt in t.~e ~irst five years of p?a~::'1'1, priol:\" to this project, r~d In:de p:;ssLl:11e L~e elalx::Jration of Dat;; 'vlas obtaiJ1e-:: \\'lI-:oich allavv's PRON.;;1 to l':l.-:v..e reC02\"\"TE'lclatioES on such factcrs as tiTre of planliI19, platrtLl1g rnateri3.1 (choice, preparation a..\"1d storage), plant density I i'!82C contrcl and leaf r..arvest .i . . . 11g • With &:lIre of this rrcre rosie =rk tehind L'1crr, , PRcn<\"j agronomists were 5r-lifting their focus to certain sp2cific t.l-)e.rres as the Project begaJ1. "},{"text":" ~J_-,\"TP so! in many cases I results are still pre 1 irninary .3.2.4.2.a} Haintena!1Ce and i\"nprOVenlent of soil fertility. "},{"text":" i~lLtrough caSS2.va has a reputation as being a c:rop wnich can produce Fv'e21 on ]XXlr soils, it has been deITDnstrated Lhat low soil fertility is a constraint severely lir'_itjng cassava yields in nTJch of Zajre. PRCN~! has conducted sorre fertili~,\"r trials at the request of the National Fertilizer Progra'11 which desired infornation from rrore controlled experiments to supplerrent its I ~V\\Qrk in on-fann fertilizer testing. These are providing basic inforrration on nutrient requirenEJ1ts in locally ixq::orLant soils and infornation iIb.::r:ga:•Jic fertiliz.ers. HO'.Ne\\,-er 1 in Llte vie\\;' of rRC1\\:h~, it is tl'~e use of ,::'rg311.ic fl~rtilize:r-ITGterials that. coald be of JTIst lx';:f1efit tD the larg8 rajority of :::~'oi~ll farrr~.:~s in e1C I1S'::-rr fuL~.1re. Thus soil £e::-tilit:i re,<=:earc;-;.~~0~~~-?..::: __ :t:0 t~~)K. Rxt yield responses 'v-lf~re. fou.\"1d y;it:~ up -te;. 2iJC kg Y'2C/h3 arie 1 ::•0 kg N/r.a. Si ~:Jn.ificant rcsr::Dns2s in rcot yield to ph::-s-pleJLL.:s '.','STe n:)t. obS<'='I\"\\red. Ih2 yi.eld of cas~•a\\,•a pl?,nting rra-t.eri3.1 in::::reE5ed -1'_=:_1,'~,,(',,~ L:i+-, h \",;::; 1, -\" 7' , .\":1\" an'\" ',0,'; k,-. u\" ,r,,/h:::< -' --\\\";~--~_\"..'j.>\"w.,-, ..... ~\"':Jr•-2-!'''-'-'-. alley crop-S2..:'1dy cla.y lr:)a:Tl} differiI1g in pH a..'!d fertility le?el. On a soil l\",'it..\"r) a pH cf bio;r-..~ss pro::i~.-L::tion •W'3.S only ~'t,Jt 'One-half Lhat re;:orted at IITl~, ::J.udan ~lC no yiel:::i differences hav\"e been observed bet T wc.'eI1 crops grow'!) in t..~e alley croppin:; syst~'TI ar\"}Q those grow':1 Ll1 pure s-tand\" On a soil with a pH of 4.8 aId 10-; . . . . >er £c:ctili ty f leUce2..:'1a gro\"v\\t.~ v..'aS 1:-xXJr aT1d bio.l1ass w'as very low\" In experin?-..'1ts started r!Dre recent2-y at G2-\"r}dajika, on at) alfisol, grO\\ .. t.'1 of leucea..la is ITOre \\ii-:':;\"rous and better results see1T1 likely\" A n'-.L,;,rer of tree and shrub species (and differe.nt varieties of &::lITE species) have bee.n planted for observation for L'1eir suitability for alley crO't=Jpillg. Preli.wIlary observations irldicate that :':'cacia ~'1gium, F18'Enc:i~ =ngeot,,:, and S;liricidia .o:<:EicL\"rl are better adapted to the acid entisols and ultis:)ls of Bas Zaire L'1en leuceana. or..her species are being scmght. -!'~Jlcbjri,g\" ContiJ10US ap'plicati --'~Eof graminaC8()US plant rraterial as m.llch for three years increased soil pH, soil organiC? carron, total nitroge.'1, a\\'ailable phosphorus, and exchangeable cations (Ca, I-Ig, K). Cassa 'a = t j'ields vp-re Lncreased by 58% in L'1e third year in corrparison to the Un.\"1ulched coDtrol. (l-tJ\"\"\",*2Ver ot..rH::r sci 1 properties \\.V2re also a£ fee-ted by mllching I such as soil tenpertature and rroisture content, a'1d these rray have oontributed to L'>e yield increase.) The possiblity of producing mulching rraterial of herbaceous sF~cies (stylosanL~es, ::erll\"\"liseteur:, ann. natural f c<.11 0.\\.) ill strips }:)et~Tt?eI1 strips of crops is being investigat.ed. -Rotations. Rotation studies utilizing the :inp:lrtant food legul,e species ha,'e been iJlitiated. After two years, no difference i;, yielc1 has been ob.ser,,'Bd between yield of cassava grQ\\o..TI in rotation aT)d contL'1\"JOus cassava. "},{"text":" t..\\)e absence of fertilizer, the mafuku ID2thod has giVB'1 the highest cassava yield of these t..lrree ID2L'lods of residue managerrerlt. Studies of t..\\)e long term effects of these various ID2thods are called for.b) Liming Prelirninary invest.igations indicate that very substantial increases i....~ yield of cassava Tr2Y b2 obtai_l\"lec1 Ki t.h application of m::x:1est arrounts of lin€' (SOD kg,/ha of oxid-2 of 1.L'Te) on e.Lt.iscls a..l1a ul\"tiSJls il1 Bas Zaire. A groillldnut iTltel\"CrOp TIBy renefit even rrore. '1ni5 is a particularly interesting resul t as lirre is produced in Bas Zaire and =uld be available at reasonable prlces. c) Intercropping Cassava is rarely grown in nonoculture by small farners and a nu.'T!ter of intercroppiI1g studieS ha\"iIE been conducted. Salient findings have been: -r:I,ty~.a.J plTd:~lctivity per w1it area has been invariably greater \\-:i til i.~ter2rClppi.\"1S :-San v,.'ith rrcn..rx:roppiJlg for cassava/gTolLT1:i!1:Jts, cassa\\-Cl/rnctizE and cas~xr\\.•a/b2an syste. . . . ns. "},{"text":" anc.: on the flat. The differences observed are attributed to differen::es in friabili ty aDd til t.~ in t.~ crop I s rcY,.)ting Z0!18 ~ e) Variety x nunage.rrent int-.eractions.Variety testing by the plant breeders is carried out un:J.er a rrore or less sta..rrlard set of conditions of crop ffi3..Tlagerrent. However, farrrers' rnana-g~~t practices ITay differ in one or rrore important factors and it is important to deterwjne haw newly developed varieties react to different levels of these factors. TIms, newly developed varieties at a,\"1, advanced level of testing are corrpared with a standard variety at different levels of various factors includiJlg planting (late, fertility level, plant density, leaf harvesting, a'ld cropping system (llDn::x:rop vs. intercrop). Tests of the new P~l varieties, Kinilillli and Fl00, have shown that neitJler of these varieties displayed any tmdesirable interaction with the various agroncmic factors tested when DOnpared .. •ith the l=al variety.f) CUltural rrethods to reduce pest damage. TIle folla•rLDg fincUngs r.ave been nude: -Planting early in the rainy seascn reduced damage to cassava by the cassava green mite. -Cassava green mite da'1B\":Je decreased v.rith iJ1CreaSLl1S levels of soi~ ferti:J..ity. -Hulching decreased damage by bot.l-] cassava gre<'.Jl mite and cassava rrealybuc;. g) On-farm experirrentation. Dcrring the seDOnd half of the project pcricxl., PRCNAM added a farnung sy•st.€:.'\"!'s research ccnponel1t to i t.s resea.:-cb al'1d e;.~.eI1sion prograrft. J.'..r: ('-Y.ploratorl' S'..L1\\ 7 ey wa.s ca.rrie3 out in late 1982 to desc:ibe agricultural produc-tiO!1 systernE in Bas Zai:\"e. r)n the basis of this survey I it was decided that t.~e f list p-\".)ssibili.ty for irrprovirl? p!:'oduction might. be the intrcx:luction of ()r.-fan:t tr.ials v.1'i2re carried out to test t.l)is hyp::rL'icsis. Yielc:5,S y.,'ere lO~7 cu . . . . d., j.n gE:'I19:--al, the inFrov~d varieties did nat yield rrore trl.aI1 the local va2:\"iety . . T:'lis ::-6:;'• bt~ atty-ilJu-:'2ble to t.~e gc;;)eral lc:r\\';i level of mar.a.~~~~::nt (Io\\<.: fertilit.y, end of t.r'1e Project, t.rials Twe::re underv.ay to de•terIT'jIle t}--18 effect o~ imr-,~c••.Jed r:~2Tl.Ty~r;-e:r~t (a?r:li:::aticn of a rro...i2rate rate of feytilizer 2.:\"'1d of LLr:e and =.3.1. Q!3]n~rrvT.s it }::y.): :~e c lear tl~a t tilE?Se wou:d not be.t)ef i t the ::;:r;all fal1'YT U'iJ -25S PRCJ\\JJ,-,~,':, itself, p:2_yed a..'1 active role in t.he tra.n~sfer of -L'i,E: nev;ly d:?\\Te:O~)E~d te2h.:'1o-lCST)'. Thus, .i!1 aclJitio!1 to developing the reSe2lTh c2~pability of PRJ'V\\~r,.~, (2) deJ:or;stY2~ion and disE:J1F.:iJ1ation of improved varieties d:\"ld rr-cdJ.ction tf:!<::h .. 'l ic;F~e s . "},{"text":"V- . Drk tl-lT::)ugh t.~ose orga r 1ization5 tJlat have C071taCt with fanrers a~d have t..1)e c:ap3city to tEss ne'w tec~'ulo10]y on to t.l-)eJTI. 'The national 8.xte..TJSiOl1 system , alone, is not capable of the task. It's effective\"ess in I'R'1Y cases is compr~ised by field pers~,el ~no are frequently poorly motiv~ted a,d/or poorly trained aDd v,ho often mlst e\"fo=e unpopular goven\"LTCent IXllicies, such as forced production of given ar~s'of certai.;: cro\"s (\"Cultures Iq:osees\"). This situation varies with t.r,e zone and collectivite. In sonE areas, gcx:xl results ca'1 be. achieved 'MJrk.L'g tlrrough t.'1e Departnent of .n.griculture agents but, L'1 ot.r,ers, atterrpts have not bec>...n selccessful. 1hus FF{NAM =rks also with a wide rarJe of non-govennental orga'1izations selch as agrio..iltural developrrent projects, church russians involved ill agriculture, private \\,'oluntary agencies, etc. FReNAl-!' s role is to establish liaison Hith t.r,ese various agencies and to charnel it's newly developed tech.'101ogy through them. 'Ihis invol ves tra.L-,ing personnel of t.r,ese agencies in the new technology and in the rret.r,ods of transfering it to farrrers. "},{"text":"RESULTS  "},{"text":"3. 3 .3.2. Demonstration and diserrITjnation of new technology As previously stated, transfer of research results to famers is achieved by working th..\"Dugh various agricultural developrent agencies. The exact nature of the collaborative activity varies with the nature of the agency (it's objectives, resources, etc.) but the desired result is the sanE-tc prcwide fa..'\"TIErs veith improved varieties and techniques. Following is a description of L'le llDst inp:Jrtant collaborative activities i.n vtJich PRCN;;'1>1 has been involved durL~g L'le project. a) Bas Zaire -National Fertilizer Program. Since 1981, PRCNAN has c=peratee'. wiL'l Ule FAO sUPfXJrted National Fertilizer Progrart (P.N.E.) in Bas Zaire in an effort v.hich has been rrutually very beneficial. (be hLmdred thirtyfive de!1Dnstration/trials, corrparing L\"e local cassava variety WiL'l one or ty.,D irrproved FRCl-.rA:\\1 varieties at three rates of f~\"'tilizey, ha\\,:c been carried out in f~rrrers f fieldsp Wit\"1 these, H>1E denonStr0tes al\"1d obtairlS data on the effects of fertilizer application and PR(NAH derronstratePand ob:-ains data on theIr 'v;ith cuttings of PPJil\\ . . h~ variet.ies. ~J1ty-fivE' tholsand m::::ters of cuttings ~re distributed in 1984/85. At harv-est, the plallting !1Bterial is retained by t..l-:te farrrers. "},{"text":" Kisantu and!lLlC\\J1za ~'CJ1IDJU obtained enough plantins ffi3.terial of KINUANI in 1984/85 to rlant six arr, a half hectares.-The Agriculturral Technical Schools at Gorrbe Matadi and Kinp:ese have been receiving cuttings of KINUANI and serving as sources for dis[€rsal.-Extension Service of the Departrre!1t of Agriculture.In its' outreach activities iI1 Bandundu region, PRCNAM has concentrated on \\;Drking .:ith t.'1e extension service of the Departrrent of Agriculture. Capable and \"\",11 llDtivated age.'1ts have bee.'1 identified and given training at Kiyaka. The PKNA.1>l extension agronorrcists at KiyaJr-.a have \\;Drked side by side with them in t..'1e field giving them supervision a'1d sup[XJrt throughout the crcppi.'1g cycle. This effort has paid good rewards. Each year rrultiplication plots are being esta.':Jlishec at differellt. lccatiOlls to cover t.'1e Subregions of Kwilu and YI-.'a:1gc. The indlvidual plots are one-half hectare in a.rea. They are pla'1ted adjacen: t'::> a planting of the local variety so t..'1ey serve dE!!TOl1Stration as ~ll as nul tiplication,/distribution p'LU1JOses. 'Ihe plots are pre- "},{"text":"3 . 5 .1 . 2  . Advanced dcegree tr ai..'1ing .At the start of the Project, one PKNN1 staff nenber had carpleted the HoSe degree and ten 'Jere in MSe traini;1,}. The Proje':\"t W-d5 to train 16 MSc' s (including the 10 already in training) and, from these, 6 PhD's. "},{"text":" MSc study. Similarly, after the Hsc, participants were expected to return to Zaire for futher ex-perience and evaluation before possibly procECL'>ding 0\", to PhD stCldies. "},{"text":" ~~ 'iL C3 '/ C2 ~ CI ~ I cs ~ C ! I. --~ VI\"iC;~ ______ °rnbc~ ssmepar kIM::UTt.-ND/PRQHAH Arperr,e par Cit TAM9U DR8NAM [on~~Supe\"vise pa~ h-CHI-rTl-Bt..8l!, la'1ch--over and three additional motorcycles. Five 65 horsef'CM'2r tractors, each v.iith disc plow, disc ha.--ro.-.', ridger, rotary m:::mer and trailer were purchased. At a later date, the Department of Agriculture all=ated to PRCNA'1 tv.D 80 horsef'CM'2r tractors, ,.>ith disc plew.; and disc ha.rrcMS, which were pa. "},{"text":" (a) illng delay in Mvuazi station rehabilitation and it's effect on lal:x:>ratory and v.oJrkshop operations, on establish.\"\"tel1t of a trainiIlg cOI'1jXl\"\"' nent and on living conditions of staff. After tI<Q years of fruitless atterrpts to v.ark through governrrent entities for the realization of this v.ark, the problem was resolved by entering into a contract with a private architectural and engiJleering firm for design, preparation of bid docurrents, appraisal of bids and supervision of the v.ark and, subs~ently, by contracting with private electrical and civil engineerLng firms for the actual v.ark. (Discussed inSectior. 3.6.1.).(b) Insufficient numbers of qualified candidates available for M. Sc. trainiJ1g and u...rrr-ealistic targets for Ph.D. trairiing. P€cause of G~is,advanced degree training quotas were not oor:pletely rret (Section 3.5.1.)  . "},{"text":"( c ) FloodLng proble~ on research farm. This was resolved by leasing land outside the station for research and multiplication farms. "},{"text":" Obviously, for JC:-18 lorp terrJ sustz..ir~6ility of P~Ul.i\\I••'l, tf-Jf-' r;JO\\Terrlr:eTlt r.ru.st assurrW? fina\"1cial supp:>rt tor the: Prc:qrar~,. 'Ib date this suptX)rt has teen mininal arid, in recent years, L~e share of operating expenses covered by the Governrrent's contribution has been Je:::rcasj~'(J' In 1985, Depart:rrent of Agriculture flJ.!1ds covered only 5 "},{"text":"( c ) Inadequate salaries of national staff. PRCNAM salaries at all staff levels have been undeniably inadequate when viewed against ilie cost of living and expected work out['ut.. In order to retBin ilie trained and dedicated professional staff iliat has been developed under tlJ.e Project, it is 5. RlrCN'lE,,'DATICNS FDR ~-GOING ACTIVITIES 1'ne Cassava Outreach Project is bei..',,] succeeded by a rrore canprehensive pTI)ject, the Applied Agricultural Research and Outreach Project I-tlich incol1:orates PRrNJc'!, the National Maize Program, and the National Grain Legul!l2 Pro::rralTl. IITA was intinately involved in the plarm.ing of the successor project. "},{"text":" activities at Mvuazi, Ganclajika and Kiyaka shculd be continued and eh-panded, oursning the established b:L-oad o0jective3 '\"-,(; using the same basic strategy. However, in order to fulfill it IS man.date as a national program, PRCNAI1 &'Joo1d extend it's activities to other inp:Jrtant eco1o::rical zones. It is p1armed that PR:NAI1 will begin operations next growing season at Eaniarneshi station near Lubulllbashl in southern Shaba region. Within the limits that financial and personnel resources permit, activities should also be extended to Mu1ungu representing the higher elevation area of eastern Zaire and to a site in the high rainfall forest area., Within the broad eco1o::rica1 zones, furthur atte.ltion should be given to identification of testing sites necessaY'/ to represe..\"!t soil a..Tld clLrna.tic variability\" bi PKNAI1 s,'1oold define the procedures to be followed for release of varieties for v.'idespread multiplication and distribution. c) PRO'ill.11 should atte:npt to evaluate it's contribution to cassava production. This coold be done by the FSR and Outreach elements of the successor project. a) Continue work on breeding for LLCreased levels of resistance to Bacterial Blight, 1'1052.io ald Anthracnose. "},{"text":"b) Intensify efforts to ideJ1tify sources of resistance to green mite and utilize them i.'1 the breeding program. c) F .. xpand hybridization program for incorporation of lTalybug resis• tance of the clone 70453 into locally adapted high yielc~ing varieties. After se: tion from seedling nursery at Hvuazi,evaluation should also be caxried out in Shaba under high mealybug pres S\\Lre • dj Develop varieties adapted tD intercropping. Rapid early gra\"th and early vi'1or aDDear to be jo'\"1pC)rt-'4'1t characteristics. I.f' this is vQrified, it should be ta\\;en as an iJrp:xt.a11t selection criterion. "},{"text":" to collalxJrate with t,'le Breeding Section in screening for resista'1ce to Bacterial Blight, ~bsaic a'1d Anthracnose. b) Conti.rlUe 'M:lrk to determine etiology of stern-tip dieback disorder and develop a Inet,'lod for screening for resistance to the disorder. c) Continue collalxJration with IITA, Ibadan and the University of Wageningen in studies to detennine if different strai.~s of cassava llDsaic virus exist. d) Determine factors involved in post harvest deterioration and qJa'1tify losses in-~ed. e) M'ike follaw-up observations on concentric leaf spot syrrptoms seen at Girnbi. f) Investigate the mechanism of resistance to anthracnose and develop a method for screening for resistance to this disease• "},{"text":" The research program was quickly initiated and rapidly grBV. An IITA Plant Breeder arrived in Zaire in Noverrber of 1974 and by 1976, he had been joined by an Agronanist, a Plant Pathologist and an Entaro1ogist. Para-professional train:ing of national staff at IITA camenced intrediately and, in 1977, the first PRCWIM staff rrenber had been admitted for studies tcMards a M.Sc. degree. AI thcugh substantial progress had been nade, by 1977, the goverrurent was facing serious econanic prob1aus and it requested USAID assistance in support of the Project. May 1980 with the oonclusion of a contract between USA.ID and IITA. 'Ihe Project cx:JTp1etion date was 31 July 1985. nus repJrt presents a sumary of the work perfonred uOOer the contract and the results which  "},{"text":"Table 1 sha..'S the staffing of the technical assistance positicns  "},{"text":" 1 • BPEEDING 3.2.1.1. Cbjectives and strategy PRONAM's breeding program addresses those production constraints which are arrenable to genetic inproverrent. '!he objectives are: a) to develop varieties wit..l-} high yield IX'tential. cassava leaves are an inportal1t constituent of the diet in Zaire and attention is Local gernplasrfl has been collected. A major source of genetic variation has been seed of improved populations and families in+-roduced from the IITA, Ibadan Cassava Program which incorporates nore than 2,000 Latin Anerica and Asian sources. Eleven IITA developed cultivars have also been introduced ill tissue culture fom,. Together, this provides the material for al1 active hl~ridization program. Gel1etic recombination is   -8 - -8 -   SEEDLING N~RSErY SEEDLING N~RSErY   20, (lO(l-l 00, OCID SEEI;Ur;GS 20, (lO(l-l 00, OCID SEEI;Ur;GS   + +   CLO!\\AL YIELI' TFIIIL CLO!\\AL YIELI' TFIIIL   500-3,000 clones 500-3,000 clones Ye~H _ 5 plants of E'3c-h cloDe Ye~H_5 plants of E'3c-h cloDe   2 locations 2 locations   PR!:LHlINA[,Y YIEU' TRIA' • 50-150 dones PR!:LHlINA[,Y YIEU' TRIA' • 50-150 dones Year 3 SinFle rov,s, 4 rf'pl ications Year 3SinFle rov,s, 4 rf'pl ications   3 locations 3 locations   ~ ~   ADV~~CED YIELD TRIALS ADV~~CED YIELD TRIALS Year 4 30-60 clones in 2-4 trials 4 rows, 4 replications Year 430-60 clones in 2-4 trials 4 rows, 4 replications   4 locations 4 locations Year 5  Year 5 Year 6   Year 6 Year 7   Year 7 1(,2r P,   1(,2r P,  "},{"text":" Planting is done early in the rainy season to provide best conditions for evaluation. Artificial in:>culation y,1ith the cassava bacterial blight (CBB) pat.~ogen is done by both stem injecticn and leaf abrasion. Plants are detopped about one and a half nonths before t...~ end of the rainy season to enhance syrrptom expression of cassava nosaic disease (CMD). The renoved tops are u...sed to plant a separate nursery for screening for resistance to cassava rrealybug (C.MB). ScreeIling is also done under ambient conditions for resistance to cassava anthracnose disease (CAD) and to cassava green mite (CGM). The semi-quantitative picrate tecrl11ique is used to test for cyanide content in leaves and selections are m3.de. to    establish low cyanide populations. • UNIFORN YIELD TRIAL • UNIFORN YIELD TRIAL 10-20 clones in 1 or 2 trials 10-20 clones in 1 or 2 trials 4 rows, 4 replIcations 4 rows, 4 replIcations 5 locations 5 locations ~ ~ Ht7LTILOCA~IO~: YIL=_Ll Tr,lAL Ht7LTILOCA~IO~: YIL=_Ll Tr,lAL 5-10 clonc\" 5-10 clonc\" 4 ~O~5, 6 rer!itations 4 ~O~5, 6 rer!itations 6 locations 6 locations • • ON-FAR.'1 TESTING ON-FAR.'1 TESTING  "},{"text":"ed into tile 10::0.1 focd prcxlucts (fufu, chikvvQ~gue Ad\\~anced Yield Trials are tested L'1 one or tw:J Uniforrr: Yield Trials at five locations. M::>niterL'1g of reaeL.on to diseases and pests and e\\l\"d.lt1..\"ltio:1 of yield is continued. L'1 addition, at this stage, root a;1d leaves are  "},{"text":" . rate at \\o,'~ic:}-'J pJanting reterial from a single rla.nt selection can t>e rra::3e aV2.i lc~lJlE: for r:Dre t...~orouqh 2.nd \\,,:ide~-testL'1g. Never-the less, PRJ.':'?0~ has rn~3e scoJ prOjl:ess in developing i.:\"l]ro'.red va.rieties in it' 5 short :3. 2.1. 2. ReE1.1J. ts    The first PR~~'ilL\\1 irlproved variety wa.s officially released by t.~e Depc~l~'\"Tnt ofAgricJ.lttLre i.r.t Febr\\.lary, 1983. This v.a.s  L'1 t.hL ninth year of  "},{"text":"are at advanced levels of testing. In Bandundu region, the PRCNl~ variety, F100, selected at Kiyaka has now been thoroughly tested and has demJnstrated cXJnsistently good perfor-llBJ1ce. It has a good level of resistance to eM!) and CBB. It is well adapted to both the poor sandy soils of the plateau-savanna which are very extensive in the region and to the llDre productive but limited valley-forest soils. On 3 . 2.2 . Pl\\:1HOl.JXY 3 . 2.2 . Pl\\:1HOl.JXY 3.2.2.1. (j.)jectives 3.2.2.1. (j.)jectives  The efforts of the Pathology subprcgram have been directed The efforts of the Pathology subprcgram have been directed the plateau, average yields of F100 are 7 to 10 tons/ha which is t;,o to three toward: the plateau, average yields of F100 are 7 to 10 tons/ha which is t;,o to three toward: tine the yield of the local varieties. In the valleys, F100 gives 20 to 25 a) Collaroraticn with the breeding prcgram in screening for o Local _ Kirluani(PRD\"AM) tons which is 50-100% better than the local varieties. resistance to ti1e ITI3jor cii~;;eases. tine the yield of the local varieties. In the valleys, F100 gives 20 to 25 a) Collaroraticn with the breeding prcgram in screening for o Local _ Kirluani(PRD\"AM) tons which is 50-100% better than the local varieties. resistance to ti1e ITI3jor cii~;;eases. b) StuJies of the etiolcgy, epidemiology and =ntrol of tile !'~--I LOCAL L ___ .~ \"~;\";f.\"''$' K' \"U , . N' ILSD(0051 made at Ga.~dajD:a in identifying cultivars with resistance to cassava green li e,,,, • • , . \"f),i:,::' ';;' 11,.... ,j of testing and large-scale multiplication has begun. Gx>d progress has been 7000 At Gandajika se,~ral promising varieties are at an adva.~ced level ITI3jor diseases. b) StuJies of the etiolcgy, epidemiology and =ntrol of tile !'~--I LOCAL L ___ .~ \"~;\";f.\"''$' K' \"U , . N' ILSD(0051 made at Ga.~dajD:a in identifying cultivars with resistance to cassava green li e,,,, • • , . \"f),i:,::' ';;' 11,.... ,j of testing and large-scale multiplication has begun. Gx>d progress has been 7000 At Gandajika se,~ral promising varieties are at an adva.~ced level ITI3jor diseases. mite. 1SDO mite.1SDO 3.2.2.2. Results 3.2.2.2. Results  Systematic screening for resistanoe to the cassava mealybug in a Systematic screening for resistanoe to the cassava mealybug in a of a clone with a very high level of resistanoe. This clone identified as 1000 joint effort with the entollDlogy program has resulted in the identification a) Screening for resistance of a clone with a very high level of resistanoe. This clone identified as 1000 joint effort with the entollDlogy program has resulted in the identification a) Screening for resistance 70453 possesses the highest level of resistanoe yet reported from any cassava Inoculum of strains of Xanthorronas carrpestris p\\'. ITBnihoti, 70453 possesses the highest level of resistanoe yet reported from any cassava Inoculum of strains of Xanthorronas carrpestris p\\'. ITBnihoti, inprovenent program. (Supporting dota is reportec 1 under Entcrology Research selected for their virulence, is prepared and artificial inoculation for 500 Achieverr.ents. ) !'!g;.>ever, other agronCL1.i.c characteristics are less desirable. cassava bacterial b, ight (CBB) carried out in all selection cycles of the inprovenent program. (Supporting dota is reportec 1 under Entcrology Research selected for their virulence, is prepared and artificial inoculation for 500 Achieverr.ents. ) !'!g;.>ever, other agronCL1.i.c characteristics are less desirable. cassava bacterial b, ight (CBB) carried out in all selection cycles of the It has a leu yielcI potentia] and is susceDtihle to green-spicier rote and rDsaic. breeding prcgram. Inoculation is done by both leaf abrasion and stem injec- It has a leu yielcI potentia] and is susceDtihle to green-spicier rote and rDsaic. breeding prcgram. Inoculation is done by both leaf abrasion and stem injec- Thus a major e:tort has been rlOunted to incorycrate this resistance into high tion. Assessrrent for resistance to cassava llDsaic disease (C.r.JD) is perfor- Thus a major e:tort has been rlOunted to incorycrate this resistance into high tion. Assessrrent for resistance to cassava llDsaic disease (C.r.JD) is perfor- 0-0 -0 yielc',in'C, locally aC0Dted clol1es. In the first year of this hybridization pro-50 -50--5 0 100-100-100 rred in the seedling nursery after detopping of plants ....nich has been found 0-0 -0 yielc',in'C, locally aC0Dted clol1es. In the first year of this hybridization pro-50 -50--5 0 100-100-100 rred in the seedling nursery after detopping of plants ....nich has been found BClClec,ose eBB FERTl LIZ ER RAT E (kg iha N, P;>OS ,K,O I Mo~ue graro,Il23 seedlings frcn crosses vrere o'Jt,.tinerl. These ,,>ere subject~ to scree-to intenSify synptorr: expression. Evaluation for CMD resistance in later Anthracnose c.::.D Fig :3 Reaction de Kliluanl et wtfivars locaux au, prlnclpales nil1s il1 t'1e fide; under 2.-rtificial rleill::'oog infestation. One hunclreil and fifty-cycles in the breeding prcgrarn and for cassava antJu-acnose disease (CAD) is Fig 4• Yield of va,-iety Kinuani 8, Local at three rates of fertilizer Results are means from 135 on-farm trialslBas-five ::o121'1':S \\.>ere selectee'. for further testinq ane ,lill be nlanted out il1 clonal done under natural conditons. This collarorative v.Drk with the breeding malad,es du manioc dans 88 champs de demonstratlori au Bas-Zaire, MVUAZL 1985 Zaire, 81-82 to 84-85) trials at 'lvuazi an\" Kaniareshi (Shaba resion). A still !;lOre il1terlsive hyi:>ridi-prcgrarn conuibUtB:1 to the developrent of the recently released variety BClClec,ose eBB FERTl LIZ ER RAT E (kg iha N, P;>OS ,K,O I Mo~ue graro,Il23 seedlings frcn crosses vrere o'Jt,.tinerl. These ,,>ere subject~ to scree-to intenSify synptorr: expression. Evaluation for CMD resistance in later Anthracnose c.::.D Fig :3 Reaction de Kliluanl et wtfivars locaux au, prlnclpales nil1s il1 t'1e fide; under 2.-rtificial rleill::'oog infestation. One hunclreil and fifty-cycles in the breeding prcgrarn and for cassava antJu-acnose disease (CAD) is Fig 4• Yield of va,-iety Kinuani 8, Local at three rates of fertilizer Results are means from 135 on-farm trialslBas-five ::o121'1':S \\.>ere selectee'. for further testinq ane ,lill be nlanted out il1 clonal done under natural conditons. This collarorative v.Drk with the breeding malad,es du manioc dans 88 champs de demonstratlori au Bas-Zaire, MVUAZL 1985 Zaire, 81-82 to 84-85) trials at 'lvuazi an\" Kaniareshi (Shaba resion). A still !;lOre il1terlsive hyi:>ridi-prcgrarn conuibUtB:1 to the developrent of the recently released variety Flg, .6, RsC3Ction of }-:L'1uar:l a'1Q loc.oll cu.l ti vars to the prirlcipal zation !'lr0<JTai'-, is unden'2Y. Kinuani. (The narre Kinuani, in fact, rreans \"disease fighter\" in the local Flg, .6, RsC3Ction of }-:L'1uar:l a'1Q loc.oll cu.l ti vars to the prirlcipal zation !'lr0<JTai'-, is unden'2Y. Kinuani. (The narre Kinuani, in fact, rreans \"disease fighter\" in the local dlSEdses of C3.SSa\\'d i11 88 dD.'TOnstrat.ion plots in language of Bas Zaire). This variety has =nsistently Shown a good level of dlSEdses of C3.SSa\\'d i11 88 dD.'TOnstrat.ion plots in language of Bas Zaire). This variety has =nsistently Shown a good level of B3~ Zaire, 198~. resistance to CBB. other varieties with good levels of disease resistance B3~ Zaire, 198~. resistance to CBB. other varieties with good levels of disease resistance  "},{"text":" LmpGrtant constitu~\"1t of Ll)e diet in m~ch of Zaire, ~BS studied.  b) Cassava a'1tJ-.lracnose disease b) Cassava a'1tJ-.lracnose disease  It has tee..t\"1 shov.n t.~at the etiolO'!'l of cassa\\'\"3 antJ-lraC;l(lSe It has tee..t\"1 shov.n t.~at the etiolO'!'l of cassa\\'\"3 antJ-lraC;l(lSe c1ise2-sc (O'1..D) I pl-eviously believed to be caused only by tJ1e fUI1?\"US c1ise2-sc (O'1..D) I pl-eviously believed to be caused only by tJ1e fUI1?\"US ~:::':}:.L~\"~-S::!:£~~:}2~ 5lL~_~:?~~~-:i:.c~:?e5 f. s~. F0~'2.i.h()ti2 also involves a sap feec::ing ~:::':}:.L~\"~-S::!:£~~:}2~ 5lL~_~:?~~~-:i:.c~:?e5 f. s~. F0~'2.i.h()ti2 also involves a sap feec::ing buG, Fse1..ldo-:\"'~er-actus de'v'asta:'1s. Inoculation by spraj-'ing of t:le fUJ1gal slx:--' --------~--------- buG, Fse1..ldo-:\"'~er-actus de'v'asta:'1s. Inoculation by spraj-'ing of t:le fUJ1gal slx:--' --------~--------- res alone did not cause typical CAD sYT'ptoms. FeedL'1g by tl)e insect is res alone did not cause typical CAD sYT'ptoms. FeedL'1g by tl)e insect is apI~~.re..'ltly necessary for ftmgal colonization a..'ld ca'1J-:er develaprreI1t. It v.ras fur- apI~~.re..'ltly necessary for ftmgal colonization a..'ld ca'1J-:er develaprreI1t. It v.ras fur- th~ ::ou\"1d that the f1.1Tlgus caT1 be carried in t~e insect I s bcx1y ~ Su.scepti- th~::ou\"1d that the f1.1Tlgus caT1 be carried in t~e insect I s bcx1y ~ Su.scepti- b11 it l' to anelracnose infection appe-ars t.o be related to the plaJ1t I s reac- b11 it l' to anelracnose infection appe-ars t.o be related to the plaJ1t I s reac- tion to insect pJ.c\"1cture. M::Jre susceptible clones develop longer and deeper tion to insect pJ.c\"1cture. M::Jre susceptible clones develop longer and deeper cankers after the pWlct\"CITe trwn less susceptible clones. No differences have cankers after the pWlct\"CITe trwn less susceptible clones. No differences have been fo.md b vircllence aITong isolates of f. . .srloeoSlXlricides f. sp. rce.nLl)o- been fo.md b vircllence aITong isolates of f. . .srloeoSlXlricides f. sp. rce.nLl)o- tis from different SOurCE:S. Other studies indicate that cassava plant debris tis from different SOurCE:S. Other studies indicate that cassava plant debris left in tJ-le field after harvest can be all i.:~rt&~t source of iI10culum of tJ1e left in tJ-le field after harvest can be all i.:~rt&~t source of iI10culum of tJ1e fungal JX\" begen. fungal JX\" begen.  c) Cassa\\~ bacterial blight c) Cassa\\~ bacterial blight  Yield loss, due to cassava bast-erial blight (CBB), of leaves, Yield loss, due to cassava bast-erial blight (CBB), of leaves, which are a~ Inoculation of a CBB susceptible clone resulted in loss of l1Dre than 60% of which are a~ Inoculation of a CBB susceptible clone resulted in loss of l1Dre than 60% of edible lecJes while L'1e production of edible leaves by the resistant variety, edible lecJes while L'1e production of edible leaves by the resistant variety, YL'1uani, vas nct appreciably reduced by inoculation. YL'1uani, vas nct appreciably reduced by inoculation.  d) Cassava rrosaic disease d) Cassava rrosaic disease  It viaS found that, as the leVEl of severity of cassa,,~ rnsaic di- It viaS found that, as the leVEl of severity of cassa,,~ rnsaic di- sease (crill) inpla..';t'ihg'material increased, the L'lcidence and severity of tile sease (crill) inpla..';t'ihg'material increased, the L'lcidence and severity of tile disease in the resulting crop rose significantly a~d gro~th and yield dropped disease in the resulting crop rose significantly a~d gro~th and yield dropped Significantly. TIlus, disease develop~,t, growL~ and yield depe\"1d not just Significantly. TIlus, disease develop~,t, growL~ and yield depe\"1d not just  "},{"text":" No differences I<.I2re oosen'Bd betl<.l2en eMD susceptible and resisbL~t clones in feeding preference or rates of population build-up of resisbL~t clones in feeding preference or rates of population build-up of the vllitefly, Bernissia tabaci, vector of eND. Disease distribution is rm.inly the vllitefly, Bernissia tabaci, vector of eND. Disease distribution is rm.inly by infected planting material.  by infected planting material.  Ce~~in clones vllich are highly resistant to eMD at IITA, Ce~~in clones vllich are highlyresistant to eMD at IITA, Ibadan ~re found to be susceptible at Mvuazi. OlD syrrptoms in tc'oe latter Ibadan ~refound to be susceptible at Mvuazi.OlD syrrptoms in tc'oe latter environrrent see.tred to differ sorrevllat from typical Cl-1D synptorns in Nigeria. environrrent see.tred to differ sorrevllat from typical Cl-1D synptorns in Nigeria. This suggests that there may be differences in straiJ1S of the cassava =saic This suggests that there may be differences in straiJ1S of the cassava =saic virus betwee\"l Nigeria and Zaire. Further studies are ill1derway in collabora- virus betwee\"l Nigeria and Zaire. Further studies are ill1derway in collabora- tion with IITA, Ibadan and the University of Wageningen, Netherlands to tion with IITA, Ibadan and the University of Wageningen, Netherlands to establish vllether or not different strains of C~ virus exist. establish vllether or not different strains of C~ virus exist.  e) Interaction of Bacterial Blight and Anthracnose e) Interaction of Bacterial Blight and Anthracnose  Infection of the sane plants by both CBB and CAD patc'oogens Infection of the sane plants by both CBB and CAD patc'oogens has been fre,\"lquently observed ill1der field conditions. Studies have shown has been fre,\"lquently observed ill1der field conditions. Studies have shown that inoculation with the bacterium follov.B:l. by the fungus causes rrore severe that inoculation with the bacterium follov.B:l. by the fungus causes rrore severe leaf wilting   leaf wilting  "},{"text":" Diorrus w-as not recovered in Kinshasa until the end of the 1985 dry season.Huge nu.rcbers of adults and larvae ~re present (up to 450 on a shoot tip 10 cm long), a'1d eM popcllaticns ~re being rapidly reduced. The predator's area of distribution is about 120 kIn' • 1he establishrrerlt of DioITUS in Kinshasa but not else..nere in Africa may be attributed to a unique form of cassava grown in that city.This form is a perennial, tuberless, hybrid of cultivated cassava (Manihoti escule.\"lta) and a tree cassava (M. glaziovii). Its rough stems a'1d perennial habit apparently penrit the eM to l1\\3.intain higher-thcm-usual populations during the rainy season. These higher populations rrust greatly favor the predatory beetle, ..nich is not as adept at locating its rrealybug prey as is the parasitic Epidinocarsis wasp. Mealybugs that have been parasitized by !£.:!:dinocarsis rerrein attached to terre.iDal ste.'!lS and leaves and are il1 this way carried into new regions. By the end of 1984, Epidinocarsis had ex•panded into Bancl:undu, and its total 2..rea of distribution in ~ste1.Tl Zaire w-as 80,000 kIn'. CUrrently   (August, 1985)  it occupies alrrost all of Bas Zaire and large parts of northern a'1d ce.\"ltral Ba'1du11crJ, a total area of about 130,000 kIn' (Fig8). -30 -   -30 - establis.'1ed. Fig_ 7 Trite cr reB '1 mite level p?.rasi t e pred2tor para[d te predator predator predator predator predator establis.'1ed. Fig_ 7Trite cr reB '1 mitelevel p?.rasi t e pred2tor para[d te predator predator predator predator predator  "},{"text":"ccssava varieties resistant to mealybug. .in t.~j.s region. First, as alreajy disc-1ssedi.11  the st?(:tiO!1 0:-1 distrib'Jtion and darriige of the eM, CM fDpulations in Bas Zaire haC. a~,rez~y oeclined greatly vil~\"1 the first relec . . . ses of natural enerr~es \\VCre rrade ill 1932. As a result of all these problems it has been necessary to carry a~t evah12->---ions of ~?J:r2?=ar,sis in large nurn .... ~rs of famers' fields, a.'ld to compare CI,; populations iIl areas where the parasite cxcurs with those in areas vktpre the parasite has not yet arrived. To fumler conplicate the si tua tion, EPidincX::2rsis has spread quickly, so that tf-)e test has rapidly expanded and the control area has rapidly cC1'ltracted. In Bas Zaire the only area that ITey still be free of t'1e par2site is a narrow strip along t..'1e coast.'.dtll  insecticide arid by the use of sleeve cages. 01 colonies so protected m~~ tip lied mclch faster thaIl tmprotected colonies. Ha'lce, there is solid e..x\"F€rirrental evidence for the effectiveness of Ef?idinocarsis in Nigeria.Mvuazi in 1981 as the resul t of screening by the breeding section of rrany thousands of plants grown seeds from lITA. It appears Glwt hig!1 resistance to rrealybug is very rare; to the best knowledge of PRCNAM reseachers, PR\"cNc'IM ~-----,---3.2.3.7. &::ology of EPidinocarsis lopezi The surveys conducted to m::mitor the spread of Epidinocarsis in Zaire have prcx1uced considerable infonration on the ecology of the parasite and its host. The most important information will soon appear in professio-reach 40 ITe2.lybJgs per cassava shoot, the number of parasites per shoot is no longer increasing. The conclusion i.s that Epidinocarsis ca'1 be effective only at the low pest pop.11aticns t.l-tat 0 0 = every year during the rai.'1Y sea-• • r, clone wiG'\"! a'l extrerrely high degree of resista'lce carre to light at PRC:Nc'IM/ clone 70453 is at the moment high resistance to rrealybug. the only cassava clone in the 'MJrld with proven The resistant plants show tI<D interesting Individual rrealybuCTs attacking the tip cause sttmting, but although grow'-ch slo,,'S, it does not stop. The sessile adult rrealybugs at the tip are left son and at the beg1.. ~ .L • bP...hL'ld as the tip gro'-\"S away from them. ~-----,---3.2.3.7. &::ology of EPidinocarsis lopezi The surveys conducted to m::mitor the spread of Epidinocarsis in Zaire have prcx1uced considerable infonration on the ecology of the parasite and its host. The most important information will soon appear in professio-reach 40 ITe2.lybJgs per cassava shoot, the number of parasites per shoot is no longer increasing. The conclusion i.s that Epidinocarsis ca'1 be effective only at the low pest pop.11aticns t.l-tat 0 0 = every year during the rai.'1Y sea-• • r, clone wiG'\"! a'l extrerrely high degree of resista'lce carre to light at PRC:Nc'IM/ clone 70453 is at the moment high resistance to rrealybug. the only cassava clone in the 'MJrld with proven The resistant plants show tI<D interesting Individual rrealybuCTs attacking the tip cause sttmting, but although grow'-ch slo,,'S, it does not stop. The sessile adult rrealybugs at the tip are left son and at the beg1.. ~ .L • bP...hL'ld as the tip gro'-\"S away from them.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . One week training sessions conducted by PRCNAM during period of Prc;rect. Jcti_OD a . .nd focuses on irJe:-ltification of ~~~aric1us field l--~roblpJ':lS and pratical SOl_'cItio~s to tL,2f\":. It also teaches particip2..ntS hov. r tD Crops. 'ThrE.-\"2 HSc level aaron'=>mists participa~_ed in a ti':..ree week course C~ ~J_ley Cr::.)Pping. The physical plant seD/ices foremcUl s~\"t three rro:lths at lI'IA ~ld receivE:--d cn-t.~e-job training in vEhicle and fann equip::Ent repair uIld r;eL-:ter~cl.nce a:-ld operation and ITidjIltenaJ1Ce of phys.ic::ll plant faC'iJities. lb. of lb. of  "},{"text":"Table 4 sh~s L~e acaceTie training progra~1 in the project Paper and L~e training actua acoorrplished. M.C;c training fell sarewhat short of what was prograrrrned. and this can b2 attributed to the fact that the full number of qualified candidates did not b2=re available. Targets for PhD training v.ere raL~er unrealistic ccnsidering the tiITE required to corrplete MSc training and the desirability of =rk experience b2fore continuing on for the PhD degree. With the exception of one individual who was in training at Michigan State University when the Project began and the candidate for a MSc in agricultural economics, who is at the University of Georgia, all training was done at the University of Ibadan. For these participants, all thesis research was done. at IITA except in one case where the PhD thesis research ,,'as done back on the job in Zaire. Thesis research was jointly supervised by Uni versi ty of Ibadan and lITA scientists. studerlts were encouraged by the University of Ibadan to ooJltirr~e for a !v'aster of i\"hilo3o;>hy (~1 Phil' deTL\"ee after cOITIpletin0 re~!•..lire-!Tents for L~e MSc. This involved nDre in-depth research on their thesis topic.HcJ<....>2ver, it was found that, because of much lTOre corrplicated administrative procedures involved for this degree, one to t\\JO and a half additional year\" were requ i rE-U to corrplete L~e program and training at this level was everltual- SallE ly discontinued. Instead, participa.'1ts remained at UTA for another six SallE ly discontinued. Instead, participa.'1ts remained at UTA for another six nDnths after corrpletion of the MSc degree to gain additional research e..xperie- nDnths after corrpletion of the MSc degree to gain additional research e..xperie- nce. nce.  "},{"text":"Table 5 :late up to 21 trainees a.\"ld the inst..allation of. a disp:~silly 1..1' 1 arlother bd ldinJ. The f1.U1ds, bei'1g the er.juivalent of approxi.':Btely US$ 1,000,000 \\oJ(\"re )\":l'l.:le a.\\•~a i l~1ble fron: CC)U.Llte:cpart fl.3.n~;.3. ElectIici ty was brought a dis•ta.nce of 16 km frc.1!l1 tJ18 nati.orlal hyd:c~lec~•.ri.c grid high t.e...Dsion system. Buildings '~ . . . 'c::..•e rt~Y ..... 'i. . . :~e,j a.nd e2.,:?C't.rica.l app.1 lC2.J\"lces provided for ~\"(:~'1ior staff housin.g. Th9 v.-.~:l~..t~.r-S~ist:::i\"\"TI 1.Jlstallati.:1D .involve.:] drjlli.rl>j' a we.ll, con.str~E:;ti.ng a water TJnC,t::~r the ?roject, a SJ1all diesel generator t .... as inst:.a.!_led. at the Kiy.:i.k3 S•'.:l)sta7\"_ion tD pro\\\"ide }lOusehold lightLl1g ~ OtJJer .iJTi:a-o'Jc~;£nts of the physical plarlt at MV:Jazi were [fade duri.r1g t..'1e project. The ITBir1 office/laboratory building 2~'1d houses were brought bc,ck into a good state of repair. Si.mply as an exernple of the extent of repairs raj'.]i.red, llDre t.hcm 50 panes of glass were used to replace broke~., windoh'S in t..~e rraL'1 b_li.lcling.St2tionroa\\3s and grOtL'l:J.s arou11d housing and offlee 2I03S wl-::ich ha:.:.1: lX?:E:.:'l. tddly neg2.ected 'N\"ere .iJT~~ro~<:ed c?.nd are novo,' tEing r;.ai . . Jlta.:I1!?-;l. ;; g2_raj\"S \\\":)rk&~op 1,0.'3.5 set-up .... ~ith e1uiI.-~.:1t to perform rra.L.\"lter\"-?..liCe and l:Ja.sic re?3.i.:r-s. A cli.nate controlled L~sectar.i for inSf~-ct rearing alld .£tu::-1ies was .insta.lleJ with t\\.;elve ca-jes ventilated by a forced air syste.~.A larg8 room L71 the rra.L'l buildiI1g was renY..x3ele::l and equipped to ~.e.::;:-'.Je as a ::;.().:'ial anj recreat.ion cer:ter I a c• . . c>n:ere.nce hall aId a tra.ining classrOC>r:1.     gives assign'TeIlt of staff who have gives assign'TeIlt of staff who have  "},{"text":" .'11. In 1982, the dikes were rebuil t. ~ bulldozers and a llDtor grader were rented a'Jd the ~Jrk was directed by the Assistant Farm M3.nager and the Heavy Equiprrent Specialist from lITA, Ibadan. Access roads and drains were also laid out. Hcrwever, even with these i.rrprovanents, flo:xiing still occurred. The probJ em was futhur studied by an IITA Water M3.nagerrent Engineer. It was determined that a very major invesbrent in a water control system would be required to provide full protection fran flo:xiing necessary for proper conduct of research trials. In view of this and of problems involved in sharing Mvuazi facilities with INERA, PRCWIM together with USAID and the Departrrent of Agriculture investigated the possibility of establishing the headquarters at another location. !bwever, no suitable site was found and efforts were scraper) have bc-en ordered which will alley,: ccrnplete develq::t11PJlt of t..'1e entire area. A pIa.'! has also been preP'ITed for the developnent of another 10 ha of la11d at Mvuazi for i=igation.          ~ ~  . I , I' II I II A>C I A' ~L~ . . _      J ] -, . I , I' II I II A>C I A' ~L~ . . _J ] -,  -, 810 I 99 I 88 ' 9. 96 ' asj!' ! 9' 9 J 92 91 ~ -,810I 99 I 88' 9.96' asj!' ! 9'9 J9291 ~ shifted to finding other la'ld close to Mvuazi. Ultimately, PRCWIM was able shifted to findingother la'ld close to Mvuazi. Ultimately, PRCWIM was able to conclude long term leases with local authorities for 96 ha adjacent to to conclude long term leases with local authorities for 96 ha adjacent to Hvuazi to be used for research plots and 100 ha about 10 krn fran Mvuazi for a Hvuazi to be used for research plots and 100 ha about 10 krn fran Mvuazi for a multiplication farm. Tne research farm is being developed with access roads, multiplication farm. Tne research farm is being developed with access roads, seil and water conservation structures and drainage systems. The la'Jd has seil and water conservation structures and drainage systems. The la'Jd has 3.6.3. EDUIPI1ENT AND VEHICLES      3.6.3.EDUIPI1ENT AND VEHICLES  Funds were included in the Project for procuranent of vehicles Funds were included in the Project for procuranent of vehicles  "},{"text":" ..rt of a gift fran the goveITllT>2nt of Japan. Otr,er farm impl~ ments purchased included fertilizer spreader, herbicide sprayer, tipping trailer and front end loader. A motor srader was bought for road rrai.'1tena'1ce anc 1 lcLT1d develornent. Major laboratory equif-ID2Jlt aoquired i.'1cluded spec- anc 1 lcLT1d develornent.Major laboratory equif-ID2Jlt aoquired i.'1cluded spec- LrofOotanE-ter, laminar flow transfer chamber, large capacity drying oven, LrofOotanE-ter, laminar flow transfer chamber, large capacity drying oven, five laboratory ovens, Kjeldahl appartus, analytical balance, tv.D dissec- five laboratory ovens, Kjeldahl appartus, analytical balance, tv.D dissec- ting microscopes, water bath shaker and incubator. The ,lOrkshop was erruip-- ting microscopes, water bath shaker and incubator.The ,lOrkshop was erruip--  "},{"text":"'le Project co)TE':Jceci, the C()nsulta\"1t. assu;-ed this p:Jsition. As previously Basic reference books and subscriptions to the major scientific journals relating to crop research were requistioned and a library reestablished at Mvuazi.3 .7. MlI.INTENANCE OF ~lACHINERY AND PHYSICAL Plill\\'TA problB'\"r. wrdch rFld constantly plas\"x-G PR~'1 in it' s first years was lack of trained rtWlp=\"der a\"d equ:Lprrc:1t to TIHintain and repair fa.-rm m'lchinay, vehicles and physical pla.'1t. Finally, in 1979, virtllilllly all PRQlVl.'l velricles cmd eqjip;'Ent ',,'ere out of order and a physical plant sei\"vices offIcer had been hired as a consultant to put theJTI rX.;ck in operat.ion. The need for such a fA.'sition in the Project hrtd been ev5.dent ,md a long term position for 1'l2ntioned, tools ard eqiJipr;ent were purchased to equip a =rkshop facility. Spare parts were recpist.ioned a'1d a sL0ren=,1 set up. This provided PRJ1~'1i'1 '\"'it\" a full repair and maintenanc.e service at Mvuazi. Staff received day to day on-the-job tra ining in proper repair and maintenance pr=edures. a phys}.::.:a.l plant services officer 'V.\"as included 1n the tE.~cmical assistance a phys}.::.:a.l plant services officer 'V.\"as included 1n the tE.~cmical assistance tea.m. h~1~'1 L tea.m. h~1~'1 L 3 • 6 • 4 • LIBRl\\.P:t 3 • 6 • 4 • LIBRl\\.P:t  "},{"text":"serv\"'ice which 1,0.'35 estr1.blished is illustrated by -che fact tJ1at, with only one exception, all \\rei-::icle :=e-Li 'tr~(~tQ~&_ P-4.',7iase(l for t.~e ?roject 'i\".'ere ill OiY2ration at the corrpletion of the prcject (except for one vehicle put out of service due to a major accident). This included veJ1icles five years cld which had been driven over 200, 000 krn under very rO;lgh =ndi tions and tractors wi tel, \\\\'ell over 600 hours of operation.111E' Cassava Outreach project provided support for ar. existing proqrdln tFi'.o::;\\:;1 and inc'Orporated' into the design of the Project were rreasures to alle\\'iate oroblelCls which had been interfering with PRONl>M's operation and output. H:JWever, as could be e>.:pected, not all theSEO H02\"sures \",ere entirely successful and certain other unfors~!1 proble~ developed during L~e course of the Project.  "},{"text":" .4% of operating costs. A long tenn contirmed effort must be made to dennnstrate the value of agricultural research i'-'1d to influence jXJlicy ffic'll;ers to give it a higher priority in the national budget. A notev.vrtl1Y effort was IT<3de in this respect with t..'1e U.S. Presidential Agricultural Task Force Mission to Zaire in January 1985. A prirrary jXJint tlut was enphasized by t..'<e Task Force \"''as the need for proper sUp\"tX'rt for agricultural research. (b) PRO~W1/mERA relationship. Fran the beginning and until present, PRCNlI.'l activities h3ve been carried out on stations that fall under t..'<e \"l~':ional Institute for Agricultural Research (INERA). PRCN1~1 was pllr)XJsely never absclrbed. intD the ll'lERA structure to avoid being ensnared in the cumbersoITe mE.\"<A administration and to avoid the dissipation of funds tl1at v.:lUld be very difficult to prevent in view of the magnitude of mEM's long-standiJlg budget.ary problems. HOwever, there have been a nurnber of problems L\",'<erent in iliis cohabitation wiili INF~. A prirrary problem has centered around ilie quest.ion of what facilities (land, laboratories, offices, houses, etc) can be made available for PRllW!' s needs. Anoilier problem is iliat PR:::tWl is much better equipped and supjXJrted than INERA and, as is nutural ll'lERA freqJently makes demands on PRONT~ for certain services. P~'l feels an obligation to at.tempt to meet some of these requests but iliis is oft~, at t..'1e expense of efficiency in PRONAM's operations. An atte!rpt is being ffi3.de to resolve t..'1ese problems tl1rough dialogue wiili ll'lERA. A convention was signed wi ili INERA in Nove.'l'ber, 1984 which provides broad guidelines governing ilie sh~ing of stBtion facilities. In Hay, 1985, a series of dis0Jssions were held to work out ilie specific detBils as iliey would apply to each station At HIe cOl,q..>letion of tile Project, it a?peared that tIl8 subst.:mce of t:-lese .discussions \",?uld ~ -Li1corporatej ill aT' G..>neye to to,,, ,,:enteral c.'OTlvention tr~t would.~ acceptable to 00~, ~3l~ies.  "}],"sieverID":"d2d7996d-5ebb-43be-9921-b9c3e90863c4","abstract":"Research was carried out at three llE.in sites (Fig. i ): Mvuazi, the National Headquarters in Bas Zaire Region, Kiyaka in Bal1clmdu Region and dental, southern Kivu and north~--n Shaba Regions. The research IoOrk has been a nulti-d.is:::iplma.ry effort involvl..'1g four su...'-programs: Plant Breeding, Plant pal firkiinas llE.de during the Project pc'....riod are presented here. For !lOre detailed infornation, the red>.."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"044e29963a709ec8ec2253b988d64d9b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ddb20606-c36e-4588-b958-3a22940107f5/retrieve"},"pageCount":46,"title":"Analysis of the Retailer Value Chain Segment in Five Governorates Improving Employment and Income through Development of Egypt's Aquaculture Sector IEIDEAS Project","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Findings","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The surveys conducted in the five target governorates provided a wealth of information on the economic, social and market conditions for women working in fish retail. This segment of society is considered among the poorest of the poor, as they have fallen into this line of work either because their husband is a fisherman, they do not have land to farm or they are widowed, divorced or have a husband who is unable to hold full time employment. In short, they work in fish retail because the surrounding social and economic environment and their skill set makes it necessary for them to do so."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"They work under very poor conditions, with the vast majority not working out of any formal market area or shop. All women were unanimous that they have no work other than the sale of fish, though a large number of them expressed a desire to leave their field of work for something less rigorous."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"Most women retailers (65%) buy their fish from the wholesaler in the market while a few of them buy fish from a trader. The number of working days per week ranges from two to seven day, with around 80% of women working 5-7 days per week. Most women use unhygienic and inconvenient containers, such as large metal trays, to store, display and carry the fish to market. These unwieldy containers make transportation between the wholesaler and the market contribute to the difficult employment conditions these women face. Around 50% of women purchase 25-50 kg of fish daily to sale, and can have anywhere between 1 to 10 kg left over at the end of the day. As most of them do not have an appropriate means of storage (regrigerator, freezer), many women will drop their prices at day's end in order to move the product and be able to pay the wholesaler before purchasing the next batch of fish."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"The study team also identified the major obstacles confronting these women fish retailers in the following main areas:"},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"• The availability of fish throughout the year • Quality of fish, particularly as relates to storage and preservation of fish Based on the research carried out by the study team it was concluded that project interventions will initially focus on issues related to the quality, storage and transport of fish, market infrastructure and the policies and organizations which affect women fish retailers, particularly as relates to market and other fees. While the intention is to implement several interventions as part of a unified development plan, the focus in the immediate period will be on the above-mentioned three areas as the most essential interventions.  This report presents the findings of a community-based field surveys conducted from April to July 2012 in the Upper Egyptian governorates of El-Minya (hereon: Minya) and Fayoum and the Delta governorates of Sharqiya, Kafr El-Sheikh, and Beheira, aimed at identifying the main problems facing the women fish retailers segment of the aquaculture value chain in Egypt. The objectives of the study were as follows:"}]},{"head":"Table of Contents","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Abbreviations","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CAPMAS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"1) Gather information on the retailer segment of the value chain and identify where these retailers are concentrated; 2) Monitor the current income level of retailers and identify possibilities for adding jobs in this segment and/or improving current conditions of employment."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"3) Identify the major problems facing the fish retail saleswomen in terms of:"},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"• The availability of fish throughout the year • Quality of fish, particularly as relates to storage and preservation of fish The planned activities addressed in this study fall under Outcome 4 -\"Employment of women in fish retailing improved/increased\" and include:"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• The present study;"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"• Women retailer organizations formed;"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Actions/interventions to support these groups agreed and pursued;"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Analysis of opportunities for employment in fish processing."}]},{"head":"Structure of the report","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The following section of the report will set out the methodology employed over the course of the field survey and the resultant study. Section 3 will present some background information on the five target governorates, while Section 4 will present the main findings of the desk research and field survey. Section 5 presents the main conclusions of the study and recommends interventions to pursue with the women fish retailers based on the problems identified and the demands of the retailers. "}]},{"head":"ACTIVITIES AND METHODOLOGY","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mapping and Planning","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The study began with a series of meetings and communications between CARE's Agriculture and Natural Resources (ANR) management team and Capacity Building Field Supervisors Eshak Mounir and Samy Hussein. ANR Program Director, Samir Sedky, and Initiatives Manager, Susan Nour briefed the study team on the preliminary findings of previous studies conducted within the project and provided them with a preliminary list of contacts and resources identified. A review was conducted of a range of primary and secondary data including:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"• Governmental sources including the Directorate of Agriculture, the Faculty of Agriculture, and GAFRD in Fayoum and Minya; • Civil Society Organizations such as the Coptic Evangelical Organization for Social Services (CEOSS), the Shakshouk CDA, and other local CDAs in Minya and the Delta;"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Secondary sources including government reports on the governorates;"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Based on this review a general agenda of activities was set including the following:"},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"• Mapping relevant/potential sites in the five governorates • Identifying key organizations and contact persons • Identifying relevant civil society organizations who had carried out projects in the five governorates relating to aquaculture or working with potential stakeholders • Setting an agenda for field visits and meetings with key stakeholders"}]},{"head":"Fieldwork","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Once the data review, mapping and planning were completed contacts with relevant governorate counterparts were made in order to introduce the IEIDEAS project and develop a wider network of contacts. Field visits began in the second half of April and focus group discussions and interviews based on a structured questionnaire (attached in Appendix 1) were conducted with civil society organizations, women fish retailers and wholesalers."}]},{"head":"Sample Frame","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Type of Stakeholder # of interviews # present","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Women Fish retailers 278 (50 in each of the Delta governorates, 58 in Fayoum and 70 in Minya)"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Male traders 2"}]},{"head":"NGO staff 7","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Total 287"}]},{"head":"Description of the Sample","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"In the Delta, the samples were chosen after visiting a number of markets mapped out in each governorate. These marketplaces are generally open areas with very little infrastructure. Retailers in general-but fish and other producers in particular-tend to sit on the pavement with a makeshift display to sell their produce. Larger merchants may have a stall or a cart of some sort. In many cases these spaces are rented through the local authority which rents out the area for a few set through an annual tender. Once out of the hands of the local authority, the person leasing the area can determine what to do with the space and what to charge subletters. In Egyptian markets the fee paid to the leaser is known as a \"floor fee\"-literally, a fee paid to be able to sit on a patch of the market floor. The leaser can set these floor fees arbitrarily."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"After visiting these markets, the survey was narrowed down to the markets which had the following characteristics:"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"1 -There are a large number of women working in the retail trade in these markets 2 -Saleswomen in these markets sell in several markets in the villages of the district in question."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"3 -The economic situation of the saleswomen in those markets is weaker than their counterparts in other markets in the governorate. 4 -In terms of size, the markets selected were larger than the other markets in the governorate."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"In Sharqiya the sample was selected from Zagazig, Abuhamad, Abbassa and Belbeis. In Beheira the sample was randomly selected from the Abu Homos district, Edco, Itay Albaroud and Kafr El-Dawar district, while in Kafr El-Sheikh the sample was selected from Riyadh, Biala, Sidi Salem and Motbus, the fish \"stock exchange\" which is in a town in the district of Riyadh, and other locations listed in the table below. The table below also shows the distribution of interviews conducted in each area."},{"index":6,"size":147,"text":"Selection was done by making contacts in each area-usually through the local authorities or contacts within relevant ministries such as the Ministry of Social Affairs-who would then link our researchers with local wholesalers, fish traders or members of NGOs working in the area of the market. These local community members would in turn link the research team to women in the market, usually gathering a group of 10-20 to explain to them the purpose of the researchers visit. Those women who showed a willingness to participate in the survey were asked to stay behind after these information sessios were completed in order to be interviewed by the researchers. Meanwhile in Minya the study was implemented in the villages of El-diabah in the Abu Qurqas district and in the villages of Deir Abu Hanas and Deir al-Barsha in Malawi district. These villages were selected for the following reasons:"}]},{"head":"Division of interviews by towns in the Delta","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Governorate","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"1 -These villages overlook the River Nile, the largest body of water to produce fish in Minya. They have the largest number of fishermen, where the wives of the fishermen market fish as retailers."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"2 -There are entities within these communities -namely, fishermen welfare associations-which are willing to adopt the problems of the women fish retailers and participate in the implementation of the activities that contribute to increasing the income of this group. However, as yet there have been no interventions carried out by these associations among this target group."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"The selected sample included:"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• Women who live in El-diabah, Abu Qurqas district, and work inside or outside the markets of the village (17 women);"},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"• Women who live in the village of Deir Abu Hanas and work mostly within the village selling fish. The sample included 48 women in addition to 5 others from the village of Deir al-Barsha, which is a neighboring village with similar conditions to Deir Abu Hanas. They were included to provide some validation of the results discovered in Deir al-Barsha, and to identify whether or not women in similar environments would have the same problems;"},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"• 2 focus discussion groups that included 15 women from the villages of El-diabah and Deir Abu Hanas. These discussions were about the most important problems experienced by the women fish retailers and the proposed solutions from their point of view."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"Finally, the sample selected in Fayoum-a total of 58 women-all came from villages in the district of Ibshaway for the following reasons:"},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"1-The largest number of fish farms are located in the district of Ibshaway in Fayoum; 2-It overlooks Lake Qarun, the largest body of water producing fish in Fayoum. It has the largest number of fishermen, whose wives tend to work as fish retailers.. The study included the villages of Shakshouk and Abu Shanab; 3-Ibshaway town is a center for the marketing and sale of fish from the villages of Ibshaway district (Shakshouk and Abu Shanab -Al-Jilani -Al-Khalidiya) as well as the villages of Yusuf Al-Seddiq (Al-Kahk -Al-Nazlah -Al-Shaouashna)."}]},{"head":"Study Limitations","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Sourcing accurate and reliable information is a common problem in developing countries. This is very true when attempting to identify data related to aquaculture and accurate data about the number of people working in the aquaculture retail sector. Those working in the retailer sector engage in these activities almost exclusively at the informal level-many of the women we met with do not have official identification and therefore are not registered. During the interviews we witnessed how the different stakeholders are reluctant to varying degrees to share information on their activities."},{"index":2,"size":279,"text":"In addition, the study took place during the months of April and May 2012 when there was a shortage of farmed fish for sale because of the seasonality of production. This led to higher than normal fish prices and relatively low levels of sales by women retailers. governorates in Upper Egypt have, in the past decade, experienced concerted efforts to improve standards and therefore significant strides have been made in terms of human development when compared to the Lower Egyptians governorates. However, it remains that across the board indicators on human development, including education, employment rates (although Minya is an exception here) and status of women are lower in the Upper Egyptian governorates than in the Nile Delta region. For example, in Minya and Fayoum enrollment rates in preparatory education hover around 77 percent, while in Sharqiya and Beheira enrollment rates are around 93 percent, and in Kafr El-Sheikh preparatory school enrollment is 99.5 percent. These numbers all drop off at the secondary level, but the Delta governorates maintain a lead on the Upper Egyptian governorates here as well. Unemployment in Egypt over all affects women more than men (24% percent vs. 6.8 percent). 5 Among these five governorates, Minya has the highest proporation of women in the labor force at 31.4 percent, whereas in the remaining four governorates these rates range between 25 percent (Kafr El-Sheikh and Fayoum) and 29 to 30 percent (Sharqiya and Beheira respectively). The overall gender gap in the labor force in these five governorates ranges between 33 to 46. All five governorates are overwhelmingly rural governorates, with the rural population representing more than three-quarters of the population in these govenorates across the board."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Below is a summary of the main characteristics of each governorate targeted in this project."}]},{"head":"Minya","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Minya is located about 153 miles south of Cairo. The governorate consists of (9) districts, (57) local administrative units each including a number of 'mother villages' totaling 346 mother villages surrounded by 1429 affiliate villages and hamlets. Each district has a major town. Minya is the capital city of the governorate."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Located in the south of Egypt, Minya is an agricultural governorate, making up 5.4% of total Egyptian agricultural production. The agricultural land area covers 472,000 feddans not including the newly reclaimed desert land to the West of the governorate."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"In addition to agriculture, Minya has made recent strides in industry, particularly in food processing, spinning and weaving, and chemicals. An industrial area has been established east of the Nile and has been divided into nine industrial zones. 6 The estimated total population of Minya is about 4.3 million, with an average population growth rate of 2.2%, making it the most populated governorate in Upper Egypt. Of this total population, approximately, 58.1% of the population works in agriculture. 7 The total labor force is about 1.2 million with an unemployment rate of approximately 30% according to pre-January 25 th statistics. No doubt the events of January 25 2011 have had a negative effect on unemployment rates, as they have nationwide, though no clear statistics are available. The GDP per capita was estimated at LE 8655.98 in 2007/08."}]},{"head":"Fayoum","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Fayoum Only 30% of the total area of the governorate is built up, with the remaining area constituting uninhabited desert land. The primary economic activity of Fayoum is agriculture with 434,600 feddans of cultivated land. 9"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The overall unemployment rate is 3.4%, with the highest unemployment rates in Ibshaway (26.9%). The percentage of seasonal and temporary employees is quite low (1.5% and 4.2% respectively), while the overall percentage ofpart-time employees is 25.3% which increases to 29.3% in Senoras."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Fayoum is also home to two large bodies of water-Lakes Qarun and Rayyan, which together account for about 90 thousand feddans and are an important source of income and economic activity including eco-tourism and fisheries. In addition, fish farms have been developed as a means to exploit the areas of Fayoum which are not suitable for arable farming."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"The Sharqiya has one of the highest agricultural production rates in Egypt with 797.2 thousand feddans of agricultural land, comprising 6.5% of total agricultural land in Egypt. The main crops are cotton, maize, potato, sugar cane and wheat. In addition, it is the second highest producer of farmed fish on the national level behind Kafr El-Sheikh."}]},{"head":"Beheira","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Located in the Nile Delta area, the Beheira governorate has an area of 9826 km 2 and is divided into 15 districts and 15 cities with 497 villages, with its capital at Damanhur. It has a population of over 4.7 million."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"It is one of the most resource rich governorates in Egypt with the Rosetta Branch of the Nile running through it and providing a steady source of water for agriculture. The weather is mild and the Nile and Lake Edcu and several other tributaries are excellent resources for fisheries development."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"All of this combines to make Beheira one of the most fertile governorates in Egypt with 1557 thousand feddans of agricultural land. Beheira is well-known for its varied agricultural production which includes cotton, rice, wheat, maize and potato. It is also the number one governorate in Egypt when it comes to fruit and vegetable cultivation and production, exporting potato, tomato, artichoke, watermelon, green beans and peppers. Aquaculture?"}]},{"head":"Kafr El-Sheikh","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The third and final Delta governorate which is part of this project, Kafr El-Sheikh has an area of 3466.7 km 2 and is comprised of 10 districts and 10 cities with 206 villages. The total population is 2.6 million with most of that population centered in rural areas."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Kafr El-Sheikh is considered an agricultural governorate with 602.1 thousand feddans of agricultural land, and it is known for cultivating rice, sugar beet, cotton and wheat. It is the highest producer of farmed fish in the country, making up 55% of the total national production of fish."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The table below highlights population numbers, unemployment rates and volume of fish production in the five target governorates: "}]},{"head":"MAIN FINDINGS","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Survey: Main Findings","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The survey conducted with the above-detailed sample addressed a number of issues related to the following."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"• The availability of fish throughout the year • Quality of fish, particularly as relates to storage and preservation of fish All of the women fish retailers selected in the 5 governorates are counted among the poorest of the poor in their governorate. In general there was agreement that they worked in the field of fish retail because they and their husbands do not own land to farm or that this segment of women supports their family because most of them are widowed (e.g., 48% of respondents in the Delta are widowed) or have elderly husbands who are unable to earn or who are casual laborers, making them vulnerable to unemployment."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Also, in one village in Fayoum it was found that of the women surveyed, 48 were married to fishermen and 10 women are either divorced or widowed. This is an indication that, in fact, these women enter this profession on the basis that they have few other sources of income and employment. Work in fish retail is generally an indication of a lack of land to farm. In Shakshouk, Fayoum, for example the majority of the population there works in some aspect of fishing-whether as fishermen, retailers or wholesalers. This is due not only to its proximity to Lake Qarun which makes fishing an ideal profession, but which has also rendered most surrounding land not arable due to increased soil salinity."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Another reason they worked in fish retail is because their husbands are fishermen and they work to either sell their husband's catch during the fishing season and/or to supplement the income supplied by their husbands when they go away to work during the months where there is a fishing ban. In the cases of Fayoum and Minya these women's husband likely travel to Aswan to fish in Lake Nasser. They are away for months at a time and women must work to earn enough to cover day-to-day expenses."},{"index":5,"size":113,"text":"All women were unanimous that they have no work other than the sale of fish, though a large number of them expressed a desire to leave their field of work for something less rigorous. When asked if they would remain in fish retail if their conditions improved, many if not most were ambiguous as to whether or not they would continue in the field of fish retail mainly due to the fact that they could not envision what conditions would make it a worthwhile field of work. In addition, particularly in the more conservative Upper Egyptian governorates, many women expressed a sense of shame at having to venture outside the home for work."},{"index":6,"size":112,"text":"Most of these women are illiterate, as ascertained when they opted to stamp the surveys conducted with them as opposed to sigining them. The average household size is between 4 -10 persons, and the majority of women surveyed (78%) had families of 6 or more members. Many of these women live in single room mudbrick houses, with no running water or sanitation systems. In the Fayoum village of Shakshouk, where many of the inhabitants live close to the lake, there is an issue of water seeping into their houses from the ground making for very damp and unsanitary living conditions. The tables below show some of the main results from the survey:"},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Husband's occupation As demonstrated in the table above, most women retailers buy their fish from the wholesaler in the market. The number of working days per week ranges from two days to seven days as a maximum. In the case of Minia, some women, wives of fishermen, market fish that their husbands catch from the Nile, though not exclusively. However, due to the significant reduction in the production of fish from the Nile because some fishermen practice overfishing, the economic returns from the profession have become very weak."},{"index":8,"size":228,"text":". Therefore, a number of fishermen turned to work as day-laborers in quarries near the town. The fishermen's wives in that case have turned to buying fish from wholesalers in Abu Qurqas, who sell fish brought from Lake Nasser in Aswan. Women prefer choose to buy this type of fish due to its low cost making it easier to sell to the consumer. They generally operate as mobile peddlers, traveling to the villages surrounding Abu Qurqas and villages of the Minya district. This type of fish is popular in the villages due to its low price, despite of its low quality. Women also buy silver fish and catfish if available through traders. The village of El-Diabah includes about 50 to 60 fish retail saleswomen who go in the morning to the wholesaler to buy one or two containers of fish per woman (one container weighs 25 kilograms). They buy fish on credit-to be repaid the next morning-and then sell to surrounding villages, returning to their village at the end of the day. They pay for purchases the next day and get new fish and so on. This same method of operation applies across the remaining four governorates. The trader from whom they buy fish does not buy it directly from Aswan, but from a Malawi district-based wholesaler, who distributes to fish traders in the various districts of Minya."},{"index":9,"size":193,"text":"When asked about how they pay their supplier, the majority of respondents (93%) said they purchase fish on credit to be repaid the next day or at the very latest within two days. In some cases they may borrow from other women retailers to cover expenses and be able to repay the supplier. In other cases women noted that wholesaler would not allow them to buy more fish until she had covered the cost of the fish she had already taken. When asked about who sets the sale price for fish nearly all of the retailers surveyed responded that the wholesaler sets the price. In only one case did the retailer set the price and in under five cases the price was set by the farm from which the fish was sourced. In terms of where women sell their fish, most women in the five governorates sell on the street or sidewalk in the local informal market area. Fewer than 10 respondents said that they sell out of a formalized shop or stall. Minya is unique among the five governorates in that approximately 25% of women retailers surveyed peddle their fish from door-to-door."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"Almost all the women noted that they are not currently affiliated with an association or organization which specifically addresses their needs, however, they would like to belong to such an entity."}]},{"head":"Main Characteristics of Fish Retail: Case Study of Minya and Fayoum","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MINYA","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"El-Diabah, Abu Qurqas district:"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"El-Diabah, Abu Qurqas district is located in the east of the Nile River in the governorate of Minya. To the east of the village lies a mountain, to the south lies the village of Bani Hassan Alshorouq and to the north lies Abu Janah estate."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"The enumerators were able to record 47 women working in fish retail in the village, who are mostly wives of fishermen or quarry workers. The village is one of the largest villages with women working in fish retail, and their business covers not only the surrounding villages in the district, but extends to villages in the Minya district as well."}]},{"head":"Sources of fish","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The retail chain takes two forms in Minya as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"First: Women sell fish caught from the River Nile, usually by their husbands"}]},{"head":"Wives of fishermen (retailers)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Fish caught by fishermen from the Nile (husband's fish) Second: Women buy fish from wholesalers and sell them in the surrounding villages and most of the women in the village buy frozen fish, brought from Aswan Lake, from wholesalers"}]},{"head":"Prices of fish and economic returns","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":401,"text":"The price of frozen tilapia from Aswan Lake ranges from 7-8 LE per kilo. The price of the catfish ranges from 8-9 LE per kilo. The price of silver fish ranges from 5-6 LE per kilo. Each women determines the selling price in light of market conditions, quality of fish and the timing of sales-whether at the start or at the end of the day, when fish is sold at lower prices due to exposure to heat and other factors over the course of the day. In all cases, the average profit margin was found to be between 1-2 LE per kilogram as demonstrated in the table below: On a typical day these women sell 25 kilograms (one container) of any type of fish available at the traders. If the fish is sold before the end of the day they buy another 25 kg container. In a typical case, the gross profit for women who sell 25 kg is between 25 to 40 LE depending on the quality and type of fish purchased and the time of day when the sale occurs (later in the day the retailer will lower the price in order to move her product). Approximately 10 LE daily is deducted for various expenses, which can include transportation,market rental fees, and in some cases scale rental fees. In el-Diabeh village, to get to market, women must take a microbus to the river, cross on a ferry and then catch another microbus to their destination on the other side of the Nile. This can result in a roundtrip cost of between 3-6 LE depending on their destination (1.5 LE for microbus to and from village to river; 0.5 LE for river ferry, and anywhere from 1 to 4 LE for destinations beyond). Scale rental costs between 1 LE to 2 LE depending on the owner of the scales, and floor fees (if paid) in Minya are between 2-5 LE. However, most retailers in Minya avoid these floor fees by either remaining mobile or selling in front of their homes (in the case of Deir al-Barsha). In the case of Minya as well, few women purchase ice for their fish. In fact, during a validation workshop in el-Diabeh with a group of 28 women, they were all in agreement that they prefer not to have ice on their fish, as it puts consumers off. Consumers assume Wholesale and/or wholesales traders"}]},{"head":"Costs and returns from fish sales by women retailers in Minya","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Retailer women that the fish is on ice because it is not fresh and will not buy. One woman even said that if the fish comes with ice on it she will remove it in order to increase her chances of sale. Therefore, taking into account the above expenses the net profit comes to 15-30 LE. This is in the case that all fish is sold by the end of the day. However, in many cases, there is a loss of about 1-2 kg per container either because that fish is not sold, or because the wholesaler sells each container as a 25 kg standard without weighing it. In many cases, the weight of the fish in the container is 1 or 2 kilos short of the standard 25 kg. Therefore, full profits are not realized."}]},{"head":"Places for selling fish","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Women sell in the villages in the district of Abu Qurqas and the villages of Minia. The main villages where these women operate are Bani Ahmed, Alzawya, Almitahirh, Nazalt Obeid, Farajallah, Bani Obeid, al-Nahal , al-Barba, Sheikh Mubarak, al-Shoarfa , and Abu Qurqas. If they have been able to obtain high quality fish-either through a good catch that day or because it is a high season for fish (holidays)-they sell in the main market of the town. However, the fish brought from Aswan is frozen and retailers are keen to sell it as quickly as possible before it thaws completely and they want to sell the largest quantity possible before it spoils. For these reasons, they peddle their fish on foot through villages where demand is high due to its lower price, which is approximately 4 LE/KG cheaper than farmed fish alternatives."}]},{"head":"The villages of Deir Abu Hans and Deir al-Barsha in Mallawi district:","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The villages of Deir Abu Hans and Deir al-Barsha in the Mallawi district are located east of the River Nile in the governorate of Minya. To the west lies the River Nile, to the east lies the mountains, to the south lies the village of Al Barsha, and to the north lies Sheikh Ebada."}]},{"head":"Sources of fish","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Fish are bought on credit from fishermen who fish the canals or Nile enclaves (akhwar) branching off from the Nile, and pay at the end of the day or the next morning at the latest. Some fishermen refuse to sell on credit and the owner of the enclave forces the women to buy all the fish caught regardless of the type and size. There are very few enclave owners/leasers in the areas near where these women retailers are located in Minya, and in most cases they have a monopoly on fishing and the fish produced in this enclave. Fish are provided by the husband if he is a fisherman. The most important fish sold are Nile tilapia, catfish and bayad."}]},{"head":"Places for selling fish","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":260,"text":"In the village of Deir Abu Hanas, women sell fish whether in front of their houses or in the streets. They do not go to the surrounding areas, as the village is large enough to accommodate the production. Some traders even come from the neighboring villages and sell their fish in the village. It is the same case for the village of Deir al-Barsha, where sale is within the village, though a limited number do sell fish outside the village in the villages of Nazlet Al Barsha and Deir Abu Hanas. In particular, women who buy farmed fish sell it within the village of Deir Abu Hanas and Deir al Barsha. When there is no Nile fish to be had, some of the women will buy farmed fish from traders in order to generate some income during this period. Women in the village of el-Diabeh however expressed that farmed fish is generally too expensive to be profitable for them to sell. El-Diabeh is located east of the Nile and at a distance from most of the fish farms in Minya. The type of fish which is farmed would require either oxygen to transport live or need to be delivered to the retailer as soon as possible after harvesting. In addition, any fish which would come to their village would have to be transported across the river adding to the operation costs. These factors make selling farmed fish in el-Diabeh unattractive at the moment. Generally, these women do not have the area or the capital to begin considering producing fish themselves. "}]},{"head":"FAYOUM","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Shakshouk","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sources to buy fish","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Wives of fishermen market the fish caught from Lake Qarun. In the village of Shakshouk and surrounding area there are 268 licensed boats that operate on Lake Qarun. Each vessel has between 4-6 fishermen. That means that the average number of fishermen is around 1340. There are no statistics on the number of retailers, butestimates given by the women retailers, wholesalers and local NGO staff-shows that there are at least 500 women who sell fish in the village of Shakshouk or the town of Ibshaway and the neighboring villages in Sanuras district, namely the villages of Sanhour and Fidman. Women are divided into several categories:"},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Women who sell fish caught by their husband from the lake only and stop selling during the season when fishing is banned Women who sell fish caught by their husbands from the lake, along with buying farmed fish from wholesalers , during the fishing ban season"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Women who buy and sell fish from wholesalers or directly from farms. Most women in the village buy farmed fish from wholesalers who bring fish to the village from the surrounding farms in Shakshouk."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"There are a total of 7 wholesalers who operate in the village of Shakshouk. Each one distributes between 0.5-1 ton of fish per day, so approximately 5 to 6 tons of fish are sold per day. This quantity is sold in several markets surrounding the village, the most important of which are: 1 -Ibshaway market 2 -Sanhour market in the district of Sanuras 3 -Fidman market in the district of Sanuras 4 -Shakshok market These markets do not differe greatly in the type of consumer or the quality and quantity of fish demanded. Most consumers in these markets prefer medium-sized tilapia (approximately 4 fish to a kilogram)."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Fish caught by fishermen in the lake (husband's fish)"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Fishermen's wives act as retailers"}]},{"head":"Producers","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Retailers Wholesalers Fish caught by fishermen in the lake"}]},{"head":"Wholesalers of farm fish","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Fishermen's wives as retailers for caught and farmed fish Producers of farmed fish Places for selling fish An actual count of 400 women retailers has been done with the local enumerator gathering the names and details of these women over the course of several weeks.Of these women:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"-17 sell more or less exclusively in the local Shakshouk market -123 sell in Sanhour -94 sell in Ibshaway"}]},{"head":"Abu Shanab Sources for buying fish","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"There are a number of women who market the fish caught by their husbands from Lake Qarun. In the village, there are 60 licensed boats that sail on Lake Qarun and on board each vessel there are 4-6 workers, so the average number of fishermen is about 300 fishermen. There are no statistics on the number of retailers, but the preliminary data shows that there are more than 200 women who market the fish in the village of Abu Shanab or in the town of Ibshaway and nearby villages such as the villages of Al-Khalidiya, Sorour , Allokanda and Alzarabi."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"Women buy fish from the wholesalers or from the farms and sell them. Most women in the village buy fish from the farms around the village of Abu Shanab because they are nearby. This proves to be more cost effective from them as they can purchase fish at the wholesaler price. Retailers from the village of Shakshouk have a harder time purchasing direct from the farm due to the distance and transportation difficulties, so they buy via a wholesaler. In addition, sales direct from the farm begin at dawn which is another obstacle to retailers who are based at a distance from the farms. Women sell fish caught by their husbands from the lake, along with buying and selling farmed fish. They often resort to the second option because their husbands travel outside the village when Lake Qarun is closed to work in the High Dam Lake in Aswan and are away from the village for long periods of time. While their husbands send back remittances periodically, women must work to earn money for day-to-day expenses."}]},{"head":"Places for selling fish","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"In the mornings, some women sell very small fish from Lake Qarun fishermen at about 2 LE per kilo as food for ducks. In the afternoon, they sell medium and small fish, whether in the village market or in the markets around the town of Ibshaway and the villages of Aboxa , Sanro, Talat and Sorour. The table above is an overview of the main problems facing the women fish retailers across the five governorates as analyzed across the various segments of the value chain."}]},{"head":"Problem analysis","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Below is a detailed summary of the problems as found in the five governorates based on the surveys:"}]},{"head":"Problems related to the current laws:","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Markets in Egypt and especially in Upper Egypt, in Fayoum and Minia, lack the simplest evidence of planning, and often lack any official control or presence. The respondents were unanimous that the state, represented by the staff of the City Council, is collecting daily fees from the saleswomen in the market, which are called \"floor fees\", even though they sit on the street and there are no particular places allocated for them in the markets."}]},{"head":"-Problems related to availability of fish and its impact on prices:","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Women were unanimous that they are facing the problem of the lack of fish throughout the year and especially those who rely on their trade on the Nile fish, where production drops sharply over the period from April to August, leading to higher prices of fish and low demand by consumers. This in turn negatively affects their income, standard of living, health and social status. In the Delta, those who have financial ability to do so, go to Al Obour market (near Cairo). However, this increases their costs due to"}]},{"head":"Input & Services","index":42,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Wholesale","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Retail Production transportation costs. Others deal with traders, who raise the price of fish. All the respondents sell tilapia as an essential product, along with some other items. Some of them sell tilapia and catfish, others sell tilapia with mullet and some of them sell the three types together. Some of them sort the fish after buying it from the merchant, and others buy sorted fish. "}]},{"head":"Problems related to the markets and points of sale:","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"There are but very few specialized fish markets. Fish is generally sold either within the vicinity of the town of village market; or through mobile peddling in the streets. The markets where fish is sold are generally very poor in infrastructure, and even worse in terms of hygiene. Fish retailers may be put into two main categories: a-Retailers with shops (very rare among the target group addressed in this report) a. Selling fish only b. Selling fish with added value; i.e. cleaning and frying / grilling. b-Street peddling: mostly women retailers and may be categorized into two types a. Sit-in peddling within markets; especially in towns and villages b. Mobile peddling who roam the streets and may knock on doors for clients (seen in Minya)"},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"For this second category of retailer, there are no specific places allocated for them in the market. They sit on the street and sell out of whatever container they have available. In many cases, the local facilities police chase them and collect road occupancy fines and sometimes confiscate their fish, which of course has a negative financial affect on them. In the winter, they are exposed to rainfall and sit in the muddy streets and in the summer, they are exposed to the heat of the sun, which affects their health. They are also subject to mistreatment at the hands of shop or homeowners whose properties they may sometimes sit in front of. On some occasions shop owners have thrown dirty water on them in order to get them to leave the area. In Minya, some cases were reported where shop or homeowners through the entire container of fish on the street in order to get these women to move"}]},{"head":"4-Problems related to trade and transport of fish","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"The majority of respondents agreed that they are suffering, especially in the summer, from the lack of ice ,which is both costly and not always readily available, for keeping the fish fresh. The necessity of purchasing ice of course increases their costs and consequently reduces their profits. The lack of ice, however, increases the likelihood of fish spoiling, thus leading to even greater losses. Retailers also noted the lack of availability of refrigerated vehicles to transport fish from the farms to the wholesale or retail fish markets. The biggest problem facing women is the lack of appropriate vehicles to transport them to the retail markets in towns and the surrounding villages. Some passenger vehicle drivers refuse to transport them because the other passengers do not like to travel with fish. In addition, the steel containers that women use in most cases to transport fish make it very awkward and inconvenient to transport fish using normal transport means (a mini bus or similar). In Fayoum, one woman described balancing her steel tray with fish on top of her head while hanging off of the back of a flatbed truck in order to get to market."}]},{"head":"Problems related to organizations and institutions:","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The respondents generally agreed that there is no dedicated governmental or non-governmental agency which addresses their particular needs and helps them to confront their work-related issues, or occupational-related health and social issues."}]},{"head":"-Problems related to funding:","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"There is no agency to lend or fund these women, and they face high prices and costs through most of the year. That forces most of them to buy on credit from the wholesalers who impose conditions, either in terms of price or the types of fish supplied to them."}]},{"head":"-Problems related to the services provided to consumers:","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Very few women in the five governorates provide value-added services to consumers, such as cleaning or otherwise processing the fish. This is due to the fact that in poorer markets, consumers prefer to save the money they would pay for such services and just clean the fish themselves at home. Such valueadded services might have more demand in markets in cities or larger towns."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":49,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The findings clearly demonstrate that women working in fish retail are largely marginalized lacking any support from any government or non-government entity; working in strenuous conditions/environments that renders it a profession which most only work in out of necessity; lacking proper tools, services and utilities in their markets; and earning meager profits at the end of long working days. The following are a few recommendations which would contribute to the formalization of this profession. This would make fish retailing a more attractive area of work, thus either increasing the number employed in it or improving the conditions for and incomes of those already employed in the sector."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"1. It is necessary to establish an entity, whether a formal civil society organization or an informal grouping of retailers, which adopts their cause and assists them in obtaining their rights and providing some of the services they need."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"2. It is necessary to work with local units and other potential stakeholders to: a-Establish proper places for fish marketing and;"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"b-Allocate enough space for marginalized women fish retailers and legalize the floors fees that are imposed on women."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"3. It is necessary to streamline the process by which fish is bought and sold by establishing a direct relationship between the owners of fish farms and the retailers. As shown in the survey, the wholesaler as middleman is almost exclusively responsible for setting the price. Thus, exploitation of women fish retailers is most likely to occur at this stage. Therefore it is important for NGOs or retailer organizations to play a role in negotiating and contracting with relevant segments of the value chain (be it the fish farm owner or the wholesaler) to provide fish to the retailers at lower and more fair prices than the current price of the wholesaler."},{"index":6,"size":146,"text":"Some NGOs have shown a desire to play such a role in case places for storage and transportation are available. The NGOs have expressed their willingness to create a compound for the sale and distribution of fish and that can be done in coordination with the project as a grant for the NGOs working in this area 4. It is necessary to provide means for storage in order to reduce the amount of fish exposed to damage or that are sold at low prices. This can be done by providing Ice-Boxes to store the fish during the sale in the markets or what remains at the end of the day. It is also important to provide ice at low prices, either through the association or as a project implemented by an individual in the village, or Deep Freezers to the associations to store the remaining fish."},{"index":7,"size":94,"text":"5. It is necessary on link women retailers associations to the development of small projects associations to provide credit for women to buy fish in cash, apply the idea of the village saving and loans association (VSLA) to provide capital for the cash purchase, or that the association buys fish on credit from the farms and pay them on the second day of purchase after collecting money from the saleswomen 6. It is necessary to train women on the skills of salesmanship, marketing, product presentation and added services (cleaning -packaging -.. grilling -home delivery)"},{"index":8,"size":115,"text":"7. It is necessary to coordinate and link farms, for which technical support is provided by the World Fish Center, to the retailers benefiting from the same implemented project What about marginalized men fish retailers? How will you also work with them, to ensure you do not create conflict? This is a good question and one we did not adequately cover during the survey, but one which we are starting to think about and consider. In Sharqiya one of the NGOs who would like to work on this project has asked that we make allowances for 10% of the retailers assisted in this project be male. How we will assist them remains to be seen."}]},{"head":"Suggested interventions","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Based on the results of a validation workshop held in Fayoum on 24 July 2012 with a group of 25 women from Shakshouk who sell in three different markets (Ibshaway, Sanhour and Shakshouk) the following three issues are priority areas for them:"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"1) Storage and maintenance of fish: The overwhelming majority of women felt that this was a key issue in terms of transport and marketing and a major obstacle to profitability as they are forced to sell at lower prices later in the day. The following are some of the suggested interventions:"},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"The women were keen to explore the idea of purchasing ice boxes as a solution to this issue. They feel that iceboxes would solve a number of issues namely make it easier for them to transport their fish instead of in open stainless steel or plastic boxes. They also felt that with the addition of ice in a closed and insulated icebox fish would stay fresh for longer. Women also seemed keen to develop a local ice making unit where they could purchase their ice instead of being forced to purchase at higher prices in the local market."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"The women in Shakshouk were less keen about the idea of purchasing a central deep freezer or refrigeration unit where they could store unsold fish overnight. However, women surveyed in Minya were very receptive to the idea of having a refridgeration unit either at the local CDA or located at a local supermarket."},{"index":5,"size":141,"text":"2) Marketplaces: The second priority area of focus for these women was the marketplace and the market conditions. Although some expressed the fact that they were \"used to\" selling under less than ideal conditions (no shade from the sun, no specifically allocated area, facing abuse from the local authority or local shop owners who sometimes dump dirty water on them in order to get them to move), women felt that the second most important area to address was improving the market conditions The following are some of the suggested interventions: Allocating an area in the market specifically for fish retail and setting up a covered market area there. 3) Stall rental and fees: Closely related to this second priority is the issue of fees paid to \"rent\" areas to sit and sell fish. The following are some of the suggested interventions:"},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Lobbying with the local authority to pay a lower rental price since they would be paying as a group; or ensuring that they pay the actual rental price as opposed to some arbitrarily set price."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Some other interventions which were discussed are as follows:"},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"• A car or a tricycle carrying live fish which goes around villages in order to ease the transportation issue and also so that women are able to sell fish at a higher price as it is live. This can be done through the farms and by linking with the relevant markets. • A few women can work in cage farming if feasible, or have small home-based tanks."},{"index":9,"size":106,"text":"• The local NGO can operate as the \"middle man\" in place of the trader or wholesaler. In this way the NGO would buy fish directly from farms at wholesale prices and sell it to women affiliated with the NGO at a fair price. Payments can be made after sale and any fish that is not sold can be cold stored at CDA premises and sold for the same price the next day. This would solve several issues related to storage of fish, price and transport of fish to retailers and markets, and would also help to secure a source of fish during the low seasons."},{"index":10,"size":42,"text":"• At the district level a small shop could be opened in the main market area where women retailers sell and clean fish. This would be a service geared towards working women for whom this service would be a real value added."},{"index":11,"size":41,"text":"• A freezer could be sold to the CDA or at another centrally located area and ice could be produced by filling plastic bags with water to be /sold to fish retailers in place of the expensive ice bought in markets."},{"index":12,"size":29,"text":"• We could look into interest on the part of one or two women in each community who might be interested raising ornamental fish for sale in the cities."},{"index":13,"size":40,"text":"• We should also look into the idea of linking women who are already involved in shrimp peeling directly with factories or large food retailers in order to contract with them directly and get a fair price for this service."},{"index":14,"size":44,"text":"• Generally, we also need to look into opportunities for processing whether it be fileting of fish for sale in hypermarkets or to hotels and restaurants, or for the use of fish byproducts in making other products in demand (e.g., bones into duck feed). "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1. Introduction and Background ............................................................................................................... 1.1 Background to the study............................................................................................................... 1.2 Background to the project ............................................................................................................ 1.3 Structure of the report.................................................................................................................. 2. Activities and Methodology .................................................................................................................. 2.1 Mapping and Planning ....................................................................................................................... 2.2 Fieldwork....................................................................................................................................... 2.3 Study Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 3. The Five Governorates ..........................................................................................................................3.1 Minya .................................................................................................................................................. 3.2 Fayoum................................................................................................................................................ 3.3. Sharqiya............................................................................................................................................ 3.4 Beheira ............................................................................................................................................. 3.5. Kafr El-Sheikh ................................................................................................................................... 4. Main findings ...................................................................................................................................... 4.1 Description of the Sample.............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.2 Survey: Main Findings ................................................................................................................. 4.3 Main Characteristics of Fish Retail: Case Study of Minya and Fayoum ...................................... 4.4 Problem analysis ......................................................................................................................... 5. conclusions and recommendations ........................................................................................................ 5.1 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 5.2 Suggested interventions ...................................................................................................................30 "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Eshak Mounir and Fatma Ramadan interview women fish retailers in Shakshouk, Fayoum "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2 : Enumerator Fatima Ramadan filling the questionnaire in the modest one room home of a woman fish retailer in Shakshouk, Fayoum "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3 : Woman retailer selling fish outside her home in Mallawi "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Women selling live catfish and tilapia in Abu Hammad market in Sharkia "},{"text":"( b. Low returns and increase in price of fish from traders c. Trader demands advance before providing fish d. Difficulty in transporting fish container and cost e. Keeping fish fresh for market f. Not selling all fish the same day and having to sell remaining fish Please number the top three most pressing problems in order of importance) 19. Description of the residence "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" • Access to capital and credit • Market infrastructure • Problems related to transportation • Price-setting • Types and volumes of fish sold • The enabling environment • Laws and policies which affect women fish retailers • The presence of organizations which address retailers' needs and the extent to which such organizations are needed  "},{"text":"AND BACKGROUND 1.1 Background to the study This study comes in the context of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) funded project, Improving Employment and Income through Development of Egypt's Aquaculture Sector (IEIDEAS)-a joint initiative between the WorldFish Center and CARE Egypt. The study and field activities were led by CARE's Capacity Building Field Supervisors Eshak Mounir (Upper Egypt) and Samy Hussein (Delta). They were assisted by local community members who acted as researchers and enumerators. In Minya, Eshak was assisted by Ms. Magda Moussa, a member of the women's committee of the NGO for the Improvement of Fishermen's Lives in Deir Abu Hennis, Malawi. He was also assisted by Mr. Talaat Kamal, the chair of the board of the same NGO. In Fayoum he was assisted by Fatima Ramadan, a volunteer in two NGOs in Fayoum-the Shakshouk CDA and the Abu Shanab CDA. Meanwhile, in the Delta, Samy Hussein was assisted by Asmaa Mohammed in Sharqiya, Mohammed Wafiq in Kafr El-Sheikh, and Dr. Amin al-Daqla in Beheira. Hossam Metwalli helped him to analyze the data for the three Delta governorates. 1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION  Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics CDA Community Development Association CDACommunity Development Association EEAA Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency EEAAEgyptian Environmental Affairs Agency GAFRD General Authority for Fisheries Resources Development GAFRDGeneral Authority for Fisheries Resources Development GDP Gross Domestic Product GDPGross Domestic Product IEIDEAS Improving Employment and Income through Development of Egypt's Aquaculture Sector IEIDEASImproving Employment and Income through Development of Egypt's Aquaculture Sector LE Egyptian Pounds (US$ 1 = LE 6.06) LEEgyptian Pounds (US$ 1 = LE 6.06) MALR Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation MALRMinistry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation MOSA Ministry of Social Affairs MOSAMinistry of Social Affairs MWRI Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation MWRIMinistry of Water Resources and Irrigation SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDCSwiss Agency for Development and Cooperation VSLA Village Savings and Loans Association VSLAVillage Savings and Loans Association  "},{"text":"2 Background to the project This study complements previous studies conducted in the context of the IEIDEAS project which analyzed other segments of the value chain-namely the input segment 1 and the production segment in Minya.The IEIDEAS project is a 3-year intervention funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and implemented by WorldFish Center in partnership with CARE Egypt's Agriculture and Natural Resources Program and the Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. The project started in December 2011 and its main aims are to secure the future of at least 100,000 people already employed directly in the aquaculture value chain and support sustainable expansion of the sector. The aims of this project are in alignment with the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation's strategy for increasing national fish production to 2 million tonnes by 2030 3 , increasing per capita consumption from 13 kg in 2007 to approximately 18 kg by 2030. • Access to capital and credit • Access to capital and credit • Market infrastructure • Market infrastructure • Problems related to transportation • Problems related to transportation • Price-setting • Price-setting • Types and volumes of fish sold • Types and volumes of fish sold • The enabling environment • The enabling environment • Laws and policies which affect women fish retailers • Laws and policies which affect women fish retailers • The presence of organizations which address retailers' needs and the extent to which such • The presence of organizations which address retailers' needs and the extent to which such organizations are needed organizations are needed  "},{"text":" The estimated population of Fayoum as of the latest census in 2008 was 2,646,661, with 27.5% of inhabitants located in Fayoum city, 20% in Itsa, and 17.2% in Senoures, 12.5% in Tamiya, and Ibshaway with 11.7% of total inhabitants. The majority of the population (77.7%) is rural with the urban population making up on 22.3% of the total population. There are approximately 162 villages and 61 local units in the governorate of Fayoum.  "},{"text":" following shows licensed fish farms in Fayoum Governorate according to statistics from the General Authority for Fisheries Resources Development (GAFRD) 10 :  92.4 1   22 Fayoum 6  92.4122Fayoum6 The 13608 % 15 324  Additional areas (unofficial or The13608%15324Additional areas (unofficial or surplus       unregistered farms assumed to surplusunregistered farms assumed to rate 15%       be 15% of total registered area) rate 15%be 15% of total registered area)  12008 209  2750  Total 12008 2092750Total 3.3. Sharqiya        3.3. Sharqiya Notes  Production Number of farms Area (in District NotesProductionNumber of farmsArea (inDistrict   capacity in   feddan) capacity infeddan)   tons     tons The overall 2121 115  505 Ibshaway 1 Theoverall2121115505Ibshaway 1 average of the        average of the production of 500 5779.2 + 16  10 1376 + Yusuf Al- 2 productionof5005779.2 +16101376 +Yusuf Al-2 feddan 24 ton    condensed Seddiq feddan24toncondensedSeddiq ton/feddan  1621.2 63  386 Senouras 3 ton/feddan1621.263386Senouras 3  201.6 10  48 Itsa 4  201.6 1048Itsa4  331.8 4   79 Tamiya 5  331.8 479Tamiya5 9 http://www.egyptpsu.com/English/Fayoum/Overview   9 http://www.egyptpsu.com/English/Fayoum/Overview  "},{"text":"Number of days worked Number of days working as fish retailer per week  Fisherman Fish storage 12 30.6% Fisherman Fish storage 1230.6% Day labourer Unemployed Number of days fish is stored 22.7% 19.4% Deceased Sell same day 10.8% Farmer Stored for one day 6.1% Fish Trader Stored for two days 2.5% Retailer 1.8% Stored for three days Proportion of interviewees 11.5% 38.5% 35.6% 14.4% Day labourer Unemployed Number of days fish is stored 22.7% 19.4% Deceased Sell same day 10.8% Farmer Stored for one day 6.1% Fish Trader Stored for two days 2.5% Retailer 1.8% Stored for three daysProportion of interviewees 11.5% 38.5% 35.6% 14.4% Divorced 1.1% Divorced1.1% Teacher No response Overnight fish storage methods 0.7% 3.96% Teacher No response Overnight fish storage methods 0.7% 3.96% Method  Proportion of interviewees MethodProportion of interviewees Fridge Source of fish On ice  38.3% 15.9% Fridge Source of fish On ice38.3% 15.9% Source of fish No storage (fish sold same day) Proportion of interviewees 45.8% Source of fish No storage (fish sold same day)Proportion of interviewees 45.8% Wholesaler  65.5% Wholesaler65.5% Relative/husband fisherman Fish farm Amount 25.2% 4.7% Relative/husband fisherman Fish farm Amount25.2% 4.7% Husband is fisherman or wholesaler 4.7% Husband is fisherman or wholesaler 4.7%  Proportion of Proportionof  interviewees interviewees Seven 37.77% Seven37.77% Six 26.62% Six26.62% Five 25.90% Five25.90% Four 6.83% Four6.83% Two 0.72% Two0.72% One 0.36% One0.36% No response 0.2% No response0.2% Types of fish sold  Types of fish sold Species  Proportion of interviewees SpeciesProportion of interviewees Tilapia  35.6% Tilapia35.6% Tilapia & African catfish  27.4% Tilapia & African catfish27.4% Tilapia & mullet  17.8% Tilapia & mullet17.8% Tilapia, mullet, Bagrus catfish & African catfish 15.9% Tilapia, mullet, Bagrus catfish & African catfish15.9% All types  0.96% All types0.96% Bagrus catfish & mullet  0.96% Bagrus catfish & mullet0.96% Tilapia, Bagrus catfish & African catfish 0.48% Tilapia, Bagrus catfish & African catfish0.48% Bagrus catfish & African catfish 0.48% Bagrus catfish & African catfish0.48% African catfish  0.48% African catfish0.48% Occupation Proportion of interviewees OccupationProportion of interviewees  "},{"text":"of fish left over each day Quantity of fish not sold at the end of each day Proportion of interviewees  None 36.7% None36.7% 1-3 kg 20.5% 1-3 kg20.5% 4-5 kg 1.1% 4-5 kg1.1% 5-10 kg 25.2% 5-10 kg25.2% 10+ kg 18.4% 10+ kg18.4%  "},{"text":"Fish display methods Method used for fish display and storage Proportion of interviewees  Quantity of fish sold each day Proportion of interviewees Quantity of fish sold each dayProportion of interviewees Less than 10 kg 8.63% Less than 10 kg8.63% 10-14 kg 15.83% 10-14 kg15.83% 15-19 kg 25.90% 15-19 kg25.90% 20-50 kg 48.20% 20-50 kg48.20% 50+ kg 1.44% 50+ kg1.44% Wooden boxes 1.44% Wooden boxes1.44% Plastic crates 1.44% Plastic crates1.44% Metal trays, plastic bags and 36.33% Metal trays, plastic bags and36.33% wooden tables  wooden tables Metal trays and plastic bags 5.40% Metal trays and plastic bags5.40% Metal trays and plastic crates 5.40% Metal trays and plastic crates5.40% Metal trays 47.12% Metal trays47.12% Plastic crates 0.36% Plastic crates0.36% Other methods 2.16% Other methods2.16% Amount of fish sold on a daily basis  Amount of fish sold on a daily basis  "},{"text":"Type of fish Purchase price (LE/kg) Sale price (LE/kg)  Aswan tilapia 7-8 8-10 Aswan tilapia7-88-10 Catfish 8-9 9-10 Catfish8-99-10 Silver carp 5-6 7-8 Silver carp5-67-8  "}],"sieverID":"1beb146a-f48d-42ac-97cb-c2747854d7c1","abstract":"This study is the third output of the SDC-funded \"Improving Employment and Income through Development of Egyptian Aquaculture\" (IEIDEAS), a three-year project being jointly implemented by the WorldFish Center and CARE International in Egypt with support from the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. The aim of the study is to gather data on the retailer segment of the aquaculture value chain in Egypt, namely on the employment and market conditions of the women fish retailers in the five target governorates. In addition, this study provides a case study in Minya and Fayoum of the current income levels and standards of living of this target group. Finally, the study aims to identify the major problems and obstacles facing these women retailers and suggest some relevant interventions.CARE staff conducted the research presented in this report from April to July 2012, with support from WorldFish staff and consultants."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0483b03857aa64a1dd2126b3cdba7989","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/742003f0-7a0c-4f9b-b60a-a1136e92b8bf/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Report of training workshop on facilitation of community conversations","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Opening address","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Barbara Wieland, who leads the herd health team at ILRI, gave participants a background of the training and explained the need for the training. In her address, Wieland called for training and engaging farmers in new ways to better understand the factors that influence the behaviour of community groups in relation to livestock health management. She encouraged participants to use the community conversation approach as a gender responsive, participatory and collaborative learning and practice method."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"She said that community members are part of a solution; and that they should own any proposed intervention. 'We need to allow men and women community members to discuss the problems they have in details, own them and be part of the solution. As a community, they can begin to take action to solve their problems', she said."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"'You will facilitate the change to happen. It is important to understand community members' opinions to facilitate the learning process but make sure that the content is right without being a 'teacher'."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"'The community conversation approach facilitates good interaction with community groups and, by using it, it is possible to influence how extension is done -towards participatory engagement and training of community groups'. "}]},{"head":"Introductions, expectations and learning responsibilities","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Participants were asked to stand and move around the training room, pair with a participant they did not know, introduce themselves, and share their work situation as community organizers."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The participants were then asked to write down their learning expectations (personal learning objectives), and how they would apply the learning individually. Then they shared these in small groups and came up with learning expectations as a group."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Participants identified the following learning expectations and ways of applying the learning from the training:"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Learning expectations:"},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"• Then they agreed on training rules, including keeping daily learning logs and reflections. The facilitators encouraged participants to keep a daily reflections of their learning experience, key learning points, and ideas about how they will apply the learning. These would help them develop action plans at the end of the training workshop."}]},{"head":"Training objectives, approach and process","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The training workshop aimed to equip research and development partners with a set of guidelines and tools for organizing, facilitating and documenting community conversations. It introduced the concept of community conversations as a participatory, transformative and collaborative learning approach and reviewed some interactive learning methods used in community conversations. It then provided an opportunity for the participants to practice facilitating and documenting community conversations."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"The training was participatory with practical collaborative learning sessions to equip participants with knowledge, skills and confidence to apply the knowledge in organizations and facilitate community dialogues at the community level. It involved task-based reflective and collaborative learning sessions where participants reflected upon and shared their experiences in small group activities and plenary sessions. The practice-oriented and reflective learning process involved a discussion of concepts and principles of adult learning and community conversations to frame the perspectives and thinking structures of participants."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Self-management tools such as keeping daily learning logs ensured that the participants worked consistently and actively throughout the training workshop. They were encouraged to reflect from time to time on what they had learned, and how they would apply it in their workplaces."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"In addition, daily monitoring and recap sessions were used to get feedback from participants and check on their learnings throughout the three-day workshop. The recap and reflection sessions were particularly helpful for participants to reflect on their key learnings and relate these with their experiences and consider how to apply the new learnings in their work."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"A pre-and post-training KAP self-assessment of participants was conducted to establish the baseline and evaluate knowledge gains resulting from the training."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"The training materials, including PowerPoint presentations and community conversation modules, were given in hard and soft copies to all the participants."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Finally, the participants developed action plans for applying the learnings and to convene community conversations in other Livestock CRP intervention sites."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"The training workshop covered the following topics:"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"• What are community conversations and why are they useful?"},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"• The purpose of the self-assessment was to:"},{"index":11,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":12,"size":34,"text":"Provide participants with an idea of the level of knowledge and skills they already had before the training, and how well they had performed in each training topic at the end of the training."}]},{"head":"2.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Provide facilitators with an idea of the different levels of knowledge and skills among the participants and help them devise ways to cater for individual learning differences.  "}]},{"head":"Brainstorming exercise","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"In small groups, participants were asked to share their experiences and lessons in organizing, facilitating and documenting group learning events."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The purpose of this brainstorming exercise was to:"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Create a common ground and context for the training and bring the experience of participants to the training."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Stretch the thinking of the participants and make them see the need and motivation for learning."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• Set the context and expectation for the participatory learning process. • Women feel comfortable in women-groups than mixed groups"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• The geder of the facilitator may not matter, but it is advisable if females facilitate women's groups."}]},{"head":"Learning stages in community conversations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"After interactive presentations about community conversations from the training facilitators, participants worked in small groups to internalize the learning stages and bring their experience to bear on the discussion."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The purpose of this exercise was to raise the awareness of participants on the importance of clarifying in detail the purpose and planning of the learning delivery process."}]},{"head":"Summary of feedback on group work presentations:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"• Articulating the facilitation process in terms of learning stages (activities), methods and expected learning outcomes helps maintain the flow of the conversation and ensure important aspects of the topics under discussion. It also helps clarify the purpose and expected outcome/change from the community conversations."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Clarifying the purpose of the learning delivery process helps participants appreciate the logical progression of the learning process"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• It also contributes to knowledge integration by ensuring effective communication of key messages and action points. "}]},{"head":"Differences and complementarities in group learning approaches","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Following an overview presentation of various group learning approaches, which can be labelled as participatory approaches, participants engaged in small group work to further discuss the learning approaches."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"This exercise aimed to make participants appreciate that there are different approaches and methods of facilitating learning and sharing among community groups. The choice of approach or method depends on factors such as context and purpose (expected outcome) of the group learning event."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Figure 5: Discussion guide on differences and complementarities in group learning approaches • No single approach is efficient, and a combination of approaches and methods should be used sequentially."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• The choice of approach and method depends on the size of group; purpose of the group event (e.g. influencing, informing, analysis, action), way of communication, and level of analysis."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Focus group discussions can be used to identify issues and understand the community's views of an issue before or during a community conversation at the exploration and action planning stage."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• Findings from community conversations can be feedback to multi-stakeholder platforms to act or address some of the concerns of community groups by the concerned actors."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"• Community meetings can be used to scale up community conversations and influence larger community groups by having a few participants share their experiences and stories to motivate and influence other community members/ groups."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"• A field day can be organized with selected community conversation participants to demonstrate changes resulting from the conversations and influence other community groups."},{"index":9,"size":36,"text":"• So, the choice of learning approach or method depends on the purpose and expected outcome of the conversation and the decision is what combination of group learning approaches can achieve success. The facilitator(s) should judge!"}]},{"head":"Practising community conversations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The practical sessions were designed to engage participants in reflective discussions drawing on their experiences and linking what they had learned to local conditions. Small group work activities helped them integrate and internalize key concepts and facilitate cross-learning and 'sense making' that would encourage them to apply the training in their work."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The practical sessions aimed to encourage participants to work together and practice facilitation and documentation of community conversations. They aimed to help participants develop skills to facilitate community conversations using small group facilitation techniques."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Participants were divided into three groups and assigned tasks to prepare and practice as a group and then facilitate conversations with other participants acting as future community groups."}]},{"head":"Role play","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Context/scenario","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Gender division of labour in livestock health management exposes women and men to different levels of zoonotic disease risks. Women are more exposed to zoonotic disease risks due to their gender roles and limited access to information about zoonotic diseases. When they are sick, women do not receive the same level of care as male household members. Addressing this issue requires engagement with community members to transform gender relations and reduce zoonotic disease risks."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"You are asked to facilitate community conversations on this issue involving men and women community members."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"The method you are going to use to prompt/introduce the conversation is a role play followed by provocative/ reflective questioning, interactive discussion and storytelling."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• In a small group, participants act out a situation for the purpose of further discussion and analysis."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• They discuss and identify factors that may expose men and women livestock owners to zoonotic diseases."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• They develop role play scripts and practice role play acting to introduce the issue and further facilitate discussion, reflection and analysis through storytelling or provocative questioning."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• They develop reflective and probing questions around gender roles, cultural beliefs and practises, and risks of zoonotic diseases."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• They practise facilitating group events using role play and reflective discussions."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Other participants act as future community members."},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"Instructions/small group tasks"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• In your small group, analyse the context/scenario and identify discussion issues/questions to practise facilitating and documenting conversations."},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"• Develop a process agenda for facilitating and documenting conversations with other participants acting as future community members."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• Share and rotate roles as moderator/facilitator, actors, audience and note takers."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"• Based on the discussion issues/questions you have identified, develop role play scripts."},{"index":12,"size":12,"text":"• In your group, practise the role play and facilitate reflective discussions."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"• Upon completion of the practice session, reflect as a group on your experience."},{"index":14,"size":13,"text":"• There should be active participation from all the members of the group."}]},{"head":"Panel discussion","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Context","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) considers animals to be in good welfare if they are healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviour and if they are not suffering. Many factors constrain the ability of community groups to improve the welfare of their animals. Socio-economic, cultural and environmental conditions; such as attitudes towards animals, knowledge and skills about giving care for animals, and environmental resources; determine the welfare status of farm animals. Addressing these issues requires engaging community groups in active dialogue to explore their views about animal welfare, discuss their animal welfare needs and find solutions together to improve the welfare of their animals."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"You are asked to facilitate community conversations on this issue involving men and women community members."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"The method you will use to prompt/introduce the conversation is a panel discussion followed by feedback and questions from other participants who act as future community members."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• To show different points of view and get participants thinking in a new direction about animal welfare."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• To facilitate interactive discussion and exploration of issues prompted by a panel discussion and further engagement and reflection from participants through questions, reflections and sharing of experiences."}]},{"head":"Instructions","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• In your small group, practise a panel discussion around animal welfare issues."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Prepare a few discussion questions."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Share and rotate roles as moderator/facilitator, panellists, audience and note takers."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• The moderator introduces the discussion issue with a short story to set and maintain the tone for the panel discussion."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"• The moderator introduces the conversation with a panel discussion and facilitates further discussion by inviting the audience to ask questions and share experiences."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Upon completion of the practice session, reflect as a group on your experience."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"• There should be active participation from all the members of the group."}]},{"head":"Picture-supported communication Context","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Antimicrobial drugs play a critical role in the treatment of diseases; their use is essential to protect animal health. In Ethiopia, the use of veterinary drugs in food-producing animals has increased with improved access to veterinary drugs. The use of drugs in livestock is not commonly supervised by trained veterinarians. In addition, knowledge on how these drugs work and how they should be used to achieve the intended impact is often not passed on to men and women livestock keepers. Incorrect use of antimicrobials and other veterinary drugs, access to falsified or counterfeit veterinary drugs and non-compliance with withdrawal periods contribute to antimicrobial resistance and may also result in residues in animal-food items, of which the real risks for public health are poorly understood. • Balance exploration of existing knowledge and introduction of new knowledge. Small groups tended to introduce new knowledge than encourage discussion among participants."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Keep summarizing and paraphrasing important lessons."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Communicate key messages and action points"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Introduce discussion issues in provocative ways."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Start easy, contextualize topics in a simple way to get started and get community members/groups engaged and talking."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"• When participants get stuck, encourage discussion by sharing stories and get them to reflect and share their own experiences and stories."}]},{"head":"Evaluation and feedback","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Post-training knowledge and skills self-assessment"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Overall, after the training, 83% of the participants who conducted post-training knowledge self-assessment indicated their level of learning as high or very high, while 17% of them assessed their level of learning as medium.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figures iv Introduction Opening address Introductions, expectations and learning responsibilities Training objectives, approach and process Pre-training assessment Learning stages in community conversations Differences and complementarities in group learning approaches Practising community conversations Evaluation and feedback Annexes Annexe 1. Training agenda Annexe 2. List of participants "},{"text":" The purpose of community conversation • Knowledge on the methodology of community conversations select community conversation participants Applying the learning from the training. Participants hoped to use the learning in the following ways/situations: • To conduct community discussions • For mobilizing the community to implement interventions • For community animal health education • To identify issues which need community conversation. "},{"text":" Process overview • Learning stages and methods • Formative process • Differences and complementarities in group learning approaches • Adult learning principles • Participatory methods • Facilitation and engagement techniques and tips • Process documentation • Follow-up actions • Community conversation modules in brief • Lessons and scaling considerations Pre-training assessment Before the start of the training workshop, participants were asked to assess their level of knowledge and skills in the training content. "},{"text":" 3.Establish a baseline to measure the level of learning achievement of training participants at the end of the training course. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Pre-training assessment results "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Brainstorming exercise guide "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Small group session guide "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Small group work in action "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Sample participant-drawn pictures from the community conversations practice session "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: Post-training knowledge and skills self-assessment results "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: Training satisfaction survey results "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" IntroductionAs part of the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock (Livestock CRP) work in Ethiopia, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) research teams, in collaboration with research and development partners, tested a gender transformative community-based learning approach known as 'community conversation' to engage community members and local partners in dialogue and joint actions about gender and livestock health management issues.Based on the experience of the two organizations in applying community conversations to facilitating change in knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of households on gender and zoonotic diseases, additional modules, including animal welfare and antimicrobial use and resistance, have now been developed and tested in some Livestock CRP intervention sites in the country. These are being scaled up to other livestock program sites in the country through the interventions of research and development partners.  "}],"sieverID":"c1f46601-b75a-4b7a-b3a7-f6f5940515bc","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund"}

data/part_5/048a46dac6f68a03d055340ca7ef8148.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"048a46dac6f68a03d055340ca7ef8148","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/85b27597-0a1f-4311-88a8-885eb400ba27/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Proposal of CGIAR Research Program on Grain Legumes and Dryland Cereals (GLDC) Dear Nick We greatly appreciate the constructive feedback, advice and encouragement from the ISPC and CGIAR System Office. With this input and a large committed team across partner Centers, we are excited to present a new focus, framework and fresh new: CGIAR Research Program on Grain Legumes and Dryland Cereals","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The CRP team has undertaken a major reconceptualization. There was no dispute on the value of grain legumes and dryland cereals for their nutritional value and in most cases their natural climate smart characteristics. However, we recognized that they have another unifying characteristic. Unlike other major commodities, these crops share the same constraints of underdeveloped value chains and weak supporting environments."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"For legumes and cereals, not only are there synergies in upstream research, but also in downstream research to find and develop the opportunities and niches for these crops to build functional agricultural value chains. These value chains can be very short such as inter-household trade to survive the 'hunger season' through to regional trade of these commodities as markets emerge. A clear and consistent Theory of Change recognizes that we need to apply a demand-driven lens to prioritize our research along the value chain of these critical crops to be relevant and give agency to smallholder farmers to realize their full potential."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"With this new realization of synergies and needs, a new prioritization of crops and countries was undertaken based on a convergence analysis that considered the value of production as well as the contribution of crops and countries towards the SLOs. The analysis drove the decision to reduce the crops from 12 to 8 and from 15 to 14 (12 in sub-Saharan Africa) priority countries and 18 to 15 spillover countries. Over 90% of the value of production and target population of smallholder farmers live in the drylands where poverty and undernutrition are most acute. The prioritization resulted in a reduced budget and shift of some water and land management activities to WLE."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Research focus and hypotheses have changed. Solutions for tackling poverty and increasing resilience through the CGIAR's traditional strengths of crop improvement science and farming systems research will still be important in generating International Public Goods. However, given the weak agrifood systems of 1 these crops, we are likely to find solutions at the interface and in the dynamic interplay of production systems with the wider market and policy dimensions of the agrifood systems in which production is located. Framing research in this way offers the opportunity to link crop improvement research with livelihood, market and policy development research."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"Given the identified weak value chains and supporting environments, a new Theory of Change was necessary. Central to the GLDC's Theory of Change is the assertion that household-level outcomes of food security, resilience and poverty reduction will not arise from the sole availability of component solutions. Instead household level outcomes depend on the ability of the wider agrifood systems to respond to demands for solutions and to create the market incentives and public and private sector investments needed to make use of these solutions in farming, consumption and agribusiness settings."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"The writing team broadly shared drafts of the new proposal including with the steering committee of the CRP Dryland Cereal and CRP Grain Legumes. The Governing Board of ICRISAT have been consulted and engaged with the resubmission of the GLDC proposal, endorsed the new strategy, and strongly support the proposal."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"We greatly appreciate your consideration of the GLDC proposal."}]},{"head":"Yours sincerely Dr David Bergvinson","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Director General, ICRISAT"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"c27ee890-db1d-49f8-b90d-87e4fbaf2e3b","abstract":""}

data/part_5/04ce2b62e7314821e04eb2dfcac037ab.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04ce2b62e7314821e04eb2dfcac037ab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eaa97162-7410-4e99-9751-22ca8d77c430/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Oppotunities -Dairy farming DCAS Innovation-Milk Processing Impact-Dairy farming DCAS Innovation-Dairy farming Impact-Milk Processing","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"FACT SHEET OF CLIMATE SERVICE VALUE ESTIMATES","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Opportunities-Milk Aggregators 1% of the milk produced in the country is procured at approximately 20% higher prices, due to heavy rainfall or high temperature related yield decline, it results in an addtional procurement cost estimated at BDT 1.38 billion3."}]},{"head":"Impact-Milk Aggregators","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"An app or IVR system offering location-specific forecast-based warnings for heavy rainfall, high temperature and cold wave events to assist dairy farmers. If approximately 100,000 of the cattle loanees are protected from weather stress, the portfolio of loans guarded from default or delay in repayment will be estimated at BDT 4 billion."}]},{"head":"DCAS innovation-Milk Aggregators","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Interventions that can offset potential milk yield decline due to heavy rainfall, high temperature, and cold waves related stress in dairy cattle, producing of 1% milk supply, they can offset addtional procurement cost for processing sector estimated at BDT 1.73 billion³."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Digital display devices for weather information at milk processing locations. Digital interventions for reducing weather related milk yield decline for farmers\""}]},{"head":"DISCLAIMER","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The anticipated climate service value estimations are prepared using available data and reasonable assumptions. The study has omitted some of the value chain actors and potential climate services due to unavailability of data or information on potential weather related damages or limited value porposition of creating the service. All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission of the source."}]},{"head":"DCAS stands for Digital Climate Advisory Services","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The Initiative on Asian Mega-Deltas (AMD) aims to create resilient, inclusive and productive deltas, which maintain socio-ecological integrity, adapt to climatic and other stressors, and support human prosperity and wellbeing, by removing systemic barriers to the scaling of transformative technologies and practices at community, national and regional levels."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSSA) is a One CGIAR regional integrated initiative to support actions that improve equitable access to sustainable healthy diets, improve farmers' livelihoods and resilience, and conserve land, air, and water resources in South Asia."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 32 billion-BDT 1.98 billion If 1% of dairy cattle, accounting for 119,850 tons of milk, suffer a 20-30% decline in yields due to weather stress, the lost revenue is BDT 1.32 to BDT 1.98 billion. This calculation considers the market price of milk of BDT 55,000 per ton. ²BDT 40 billion (Loan size) If 1 million cattle farmers take a loan for purchasing cattle, the total loan portfolio is BDT 40 billion. If 100,000 cattle farmers out of 1 million livestock owners gets impacted by weather stress, the total loan portfolio under risk is BDT 4 billion taking average loan size of BDT 40,000. ³BDT 1.38 billion (Milk collectors) If supply shortages due to weather stress increases price of milk by 20% for 1% of total milk supply, additional cost will be BDT 1.38 billion taking 0.119 million tons of production at price increase of BDT 11000 per ton. ⁴BDT 350 million (Processing) If price of procurement for the milk processing sector increases by 5% over the price paid by the milk collectors, additional cost for processors is BDT 1.73 billion which is BDT 350 million over the price paid by collectors. (BBS, 2019; T.S Amjath-Babu et al., 2023) Exchange rate 1 USD= BDT 110.25 as of December 10, 2023 (BB, 2023). References BB. (2023). Exchange rate, Bangladesh Bank, Dhaka, Bangladesh, Retrieved from https://www.bb.org.bd/en/index-.php/econdata/exchangerate. BBS. (2019). Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics-2019. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistics and Informatics Division (SID), Ministry of Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. T.S Amjath-Babu, K., F., Shahrin. S., Ferdous, A.K.M., Mustafa, K., Krupnik, T.J. (2023). De-risking agricultural value chains from climatic stress: Report of Key Production Systems and Value Chains in Bangladesh. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Dhaka, Bangladesh. "},{"text":" Any intervention that can offset 10% of the additional procurement cost by reducing the weather induced milk yield decline, is valued at BDT 138 million³ (in case of 1% supply of milk is being affected by weather stress).If any intervention can offset 10%of production decline due to weather impact on dairy cattle producing 1% of milk supply, the service can be valued at an estimated BDT 132 million to BDT 198 million¹.If dairy cattle producing 1% of the milk supply are impacted by heavy rainfall, high temperature, and cold wave events, causing approximately a 20%-30% decline in milk production, the revenue loss for farmers is estimated to be BDT 1.32 billion to BDT 1.98 billion 1 .Mobile app with forecasted temperature, rainfall and temperature-humidity Index (THI) information at short and seasonal scale for taking management measures to enhance milk production.If approximately 1 million (Out of the estimated 12 million) dairy farmers avail agricultural loans, the total outstanding loan value is estimated to be BDT 40 billion². "},{"text":" Amjath-Babu, Dipok K. Choudhury, Timothy J. Krupnik, (2023). Confronting the climate crisis: Opportunity profile of climate services along the dairy value chain in Bangladesh, Securing the Food Systems of Asian Mega-Deltas (AMD) for Climate and Livelihood Resilience and Transforming Agrifood System in South Asia (TAFSSA) initiatives, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Dhaka, Bangladesh. We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders. To learn more about this Initiative, please visit: https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/asian-mega-deltas/ © 2023 The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center ('CIMMYT'). Some rights reserved. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International Licence (CC BY-NC 4.0). Articles appearing in this publication may be freely quoted and reproduced provided the source is acknowledged. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purposes. DISCLAIMER This publication has been prepared under the AMD and TAFSSA Initiatives and it is peer reviewed by Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI). Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of AMD, CGIAR or partners. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"97fd3ece-7955-4d04-803a-806c10e63bba","abstract":"If 1% of the milk produced is procured by the processors at a 5% higher price due to rainfall disruption (over price paid by aggregators to farmers) , increase in cost of procurement is estimated to be worth BDT 350 miliion 4 ."}

data/part_5/056ba780c08978772621e7d7e4556277.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"056ba780c08978772621e7d7e4556277","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8a861a67-ab4a-488d-b817-907eee447acd/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Report on sampling leave tissue, DNA extraction and prepare for shipment for whole genome sequencing","keywords":["P1685 -Activity/Product Line 3.2.1: Improved feed & forage germplasm and new tools and technologies for breeding D24588 -Report on sampling leave tissue","DNA extraction and prepare for shipment for whole genome sequencing Genomic Selection","Brachiaria","Urochloa. Genomic prediction Selección genomica","Brachiaria","Urochloa. Prediccion genómica"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Urochloa interespecific breeding program started at CIAT ending the 80s combining desirable attributes from Urochloa species such signalgrass (U. decumbens), palisadegrass (U. brizantha), and ruzigras (U. ruzisiensis) which provides tolerance to acid soils, resistance to spittlebug complex (Hemiptera: Cercopidae) and high nutritional value respectively (Miles et al. 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Selected breeding method is known as Recurrent Selection based on specific combining ability (Miles et al. 2006), which has allowed the selection of superior hybrids based on morphological traits. In recent years the program has been in modernization process incorporating new technologies that allow increasing genetic gain. We are implementing i) field and greenhouse highthroughput phenotyping technologies to increase traits evaluated and their accuracy, ii) molecular markers to use in mass assisted selection, and iii) flowering induction through prolonged photoperiods to accelerate the developmental rate of plants."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Another important molecular technique used to increase rapidly the genetic gain is known as genomic selection. The aim of this technique is to predict breeding and genetic values of the candidates for selection using all molecular markers for genotypic prediction (Crossa et al. 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Genetic selection uses both molecular and phenotypic data in an initial population to estimated breeding values of each genotype in a new population that has been genotyped but not phenotyped (Crossa et al. 2017;Meuwissen et al. 2001)."},{"index":5,"size":121,"text":"In 2019, a new cohort of interspecific hybrids was obtained and named Br19. This cohort was composed of 7039 hybrids and correspond to the 11th recurrent selection cycle. Of these 7039, 3507 hybrids showed apomictic reproduction mode (identified through the molecular marker p779/p780; Worthington, 2016). In 2020 was evaluated the Br19 apomictic hybrid population in a multienvoromental trial in which was measured morphological traits such growth habit, biomass, plant height, and plant cover (Hernandez et al. 2020). With the aim to complement the phenotypic information captured with genotypic data to estimated breeding values of each Br19 hybrid and take the first steps to implement genomic selection in our program, during 2020 was sampled all apomictic Br19 and shipped for whole-genome sequencing."}]},{"head":"Protocol","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant tissue collection","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"To sampled plant tissue, we follow the standardized protocol developed by CIAT's genetic resources (INS-DNA-3-ES-v.20191015). With the information of genotypes to collect was made a list in Excel (Figure 1a); labels were made with the identification of the genotype and they were placed inside (To prevent the cold from detaching the label during storage) of bags Ziploc (Figure 1c). In each bag were deposited between 9 and 12 young leaves (depending on the leaf size of the hybrid or accession, as observed in Figure 1b) and stored in a portable refrigerator containing cold gels (Figure 1d). To prevent contamination, gloves were disinfected with ethanol (75%) and dried with paper towels. Finally, plant material was stored at -80 ° C. "}]},{"head":"Lyophilization process","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Lyophilization process was carried out at CIAT's Genetic Resources laboratory following the next methodology:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"1. Stored samples were transported without breaking the cold chain, for this a portable refrigerator with cold gels was used."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"2. 18L LABCONCO FREEZONE lyophilizer was turned on 10 minutes before starting the procedure."},{"index":4,"size":232,"text":"3. Once the lyophilizer was ready to start, the sublimation chamber was opened by removing the beaker lid and samples were quickly placed (Figure 2a) 4. In this case, being in Ziploc bags, these were placed inside the lyophilizer leaving the closure and mouth of the bag open, always checking that the identity of the material will be there. 5. 24 bags were placed per sublimation chamber (of the 94 samples, half were placed in the two lyophilizers, see Figure 2b). 6. The sublimation chamber was closed ensuring that the black gasket (Figure 2d) of the lid was completely surrounding the rim of the glass (Figure 2e). 7. The vacuum was turned on by pressing the Vacuum button at the bottom of the freeze dryer led display (Figure 2f) making sure that the air release valve was closed. (Figure 2c) 8. The samples remained for a period of 72 hours in the lyophilizer, at a temperature of -52 ° C and a pressure of 0.02 mbar. 9. The lyophilization was completed, for this the reverse process was carried out to break the vacuum of the samples very carefully, pressing the Vacuum button again, turning off the vacuum and letting air in slowly opening the valve of air leak. (Otherwise, turbulence can be created causing the solid sample to come out of the package and become scattered on the walls of the chamber)."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"10. It was disconnected from the chamber, the sample was removed and capped to prevent moisture ingress. 11. Finally, the samples were stored in the laboratory at room temperature in vacuum-sealed bags with silica gel, to ensure that they did not rehydrate. Packing insert with sublimation chamber, f) Vacuum button to turn the vacuum on and/or off."}]},{"head":"Maceration process","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Maceration process was carried out at CIAT's Genetic Resources laboratory, following the procedure described below:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"1. Samples that had been lyophilized previously were taken and ordered according to the well they would occupy in the plate to be sent, guided by the alphanumeric grid that is drawn on the plate (Figure 3a)."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"2. In a plastic container previously tared, pieces of the lyophilized material were cut (avoiding the rib, see Figure 3b) and weighed on an analytical balance until completing 10 mg."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"(Figure 3b)."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"3. The 10 mg of tissue were placed in the corresponding well, for this, a Single/loose 1.1 ml Microtubues in 96-well microracks plate was used."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"4. Between each sample, the container was cleaned and disinfected to avoid crosscontamination, with the help of a brush and paper towel and 96% ethanol. (Figure 3d and 3e)."},{"index":7,"size":123,"text":"5. We continued in order cutting and weighing the other materials, in such a way that when completing a column of 8 wells, 5 Zirconia pellets were placed (Figure 3g, 3f) and the wells were covered with a cluster of 8 bands (Figure 3h) (it is imperative to perform this procedure carefully to ensure that the materials remain inside the well since the tissues of Uroclhoa spp. Tend to come out of the wells by themselves through movements generated by static electricity). 6. At the end of preparing the tissue within the 94 wells (since 2 are left empty according to DArT's specifications), it was checked that all the bands were correctly placed (With the fastener of each cover in the same direction)."},{"index":8,"size":125,"text":"7. The lid was placed on the dish and the dish was moved to the Geno/Grinder shaker, placing another empty dish next to it to balance the equipment. (Figure 3i) 8. The equipment was turned on so that the stirring mechanically macerated the samples with the help of the Zirconia pellets, for 3 minutes at 1750 RPM. 9. Finally, the mashing process was finished (Figure 4j and 4k) and the dish was stored in a vacuum-sealed bag with silica gel in the laboratory at room temperature (Figure 4l). ethanol, f ) Zirconia pellets, g) Adding pellets in the wells, h) 8-band cluster lid, i) Geno / Grinder equipment dish, j) Macerated material, k) Ready to pack dish, and l) Dish stored with gel silica vacuum."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Plant tissue collection; a) Field list in Excel, b) Joung leave selection, c) Ziploc bags, and d) portable refrigerator containing cold gels. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Lyophilization process; a) Samples in ziploc bags open in sublimation chamber, b) Samples in the two freeze dryers, c) Air escape valve, d) Packing in sublimation chamber lid, e) "},{"text":"Imagen 4 . Maceration process; a) Identified sample, b) Material cut in tared container, c) Weight of material on analytical balance, d) Cleaning of container with brush, e) Disinfection of container with 96% "}],"sieverID":"ea2493c0-5b97-441b-be3d-bbf2a504f8ad","abstract":"In the modernization process of Urochloa breeding program of the Bioversity-CIAT alliance, novelty techniques have been implemented to accelerate genetic gain. Some of these techniques include i) field and greenhouse high-throughput phenotyping technologies to increase traits evaluated and their accuracy, ii) molecular markers to use in mass-assisted selection, and iii) flowering induction through prolonged photoperiods to accelerate the developmental rate of plants and flowering index. A novelty technique developed in other crops, called genomic selection, uses both molecular and phenotypic data in an initial population to estimated breeding values of each genotype in a new population that has been genotyped but not phenotyped. In 2020, the apomictic population Br19 was phenotyped. To complement phenotypic information with genotypic information and estimate breeding values of each Br19 hybrids and to take the first steps to implement genomic selection, during 2020 all Br19 genotypes were sampled and sent for whole genome sequencing. This report shows the protocol followed for collection, lyophilization and maceration of Br19 genotypes."}

data/part_5/056f7684da3046a86a7268b653a63e0b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"056f7684da3046a86a7268b653a63e0b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/25314137-9971-4a8e-bb28-e35109a3a1b8/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Identificación de Genes Análogos de Resistencia y QTLs Asociados con Resistencia a Enfermedades de Yuca","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"MATERIALES Y METODOS","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Identificación de QTLs. Se evaluó la resistencia de 126 individuos de la familia K de yuca, inoculados en raíces con 3 especies de Phytophthora. Con esta información y con el mapa genético de la misma familia (Fregene et al. 1997), se identificaron QTLs asociados con la resistencia a P. tropicalis, P. melonis y P. palmivora, por medio del análisis y mapeo con el programa Q-gene 3.06V (Nelson 1997). Se generó un mapa de QTLs y se estimó la varianza fenotípica explicada por cada QTL, mediante el coeficiente de regresión (r 2 )."}]},{"head":"Identificación de genes análogos de resistencia (RGA).","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Se amplificaron regiones conservadas de ADN, mediante PCR con cebadores degenerados NBS y Pto-kinasa, a partir de genotipos resistentes a Xam y Phytophthora spp. Los fragmentos secuenciados se homologaron con genes de resistencia, mediante la herramienta Blastx del GenBank. Se diseñaron cebadores específicos con base en las secuencias de mayor homología, para amplificar regiones de ADN de individuos resistentes y susceptibles."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Identificación de QTLs. Se identificaron 15 QTLs asociados a la resistencia a P. tropicalis, 2 asociados a P. palmivora y 2 a P. melonis, ubicados en diferentes grupos de ligamiento, que explicaron hasta 11.0% de varianza fenotípica (Tabla 1; Figura 1)."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONES REFERENCIAS REFERENCIAS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Existen varios QTLs, asociados con resistencia a Phytophthora spp."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"•Se encontró asosciación de 2 RGAs con resistencia a Xam, mas no a Phytophthora spp. en yuca.  σ 2 = 8.3%"},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"Figura 1. Mapa de algunos QTLs identificados en varios grupos de ligamiento y asociados con resistencia de la familia K de yuca a P.tropicalis (44), P. palmivora (P4) y P. melonis (P12). σ 2 = 1.6% Identificación de RGAs. Mediante PCR se obtuvieron 28 clones NBS y 2 Pto kinasa, de los cuales 4 (N33, N37, N38 y K1) mostraron regiones codificantes y secuencia homóloga con genes NBS-LRR (repeticiones ricas en leucina) de varios cultivos por lo que se consideraron como RGAs. Los RGAs se agruparon en tres clases (Figura 3). El clon N-37 tuvo homología con los genes no TIR, RPS2 (Arabidopsis) y Mi (tomate), mientras que los clones K-1 y N-38 mostraron homología con los genes TIR L6 (lino) y RPP5 (Arabidopsis). El clon N-33 fue diferente a los demás (Figura 2). Los cebadores específicos diseñados N-37 y N-38, permitieron separar individuos resistentes a Xam, mientras que ninguno mostró asociación con resistencia a Phytophthora."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Tabla 1. QTLs que explican valores significativos de varianza fenotípica para resistencia a tres especies de Phytophthora.  Figura 2. Arbol filogenético de RGAs (N-33, N-37, N-38 y K-1) identificados en yuca, obtenido mediante análisis de parsimonia y bootstrap (5000 réplicas). Se muestran secuencias homólogas reportadas en GenBank y genes de resistencia de otras especies."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"GR: gen de resistencia RGA: gen análogo de resistencia"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fregene M; Angel F; Gómez R; Rodríguez F; Chavarriaga P; Roca W; Tohme J; Bonierbale M. 1997. A molecular genetic map of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Theor Appl Genet 95(3):431-441.Nelson JC. 1997. Q-gene: software for marker-based genome analysis and breeding. Mol Breed 3:229-235. "},{"text":" Figure 1. "}],"sieverID":"78dff88e-a6c7-4af4-a21f-968dcd23594a","abstract":"La pudrición de raíces causada por varias especies de Phytophthora, y el Añublo Bacterial, causado por Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam), son dos enfermedades que causan pérdidas superiores a 80% de la producción de yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Los marcadores moleculares son una herramienta importante para el mejoramiento de la resistencia de yuca a estas enfermedades."}

data/part_5/0574d9cd4dda3a19ec16ad1f8a7b8477.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0574d9cd4dda3a19ec16ad1f8a7b8477","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H043757.pdf"},"pageCount":11,"title":"POVERTY IN PAKISTAN: TRENDS AND ISSUES","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":315,"text":"The latest poverty scenario in Pakistan paints a very gloomy picture. According to the Government of Pakistan (2002), about 28 percent of total population is currently living below the poverty line. The incidence of poverty is higher in rural areas (32 percent) as compared to urban areas (19 percent). The quality of life of the poorer segments of the society continues to deteriorate. Not only income poverty has been on the rise in the country but other dimensions of poverty also present an equally dismal picture. Strong rural-urban difference in the context of poverty is observed, with households living in the rural areas likely to be poorer than those living in urban areas. A comparison of incidence of poverty across irrigated regions of the country leads to some interesting observations. Around 70 percent of the population is residing in rural areas of Pakistan. Majority of these directly or indirectly depend on agriculture for generating the household incomes. A significant proportion of rural population is engaged in raising crops for income to support the current livelihood standards. The landowners are the main beneficiaries while landless also derive income from providing different services to them. The increase in income of land owners through improved productivity and profitability shows trickle down effect on the betterment on the landless rural population while a failure on the part of landlord also affect the well beings of poor. Moreover, continuous fragmentation of land into small farms has decreased the efficiency and productivity of the farms, which has put tremendous pressure on the ever-increasing population of the rural areas. In addition to land, adequate and reliable supply of irrigation water is another constraint, which is inhibiting the increase in productivity to meet the potential productivity levels. As the productivity of these vital resources fluctuates, so is the income and risk of being poor vary from time to time and across different areas."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The attempts to analyze the incidence of poverty and finding its determinants are made from time to time and by using various yardsticks based on different sets of assumptions. However, most of the studies indicate that poverty in Pakistan is concentrated in rural areas of Pakistan."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The current paper is divided into five parts. In part II, literature on poverty is reviewed with reference to Pakistan and Asia. In part III, various definitions of poverty, limitations, and data requirements are discussed. Conclusions are drawn in the last part of the paper."}]},{"head":"Poverty in Literature","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"A number of studies have been conducted assessing poverty situation and its dimensions in Pakistan regarding poverty lines, inequality, absolute versus relative poverty, unemployment, and different policies, social welfare programs, institutional reforms, gender, and demographic factors, irrigation performance and IMT, during the last three decades. A brief review of some of the important studies is presented below."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"A head count rural poverty (32%) was estimated by using the poverty line of 2550 calories intake per day per adult equivalent by Irfan and Amjad (1984). They translated the detailed information available in the Micro Nutrient Survey of 1977 to determine an income-based poverty line at 1979 prices of Rs. 109 per capita per month (poor), and then used this line and Rs. 95 per capita per month (very poor) to obtain the head count measure for the year 1979. The study showed that rural very poor increased from 32 percent in 1963/64 to 43 percent in 1969/70 and declined to 29 percent in 1979."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"A relative poverty line based on per capita expenditure of lowest 10 percent of the population was used by Akhtar (1988) on the basis of HIES data for the year 1979. The results showed that the incidence of poverty in rural areas was significantly higher than in urban areas. Moreover, it was found that poverty in Pakistan was concentrated in rural areas. The computed poverty line employed for analyzing the poverty situation was Rs. 948 and Rs. 1260 per year for rural and urban areas, respectively. The urban poverty line was set 33 percent higher than the rural one."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"A decline in poverty was estimated in rural and urban areas by Ahmad and Allison (1990). They employed poverty line of Rs. 100 and Rs. 110 per capita expenditure on monthly basis, respectively for rural and urban areas. The poverty line was based on 2550 calories intake per adult equivalent basis assuming 10 percent higher estimate of poverty line for the urban areas. The study concluded that during 1979-1984/85, rural poverty declined from 20 to 25 percent while urban poverty declined from 20 to 16 percent indicating higher incidence of poverty in the rural areas as compared to the urban areas."},{"index":5,"size":263,"text":"Based on basic needs approach, an increase in percentage of poor from 47 percent in 1992-93 to 50 percent in 1995-96 was estimated for Pakistan by Ahmad (1998). In Punjab province, the percentage of poor consistently rose from 43 to 44 and then to about 50 percent in the years of analysis. The well known indices of poverty like the head count ratio, poverty gaps and FGT were also calculated by using data from the HIES and PIHS of 1992-93, 1993-94 and 1995-96. When basic needs poverty line was used, the percentage of poor increased from 47 percent in 1992-93 to 50 percent in 1995-96. An increasing trend in head count poverty was also found in Baluchistan and NWFP. Sindh was the only province where the poverty situation had improved slightly. It was concluded that poverty situation in the recent past had worsened and intensity increased. The author also analyzed the determinants of poverty by using the Logit model. The results on determinants of poverty identified various groups, which were most vulnerable and could be used as effective tools for policy makers. The results of model showed that dependency ratios, household size and level of education had strong correlation with poverty. A high incidence of poverty was observed for households whose heads were engaged in agriculture and related activities as well as in services and transport sectors. It was also found that households living in the rural areas of Pakistan were likely to be poorer than those in urban areas. The author observed that poverty reduction programs were needed to be targeted oriented."},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"A head count poverty of around 37, 40 and 33 percent was estimated by Qureshi and Arif (1999) for Pakistan, rural, and urban areas, respectively. The basic need approach was used in estimating poverty line using HIES data and estimates were calculated for the year 1998-99. A poverty line of Rs. 705.96 per month was used for assessing incidence of poverty in Pakistan while the corresponding figures for rural and urban areas of Pakistan were Rs. 676.31 and Rs. 898.94 per month, respectively."},{"index":7,"size":177,"text":"A rise in incidence of poverty, both in rural and urban areas of Pakistan, was estimated by Arif et al. (2001). The issues surrounding non-farm employment and rural poverty in Pakistan were examined. It was found that poverty was relatively higher in rural areas and widespread across all groups of population. The wageworkers in the non-farm sector were better off than the agricultural laborers. Services and trade sectors were hindrance in reducing rural poverty. It was found that poor were concentrated in construction, transport and manufacturing sectors. The study was based on primary data set of 1996-97, Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES). The non-farm category included wageworker whoever all self-employed people but not the self-employed in agriculture sector. The basic needs approach was used for poverty line determination. The multivariate analysis showed that age, education, sex and household size were the major determinants of being employed in the rural non-farm sector. Authors suggested that dynamic labor in agriculture combined with a modernizing non-agriculture sector could generate employment and income with resulting growth and elimination of rural poverty."}]},{"head":"Historical Trend of Poverty in Pakistan","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Table 1 shows the synthesis of various selective studies conducted in Pakistan, assessing the incidence of poverty using various approaches and related to various time periods. A variety of poverty lines were used in order to estimate the prevalent incidence of poverty in rural and urban areas as well as for Pakistan in general. Though majority of the researchers used HIES data sets to reach these estimate of poverty, however, different approaches led to different poverty line estimates, which in turn yielded different estimates of poverty. "}]},{"head":"Table1: Synthesis of selective studies on poverty situation in Pakistan.","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Author","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Poverty in Asia","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Table 2 shows the comparison of poverty situation in selected Asian countries. The highest head count poverty was found in India (44.20 percent) while the lowest was envisaged in Thailand (<2 percent). The incidence of poverty was third highest in Pakistan (31 percent), which was slightly higher than in Bangladesh (29 percent). Depth of poverty (poverty Gap) was highest in India while it was lowest in Thailand (less than 0.5 percent). It is clear from Figure 1 that per capita income of China and Sri Lanka was almost double than in Pakistan but poverty statistics indicated higher incidence and depth of poverty prevailing in China than in Sri Lanka. Moreover, India had slightly higher per capita income (460 US$) while Bangladesh had slightly lower per capita income (US $ 370) as compared to Pakistan (US $ 420), though statistics show higher poverty in India and lower poverty in Bangladesh than in Pakistan."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Table 3 shows the estimated Gini-coefficient reflecting the inequality in income or expenditure prevailing in selected Asian countries. Highest level of inequality was envisaged in Thailand having Gini-coefficient of 0.414 while the lowest was found in Pakistan (0.312). It was found that in India and Bangladesh, relatively higher inequality in distribution of income exists as compared to Pakistan. It was also found that the lowest 10 percent of the population holds around 4.1 percent of the income in Pakistan, which was the highest among all the selected countries whereas the lowest figure was found in China (2.4 percent). On the contrary, the richest 10 percent of the population holds 33.5 percent of the income in India while the corresponding lowest estimate was for Indonesia (26.7 percent). The richest 10 percent of the population in Pakistan holds around 27.6 percent of the annual income.   "}]},{"head":"Defining Poverty and Poverty Line","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Over the past century, scholars and experts on poverty at the global level remained unable to define the term comprehensively and precisely. It is widely recognized that poverty is complex and multidimensional in nature."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Poverty line differentiates between poor and non-poor on the basis of minimum income or expenditures that are needed to fulfill required minimum calorie intake or to acquire minimum basket of basic needs. People whose income or expenditure is below the poverty line are assumed poor."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Some selective definitions of poverty, as available in the present literature, are summarized below:"},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"On the Basis of Calorie Intake Approach Ercelawn (1988)  Planning and Development Division, Government of Pakistan ( 2002) defined poverty and poverty line on the basis of calorie intake per adult equivalent per day. Poor was defined as one who was unable to intake 2350 calories per adult equivalent per day. On the basis of this, a poverty line of Rs. 673.54 in 1998-99 prices was established."}]},{"head":"On the Basis of Basic Needs Approach","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Ahmad (1993) defined the poverty line on the basis of basic needs approach which included food, clothing, housing, health, education, transport, social interaction and recreational needs. The poverty lines were estimated as per capita expenditure of Rs. 300 and Rs. 419 per month at 1991/92 prices for rural and urban areas, respectively. Jafri and Khattak (1995) estimated that monthly expenditure of Rs. 271 per person at current prices of 1990/91 was needed for meeting the basic needs (food, clothing, housing, health, education, transport, socialization and recreation) in rural areas. Qureshi and Arif (1999)  Other Definitions (Relative Poverty Lines) Akhter (1988) defined the poor as lower 10 percent of the population with lowest per capita expenditure on the basis of HIES survey data of 1979. A rural poverty line of Rs. 948 per person was established to differentiate between poor and non-poor while corresponding poverty line for urban areas was estimated to be Rs. 1260 per person."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Zaidi (1992) defined the relative poverty line for Pakistan as 75 percent of the national average expenditure. This poverty line was aimed at differentiation of those households or individuals as poor, which were deprived of certain commodities or standard national consumption pattern prevalent in the society."}]},{"head":"Monetary Measures of Poverty","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The measurement of income poverty involves: 1) Specification of an indicator of well being such as income or expenditure; 2) Specification of an income level or threshold below which a person or household is considered poor -the poverty line; and 3) Construction of poverty measures. Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) class of measures is the most commonly used measure of poverty, which captures three aspects of poverty: incidence, depth/intensity and severity of poverty. These measures are Head Count Index, Poverty Gap Index and Squared Poverty Gap Index."}]},{"head":"Head Count Index","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Head Count Index is defined as the share or proportion of the population which is poor, or whose income is below the specified poverty line. This is a measure of incidence of poverty. Suppose in a population of size n, there are q number of poor people whose income y is less than the poverty line z, then the head count index can be defined as:"}]},{"head":"Poverty Gap Index","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Poverty Gap Index is defined as the mean distance, separating the population from the poverty line. This can be interpreted as a measure of depth of poverty. Non-poor are given a distance of zero. This measure can be mathematically represented as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Poverty Gap Index"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Where z is the poverty line, yi is the income of the individual i or household i, and the sum is taken only on those individuals who are considered poor (below poverty line)."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"The poverty gap can also be defined as the product of the income gap and the Head Count Index ratio, represented as the following: PG = I*HC, where I is the income gap Where Z -Z I y q = and ∑ = = q q q 1 i i y y 1 is the average income of the poor."}]},{"head":"Squared Poverty Gap Index","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Squared Poverty Gap Index is a measure of the severity of poverty. The poverty gap takes into account the distance separating the poor from the poverty line, while the squared poverty gap [PG] 2 takes into account the square of the distance. The squared poverty gap index gives more weight to the poor; by taking into account the inequality among the poor greater weights are given to larger gaps and the weights are simply the poverty gaps. It is represented as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Both Poverty Gap Index and the Squared Poverty Gap Index put more emphasis on those who are further away from the poverty line. The general formula for all three measures is given below, which depends on parameter α, which takes a value of zero for the Head Count Index, one for the Poverty Gap Index and two for the Squared Poverty Gap Index"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"The above measures can be analyzed for various socio-economic groups as well as for different geographic locations (e.g. within irrigation systems)."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Sen Index Sen (1976) proposed an index that sought to combine the effects of the number of poor, the depth of their poverty, and the distribution of poverty within the group. The index is given by:"},{"index":5,"size":138,"text":"where P0 is the head count index, µp is the mean income (or expenditure) of the poor, and G P is the Gini-coefficient of inequality among the poor. The Gini-coefficient ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality), and is discussed further below in the context of measuring inequality. The Sen index can also be written as the average of the head count and poverty gap measures weighted by the Gini-coefficient of the poor, giving: The Sen index has been widely discussed, and has the virtue of taking into account the income distribution among the poor. However, the index is almost never used outside the academic literature, perhaps because it lacks the intuitive appeal of some of the simpler measures of poverty, but also because it cannot be used to decompose poverty into contributions from different subgroups."}]},{"head":"The Sen-Shorrocks-Thon Index","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Scientists have modified the Sen index and perhaps the most compelling version is the Sen-Shorrocks-Thon (SST) index."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"It is defined as:"},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"same poverty line is assumed, however, results estimated could differ due to inherent problem of these measures of well being. As long as the income is concerned, it is highly susceptible to the problem of under-reporting, which would lead to high estimates of incidence of poverty. On the contrary, there is a problem of exaggerated expenditure reporting on the part of individuals and households."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"Similarly, even taking the same welfare measure for estimating incidence of poverty, in different countries with different surveys, the welfare measures differ from each other. Thus, even using the same poverty line for two countries would yield quite different results while keeping other things same. Moreover, comparison over time and space also becomes difficult when definition of poverty and poverty line changes. Even for the same poverty line, use of primary and secondary data would yield different results. Thus, the use of primary or secondary data set is solely according to the reliability, which normally lacks in the official statistics of the developing countries."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and Implications","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Over time, poverty incidence is fluctuating in Pakistan."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Poverty is higher in rural areas as compared to urban areas."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"• It is difficult to define poverty precisely. The researchers used various definitions of poverty over time. • It is difficult to compare the estimates of poverty over time because various poverty lines have been used for estimating the figures. • Different poverty lines used owe their variation from selection of the approach used i.e. basic need, calorie intake, relative poverty line, etc. • For different approaches to estimate the incidence of poverty, data requirement differs. • Variation in sources of data also leads to significant variation in the results of poverty incidence. • Applying one dollar a day poverty line shows that poverty in Pakistan is higher as compared to many other Asian countries. • A relative low Gini-coefficient estimate for Pakistan, as compared to other Asian countries, show relatively lower level of inequality in income/expenditure distribution."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Per capita income of selected Asian countries in 2001. "},{"text":"Table 2 : Poverty situation in selected Asian countries (Population below US $1 a day). Country Year Head Count Poverty Poverty Gap CountryYearHead Count PovertyPoverty Gap Bangladesh 1995-96 29.07 5.90 Bangladesh1995-9629.075.90 China 1998 18.80 4.40 China199818.804.40 India 1997 44.20 12.00 India199744.2012.00 Indonesia 1999 12.90 1.90 Indonesia199912.901.90 Pakistan 1996 31.00 6.20 Pakistan199631.006.20 Sri Lanka 1995 6.60 1.00 Sri Lanka19956.601.00 Thailand 1998 <2.00 <0.50 Thailand1998<2.00<0.50 Nepal 1995 37.70 9.70 Nepal199537.709.70 Source: World Bank (2000)   Source: World Bank (2000)  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Gini-coefficient and inequality in Asian countries. Percentage Share of Income or Percentage Share of Income or Consumption Consumption  "},{"text":" defined poverty line on the basis of per capita annual expenditure required to ensure the 2550 calories per day per adult equivalent. Using HIES survey data, a poverty line of Rs.1716 and Rs. 2592 per person for the year 1984/85, respectively, regarding rural and urban areas in current prices, was established.Ahamd andAllison (1990) determined poverty line on the basis of total per capital expenditure per month of Rs. 100 and Rs. 110 in 1979 prices, which was required to ensure 2550 calorie intake per adult equivalent for rural and urban areas, respectively.  "},{"text":" by using HIES survey data in 1998-99 prices on basic needs basis estimated a poverty line of Rs. 676.31 for rural areas of Pakistan. Subsequently, the estimated poverty lines for urban areas and Pakistan in general wereRs. 705.96 and  Rs. 898.94, respectively.      "}],"sieverID":"2af0e1b1-4a19-4219-9eb9-02493cdbe352","abstract":"The phenomenon of poverty is receiving the increasing attention of policy makers and institutions with an attempt to improve the living standards of the third world countries. Pakistan is no exemption to that. As the majority of third world population is concentrated in rural areas and dependent on agriculture sector for income, it becomes of special interest to dig into the root causes of poverty in these areas. A number of studies have shown that poverty is concentrated in the rural areas of Pakistan. However, a wide variation in estimates of poverty was experienced owing to various approaches and different poverty lines used by the researchers in estimating the incidence, depth, and severity of poverty. Recently, the Government of Pakistan addressed this issue by circulating the official poverty line. Poverty being a complex phenomenon, its determinants vary from time to time and across different areas. However, most of the studies indicate that poverty in Pakistan is concentrated in rural areas of Pakistan. Applying dollar a day poverty line shows that the poverty in Pakistan is higher as compared with many other Asian countries."}

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This was placed within the context of significant drivers that influence the basin including but not limited to high degree of climate variability; demographic pressure; associated transboundary issues over water sharing; increased demand for water outside of agriculture. "}]},{"head":"Presentation of Research Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The VBDC program team presented the results of their research using PowerPoint presentations and posters. Presentations were followed by round table discussions where participants brainstormed on the results from the various studies and came up with additional comments/questions, suggestions and recommendations as elaborated in the workshop proceedings. Summary of the main results from each of the presentations as well as the potential user of the result and the research gaps that were identified during discussions are all presented in Table 1. More information on each of the presentation can be found on the slideshare link indicated in the table as well as in the Book of Abstracts in Annex II. "}]},{"head":"Key Messages from the VBDC Research","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The key messages from the VBDC work cover aspects of targeting agricultural water management, improving the management of small reservoirs, understanding water governance options, using innovation platforms to strengthen value chains and lessons from research for development."}]},{"head":"Targeting Agricultural Water Management Interventions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Message 1, Research evidence from the VBDC indicates that there are still opportunities to support further AWM adoption and adaptation in the Volta basin for improved income and livelihoods. Replicating successful agricultural water management interventions in new locations requires consideration of economic, biophysical, institutional, and cultural factors to realize these potentials."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Message 2, Small reservoirs do clearly promote diversification of activities at local scale. Technical options may increase productivity but access to market constitutes the main bottle-neck in terms of improvement. This is beyond the power of the community and requires policy guidance to optimize the use of small reservoirs."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Messages 3, Trade-offs between agricultural intensification and the effects on the aquatic ecosystems have to be thoroughly considered in order to ensure the sustainability of the socio-ecological system."}]},{"head":"Understanding Water Governance Options","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Message 4, Successful integrated water resources management depends on interactions between multiple actors at different scales, which is often beyond everyday considerations. Companion modeling approach is a good framework that enhances interactions between actors and allows for a collective decision-making process to unfold. Collaboration with existing integrated water resources management institutions, such as local water committees and basin agencies ensures that research can inform local, national and basin-level knowledge and thinking and encourages sharing of experiences between institutions, development practitioners, researchers, and local stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Using Innovation Platforms to Strengthen Value Chains","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Message 5, Innovation platforms provide space for a wide range of stakeholders to exchange knowledge, learn, and develop joint initiatives to solve agricultural development challenges. Successful innovation can only happen when stakeholders have a sustained interest in working together to acquire new knowledge and find solutions; the research community cannot bring about innovation on its own. Livelihood options and indigenous experiences shape the ways farmers manage rainwater. Changing water management practices, and making them more productive, requires joint learning as well as technical, institutional, and policy support."}]},{"head":"Lessons on Research for Development (R4D)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Message 6, R4D takes time and resources and must be supported long enough for innovations to emerge and be evaluated. It does not take place in a laboratory, office or at desks, but in meetings and interaction between people. See model shared from research to outcomes and impact."}]},{"head":"Discussion on Scientific Presentations","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Based on the presentations and contributions from the participants, some key recommendations were drawn. Points were noted on how, through what media/platform and formats these findings could be used effectively and even beyond VBDC. Also, discussions and points were given on how to address the research gaps that were identified. The main submissions are presented below:"},{"index":2,"size":284,"text":" Community-based participatory research is very crucial in R4D programs. This refers to applied collaborative approach that enables community residents to more actively participate in the full spectrum of research from conception to design, conduct/methods, analysis of data collected, interpretation of results and recommendations, followed by the dissemination of results to different stakeholders. The aim of this is to influence a change in community orientation, systems, programs or policies. In order words, the community members and researchers can then combine their knowledge and action for social change to improve community understanding. Also, academic and (or) research as well as community partners can join to develop models and approaches to building communication, trust and capacity, with the final goal of increasing community participation in the research process.  In this context, it is important to use people \"within project\" to take messages/lessons forward and engage the policymakers which is very critical. In order to up-scale the message/results/findings, it is important to also consider the district authorities and agricultural extension agents.  To be able to use these results more effectively, the following can be done: participate in policy dialogue, organize advocacy events, communicate with political leaders and get closer to the private sector. In addition, it is important that there is an increase in the use of media -both social and conventional media (radio, television, and telephone). The effectiveness of these can also be promoted through the inclusion of the Civil Society Organization (CSOs) and coupled with engaging Donors.  In the course of the meetings, the following gaps were identified most of the projects were too ambitious / too complex and in some cases time too short for any significant results to be achieved."}]},{"head":"High Panel Forum: Response of Key Stakeholder","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"The key messages as well as the more detailed scientific presentations received very positive feedback. Representatives of policy makers and development agencies responded along three main questions: (a) ECOWAS wants to establish policy norms. CPWF therefore has the opportunity to feed into these regional initiatives. CPWF has some good practices to share with regards to the 2 nd priority of action plan to promote investments and the 3 rd priority, which is the promotion of regional integration, i.e. the establishments of three new river basin organizations. A key role of the ECOWAS water centre is to share good practices and interventions, while capacity at the moment is still building up -regional water observatory is planned, CPWF could feed into this. Key aspect underway is the directive on large scale infrastructure for West Africa developed with IUCN. There are six recommendations, one of which is on how to ensure local participation; actors are represented as beneficiaries etc. Challenge is to work out how to best share experiences, and lessons. ECOWAS is seeking a good tool/ mechanism to ensure that the policies and research is aligned and how best to achieve this (mechanism) is another opportunity for the CPWF results to be utilized\"."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"Volta Basin Authority -Dr. Charles Biney: \"Firstly, CPWF efforts are very relevant to the Volta basin because VBA has strategic plan of five strands, CPWF work relates to four of these five. These are to do with strengthening of knowledge base in the basin, harmonizing policies, coordination of management and actions, as well as dealing with stakeholders. Secondly, the application of the results that come out of the VBDC is seen as the task and responsibility of the VBA. This is because you have worked in selected areas but from the basin point of view we need to improve livelihoods across the whole basin as well as improve sub-regional integration. Thirdly, we can only do this jointly with other stakeholders including. researchers. Finally, how we move forward needs to be in a systematic way. VBA can move forward taking some of these things but we cannot do this alone, we need to be in partnership with you on this. So now we need to prioritize in the short and long term, if you add that to what we can do directly then we can see where we can find the most effective way of moving forward for impact\"."}]},{"head":"Burkina Ministry of Water, Hydraulics and Sanitation -","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The objectives set by the government include: ensuring food security across the country and sub region. Burkina is said to be a Sahelian country across two regions and we know that our agro pastoral production is subject to climate impacts. We want to improve productivity and production and this can only be achieved if we have control over water. Because then the producers can secure, intensify production, and improve it. Water mobilization in Burkina is a key concern of the government. Water is a rare and valuable good."},{"index":2,"size":290,"text":"Agricultural water demand competes with other sector demand and it requires tools and mechanisms to avoid conflicts, both at the national and riparian countries level. Burkina Faso does not have access to the sea and even then require treatment. We are therefore working on IWRM and we want and need to engage all stakeholders. We need to engage at the local level primarily but as government cannot be responsible for the daily management of water, we are engaging in capacity building of local water groups/managers. WASCAL findings show that there is no negative impact on water resources by using small reservoirs for water storage. This research has helped to reduce the potential for conflict between Ghana and Burkina Faso. How to bring everyone to the table was a key question for the initiative and it seems that innovation platforms are a useful way to achieve this. These platforms allow to know exactly what the farmer's concerns are and to be more informed towards helping them address their food insecurity. Would propose the development of a platform, through WASCAL, so that these models can talk to each other, so that the socio-economic models and the biophysical models are integrated in such a way as to be useful to policy makers in planning and decisions. Important to remember that the first and primary decision maker is the farmer. Therefore, we need to focus there first. during scientific workshops to enrich outputs from these workshops and improve results. The intervention scale of projects can be reviewed to prevent repetition of activities carried out already thus saving time and money. Current findings can also be publicized and all works put on CDs and USB sticks to make dissemination of information and knowledge much easier."}]},{"head":"CGIAR Research Program on Water","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lessons learnt","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"All the methods employed by researchers led to good results but key among them was the participatory approaches used. This approach brought on board all stakeholders (researchers, producers, donors, etc.) to work on projects which yielded much more productive results. Positive improvements in the livelihoods of rural populace are anticipated through the results of the research done."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for the future","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"The following recommendations emerged:"},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"1. The structure of financing projects by donors should be reviewed e.g.5year term intervals 2. Research outcomes should be disseminated to the right stakeholders/decision makers for the appropriate decisions to be taken and such outcomes exploited through developmental projects 3. Capacity building should be a continued process especially training of young researchers. 4. Data captured should be kept for future use and main findings and publications should also be published online."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Land and Ecosystems, Dr. Andrew Noble Director: WLE hopes to build on the networks and relationships developed through CPWF. These are invaluable. Some thoughts on individual topics that were presented:  The TAGMI (an Interdisciplinary decisions support tool (DSS) in agricultural water management out-scaling for the Volta River Basin) DSS developed by SEI and partners is a tool that could and should be further assessed in targeting AWM interventions in the basin that has a focus on small reservoirs. A map indicating the outputs from the DSS and the current distribution of small reservoirs (SR) in Burkina Faso is shown here.  The general conclusion from this work was that there was a relatively low correlation between the current distribution of the SR and the DSS outputs. This approach to targeting the out-scaling of AWM is extremely useful and should be further assessed as it has practical implications for implementing SR projects along with other AWM interventions as it also included soil conservation interventions in the study. This would complement the work from the AgWater Solutions initiative. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 : HIGHLIGTHS OF PRESENTATIONS  PRESENTATION TITLE MAIN RESULTS POTENTIAL RESEARCH GAPS PRESENTATION TITLEMAIN RESULTSPOTENTIALRESEARCH GAPS   USERS  USERS Barron et al. Targeting Agricultural A decision support tool called TAGMI was Planners; Development -Low predictability level of TAGMI. Barron et al. Targeting AgriculturalA decision support tool called TAGMI wasPlanners; Development-Low predictability level of TAGMI. Water Management Interventions developed with stakeholders to guide agencies; Researchers; -Tool should take into account future Water Management Interventionsdeveloped with stakeholders to guideagencies; Researchers;-Tool should take into account future in the Volta & Limpopo Basins investments in agriculture water Academics; Donors,. drivers eg. climate change, marketing in the Volta & Limpopo Basinsinvestments in agriculture waterAcademics; Donors,.drivers eg. climate change, marketing  management in the basins  /economic drivers etc. management in the basins/economic drivers etc. Annor et al. Setting up Successful -Little evidence of successful out-scaling of Donors, governments, -What drivers are being used to Annor et al. Setting up Successful-Little evidence of successful out-scaling ofDonors, governments,-What drivers are being used to Agricultural Water Management AWM technologies over the past 50 years. project initiators, address 'research fatigue syndrome'? Agricultural Water ManagementAWM technologies over the past 50 years.project initiators,address 'research fatigue syndrome'? Interventions -An Analysis of a -It is critical to support AWM technologies researchers -Data flow protocol needed for Interventions -An Analysis of a-It is critical to support AWM technologiesresearchers-Data flow protocol needed for Consultative Approach in Volta and technically and financially.  updating the TAGMI Consultative Approach in Volta andtechnically and financially.updating the TAGMI Limpopo Using Participatory GIS -Ownership of technology by farmers is  -Could enabling factors be barriers Limpopo Using Participatory GIS-Ownership of technology by farmers is-Could enabling factors be barriers (PGIS). very important.  for out-scaling? (PGIS).very important.for out-scaling?  "},{"text":"Balima et al. PGIS Synthesis on Agricultural Water Management Technology in Burkina Faso  Dare et al. Building Water -Citizenship as a \"bundle of rights\" was Researchers,  Dare et al. Building Water-Citizenship as a \"bundle of rights\" wasResearchers, Fowe et al. Hydrological Modeling Citizenship -Practices of Integrated -Model developed to monitor hydrological based on three interconnected pillars: Researchers, program governments, -Water for livestock and people need Fowe et al. Hydrological Modeling Citizenship -Practices of Integrated-Model developed to monitor hydrological based on three interconnected pillars:Researchers, program governments,-Water for livestock and people need of the Boura Dam -Burkina Faso. Water Resource Management in data eg. volume of water available in the legitimate representativeness, autonomy in managers development agencies, to be included in the model of the Boura Dam -Burkina Faso. Water Resource Management indata eg. volume of water available in the legitimate representativeness, autonomy inmanagers development agencies,to be included in the model Burkina Faso and Ghana dam and/or amounts of water used by the decision making and accountability water managers -Groundwater losses need to be Burkina Faso and Ghanadam and/or amounts of water used by the decision making and accountabilitywater managers-Groundwater losses need to be  different water users  measured and accounted for. different water usersmeasured and accounted for. Torou et al. Constructing Space: -Top down approach not favourable to NGOs, CLEs, -Address the Legitimacy and lack of Torou et al. Constructing Space:-Top down approach not favourable toNGOs, CLEs,-Address the Legitimacy and lack of Poussin et al. Performances of The Practices of Water Policy in -Quantification of crop yield, income and local IWRM Governments, government agencies -Long term viability and chemical decision power of CLEs in Burkina Poussin et al. Performances of The Practices of Water Policy in-Quantification of crop yield, income and local IWRMGovernments, government agencies-Long term viability and chemical decision power of CLEs in Burkina Irrigated Scheme Downstream Burkina Faso labour development agencies, exposure of this reservoir not yet Faso Irrigated Scheme Downstream Burkina Fasolabourdevelopment agencies,exposure of this reservoir not yet Faso Small Reservoirs: The Cases of  local communities considered Small Reservoirs: The Cases oflocal communitiesconsidered Boura (Burkina Faso) and Binaba 2 Douxchamps et al. Agricultural -Low exploitation of the water resource Ministry of Agriculture  Boura (Burkina Faso) and Binaba 2 Douxchamps et al. Agricultural-Low exploitation of the water resourceMinistry of Agriculture (Ghana) Water Management and Livelihoods (SR) as a result of suboptimal agronomic -Access to services and information will NGOs, development  (Ghana) Water Management and Livelihoods(SR) as a result of suboptimal agronomic -Access to services and information willNGOs, development in the Crop-livestock Systems of the practices and poor production increase income of smallholder farmers agencies, researchers  in the Crop-livestock Systems of thepractices and poor production increase income of smallholder farmersagencies, researchers Volta Basin  Researchers, policy Need for more study and better Volta BasinResearchers, policyNeed for more study and better Cecchi et al. Agricultural -Eutrophication and chemical makers, local Development agencies, understanding of the ecology and -What accounts for the success or Cecchi et al. Agricultural-Eutrophication and chemicalmakers, local Development agencies,understanding of the ecology and -What accounts for the success or Intensification and Aquatic Ecology: Payan et al. Farm-level Best-fit contamination as a result of intensified -Combined rainwater management & soil communities extension agents, ecotoxicology of small reservoirs otherwise of technologies for Intensification and Aquatic Ecology: Payan et al. Farm-level Best-fitcontamination as a result of intensified -Combined rainwater management & soilcommunities extension agents,ecotoxicology of small reservoirs otherwise of technologies for Impact and Trade offs Rainwater Management Strategies agricultural activities threaten the improvement techniques increase maize NGOs different crops? Impact and Trade offs Rainwater Management Strategiesagricultural activities threaten the improvement techniques increase maizeNGOsdifferent crops? and Soil Improvement Methods for sustainability of agro-ecosystem seed & biomass yields   and Soil Improvement Methods forsustainability of agro-ecosystem seed & biomass yields Approach: Methodological Proposal Dare et al. Analyzing the Evolution of the Knowledge of Water Users in Boura Dam to Account for the Effects of the Participatory Seed and Biomass Yield in a Maize-soy bean Intercrop -Main indicators of success as defined by stakeholders for Burkina Faso are: food security, revenue of beneficiaries, number of beneficiaries and sustainability of benefits derived from technology -Ownership of resource not felt by communities -Enormous plant biomass generated has the potential to address dry season feed needs and sustain crop-livestock systems Donors, planners, researchers Project implementers; Policy makers, community members -How does each factor affect success/impact? -What are the generic factors and at -Long term monitoring of IWRM important? what scales are these variables -What are the immediate benefits to the community to enhance ownership? Approach: Methodological Proposal Dare et al. Analyzing the Evolution of the Knowledge of Water Users in Boura Dam to Account for the Effects of the Participatory Seed and Biomass Yield in a Maize-soy bean Intercrop-Main indicators of success as defined by stakeholders for Burkina Faso are: food security, revenue of beneficiaries, number of beneficiaries and sustainability of benefits derived from technology -Ownership of resource not felt by communities -Enormous plant biomass generated has the potential to address dry season feed needs and sustain crop-livestock systemsDonors, planners, researchers Project implementers; Policy makers, community members-How does each factor affect success/impact? -What are the generic factors and at -Long term monitoring of IWRM important? what scales are these variables -What are the immediate benefits to the community to enhance ownership? Morris et al. Agricultural Water Dare et al. Crossed Contributions of -Multiple evidence of provincial level -Usage of the ComMod approach to support Policy makers, water management -Cost implications of AWM adoption projects and feedback required Morris et al. Agricultural Water Dare et al. Crossed Contributions of-Multiple evidence of provincial level -Usage of the ComMod approach to supportPolicy makers, water management-Cost implications of AWM adoption projects and feedback required Management Technology Expansion Two Participative Approaches in adoption of AWM (33-39% of total crop existing IWRM initiatives through researchers, institutions not known -Detailed information on all Management Technology Expansion Two Participative Approaches inadoption of AWM (33-39% of total crop existing IWRM initiatives throughresearchers, institutionsnot known -Detailed information on all and Impact on Crop Yields in Burkina Faso and in Ghana: area in northern Burkina Faso is under multilevel participatory process program/project stakeholder involvement and Impact on Crop Yields in Burkina Faso and in Ghana:area in northern Burkina Faso is under multilevel participatory processprogram/projectstakeholder involvement Northern Burkina Faso (1980-Example of the Project V4 to SWC) Managers  Northern Burkina Faso (1980-Example of the Project V4 toSWC)Managers 2010). Support IWRM Policies -Development of yield curves (kg/ha) for   2010). Support IWRM Policies-Development of yield curves (kg/ha) for  major cereals crops (1984-2008) at 3% -Using erosion models to target erosion Governments, -Urban areas, roads etc not major cereals crops (1984-2008) at 3% -Using erosion models to target erosionGovernments,-Urban areas, roads etc not Kizito et al. Targeting rate of increase control; using vegetative buffers can development agencies, considered in the model Kizito et al. Targetingrate of increase control; using vegetative buffers candevelopment agencies,considered in the model Annor et al. Monitoring Small Interventions to Reduce Catchment -Development of a basic algorithm and reduce sedimentation by (15%) in small Planners, dam builders, NGOs -Could an online tool be developed to Annor et al. Monitoring Small Interventions to Reduce Catchment-Development of a basic algorithm and reduce sedimentation by (15%) in smallPlanners, dam builders, NGOs-Could an online tool be developed to Reservoirs in the Volta Basin of Sedimentation: The Case of a Sub- model to monitor hydrological data of reservoirs researchers help manage small reservoirs? Reservoirs in the Volta Basin of Sedimentation: The Case of a Sub-model to monitor hydrological data of reservoirsresearchershelp manage small reservoirs? Ghana Watershed in the White Volta Basin small reservoirs eg. evaporative losses   Ghana Watershed in the White Volta Basinsmall reservoirs eg. evaporative losses  "},{"text":"Swans et al. Performance of Innovation Platforms in Crop- Livestock Agro-Ecosystems in the Volta River Basin in Burkina Faso  value chains in Ghana    value chains in Ghana   NGOs, researchers,  NGOs, researchers, Teno et al. Impact of V2 Innovation -IPs are useful for exchange of information technical departments,  Teno et al. Impact of V2 Innovation-IPs are useful for exchange of informationtechnical departments, Platforms (IPs) on Improvement of and improvement in the value of agro- extension agents  Platforms (IPs) on Improvement ofand improvement in the value of agro-extension agents Crop and Livestock Production in pastoral production.   Crop and Livestock Production inpastoral production. Four Villages of Yatenga Province,    Four Villages of Yatenga Province, Northern Burkina Faso -Positive impacts of IPs on its members'   Northern Burkina Faso-Positive impacts of IPs on its members'  practices: human & social capacities were   practices: human & social capacities were  built, increase in crop & livestock   built, increase in crop & livestock  production   production  -Communication and innovation are Researchers, donors, How does a project promote local -Communication and innovation areResearchers, donors,How does a project promote local Greenough: Change and related. Innovation rarely happens in the governments involvement which is motivated by Greenough: Change andrelated. Innovation rarely happens in thegovernmentsinvolvement which is motivated by Innovation in the VBDC mind, office, laboratory or workshop of a  interest of local partners in advancing Innovation in the VBDCmind, office, laboratory or workshop of ainterest of local partners in advancing  single individual rather it is in the  the project? single individual rather it is in thethe project?  exchange of ideas and information   exchange of ideas and information Cofie: Synthesis of results from the Key messages are elaborated in chapter 3 in this document  Cofie: Synthesis of results from theKey messages are elaborated in chapter 3 in this document VBDC    VBDC  -Importance of IP approach in ensuring Researchers, donors  -Importance of IP approach in ensuringResearchers, donors  effective linkages between different actors   effective linkages between different actors  for better access to technical & financial   for better access to technical & financial  services   services  -The running of IPs should be documented   -The running of IPs should be documented  and monitored systematically   and monitored systematically Zwedie et al. Impact of innovation -IPs created options along the value chain Government officials, -Need to know if IP has different Zwedie et al. Impact of innovation-IPs created options along the value chainGovernment officials,-Need to know if IP has different platforms on marketing e.g interactions via platforms contributes to aid agencies and effects in areas with or without water platforms on marketinge.g interactions via platforms contributes toaid agencies andeffects in areas with or without water relationships -the case of Volta improvement in market access and extension officers infrastructure? relationships -the case of Voltaimprovement in market access andextension officersinfrastructure? Basin integrated crop livestock reduction in transaction costs.   Basin integrated crop livestockreduction in transaction costs.  "},{"text":"Ms Anna TENGNAS, Water Resources Coordination Centre of ECOWAS: \"The West How can CPWF research be used in the Volta River Basin? (b)What concrete opportunities are available to use VBDC research?, (c) What could be the next steps? The panelist were five key representatives from the following organizations: Water Resources Coordination Unit of ECOWAS, Directorate of the Volta Basin Authority (VBA), Burkina Faso Ministry of Water and Sanitation (advisor), Ministry of Food and Agriculture in Ghana / IFAD funded Program for Northern Rural Growth in Ghana and the West African Science Service Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL) Program. They emphasized the aspects of the VBDC research which has good potential to be taken up and indicated areas where the VBDC work aligns with some of their own organizational mandates and plans. African Water Resource Policy and Action Plan will be validated in 2013. The presented research appears are in line with the priorities in the region. For example, IWRM implementation and water quality focus are key focus areas for the Water Resource Coordination Centre in Ouagadougou; hence the results are very interesting from our perspectives. Here we can aim at connecting research to policy making.  "},{"text":"Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Ghana -Mr. Roy Ariyiga, Director GNRGP. \" Mobilization and quality of water resource is done by building dams and other infrastructures. Hence the VBDC research results are relevant to our needs In Ghana, We accuse Burkina Faso of giving us too much or too little water. The use of innovation platforms is really thinking outside the box. This will help with national security by reducing potential for conflict over water. Policy has a role to play. I see that fantastic research work has been done through CPWF. AWM and water governance as well as value chain focus is great. But the question is where do we go from here? More people need to know about the results. What is the communication strategy now? Sometimes researchers think and deliberate too much about whether the results of their research are 100% correct, they worry too much about potential uncertainty. So they hesitate to share their results, but governments want quick fixes. We need things that improve livelihoods now. It's all about putting more money in the pockets of farmers. Schemes that make money for farmers are successful. Therefore we need to begin by asking what the market wants. Then work back from that to get buy-in from farmers. In this way governance structures will also be strengthened. Let's try to publish and communicate now and see what we can do now with all this research results. Let's use the networks we've established to achieve positive results for everyone. Multi-disciplinarity is the way forward\".  "},{"text":"Dr Boubacar Barry, Director of WASCAL Competence centre, Ouagadougou. \"Congratulations to all of the CPWF team. WASCAL can learn from these findings. There is no model for climate change in Africa or in West Africa. WASCAL is working on this and on integrating changes in land use in the model. The issue of small reservoirs as a climate change adaptation measure as highlighted by this research is interesting.  "}],"sieverID":"1e66c12d-e21f-47e9-9041-3172f56e512d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"060433b247448529194d9a5d5fdd0efc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/GLADS_Guidance-Notes.pdf"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Guidance for a Landscape Approach In Displacement Settings (GLADS) Guidance notes","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Guidance for a Landscape Approach in Displacement Settings (GLADS) is a European Union funded initiative led by CIFOR-ICRAF in partnership with key stakeholders. GLADS aims to assist humanitarian, development and government actors, as well as local stakeholders in applying a landscape approach in developing and implementing initiatives in displacement settings. Although there are examples of some aspects of integrated landscape approaches being applied in refugee hosting landscapes, there is need for guidance on how to implement at scale. CIFOR-ICRAF and partners embarked collaboratively in developing principles and guidance notes on implementing an integrated landscape approach in displacement settings. Based on a structured literature review, a conceptual framework was developed presenting key principles on an integrated landscape approach in displacement settings adapted from Freeman et al. 2015.  "}]},{"head":"Economic sustainability","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Access to income generating activities from diversified livelihood activities or employment markets."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Equitable access to markets and capital."}]},{"head":"INTERDISCIPLINARITY AND TRANSDISCIPLINARY","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Multiple interlinking sectors","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Engaging stakeholders within and outside landscape Approaches that transcend disciplines (e.g. multisector approach, mixed methodology, system approach). Subsequent field consultations with stakeholders in Cameroon (the East Region near Garoua-Boulaï), Kenya (Kakuma camp and Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement in Turkana County) and Uganda (Rhino Camp Refugee Settlement in Terego and Madi-Okollo districts) collated relevant experiences and inputs, creating more understanding of landscape approach-related tools being applied in displacement settings. Information from the literature review and field consultations was then used in developing draft guidance notes, which were then discussed further at national co-designing workshops."}]},{"head":"PARTICIPATION AND ENGAGEMENT","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"In Cameroon, the border city of Garoua-Boulaï and the Gado refugee camp, together with nearby councils, including Ngoura, Betare-Oya and Mandjou, have been important areas for hosting refugees from the Central African Republic since 2012. The rapid increase in population in this landscape has resulted in forest fragmentation, which is a major issue in Cameroon's forest-savanna transition zones."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"In Kenya, the two sites of Kakuma refugee camp and Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement in the northwestern county of Turkana have hosted refugees from over ten nationalities, mainly South Sudanese and Ethiopians, since 1992. Increased pressure on natural resources has resulted in conflicts with the predominantly pastoral Turkana communities."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"In Uganda, the Rhino Camp Refugee Settlement, stretching across both Madi-Okollo and Terego districts in northwestern Uganda, was established in 1980, and hosts refugees mainly from South Sudan. Woodfuel shortages as a result of deforestation, landscape degradation and depletion of tree resources are a major challenge for both refugees and host communities in this landscape. 6 7"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Results of the co-designing processes were synthesized into the Guidance for an integrated landscape approach in displacement settings presented in this guiding document and are freely accessible to all stakeholders online at cifor-icraf. org/glads."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"GLADS offers general guidance for all stakeholders in displacement settings to work at a landscape scale through collaboration and cross-sectoral planning in order to contribute to ecosystem and livelihood resilience for refugees and host communities. The guidance notes are accompanied by examples from the sites, and links to relevant tools."}]},{"head":"An integrated landscape approach (ILA) in displacement settings","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"When coupled with local use, influxes of refugees and their dependence on natural resources for construction materials, fuelwood and livelihood activities frequently exceed the carrying capacity of natural ecosystems. This can lead to forest, land and soil degradation as well as biodiversity loss, which can cause tensions with host communities. With refugees often staying for protracted periods, longterm livelihood support for both refugees and host communities has increasingly been considered critical in humanitarian interventions. Promoting sustainable development and resilience at the landscape level is increasingly recognized as a viable means for overcoming sectoral gaps and finding solutions through dialogues with actors at multiple levels."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Results of a review of landscape approaches in displacement settings by CIFOR-ICRAF (Schure et al. 2022) found no examples of an integrated landscape approach being systematically applied or adapted to a refugee hosting or displacement setting."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Figure 1 above summarizes the key principles that guided the GLADS co-designing process, with five principles of an integrated landscape approach confirmed as being relevant for displacement settings:"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• \"Complexity of social-ecological systems\":"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"The influx of people in a certain area puts pressures on ecological services and creates new social relations and renegotiation of claims with host communities and other stakeholders."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• The need for \"interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinary\" approaches in planning and management across various sectors is important for addressing longer-term needs and sustainability in displacement settings."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"• The \"multiple functions and tradeoffs\" principle is illustrated through the reported multiple livelihood activities, and socioeconomic dynamics between refugees and host communities."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"• \"Participation and stakeholder engagement\": Effectiveness of this participation and engagement contributes to management and monitoring, and requires capacity enhancement and understanding of stakeholder perceptions."},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"• Key \"economic, social and environmental sustainability outcomes\" can be targeted through integrated interventions in refugee hosting landscapes."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"Guidance for an integrated landscape approach in displacement settings GLADS consists of five key guidance notes on how to apply the integrated landscape approach in displacement settings, "}]},{"head":"Identify appropriate landscape scales to address sustainability and resilience","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• Undertake biophysical mapping of key resources and sociopolitical and sociocultural boundaries."}]},{"head":"Identify key stakeholders in the landscape","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"• Undertake stakeholder mapping and engagement (refugees, host communities, UN agencies, donors, subnational and national governments, the private sector) identifying needs, roles, interests and influence, including availability of resources, governing rules and regulations."}]},{"head":"Identify multifunctionality (synergies and trade-offs) within displacement settings","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"• Evaluate ecological functions, provision of food/feed and forage, construction materials, shelter and sheds alongside their trade-offs such as degradation, shifting of land uses, loss of biodiversity, conflict and displacement, pollution and waste generation, loss of livelihoods, socioeconomic value of resources, and diseases."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• Assess strengths of social functions, e.g., cultural dynamics, security, knowledge exchange and attainment of unique skills against threats such as conflict, gender-based violence, culture erosion, resource competition and insecurity."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• Explore economic opportunities, such as market developments, trade, industrialization, formal employment opportunities, infrastructure developments, expansion of trade and local development."}]},{"head":"Understand governance structures and institutional arrangements","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Assess institutional arrangements, policies and legislation to support integrated landscape development and implementation."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• Assess the multiscale and multilevel governance structures and sociocultural mechanisms in displacement settings at the local, regional, subnational, national and international levels."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Identify existing land and resources tenure, benefit sharing and conflict resolution mechanisms."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"Photo: Axel Fassio"}]},{"head":"GUIDANCE NOTES","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"12"}]},{"head":"What constitutes a well understood displacement landscape in Kenya?","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"According to participants at the national stakeholder forum: "}]},{"head":"Relevant tools and instruments Description","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) (UNHCR 2018)"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) aims at easing pressure on refugee hosting countries; enhancing refugee self-reliance; enhancing integration and socioeconomic empowerment of refugees and host communities; expanding access to third-country solutions; and supporting conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity. "}]},{"head":"Developing a common landscape-scale vision for the refugee hosting landscape","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Such a vision includes social, environmental and economic sustainability outcomes to be agreed upon considering the current context, and the desired future for the specific landscape, in order to contribute to ecosystem and livelihood resilience of refugees and host communities."}]},{"head":"Define social outcomes to address the multiple interests and needs of multiple stakeholders and those of hosting and displaced communities","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• Through inclusive participatory approaches for co-design, envisaged social outcomes are determined and priorities and opportunities identified."}]},{"head":"Define outcomes for landscape environmental sustainability","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"• Environmental outcomes follow mapping and ecosystem assessments of environmental risks and vulnerability to climate change, livelihood systems and drivers of deforestation and landscape degradation using various approaches including circular economy approaches and spatial planning."}]},{"head":"Economic outcomes promote self-reliance of refugees and host communities","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• Economic outcomes are targeted following analysis of production systems, credit mechanisms, market systems and value chains."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Plan and promote nature-based enterprises."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Bogor, Indonesia; Nairobi: CIFOR-ICRAF."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Photo: Axel Fassio 16 17"}]},{"head":"Towards a common vision for the refugee hosting Garoua Boulaï and nearby councils' landscape, Cameroon","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"In Eastern Cameroon, 304,000 refugees from the Central African Republic now live within organized settlements (30%) and within host communities (70%), with over 60,000 people settled in Gado-Badzéré village in Garoua Boulaï; the nearby councils' area. Refugees in these locations have limited livelihood options. For their daily cooking and heating needs, fuelwood is the most available resource, while collecting and selling fuelwood also provides cash income. As refugees generally have limited access to land, fuelwood collection is a source of conflict with local communities. It is also unsustainable, as evidenced by the increasing distances that refugees and hosting communities must travel to collect fuelwood."},{"index":2,"size":202,"text":"A landscape approach addressing woodfuel issues by CIFOR-ICRAF (under the EU-financed GML project) was started by a workshop with key stakeholders in Bertoua in 2019 to create consensus on priorities for the scoping study. These stakeholders were subsequently involved at all steps of the initiative to ensure efficiency in the options developed for the benefit of host communities and refugees, as well as to establish a framework for sustainable management of the woodfuel value chain in a refugee hosting area. The co-development of a sustainable woodfuel management strategy was built on existing initiatives within the refugee hosting landscape and collaborations between stakeholders. It was an opportunity for open and constructive discussions between stakeholders to identify knowledge gaps about woodfuel value chains and, subsequently, to test various options. These consisted of a package of activities, including reforestation of the landscape using fast-growing tree species and trees that provide non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and commercial fruits, as well as better end use of woodfuel using improved cookstoves. Long-term follow up and participatory monitoring evaluation and learning are essential to supporting and assessing the environmental and socioeconomic outcomes of reforestation activities and improved cookstove adoption, to inform and adapt activities to achieve best sustainability outcomes."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Source: Ndzodo A, Awono A, Schure J, Beloune Biondokin GS, Sola P, Gambo J. 2022. Guidance for a Landscape Approach in Displacement Settings (GLADS): Cameroon Case Study. Bogor, Indonesia; Nairobi: CIFOR-ICRAF."}]},{"head":"Relevant tools and instruments Description","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) (UNHCR 2018)"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework (CRRF) aims at easing pressure on refugee hosting countries; enhancing refugee self-reliance; enhancing integration and socioeconomic empowerment of refugees and host communities; expanding access to third-country solutions; and supporting conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity. "}]},{"head":"Implementing contextually appropriate integrated interventions targeting sustainability in displacement settings","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"An integrated approach entails working across sectors, geographic and socioeconomic boundaries, and addressing longer-term objectives and needs. It builds on good understanding of stakeholder perceptions and the principle of effective \"participation and stakeholder engagement\", involving both refugees and host communities."}]},{"head":"Engage and facilitate stakeholders to develop a common vision for social, environmental and economic transformation in a particular landscape","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• Target preferred social outcomes through a process of co-design and inclusive participatory approaches prioritizing basic needs and priorities as identified through needs assessments."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Envision landscape-level environmental sustainability and resilience, following mapping assessments of ecosystem carrying capacity, environmental risks and land-use planning."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• Address economic outcomes to promote selfreliance and sustainable livelihoods, following analyses of economic activities, availability of credit mechanisms, market systems and value chains."}]},{"head":"Develop a theory of change based on the vision developed","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Describe a pathway of change towards the vision."}]},{"head":"Identify and prioritize livelihood and environmental management interventions","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"• Ensure the voices of men, women, youth and other vulnerable groups are heard, and their diverse priorities and preferences are represented in the final interventions/ programme."}]},{"head":"Develop a plan with short-term and longterm objectives","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Clearly define roles, responsibilities and resources of multiple actors across disciplines and sectors."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Implement interventions collaboratively with periodic engagement for planning and learning on multistakeholder platforms. "}]},{"head":"Resource recovery and reuse (RRR) approaches in Kakuma refugee camp, Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement and host communities","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"RRR is an approach being implemented between 2019 and 2023 in six refugee camps and settlements and their surrounding host communities in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. The aim of the project is to increase the resilience of these communities through the implementation of gender responsive RRR solutions while building an evidence base. This work builds on previous research and innovations by project partners in developing, testing and verifying technologies and livelihood models for gender responsive, circular bio-economy solutions to capture energy, water and nutrients, and building resilient food and energy systems for refugee settlements and their host communities. The project targets 3,600 direct and 200,000 indirect beneficiaries with one-third of this target in the Kakuma-Kalobeyei landscape."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Extensive uptake of project training indicates the success of this project's definition of scale as having many participants rather than measuring success via the area cultivated or kilograms of vegetables produced."}]},{"head":"Relevant tools and instruments Description","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"A Practical Guide to Integrated Landscape Management and Tool Guide to Integrated Landscape Management. Washington DC: EcoAgriculture Partners, on behalf of 1000 Landscapes for 1 Billion People"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The 1000 Landscapes for 1 Billion People initiative provides a practical guide and tool guide on integrated landscape management (ILM), with a generic, locally adaptable, conceptual process and practical guidance for carrying out ILM."}]},{"head":"UNDP's Social and Environmental Standards (SES) (UNDP 2019)","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The Social and Environmental Standards (SES) tool ensures that all UNDP funded programmes maximize social and environmental opportunities and benefits, and at the same time avoid, minimize, mitigate and manage adverse social and environmental risks and impacts."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"It entails environmental and social impact assessments (ESIAs), resettlement action planning and livelihoods action planning."}]},{"head":"Relevant tools and instruments Description","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Handbook on safe access to firewood and alternative energy (SAFE) (WFP 2012)"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"This handbook provides guidance on fuel-efficient programming in displacement settings. It is a capacity building tool for humanitarian practitioners towards enhancing safe access to fuelwood and alternative sources of energy in displacement settings. It offers guidance on developing forestry management plans and assessing energy supply and demand in displacement settings."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Safe Access to Fuel and Energy (SAFE) framework (FAO 2016)"},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"A user toolkit on woodfuel assessments in displacement settings. It contributes to understanding on how woodfuel is sourced, used and monitored, through assessing woodfuel supply, and monitoring woodfuel use and energy access."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Handbook for forest management in refugee and returnee situations (UNHCR and IUCN 2005)."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"This handbook provides guidance on forest management during refugee and returnee operations, including assessments of demand and possible supply of forestry products; development of wood supply and harvesting plans; forestry management plans in displacement settings; and tree planting, forestry and income. "}]},{"head":"Minimum","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Relevant tools and instruments Description","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Guidance on the management of natural and planted forest and woodlands in displacement settings (FAO and UNHCR 2018)"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The tool is used for the planning, implementation and monitoring of forestry and woodland management in displacement settings."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"It provides guidance on assessing woodfuel demand and supply; land suitability assessments; land tenure; tree species selection; managing forestry plantations for different uses; and monitoring, evaluation and reporting."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Guidance notes for sustainable forestry interventions in displacement settings in Kenya (UNHCR 2020)"},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Useful for developing forest and tree options for environmental conservation, restoration of ecosystems and livelihoods improvements. It provides guidance on tree species selection, managing natural and planted forests, and agroforestry."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Framework for assessing, monitoring and evaluating the environment in refugee-related operations (FRAME toolkit) (UNHCR 2009)"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"A framework for assessing, monitoring and evaluating environmental impacts of refugees."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"It offers guidance on participatory environmental management between refugees and host communities."}]},{"head":"UNHCR Environmental guidelines (UNHCR and IUCN 2005)","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Operational guidelines providing the basic principles of UNHCR environmental activities, through environmental assessments during planning, implementation and monitoring during different phases of refugee operations. The Global Strategy for Sustainable Energy aims at enabling refugees, host communities and other persons of concern to meet their energy needs in a safe and sustainable way."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The strategy comprises five outcomes mainly addressing priority energy needs for cooking, lighting and heating for refugees and host communities. The strategy also entails maximizing use of renewable energy options; ensuring that community facilities in refugee camps and settlements have access to energy; and facilitating the transitioning of UNHCR's facilities to renewable energy."}]},{"head":"25","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Putting appropriate monitoring, evaluation, learning and adaptation systems in place for ILA in displacement settings"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Continuous monitoring, evaluation and learning on initiatives within an integrated landscape approach in displacement settings, allows for shared understanding of successes and failures, and informs timely adaptation."}]},{"head":"Establish a landscape evaluation monitoring tool","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• During the planning stage, determine the objectives, performance standards, indicators and protocols for monitoring."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Establish a baseline on socioeconomic and environmental conditions in the refugee landscape."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Allocate sufficient resources (financial, human) for monitoring."}]},{"head":"Establish an institutional mechanism for coordinating data collection","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"• Identify all concerned stakeholders and their diverse interests in the planning phase in developing a comprehensive set of issues and parameters to be monitored, and define commonly agreed indicators and means of verification."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Identify and agree on tasks and responsibilities, including skills and tools, between members of the monitoring team."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Build learning platforms to feed lessons back into planning and across-site comparisons Create an enabling and inclusive environment for women, men, girls, youth, minorities and people living with disabilities (PLWDs)"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• Conduct a Gender Equality and Social Inclusion analysis (include norms and cultural traits that disadvantage women, girls and minorities)."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Engage women, girls, youth, minorities and people living with disabilities in refugee landscapes for attainment of sustainable livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Ensure inclusive participation and engagement of women, girls, youth and minorities","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• Engage women, girls, youth and minorities in displacement settings so as to reflect their preferences and priorities in development initiatives."}]},{"head":"Identify the nature of resource distribution among men and women in displacement settings","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Map out resources and establish their distribution/ownership and access regimes based on gender."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Implement an effective MEL system to ensure sustainability outcomes consider women, girls, youth and minority groups in displacement settings"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Develop key indicators of social inclusion in the refugee hosting landscape (include specific indicators such as effect of interventions on women, girls and minority groups)."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"• Implement a gender inclusive participatory MEL system. The Global Strategy for Sustainable Energy aims at enabling refugees, host communities and other persons of concern to meet their energy needs in a safe and sustainable way."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"The strategy comprises five outcomes mainly addressing priority energy needs for cooking, lighting and heating for refugees and host communities. The strategy also entails maximizing use of renewable energy options; ensuring that community facilities in refugee camps and settlements have access to energy; and facilitating the transitioning of UNHCR's facilities to renewable energy. 30 31"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Integrated landscape approach in displacement settings (conceptual framework). Source: Schure et al. 2022, based on ILA principles by Freeman et al., 2015. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2. Map of GLADS field consultations "},{"text":" Photo: Axel Fassio "},{"text":" UNHCR's climate resilience and environmental sustainability strategy(2022( -2025( ) (UNHCR 2022)   )    This operational strategy focuses on mitigating the impacts of climate change and environmental degradation on refugees and host communities while supporting their resilience to climate-related and other environmental risks by preserving and rehabilitating the natural environment in displacement settings.UNHCR's Global Strategy forSustainableEnergy (2019Energy ( -2025)   )     "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Understanding the displacement setting landscape  GUIDANCE FOR A LANDSCAPE APPROACH IN DISPLACEMENT SETTINGS (GLADS) A good and shared understanding of the displacement setting landscape is a first step in dealing with \"Complexity of social-ecological systems\" and \"multiple functions and trade-offs\". This includes understanding new social relations and negotiation of access, and use of resources between host communities and other stakeholders. along with sub-notes and examples. More practical experiences from site consultations are published in separate reports, and can be accessed at: cifor-icraf.org/glads. GUIDANCE NOTES GUIDANCE FOR A LANDSCAPE APPROACH IN DISPLACEMENT SETTINGS (GLADS)A good and shared understanding of the displacement setting landscape is a first step in dealing with \"Complexity of social-ecological systems\" and \"multiple functions and trade-offs\". This includes understanding new social relations and negotiation of access, and use of resources between host communities and other stakeholders.along with sub-notes and examples. More practical experiences from site consultations are published in separate reports, and can be accessed at: cifor-icraf.org/glads.GUIDANCE NOTES 10   11 1011  "},{"text":"monitoring, evaluation and learning (MEL) system looks like according to stakeholders in Uganda (Rhino Refugee Camp Settlement in Madi-Okollo District)   What a good A good MEL system encompasses all actors, through interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary What a good A good MEL system encompasses all actors,through interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary  leaving no aspect unmonitored. It measures teams with independent and well-clarified roles leaving no aspect unmonitored. It measuresteams with independent and well-clarified roles  progress on achievement of outputs being assessed and targets. The system produces accurate data progress on achievement of outputs being assessedand targets. The system produces accurate data  against the objectives, and social, environmental for analysis to inform learning and adjustments against the objectives, and social, environmentalfor analysis to inform learning and adjustments  and economic indicators. It is inclusive and of implementation. Effective MEL is characterized and economic indicators. It is inclusive andof implementation. Effective MEL is characterized  participatory, context based, upholds ethics and by clearly defined timelines, adequate planning participatory, context based, upholds ethics andby clearly defined timelines, adequate planning  social safeguards, is admissible, cost effective, resource mobilization and coordination. social safeguards, is admissible, cost effective,resource mobilization and coordination.  convenient, timebound and understandable. The convenient, timebound and understandable. The  MEL system is both sensitive to risks and prevailing Source: Buyinza J, Gambo J, Acanakwo E, Schure MEL system is both sensitive to risks and prevailingSource: Buyinza J, Gambo J, Acanakwo E, Schure  conditions in the displacement setting and aligns J, Sola P, Awono A, Njenga M. 2022. Guidance for conditions in the displacement setting and alignsJ, Sola P, Awono A, Njenga M. 2022. Guidance for  with county and national government policies and a Landscape Approach in Displacement Settings with county and national government policies anda Landscape Approach in Displacement Settings  their broader development agendas. It functions (GLADS): Uganda Case Study. Bogor, Indonesia; their broader development agendas. It functions(GLADS): Uganda Case Study. Bogor, Indonesia;    Nairobi: CIFOR-ICRAF. Nairobi: CIFOR-ICRAF. • Establish learning platforms (both online and Relevant tools and instruments Description • Establish learning platforms (both online andRelevant tools and instrumentsDescription physical) for sharing lessons learned from the   physical) for sharing lessons learned from the successes and failures of different approaches, strategies, methodologies and techniques. UNDP's Social and Environmental Standards (SES) (UNDP 2019) The Social and Environmental Standards (SES) tool ensures that all UNDP funded programmes maximize successes and failures of different approaches, strategies, methodologies and techniques.UNDP's Social and Environmental Standards (SES) (UNDP 2019)The Social and Environmental Standards (SES) tool ensures that all UNDP funded programmes maximize   social and environmental opportunities and benefits, and social and environmental opportunities and benefits, and   at the same time avoid, minimize, mitigate and manage at the same time avoid, minimize, mitigate and manage   adverse social and environmental risks and impacts. adverse social and environmental risks and impacts.   It entails environmental and social impact assessments It entails environmental and social impact assessments   (ESIAs), resettlement action planning and livelihoods (ESIAs), resettlement action planning and livelihoods   action planning. action planning.  Framework for assessing, monitoring A framework for assessing, monitoring and evaluating Framework for assessing, monitoringA framework for assessing, monitoring and evaluating  and evaluating the environment in environmental impacts of refugees. and evaluating the environment inenvironmental impacts of refugees.  refugee-related operations (FRAME  refugee-related operations (FRAME  toolkit) (UNHCR 2009) It offers guidance on participatory environmental toolkit) (UNHCR 2009)It offers guidance on participatory environmental   management between refugees and host communities. management between refugees and host communities.  UNHCR Environmental guidelines Operational guidelines providing the basic principles of UNHCR UNHCR Environmental guidelinesOperational guidelines providing the basic principles of UNHCR  (UNHCR and IUCN 2005) environmental activities, through environmental assessments (UNHCR and IUCN 2005)environmental activities, through environmental assessments   during planning, implementation and monitoring during during planning, implementation and monitoring during   different phases of refugee operations. different phases of refugee operations.  "},{"text":"Mainstreaming gender equality and social inclusion (GESI)  Gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) Gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) is important to issues across all stages of the is important to issues across all stages of the conceptualization, development and implementation conceptualization, development and implementation of interventions, even more so in displacement of interventions, even more so in displacement settings. In displacement settings there are diverse settings. In displacement settings there are diverse populations, needs, perspectives and options for populations, needs, perspectives and options for refugees and host communities influenced by age, refugees and host communities influenced by age, religion, ethnicity, vulnerabilities, (minority groups and religion, ethnicity, vulnerabilities, (minority groups and people with disabilities, etc). Gender mainstreaming people with disabilities, etc). Gender mainstreaming into ILA aims at empowering women, men, youth into ILA aims at empowering women, men, youth and vulnerable groups to benefit equitably. and vulnerable groups to benefit equitably.  "},{"text":"Photo: Axel Fassio 29 GUIDANCE NOTES Mainstreaming GESI under the Response to Increased Environmental Degradation and Promotion of Alternative Energy Sources in Refugee Hosting Districts (RED) project in Rhino Refugee Camp Settlement in Madi-Okollo district GESI work is a component of the RED project for improving long-term capacity to design and implement gender responsive environment programming, and focuses on empowering women and increasing women's participation in coordination mechanisms/structures at the local government and community levels. GESI work on this capacity development component of the project involves gender capacity assessment; development of GESI action plans; and training. GESI contributes to the project goals of increased environmental protection, forest restoration, improved sustainable energy and alternative livelihoods for displaced populations and their host communities in refugee hosting areas in Uganda, namely Adjumani, Terego, Madi Okollo, Kiryandongo and Yumbe. The RED project is being implemented from 2021-2024 by Save the Children, ICRAF, the Belgian Development Agency (Enabel) and Joint Energy Environment Projects (JEEP) in close collaboration with the Government of Uganda, including district local governments, the Office of the Prime Minister (OPM), and other relevant partners. The project is funded by the EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa.The strategy frames the purpose of gender integration for use in displaced and disenfranchised communities in Africa, and specifies how a theory of gender integration and transformation can be applied to specific programme objectives, including the design and development of projects; design and use of data collection protocols; development and delivery of training materials; and communication and outreach.CGIAR Gender Impact Platform toolsThis collection of tools collected by the CGIAR Gender Impact Platform is intended to offer researchers, development practitioners, policymakers, community organizers and others the opportunity to search for and learn about tools, methods, frameworks and manuals for integrating gender perspectives into agricultural and food systems research and programmes. Relevant tools and instruments Description Relevant tools and instrumentsDescription Mendum et al. 2022  Mendum et al. 2022 Gender integration strategy:  Gender integration strategy: Approaches for research and  Approaches for research and development in a refugee context  development in a refugee context and other approaches in Africa  and other approaches in Africa Source: Guidance for a Landscape Approach in  Source: Guidance for a Landscape Approach in Displacement Settings (GLADS): Uganda Case  Displacement Settings (GLADS): Uganda Case Study. Buyinza J, Gambo J, Acanakwo E, Schure  Study. Buyinza J, Gambo J, Acanakwo E, Schure J, Sola P, Awono A, Njenga M. 2022. Bogor,  J, Sola P, Awono A, Njenga M. 2022. Bogor, Indonesia; Nairobi: CIFOR-ICRAF.  Indonesia; Nairobi: CIFOR-ICRAF. UNHCR's Global Strategy for  UNHCR's Global Strategy for Sustainable Energy (2019-2025)  Sustainable Energy (2019-2025)  "}],"sieverID":"c03be9f5-f501-44a9-9b24-b5d35dc65bd2","abstract":"Understanding the displacement setting landscape ."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0616bb9356e20260d46bc62d922c1adb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ddadef0b-7567-42ee-a4a1-5e3a7fe75ec1/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Adam Smith International African Development Bank Alliance for Climate Smart Agriculture New Partnership for Africa's Development CARE Concern Worldwide Catholic Relief Services Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations German Corporation for International Cooperation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"P4S supports scaling up and out of CSA by working in close collaboration with partners to generate credible, relevant and legitimate evidence. This evidence is delivered at the right time and packaged in the right format so that is ready to be used in policy, programmatic and investment decisions. Injecting evidence into decision-making processes sows the programming, more sustainable natural resource management and improved livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Ultimately, it helps to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Our theory of change is built around a strategy of three core actions: inform, engage and empower. We form, consolidate and catalyze partnerships to needed and when. We develop cutting-edge analytical, participatory tools and release data to inform planning and action. We communicate and build capacity of users to employ the tools and data in day-do-day management and decision-making."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Partnering to scale CSA based on data. "}]},{"head":"INCREASED CSA ADOPTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Policies and programs that provide effective, actionable solutions to ensure people's food and nutrition security, sustainable agricultural production and lowemissions development of the economy P4S PHASE 2: 2019 -2021"}]},{"head":"POLICY AND PROGRAMMATIC IMPACT","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CSA INVESTMENTS AND PROGRAMMING TARGETED ACTIONS TO CREATE CHANGE","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"In Phase II, P4S will build on the successes and lessons learned from the previous phase. Efforts will be primarily focused in East and West Africa, where we seek to establish new partnerships and strengthen existing ones, delivering knowledge and evidence on four main action areas that are critical for scaling CSA in the region: investment and program support, risk management, digital delivery and monitoring and community-based scaling approaches."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Partnerships will allow us to leverage resources and achieve impact and will include, among others: national and subnational governments (Kenya, Tanzania), regional and national initiatives (AAA, NEPAD, the West African Agricultural Productivity Program, CSA Alliances), bilateral and multilateral partners (USDA, AfDB), NGOs (CARE International, TreeAid), international institutions (WFP), research and academia (ILRI, Wageningen University & Research, University of Redding), and private sector (Acre Africa, insurance brokers, Viamo)."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Key action areas and selected expected outcomes will include:"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Development of national CSA investment plans • Design of programs and policies at national and subnational scales • Assessments of national-level monitoring and evaluation systems."}]},{"head":"DIGITAL DELIVERY AND MONITORING","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"COMMUNITY-BASED SCALING OF CSA","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"• Impact assessment on cost-effectiveness of various digital extension approaches under a range of contexts; • Mobile phone-based outcomes monitoring mainly through voice calls and SMS; • Development of digital extension systems."}]},{"head":"DE-RISKING AGRICULTURE","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"PAGE 9 | P4S BY THE NUMBERS Using Bayesian Network (BN) modelling frameworks, we are able to calculate investment of an agricultural project for changing circumstances and trade-offs. Results provides decisionmakers with actionable information on probable impact pathways of investments."}]},{"head":"RISK-EXPLICIT INVESTMENT MOBILE-BASED SURVEILLANCE FOR NUTRITION","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"A surveillance system based on computer-assisted telephone interviewing that enables near real-time monitoring of nutrition outcomes from agricultural interventions. The information collected helps to provide early warning of deteriorating nutrition situations and support global efforts to strengthen nutrition monitoring. "}]},{"head":"RURAL HOUSEHOLD MULTI-INDICATOR SURVEY (RHOMIS)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"A novel big data platform built around the largest agricultural meta-analysis to date, aimed to help identify locally adapted, scalable options. It contains more than 75,000 data points from conducted in Africa that describe the impacts of agricultural technologies on more than 50 indicators of productivity and resilience."}]},{"head":"CSA COUNTRY PROFILES, CLIMATE RISK PROFILES","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Brief documents providing insights into agriculture sector challenges and opportunities for climate adaptation and mitigation action. The CSA Coundecision-making, while the Climate approach, being directed to sub-national governments and partners looking for CSA entry points."}]},{"head":"CLIMATE WIZARD","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"A web portal that enables technical and non-technical audiences to access leading climate change information and visualize the impacts anywhere on Earth. Users can easily view historic temperature and rainfall maps, state-of-the-art future predictions of temperature and rainfall, and download climate change maps."}]},{"head":"ERA (EVIDENCE FOR RESILIENT AGRICULTURE) CSA GUIDE","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"A web portal aimed at practitioners, decision-makers and researchers who work with or are interested in CSA. It walks users through an extensive portfolio of content, including the basics of CSA (concepts, principles), entry points, the CSA Plan, CSA tools, FAQs) and global case studies on CSA."}]},{"head":"CSA MEASUREMENT, REPORTING AND VERIFICATION PROFILES","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CSA PRIORITIZATION FRAMEWORK","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Country-driven assessments of needs, opportunities and capacities for national measurement, reporting and present guidance on developing a comprehensive stakeholder-driven information system on CSA that is aligned with existing project, national and international reporting obligations. A methodological approach that guides stakeholders at different levels (national, regional, local) through the cable CSA practices into portfolios of priority practices. It combines participatory, expert-based evaluation with multi-criteria assessment of CSA investment options."}]},{"head":"OUR SCIENCE OUR SCIENCE","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"We developed and collaborated on diverse science-backed tools and processes to help users make informed decisions that bring value for money and improve livelihood outcomes."}]},{"head":"MONITORING AND EVALUATION","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Globally, one in every three persons suffers from at least one form of malnutrition. Interest from governments and development partners in tracking progress and impacts on nutrition outcomes has grown cost-and time-effective manner, and ensuring that the information gathered can quickly feed back into programming."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"With the World Food Program (WFP), P4S evaluated the use of mobile phones to monitor nutrition at the household level. Based on the results, the teams now provide a viable alternative to traditional, costly and time-consuming face-to-face interviews. The information collected helps to provide early warning of deteriorating nutrition situations and support global efforts to strengthen nutrition monitoring. participatory processes that guide stakeholders through four steps of CSA programming and policy making: (i) situation analysis, (ii) targeting and prioritization, (iii) program support and (iv) monitoring and evaluation. The CSA Plan components are applicable from local to continental levels and can be implemented individually or stepwise, with each step building on the previous. "}]},{"head":"SITUATION ANALYSIS","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PROGRAM SUPPORT","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"risks of CSA investments, and also for understanding the P4S developed ERA (Evidence for Resilient Agriculture), the largest metadata exercise in agricultural science ever created."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"ERA systematizes existing knowledge on CSA and makes it readily available for decision-makers. Our review team assessed more than 145,000 peer-reviewed papers and sion in the database. ERA gathers empirical evidence on more than 100 agricultural practices and over 40 indicators of CSA outcomes, including gross margin, resource use active dashboard (now in beta version) that makes the information readily accessible decision-makers."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"To date, donors, implementing agencies, NGOs, governments and researchers have expressed interest in using such data to guide the selection of cost-effective investments and policies and inform research priorities.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"A rapid, cheap, digital survey for characterizing, targeting and monitoring farming households, originally created in partnership with ILRI and ICRAF. It captures information on more than 20 indicators on farm productivity and practices, nutrition, food security, gender equity, climate and poverty. local context or project needs. "},{"text":"1. Support to ACSAA Technical backstopping the design and implementation of CSA across Africa with NEPAD and iNGO partners. PARTNERS: ACSAA, NEPAD, Oxfam, Care, Concern, World Vision, CRS TUNISIA Project : 5 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":": 2015 -2018 CSA PLAN  P4S PHASE 1 IMPACTING LIVELIHOODS BY MEASURING PROGRESS ON OUTCOMES AND IMPACTS OF CSA INTERVENTIONS P4S PHASE 1IMPACTING LIVELIHOODS BY MEASURING PROGRESS ON OUTCOMES AND IMPACTS OF CSA INTERVENTIONS Monitoring and evaluation of CSA is critical for cost-effective information systems and empower Monitoring and evaluation of CSA is critical forcost-effective information systems and empower tracking progress and adaptively managing stakeholders in their efforts to maximize the impact tracking progress and adaptively managingstakeholders in their efforts to maximize the impact programs. However, there are no agreed of their interventions. M&E is a powerful programs. However, there are no agreedof their interventions. M&E is a powerful international metrics or systems for monitoring international metrics or systems for monitoring CSA programs, and institutions use different opportunities for program implementors to build on CSA programs, and institutions use differentopportunities for program implementors to build on approaches. P4S carried out capacity needs approaches. P4S carried out capacity needs assessments and developed innovative digital interventions; and, second, it helps ensure better assessments and developed innovative digitalinterventions; and, second, it helps ensure better monitoring tools to create harmonized and  outcomes for farmers. monitoring tools to create harmonized andoutcomes for farmers. RESULT HIGHLIGHTS:   RESULT HIGHLIGHTS:   Stakeholder-driven processes Stakeholder-drivenprocesses 5 outlining roadmaps for setting up national systems for monitoring, Malawi,, Tanzania, Zambia and 3 Modules for Rapid Household Multi-Indicator Assessment tool (RHoMIS) to track changes in livelihoods, food, nutrition and farming contexts used on over 50 sites in 25 countries and on 21,024 5outlining roadmaps for setting up national systems for monitoring, Malawi,, Tanzania, Zambia and3Modules for Rapid Household Multi-Indicator Assessment tool (RHoMIS) to track changes in livelihoods, food, nutrition and farming contexts used on over 50 sites in 25 countries and on 21,024 1 Mobile-based system for nutrition monitoring used in 7 countries smallholder farms 1Mobile-based system for nutrition monitoring used in 7 countriessmallholder farms Globally, one in every three persons suffer in every thr  Globally, one in every three persons suffer in every thr least one form of malnutrition. Interest from m of malnutr  least one form of malnutrition. Interest from m of malnutr ments and development partners in trackin evelopment  ments and development partners in trackin evelopment ress and impacts on nutrition outcomes has g acts on nut ress and impacts on nutrition outcomes has g acts on nut cost-and time-effective manner, and ensuring that me-effective Near real-time monitoring cost-and time-effective manner, and ensuring that me-effectiveNear real-time monitoring the information gathered can quickly feed back into pro on gathered . of nutrition outcomes from the information gathered can quickly feed back into pro on gathered .of nutrition outcomes from Wi      agricultural interventions Wiagricultural interventions the use of mobile phones to monitor nutrition at the the use of mobile phones to monitor nutrition at the household level. Based on the results, the teams now household level. Based on the results, the teams now id i bl lt ti t t diti l tl d idi bl ltti t t ditiltld The monitoring technique has been piloted in WFP's The monitoring technique has been piloted in WFP's nutrition monitoring programs in seven countries. nutrition monitoring programs in seven countries.       PAGE 8 | P4S BY THE NUMBERS PAGE 8 | P4S BY THE NUMBERS  "},{"text":"Setting priorities for investment in CSA in Ivory Coast and Mali incorporates the costs and social and environmental risks of implementation of CSA options, the scale and magnitude of potential impacts, and investment performance (e.g., macro-economic, social and environmental co-bene-The model was powered by the novel dataset developed by P4S, ERA (Evidence for Resilient Agriculture), and local knowledge of stakehold-ability and risks of various CSA investment agronomy and lies at the core of the two National CSA Investment Plans in the two countries.    TARGETING AND PRIORITIZATION TARGETING AND PRIORITIZATION    IMPROVING PROCESSES BY COLLABORATIVELY EVALUATING AND SELECTING IMPROVING PROCESSES BY COLLABORATIVELY EVALUATING AND SELECTING    PROMISING CSA OPTIONS   PROMISING CSA OPTIONS  close-knit collaborations with strategic partners,     close-knit collaborations with strategic partners,  P4S helped ensure that our science-based In many places, partners do not have access to the   P4S helped ensure that our science-basedIn many places, partners do not have access to the  approaches and products are relevant to the users data and resources for analyzing investment options rapid assessment surveys, systematic reviews, and approaches and products are relevant to the usersdata and resources for analyzing investment optionsrapid assessment surveys, systematic reviews, and  and can help extend CSA into countries, subna- and design context-tailored solutions. This leads to participatory engagement processes. Through facili- and can help extend CSA into countries, subna-and design context-tailored solutions. This leads toparticipatory engagement processes. Through facili-  tional regions and even communities. wish lists of activities instead of directed actions. tated, interactive and collaborative work, we empow- tional regions and even communities.wish lists of activities instead of directed actions.tated, interactive and collaborative work, we empow-    P4S has developed evidence-based, user-oriented, ered decision-makers to select CSA initiatives that P4S has developed evidence-based, user-oriented,ered decision-makers to select CSA initiatives that      provide the best value for money in meeting desired provide the best value for money in meeting desired    and prioritizing CSA investment. goals.  and prioritizing CSA investment.goals.    RESULT HIGHLIGHTS:   RESULT HIGHLIGHTS: 5 2 1 Big data platform on agricultural practices and CSA outcomes (ERA -\"Evidence for Resilient Agriculture\" 2 2 National CSA Investment Plans for Ivory Coast and Mali Local pilots to diagnose the climate-smartness of agricultur-Malawi and Tanzania 5 Stakeholder-driven, participatory processes to prioritize CSA investments nationally (in Guatemala, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Vietnam) and in communities (in Colombia) 5 21Big data platform on agricultural practices and CSA outcomes (ERA -\"Evidence for Resilient Agriculture\"2 2National CSA Investment Plans for Ivory Coast and Mali Local pilots to diagnose the climate-smartness of agricultur-Malawi and Tanzania5Stakeholder-driven, participatory processes to prioritize CSA investments nationally (in Guatemala, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Vietnam) and in communities (in Colombia)    Half of the countries in Africa identify CSA as a   Half of the countries in Africa identify CSA as a    strategy to tackle climate change in their Nation-   strategy to tackle climate change in their Nation-    ally Determined Contributions. Under the Adapta-   ally Determined Contributions. Under the Adapta-    tion of African Agriculture program launched at   tion of African Agriculture program launched at    CoP22, P4S worked with government, civil   CoP22, P4S worked with government, civil    society and private actors in Ivory Coast and Mali   society and private actors in Ivory Coast and Mali    to develop a participatory method for prioritizing   to develop a participatory method for prioritizing    CSA interventions.   CSA interventions. PAGE 7 | P4S BY THE NUMBERS       PAGE 7 | P4S BY THE NUMBERS  "}],"sieverID":"4f5fb3bb-c3e1-4cde-b25e-b297c0852840","abstract":"More entities use science-based approaches and tools to guide decisions"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"068d27442e92dddc08fc299132ac2b88","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c3b20c9a-8c05-47cd-990b-97f364325c2a/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Dairy value chains in Pakistan: Stakeholders' involvement and constraints analysis","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outline","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"• Rapid assessment helps to quickly identify problems of different stake holder's of value chain • It is useful to introduce effective intervention to improve the efficiency of value chainleading towards higher income of farmers"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"•Factors• Objective of the project • Data Collection • Factors affecting livestock production • Availability of different types of feed • Constraints faced by dairy farmers • Results of scientific based intervention • Conclusions Objective of AIP-ILRI project in Pakistan Increase profitability of livestock farmers through intervention and capacity building of NARS Rapid Assessment • Multistage sampling technique • Divisions, districts, tehsils based on highest livestock • 6 Villages and 12 Focus Group Discussions • 1 male and 1 female FGD in each village • Sample comprises 159 male and 135 female farmers • Results based on pool data of FGDs Tools used in FGDs • General livelihood questionnaire with farmer • Feed assessment with farmers • Breed assessment with farmer • Participatory epidemiology with farmer to prioritise animal diseases • Value chain mapping tool with farmer • Value chain mapping tool with input suppliers • Value chain mapping tool with traders/retailers • Consumer tool to identify their problems Limited provision of drinking water (only twice a day) • Lack of awareness about balanced diet • Extreme shortage of green forage during April to June • Lack of information about feed for fattening • Selection of quality semen for high milk production • Unavailability of qualified doctors and AI services Feed and fodder constraints • Adulteration and high prices of concentrate feed • Absence of law to ensure high quality concentrate feed • No labeling of ingredients on concentrate feed bags • Fodder can't compete with cash crops, making fodder crop uneconomical • High transportation cost make fodder and feed unavailable to animals Epidemiological constraints • Foot & mouth disease, HS, worms, Black quarters, and Mastitis • Poor sewerage system is the major source of lice • Lack of veterinary services at reasonable distance • Lack of quality vaccines and medicines • Lack of govt. veterinary hospitals "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"d767557f-0071-43ab-8f05-9db8cfee9aba","abstract":""}

data/part_5/07545863c6c6561e6939f383769f0fa8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07545863c6c6561e6939f383769f0fa8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0f3e4edb-aa4a-4026-be27-4f640bd58de5/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Les pays ACP mettent de plus en plus l'accent sur la contribution du secteur de la pêche au développement national. Dans certains pays, c'est le développement des activités de pêche à petite échelle qui est privilégié ; dans d'autres, c'est le développement de la transformation locale à plus forte valeur ajoutée liée aux activités de pêche industrielle ou semi-industrielle ; tandis qu'ailleurs l'accent est placé sur l'amélioration de l'accès pour le poisson pêché dans les zones économiques exclusives (ZEE) nationales."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Les règles d'origine sont encore un point très litigieux dans le secteur de la pêche. Même si certains accords avec les pays ACP ont accordé des concessions en autorisant l'approvisionnement global pour certains produits, ils ne sont pas généralisés à travers les différents pays ACP, et les concessions n'ont pas été appliquées à un plus large éventail de produits de la pêche."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Par ailleurs, vu l'application plus stricte par l'UE des normes sanitaires et phytosanitaires (SPS) et des exigences de sécurité des denrées alimentaires, cellesci jouent un rôle majeur pour obtenir un accès au marché efficace, en particulier pour les pêcheries artisanales des pays ACP."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Néanmoins, l'UE reste le principal marché pour les exportations de poisson des pays ACP, même s'ils ne représentent qu'environ 11 % des importations de poisson de l'UE (à l'exception du poisson mise à jour octobre 2013 Pêche ACP-UE : accès au marché et commerce "}]},{"head":"« La Chine joue un rôle de plus en plus important dans le commerce mondial de poisson, à la fois en tant qu'importateur et, après transformation ultérieure, en tant qu'exportateur »","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Ce potentiel crée de nouvelles opportunités commerciales pour le développement structurel des secteurs de la pêche ACP."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"Le débat sur la réglementation future pour l'organisation commune du marché pour les produits de la pêche s'est poursuivi tout au long de 2012/13. La politique de pêche de l'UE se focalise de plus en plus sur la durabilité, des efforts étant en cours pour lier les exigences de durabilité à l'accès au marché de l'UE, aussi bien en termes de durabilité environnementale que sociale. Les préoccupations grandissantes en matière de durabilité, cependant, peuvent soumettre l'élaboration des politiques à des pressions divergentes, exercées par des intérêts concurrents dans le secteur de la pêche européen. Bien que l'aquaculture joue un rôle de plus en plus important dans le commerce mondial de poisson (environ la moitié de ce commerce), le secteur est relativement sous-développé dans les régions ACP. Les investisseurs européens et chinois investissent cependant de plus en plus dans le développement de l'aquaculture dans les pays ACP."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Il demeure par conséquent plusieurs questions liées à l'accès au marché qui inquiètent les gouvernements ACP, mais de nombreux domaines d'action potentiels pourraient renforcer la contribution du secteur de la pêche au développement économique national."}]},{"head":"Récents développements","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Changements d'orientation des politiques des pays ACP en 2012/13 "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Un autre moyen de relever les défis des règles d'origine est le changement de pavillon pour battre pavillon ACP : c'est la technique utilisée dans le Pacifique. Certains pays ACP souhaitent également obtenir plus de flexibilité en termes de définition de l'origine du poisson provenant des opérations d'affrètement. Cependant, cette alternative requiert des investissements conséquents des pays ACP dans la gestion des pêcheries, pour vérifier que ces navires ayant changé de pavillon/affrétés se conforment bien à la législation nationale et internationale, y compris les normes environnementales et sociales, puisque ces normes deviennent une condition sine qua non pour accéder aux principaux marchés internationaux.Une étude de marché détaillée est requise pour identifier comment les produits ACP transformés pourront trouver un marché de niche sur les marchés traditionnels de l'UE, des États-Unis, voire les marchés d'exportation émergents tels que la Chine. En se fondant sur une étude de marché détaillée, il sera possible de déterminer les investissements requis pour faciliter l'ajout de valeur à certains produits à base de poisson (lorsque les exportations de poisson frais ne représentent pas la forme la plus rentable d'exportation).La promotion de ces marchés régionaux doit être soutenue par une action politique visant à démanteler les barrières existantes au commerce régional de poisson et à promouvoir l'investissement dans l'infrastructure logistique nécessaire pour faciliter le commerce régional de produits de la pêche. de nouveaux défis pour satisfaire aux Développements dans la PACP dans le cadre des négociations contrôle SPS dans les Caraïbes, étant poisson à plus forte valeur ajoutée. Le Aux Philippines, des allégations de formateurs et détaillants réclament la le poisson blanc (sauvage, par ex. certification du Marine Stewardship conserveries ou des installations de Développements dans les Développements dans a remporté une victoire en ralliant le diversification des marchés pour les La Chine devient également un parte-empê-les activités INN et à promouvoir des comme essentiel que des mesures ses produits en franchise de droits entre 46 % et 54 %, ainsi que des miser la contribution des pêcheries à la duits transformés. Il s'agit d'une alter- de nouveaux défis pour satisfaire aux Développements dans la PACP dans le cadre des négociations contrôle SPS dans les Caraïbes, étant poisson à plus forte valeur ajoutée. Le Aux Philippines, des allégations de formateurs et détaillants réclament lale poisson blanc (sauvage, par ex. certification du Marine Stewardship conserveries ou des installations de Développements dans les Développements dans a remporté une victoire en ralliant le diversification des marchés pour lesLa Chine devient également un parte-empê-les activités INN et à promouvoir des comme essentiel que des mesures ses produits en franchise de droits entre 46 % et 54 %, ainsi que des miser la contribution des pêcheries à la duits transformés. Il s'agit d'une alter- exigences spécifiques des marchés législation de l'UE d'APE sur la pêche », 28 janvier 2013). donné que la conformité aux exigences développement d'une telle industrie travail forcé au sein de la chaîne de certification MSC à leurs fournisseurs le merlu) ; Council (MSC). Cela offre des oppor-transformation (voir article Agritrade relations commerciales l'application des écolabels Japon et les États-Unis (tous deux des produits de la pêche, la principale naire commercial important pour les chant ce pays d'utiliser les « possibili-mesures renforçant le suivi, le contrôle soient prises pour garantir l'accès des jusqu'à la fin de 2013. Bien que les notes faibles, en particulier en matière sécurité alimentaire locale et régionale, native de plus en plus importante pour exigences spécifiques des marchés législation de l'UE d'APE sur la pêche », 28 janvier 2013). donné que la conformité aux exigences développement d'une telle industrie travail forcé au sein de la chaîne de certification MSC à leurs fournisseursle merlu) ; Council (MSC). Cela offre des oppor-transformation (voir article Agritrade relations commerciales l'application des écolabels Japon et les États-Unis (tous deux des produits de la pêche, la principalenaire commercial important pour les chant ce pays d'utiliser les « possibili-mesures renforçant le suivi, le contrôle soient prises pour garantir l'accès des jusqu'à la fin de 2013. Bien que les notes faibles, en particulier en matière sécurité alimentaire locale et régionale, native de plus en plus importante pour internationaux et améliorer l'efficacité SPS est une condition sine qua non de la transformation n'est pas favorisé production du thon (sur les navires et (voir interview Agritrade « Le processus tunités de développer de nouveaux « Le Pacifique veut étendre l'appro-autour du poisson entre privés et d'autres normes marchés importants pour les produits question reste la suivante : comment pays ACP, contribuant à une diversifi-tés de pêche de tels pays ») (voir article et la surveillance (voir article Agritrade flottes de l'UE aux matières premières négociations se soient poursuivies tout de procédure d'application et de trans-et renforcer leur capacité à accéder les producteurs ACP, en particulier les internationaux et améliorer l'efficacité SPS est une condition sine qua non de la transformation n'est pas favorisé production du thon (sur les navires et (voir interview Agritrade « Le processustunités de développer de nouveaux « Le Pacifique veut étendre l'appro-autour du poisson entre privés et d'autres normes marchés importants pour les produits question reste la suivante : commentpays ACP, contribuant à une diversifi-tés de pêche de tels pays ») (voir article et la surveillance (voir article Agritrade flottes de l'UE aux matières premières négociations se soient poursuivies tout de procédure d'application et de trans-et renforcer leur capacité à accéder les producteurs ACP, en particulier les des activités de pêche artisanales. La réforme de l'Organisation À la mi-novembre 2012, dix pays -y pour exporter du poisson vers l'UE. par les conditions actuelles proposées dans les installations de transforma-d'évaluation du MSC : un repère pour les espèces d'eau douce (par ex. le marchés dans des régions telles que visionnement mondial pour faciliter l'UE et les pays tiers ACP) dans cette initiative internationale. augmenter l'ajout de valeur au niveau cation dans les marchés desservis par Agritrade « La Commission pêche « L'UE et le Japon signent un accord approvisionnées aux conserveries au long de 2012 et de 2013, aucun parence (voir article Agritrade « Le aux marchés internationaux avec des petits producteurs, puisque les canaux des activités de pêche artisanales. La réforme de l'Organisation À la mi-novembre 2012, dix pays -y pour exporter du poisson vers l'UE. par les conditions actuelles proposées dans les installations de transforma-d'évaluation du MSC : un repère pourles espèces d'eau douce (par ex. le marchés dans des régions telles que visionnement mondial pour faciliter l'UE et les pays tiers ACP) dans cette initiative internationale. augmenter l'ajout de valeur au niveaucation dans les marchés desservis par Agritrade « La Commission pêche « L'UE et le Japon signent un accord approvisionnées aux conserveries au long de 2012 et de 2013, aucun parence (voir article Agritrade « Le aux marchés internationaux avec des petits producteurs, puisque les canaux Pour que les producteurs puissent rele-commune de marché de l'UE compris cinq pays ACP (Belize, Fidji, par l'UE au titre de l'APE intérimaire. tion) ont été soulignées par l'ANFACO. évaluer les progrès vers la durabilité », pangasius d'élevage) ; « L'UE a adopté une nou-l'UE, où la demande de produits de la pêche à la palangre », 22 octobre Une étude de faisabilité a été entre-local pour le poisson ACP avant les exportateurs de poisson ACP. De du Parlement européen soutient les pour combattre la pêche INN », 9 sep-espagnoles (voir article Agritrade « Les ALE n'a encore été conclu. L'absence MSC reste le meilleur régime d'écola-produits de qualité supérieure. de commercialisation leur sont souvent Le Centre technique de coopération Pour que les producteurs puissent rele-commune de marché de l'UE compris cinq pays ACP (Belize, Fidji, par l'UE au titre de l'APE intérimaire. tion) ont été soulignées par l'ANFACO. évaluer les progrès vers la durabilité »,pangasius d'élevage) ; « L'UE a adopté une nou-l'UE, où la demande de produits de la pêche à la palangre », 22 octobre Une étude de faisabilité a été entre-local pour le poisson ACP avantles exportateurs de poisson ACP. De du Parlement européen soutient les pour combattre la pêche INN », 9 sep-espagnoles (voir article Agritrade « Les ALE n'a encore été conclu. L'absence MSC reste le meilleur régime d'écola-produits de qualité supérieure. de commercialisation leur sont souvent Le Centre technique de coopération ver ces défis, il est capital d'assurer un pour les produits de la pêche Guinée, Tanzanie et Togo) -ont été Cependant, les règles d'origine Les règles d'origine actuelles limitent Cependant, l'ANFACO s'est montré 16 mai 2012). velle législation imposant des la pêche certifiés durables est élevée. 2012). Le secteur de la pêche dans les prise en 2012 pour examiner com-« Les gouvernements ACP exportation ? fait, en 2012, des analystes ont sug-mesures commerciales contre les pays tembre 2012). dirigeants du Pacifique appellent l'UE d'accord serait un coup dur pour les bellisation des produits halieutiques, familiers et plus facilement accessibles. agricole et rurale (CTA) est une ver ces défis, il est capital d'assurer un pour les produits de la pêche Guinée, Tanzanie et Togo) -ont été Cependant, les règles d'origine Les règles d'origine actuelles limitent Cependant, l'ANFACO s'est montré 16 mai 2012).velle législation imposant des la pêche certifiés durables est élevée. 2012). Le secteur de la pêche dans les prise en 2012 pour examiner com-« Les gouvernements ACP exportation ?fait, en 2012, des analystes ont sug-mesures commerciales contre les pays tembre 2012). dirigeants du Pacifique appellent l'UE d'accord serait un coup dur pour les bellisation des produits halieutiques, familiers et plus facilement accessibles. agricole et rurale (CTA) est une accès aux informations commerciales notifiés qu'ils pourraient être confrontés appliquées aux produits de la pêche le statut originaire aux poissons cap-prudent sur la question, indiquant que le thon (sauvage) ; sanctions commerciales et non Certains observateurs se demandent négociations d'ALE avec les pays ment la réglementation de l'UE de devront surveiller si les règles géré que la Chine pourrait rapidement permettant une pêche non durable », à faire preuve de souplesse dans les investisseurs espagnols en Équateur, selon le WWF », 8 octobre 2012). Tirer profit des règles institution conjointe ACP-UE active accès aux informations commerciales notifiés qu'ils pourraient être confrontés appliquées aux produits de la pêche le statut originaire aux poissons cap-prudent sur la question, indiquant quele thon (sauvage) ; sanctions commerciales et non Certains observateurs se demandent négociations d'ALE avec les pays ment la r��glementation de l'UE de devront surveiller si les règlesgéré que la Chine pourrait rapidement permettant une pêche non durable », à faire preuve de souplesse dans les investisseurs espagnols en Équateur, selon le WWF », 8 octobre 2012). Tirer profit des règles institution conjointe ACP-UE active et de marché pertinentes (voir article Dans le cadre de la réforme de la Poli-à des sanctions commerciales de l'UE restent un sujet de préoccupation pour turés dans les eaux territoriales de la les conserveries espagnoles n'arrê-Certaines initiatives privées, telles commerciales aux pays tiers comment une pêcherie certifiée par le Cependant, le directeur des Parties à tiers 2010 régissant le système d'écola-de l'UE applicables à la pêche remplacer l'UE en tant que principal 24 juin 2012). Développements liés aux APE », 23 septembre 2012). puisqu'un droit de douane NPF de d'origine ou des alterna-« Les barrières existantes au dans le développement agricole et de marché pertinentes (voir article Dans le cadre de la réforme de la Poli-à des sanctions commerciales de l'UE restent un sujet de préoccupation pour turés dans les eaux territoriales de la les conserveries espagnoles n'arrê-Certaines initiatives privées, tellescommerciales aux pays tiers comment une pêcherie certifiée par le Cependant, le directeur des Parties à tiers 2010 régissant le système d'écola-de l'UE applicables à la pêcheremplacer l'UE en tant que principal 24 juin 2012). Développements liés aux APE », 23 septembre 2012). puisqu'un droit de douane NPF de d'origine ou des alterna-« Les barrières existantes au dans le développement agricole Agritrade « Le rôle du genre dans les tique commune de la pêche (PCP), le pour manque de coopération dans la les gouvernements caribéens, cette Namibie -jusqu'à 12 miles marins des teront pas d'importer du thon des que Naturland (Allemagne), ont déve- l e s a u m o n ( p r i n c i p a l e m e n t qui ne se conforment pas aux MSC -ce qui suppose un degré de tra-l'accord de Nauru (qui inclut les pays bels de l'UE pourrait être élargie aux sont conformes aux normes partenaire commercial de l'Afrique, les accords de partenariat 24 % serait appliqué aux longes de L'option consistant à utiliser les écola-tives de soutien, telles commerce régional doivent et rural des pays d'Afrique, des Agritrade « Le rôle du genre dans les tique commune de la pêche (PCP), le pour manque de coopération dans la les gouvernements caribéens, cette Namibie -jusqu'à 12 miles marins des teront pas d'importer du thon des que Naturland (Allemagne), ont déve-l e s a u m o n ( p r i n c i p a l e m e n t qui ne se conforment pas aux MSC -ce qui suppose un degré de tra-l'accord de Nauru (qui inclut les pays bels de l'UE pourrait être élargie aux sont conformes aux normespartenaire commercial de l'Afrique, les accords de partenariat 24 % serait appliqué aux longes de L'option consistant à utiliser les écola-tives de soutien, telles commerce régional doivent et rural des pays d'Afrique, des filières mondiales de pêche », 28 jan-Parlement européen s'est prononcé en lutte contre la pêche INN. Plus parti-question ayant d'ailleurs été mise en côtes -ou aux poissons capturés par Philippines, mais qu'elles exerceront loppé des normes pour des pêcheries d'élevage) ; règles internationales régis-çabilité et de durabilité élevé -pourrait PACP) s'inquiète également du fait que, L'étude du Parlement européen d'oc-produits de la pêche. Elle soulignait convenues au niveau interna- pêcheries devenant un domaine clé La commissaire européenne en charge économique La question de l'approvisionnement thon précuites et au thon en conserve bels privés existants en tant que réfé-que le repavillonnement être démantelées pour faciliter Caraïbes et du Pacifique (ACP). Le filières mondiales de pêche », 28 jan-Parlement européen s'est prononcé en lutte contre la pêche INN. Plus parti-question ayant d'ailleurs été mise en côtes -ou aux poissons capturés par Philippines, mais qu'elles exerceront loppé des normes pour des pêcheriesd'élevage) ; règles internationales régis-çabilité et de durabilité élevé -pourrait PACP) s'inquiète également du fait que, L'étude du Parlement européen d'oc-produits de la pêche. Elle soulignait convenues au niveau interna-pêcheries devenant un domaine clé La commissaire européenne en charge économique La question de l'approvisionnement thon précuites et au thon en conserve bels privés existants en tant que réfé-que le repavillonnement être démantelées pour faciliter Caraïbes et du Pacifique (ACP). Le vier 2013). 2012 sur la future Organisation com-culièrement, des défaillances ont été exergue au moment de la signature de les navires locaux ou de l'UE. Il s'agit « des contrôles stricts sur la matière durables, non seulement d'un point sant les méthodes de pêche être exclue du marché européen pour bien que l'APE intérimaire n'ait pas tobre 2012 a mis en lumière le rôle de que la plupart des labels existants, tional » pour le développement des investisse-de la pêche a affirmé que l'intention de global pour le poisson des PACP et fournis aux conserveries espagnoles rence pour développer un système le commerce régional de pro-CTA a pour mission de promouvoir vier 2013). 2012 sur la future Organisation com-culièrement, des défaillances ont été exergue au moment de la signature de les navires locaux ou de l'UE. Il s'agit « des contrôles stricts sur la matière durables, non seulement d'un pointsant les méthodes de pêche être exclue du marché européen pour bien que l'APE intérimaire n'ait pas tobre 2012 a mis en lumière le rôle de que la plupart des labels existants, tional »pour le développement des investisse-de la pêche a affirmé que l'intention de global pour le poisson des PACP et fournis aux conserveries espagnoles rence pour développer un système le commerce régional de pro-CTA a pour mission de promouvoir mune de marché (OCM). Étant donné identifiées en matière de suivi, contrôle l'APE CARIFORUM-UE dans une décla-là d'une question importante pour la première des entreprises philippines de vue environnemental mais aussi les crevet tes (principalement durables » non-conformité à la réglementation sur inclus des droits d'accès aux pêche-l'Équateur, avec ses coûts de pro-par exemple le MSC dans le cas de ments et des liens d'entreprise entre la cette nouvelle législation était d'aider La région d'Afrique orientale et de son impact sur le développement (voir article Agritrade « Le secteur du d'écolabels de l'UE a été soulignée Pendant de nombreuses années, les duits de la pêche » la sécurité alimentaire et la nutrition, mune de marché (OCM). Étant donné identifiées en matière de suivi, contrôle l'APE CARIFORUM-UE dans une décla-là d'une question importante pour la première des entreprises philippines de vue environnemental mais aussiles crevet tes (principalement durables » non-conformité à la réglementation sur inclus des droits d'accès aux pêche-l'Équateur, avec ses coûts de pro-par exemple le MSC dans le cas dements et des liens d'entreprise entre la cette nouvelle législation était d'aider La région d'Afrique orientale et de son impact sur le développement (voir article Agritrade « Le secteur du d'écolabels de l'UE a été soulignée Pendant de nombreuses années, les duits de la pêche » la sécurité alimentaire et la nutrition, Développements dans les positions divergentes à la Com-et surveillance des activités de pêche. ration unilatérale annexée à l'APE signé Namibie, puisque aucune activité de qui ne respectent pas les normes du social. Cependant, même ces doubles d'élevage). la pêche INN (voir article Agritrade « Le ries, « dans l'empressement pour obte-duction inférieurs, comme l'un des la pêche, concernent exclusivement Dans ce contexte, les gouvernements Chine et l'Afrique. Les investissements à créer des « règles du jeu équitables australe (ESA) économique en termes d'investisse-thon européen fait pression pour un lors du débat du Parlement européen pays ACP ont réclamé un assouplis-et encourage une gestion durable Développements dans les positions divergentes à la Com-et surveillance des activités de pêche. ration unilatérale annexée à l'APE signé Namibie, puisque aucune activité de qui ne respectent pas les normes du social. Cependant, même ces doublesd'élevage). la pêche INN (voir article Agritrade « Le ries, « dans l'empressement pour obte-duction inférieurs, comme l'un des la pêche, concernent exclusivement Dans ce contexte, les gouvernementsChine et l'Afrique. Les investissements à créer des « règles du jeu équitables australe (ESA) économique en termes d'investisse-thon européen fait pression pour un lors du débat du Parlement européen pays ACP ont réclamé un assouplis-et encourage une gestion durable le commerce de poisson D'après la CE, celles-ci sont liées au (voir interview Agritrade « Politique pêche n'est autorisée au sein de la droit du travail », définies par l'Orga-normes n'attirent pas des primes sur thon albacore de Fidji va obtenir la cer-nir un approvisionnement mondial pour principaux concurrents pour le thon les impacts environnementaux de la ACP devront établir des mécanismes chinois dans les pêcheries africaines entre les pêcheurs de l'UE et ceux des ment étranger dans la capacité locale accord commercial entre l'Équateur sur la réforme de l'OCM, où il a été sement des règles d'origine pour la des ressources naturelles. Cela le commerce de poisson D'après la CE, celles-ci sont liées au (voir interview Agritrade « Politique pêche n'est autorisée au sein de la droit du travail », définies par l'Orga-normes n'attirent pas des primes surthon albacore de Fidji va obtenir la cer-nir un approvisionnement mondial pour principaux concurrents pour le thon les impacts environnementaux de la ACP devront établir des mécanismeschinois dans les pêcheries africaines entre les pêcheurs de l'UE et ceux des ment étranger dans la capacité locale accord commercial entre l'Équateur sur la réforme de l'OCM, où il a été sement des règles d'origine pour la des ressources naturelles. Cela ACP-UE en 2012 manque d'instruments juridiques adé-commune de la pêche des Caraïbes : zone des 12 miles pour des raisons nisation internationale du travail. (voir les prix pour les producteurs primaires, Il existe également certaines prépa-tification MSC, mais sera-t-il autorisé le thon frais et réfrigéré », certains pays de la PNG. Le traitement commer-production primaire et accordent une pour surveiller à la fois l'élaboration fournissent actuellement 500 000 pays tiers ». Cependant, un développe-L'accord de partenariat économique de transformation de thon a fait l'objet et l'UE », 16 décembre 2012). déclaré que l'introduction d'un écolabel pêche afin d'autoriser l'utilisation de est réalisé en fournissant des ACP-UE en 2012 manque d'instruments juridiques adé-commune de la pêche des Caraïbes : zone des 12 miles pour des raisons nisation internationale du travail. (voir les prix pour les producteurs primaires,Il existe également certaines prépa-tification MSC, mais sera-t-il autorisé le thon frais et réfrigéré », certains pays de la PNG. Le traitement commer-production primaire et accordent une pour surveiller à la fois l'élaborationfournissent actuellement 500 000 pays tiers ». Cependant, un développe-L'accord de partenariat économique de transformation de thon a fait l'objet et l'UE », 16 décembre 2012). déclaré que l'introduction d'un écolabel pêche afin d'autoriser l'utilisation de est réalisé en fournissant des quats, en particulier de dispositions renforcer la résilience des écosystèmes de préservation des ressources, tandis article Agritrade « Les transformateurs ce pourquoi certains s'interrogent sur rations de poisson qui constituent la sur le marché de l'UE ? », 28 janvier PACP sont prêts à accorder aux flottes cial accordé au thon équatorien revêt place nulle ou limitée à la totalité du de ces normes internationales et la tonnes de poisson, la moitié étant ment juridique considérable sera requis intérimaire conclu par l'UE avec quatre d'une étude du Parlement européen UE pourrait se faire « en collaboration n'importe quel poisson capturé dans produits et services permettant un quats, en particulier de dispositions renforcer la résilience des écosystèmes de préservation des ressources, tandis article Agritrade « Les transformateurs ce pourquoi certains s'interrogent surrations de poisson qui constituent la sur le marché de l'UE ? », 28 janvier PACP sont prêts à accorder aux flottes cial accordé au thon équatorien revêt place nulle ou limitée à la totalité du de ces normes internationales et latonnes de poisson, la moitié étant ment juridique considérable sera requis intérimaire conclu par l'UE avec quatre d'une étude du Parlement européen UE pourrait se faire « en collaboration n'importe quel poisson capturé dans produits et services permettant un Une étude publiée en 2012 montre spécifiques dans le cadre juridique et soutenir les moyens d'existence », que les principaux stocks halieutiques espagnols vont examiner les conditions l'impact socio-économique à long Capitaliser sur la principale matière première pour une 2013). européennes les 5 % des droits d'ac-donc une importance considérable en cycle de vie du produit. Néanmoins, conformité de ces nouvelles règles de transformée et vendue sur le mar-avant que les nouveaux instruments pays ESA en 2012 incluait trois pays publiée en octobre 2012. L'étude a L'industrie de l'UE fait pression avec le Marine Stewardship Council et leurs ZEE. Il y a quelques années, les meilleur accès à l'information et des Une étude publiée en 2012 montre spécifiques dans le cadre juridique et soutenir les moyens d'existence », que les principaux stocks halieutiques espagnols vont examiner les conditions l'impact socio-économique à long Capitaliser sur laprincipale matière première pour une 2013). européennes les 5 % des droits d'ac-donc une importance considérable en cycle de vie du produit. Néanmoins, conformité de ces nouvelles règles detransformée et vendue sur le mar-avant que les nouveaux instruments pays ESA en 2012 incluait trois pays publiée en octobre 2012. L'étude a L'industrie de l'UE fait pression avec le Marine Stewardship Council et leurs ZEE. Il y a quelques années, les meilleur accès à l'information et des qu'en 2011 l'UE-27 (l'Union euro-national prévoyant des mesures visant 17 septembre 2012). Cette question -tels que le chinchard et le merlu -de travail de la main-d'oeuvre impli-terme de ces écolabels sur la pêche et croissance de la demande transformation ultérieure, pour les-cès totaux aux ressources de thonidés termes de compétitivité relative des elle note également que, pour la pêche, l'UE applicables à la pêche aux normes ché de l'UE, et un tiers de ce même juridiques puissent être déployés (voir transformateurs et exportateurs de souligné les bénéfices en termes de pour établir des règles du jeu l'Aquaculture Stewardship Council » pays PACP se sont vus accorder une connaissances, facilitant le dialogue qu'en 2011 l'UE-27 (l'Union euro-national prévoyant des mesures visant 17 septembre 2012). Cette question -tels que le chinchard et le merlu -de travail de la main-d'oeuvre impli-terme de ces écolabels sur la pêche et croissance de la demandetransformation ultérieure, pour les-cès totaux aux ressources de thonidés termes de compétitivité relative des elle note également que, pour la pêche, l'UE applicables à la pêche aux normesché de l'UE, et un tiers de ce même juridiques puissent être déployés (voir transformateurs et exportateurs de souligné les bénéfices en termes de pour établir des règles du jeu l'Aquaculture Stewardship Council » pays PACP se sont vus accorder une connaissances, facilitant le dialogue péenne de 27 États membres) consti-à combattre, prévenir et éliminer les pourrait bien revenir sur la table dans évoluent en dehors de la zone des 12 quée dans les importations de thon », les communautés de pêche (voir article chinoise pour développer quelles la capacité de fabrication de Ces questions suggèrent fortement de la région. Le directeur a également produits de la PNG et de l'Équateur. ce stade de production primaire est et conventions convenues au niveau En réponse aux développements volume vendu sur le marché chinois, article Agritrade « Le Parlement euro-thon : Madagascar, Maurice et les Sey-développement économique, grâce à équitables (voir article Agritrade « La Commission dérogation d'« approvisionnement glo-politique et de renforcement des péenne de 27 États membres) consti-à combattre, prévenir et éliminer les pourrait bien revenir sur la table dans évoluent en dehors de la zone des 12 quée dans les importations de thon », les communautés de pêche (voir article chinoise pour développerquelles la capacité de fabrication de Ces questions suggèrent fortement de la région. Le directeur a également produits de la PNG et de l'Équateur. ce stade de production primaire est et conventions convenues au niveauEn réponse aux développements volume vendu sur le marché chinois, article Agritrade « Le Parlement euro-thon : Madagascar, Maurice et les Sey-développement économique, grâce à équitables (voir article Agritrade « La Commission dérogation d'« approvisionnement glo-politique et de renforcement des tuait le plus grand marché mondial activités de pêche INN (voir article le cadre de l'examen 2013 formel de miles. La Namibie a par conséquent 16 décembre 2012). L'accent est plutôt Agritrade « La perche du Nil plus pri-la transformation ACP l'UE est limitée, tels les blocs indus-qu'il est nécessaire d'harmoniser les affirmé que, si les flottes de pêche à Les coûts de production de la PNG responsable de 70 % à 95 % des international. mondiaux, les politiques des pays principalement en tant que matière péen adopte des mesures commer-chelles. Au-delà de l'accès en franchise l'essor rapide du commerce PNG-UE pêche du Parlement européen vote sur bal » pour le thon en conserve au titre capacités des institutions de tuait le plus grand marché mondial activités de pêche INN (voir article le cadre de l'examen 2013 formel de miles. La Namibie a par conséquent 16 décembre 2012). L'accent est plutôt Agritrade « La perche du Nil plus pri-la transformation ACPl'UE est limitée, tels les blocs indus-qu'il est nécessaire d'harmoniser les affirmé que, si les flottes de pêche à Les coûts de production de la PNG responsable de 70 % à 95 % des international.mondiaux, les politiques des pays principalement en tant que matière péen adopte des mesures commer-chelles. Au-delà de l'accès en franchise l'essor rapide du commerce PNG-UE pêche du Parlement européen vote sur bal » pour le thon en conserve au titre capacités des institutions de pour le poisson et les produits de la Agritrade « Plusieurs États ACP mis l'APE CARIFORUM-UE. demandé à ce que tous les poissons placé sur la ratification par le gouver-sée en Europe grâce à la certification », triels ou l'ingrédient de base pour le approches internationales pour com-la palangre qui opèrent actuellement pour le thon en conserve et les longes impacts environnementaux survenant ACP s'orientent de plus en plus vers première pour une transformation ciales contre les pays qui autorisent de droits et de contingents au mar-de longes de thon cuites. Ces longes Étant donné le lancement des négo-l'Organisation commune du marché », de l'APE intérimaire Pacifique-UE. Il développement agricole et rural et pour le poisson et les produits de la Agritrade « Plusieurs États ACP mis l'APE CARIFORUM-UE. demandé à ce que tous les poissons placé sur la ratification par le gouver-sée en Europe grâce à la certification »,triels ou l'ingrédient de base pour le approches internationales pour com-la palangre qui opèrent actuellement pour le thon en conserve et les longes impacts environnementaux survenantACP s'orientent de plus en plus vers première pour une transformation ciales contre les pays qui autorisent de droits et de contingents au mar-de longes de thon cuites. Ces longes Étant donné le lancement des négo-l'Organisation commune du marché », de l'APE intérimaire Pacifique-UE. Il développement agricole et rural et pêche ; la consommation de poisson en garde concernant leur manque de capturés dans ses ZEE et débarqués nement d'accords internationaux pour 28 mai 2012). En 2012, la Chine est devenue le prin- surimi. Les importations de ces pro-battre la pêche INN. dans les îles du Pacifique étaient toutes de thon étant bien plus élevés que pour durant le cycle de vie des produits. Relever le défi de la con- la maximisation de la contribution du ultérieure (voir article Agritrade « Les une pêche non durable », 8 octobre ché de l'UE pour les exportations de sont principalement exportées vers ciations d'ALE bilatérales avec les 13 août 2012). apparaît maintenant de plus en plus des communautés dans les pays pêche ; la consommation de poisson en garde concernant leur manque de capturés dans ses ZEE et débarqués nement d'accords internationaux pour 28 mai 2012). En 2012, la Chine est devenue le prin-surimi. Les importations de ces pro-battre la pêche INN. dans les îles du Pacifique étaient toutes de thon étant bien plus élevés que pour durant le cycle de vie des produits. Relever le défi de la con-la maximisation de la contribution du ultérieure (voir article Agritrade « Les une pêche non durable », 8 octobre ché de l'UE pour les exportations de sont principalement exportées vers ciations d'ALE bilatérales avec les 13 août 2012). apparaît maintenant de plus en plus des communautés dans les pays atteignait 13 millions de tonnes, tra-coopération contre la pêche INN », La région du Pacifique dans les ports namibiens pour trans-la protection des droits des travailleurs cipal partenaire commercial dans le duits sont devenues essentielles. originaires des îles du Pacifique, elles les produits équatoriens similaires, les L'étude suggère qu'une extension formité aux normes de secteur de la pêche ACP à la création investisseurs chinois appellent les 2012). thon, l'accord inclut des dispositions l'Espagne et l'Italie, où les transforma-membres de l'ANASE, le secteur de clairement que cet approvisionnement ACP. atteignait 13 millions de tonnes, tra-coopération contre la pêche INN », La région du Pacifique dans les ports namibiens pour trans-la protection des droits des travailleurs cipal partenaire commercial dans leduits sont devenues essentielles. originaires des îles du Pacifique, elles les produits équatoriens similaires, les L'étude suggère qu'une extension formité aux normes desecteur de la pêche ACP à la création investisseurs chinois appellent les 2012). thon, l'accord inclut des dispositions l'Espagne et l'Italie, où les transforma-membres de l'ANASE, le secteur de clairement que cet approvisionnement ACP. duisant la croissance démographique et l'augmentation de la consommation 16 décembre 2012). Les questions entourant les règles formation se voient accorder le statut originaire, et obtiennent ainsi l'accès et l'élimination du travail des enfants, qui sont requis par le règlement SPG+ domaine de la pêche pour de nom-3. Implications breux pays ACP, en particulier en Le rôle croissant des produits d'éle-« Un système international de certification des captures -obtiendraient suffisamment de poisson originaire, sans devoir recourir à une entreprises espagnoles se montrent peu intéressées à investir dans les ins-du système de label écologique peut s'avérer intéressante pour les produits durabilité Développer le commerce régional de poisson dans d'emplois (aussi bien dans le secteur de la capture que de la transformation gouvernements africains à supprimer les \"restrictions sur les pêcheries\" », Mise en oeuvre de la réglementa-sur les règles d'origine, la coopération au développement et la promotion de teurs abandonnent progressivement la transformation intensive en main-la pêche de l'UE a continué à attirer l'attention sur les conditions de pro-Cependant, pour les pêcheries ACP, obtenir la certification MSC est com-mondial présente peu d'intérêt lorsque d'autres normes de l'UE ne sont pas duisant la croissance démographique et l'augmentation de la consommation 16 décembre 2012). Les questions entourant les règles formation se voient accorder le statut originaire, et obtiennent ainsi l'accès et l'élimination du travail des enfants, qui sont requis par le règlement SPG+ domaine de la pêche pour de nom-3. Implications breux pays ACP, en particulier enLe rôle croissant des produits d'éle-« Un système international de certification des captures -obtiendraient suffisamment de poisson originaire, sans devoir recourir à une entreprises espagnoles se montrent peu intéressées à investir dans les ins-du système de label écologique peut s'avérer intéressante pour les produits durabilité Développer le commerce régional de poisson dansd'emplois (aussi bien dans le secteur de la capture que de la transformation gouvernements africains à supprimer les \"restrictions sur les pêcheries\" », Mise en oeuvre de la réglementa-sur les règles d'origine, la coopération au développement et la promotion de teurs abandonnent progressivement la transformation intensive en main-la pêche de l'UE a continué à attirer l'attention sur les conditions de pro-Cependant, pour les pêcheries ACP, obtenir la certification MSC est com-mondial présente peu d'intérêt lorsque d'autres normes de l'UE ne sont pas par habitant, en particulier dans les pays d'Europe de l'Est. Après la publication de la liste de l'UE, l'administration américaine en charge d'origine restent une préoccupation majeure dans les négociations d'APE en franchise de droits sur le marché de l'UE. Pour l'heure, l'UE accepte cela de l'UE. matières premières en Chine pour pour les pays Afrique, impliquant l'exportation de vage dans les importations de l'UE est lié à une plus grande fiabilité de l'ap-tel que celui promu par l'UE -pourrait contribuer au déve-dérogation d'approvisionnement global (voir article Agritrade « Le directeur des tallations de transformation côtières de la PNG. Des taux de productivité ayant un impact environnemental signi-ficatif pendant les phases de leur cycle rencontreront pour trouver des mar-Les difficultés que les produits ACP les pays ACP du poisson) et à la sécurité alimen-taire, notamment par la réduction des 29 janvier 2013). tion INN pêcheries durables. Le soutien aux pêcheries durables est également mis d'oeuvre du thon congelé entier au profit de l'utilisation de longes cuites duction « inéquitables » dans certains pays de l'ANASE. plexe pour toute une série de raisons, notamment les lacunes en matière tion INN. respectées, telles que la réglementa- par habitant, en particulier dans les pays d'Europe de l'Est. Après la publication de la liste de l'UE, l'administration américaine en charge d'origine restent une préoccupation majeure dans les négociations d'APE en franchise de droits sur le marché de l'UE. Pour l'heure, l'UE accepte cela de l'UE. matières premières en Chine pour pour les pays Afrique, impliquant l'exportation devage dans les importations de l'UE est lié à une plus grande fiabilité de l'ap-tel que celui promu par l'UE -pourrait contribuer au déve-dérogation d'approvisionnement global (voir article Agritrade « Le directeur des tallations de transformation côtières de la PNG. Des taux de productivité ayant un impact environnemental signi-ficatif pendant les phases de leur cycle rencontreront pour trouver des mar-Les difficultés que les produits ACP les pays ACPdu poisson) et à la sécurité alimen-taire, notamment par la réduction des 29 janvier 2013). tion INN pêcheries durables. Le soutien aux pêcheries durables est également mis d'oeuvre du thon congelé entier au profit de l'utilisation de longes cuites duction « inéquitables » dans certains pays de l'ANASE. plexe pour toute une série de raisons, notamment les lacunes en matière tion INN. respectées, telles que la réglementa- « En 2011, l'UE-27 constituait des pêcheries (NOAA) a soumis un rapport identifiant dix pays engagés entre le groupe PACP et l'UE. Actuel-lement, Fidji et la PNG sont les seuls uniquement lorsqu'il s'agit de navires loués ou affrétés par des opérateurs « Le secteur espagnol des conserveries a demandé à transformation et réexportation. Bien ACP qu'il soit indispensable pour les pays provisionnement pour les importateurs et détaillants, aussi bien en termes de loppement d'une approche internationale contre la pêche PNA remet en question l'approche des PACP dans le cadre des négociations plus faibles, des coûts plus élevés des transports et des services publics en de vie que sont la transformation, le transport ou la consommation. En chés internationaux alternatifs s'ils ne Les marchés régionaux pour les pro-sont pas conformes aux normes émer-duits de la pêche ACP se développent rejets et de l'utilisation de méthodes de manipulation et de conservation Le secteur de l'aquaculture dans les pays ACP fait également l'objet de En 2012, la mise en oeuvre de la régle-mentation de l'UE pour combattre la en exergue dans le dernier accord de partenariat économique bilatéral signé (voir article Agritrade « Étendre l'appro-visionnement global pour les produits Certains ont critiqué le fait que le de données et un soutien inadéquat des institutions existantes. Dans ce En outre, tout assouplissement poten- « En 2011, l'UE-27 constituait des pêcheries (NOAA) a soumis un rapport identifiant dix pays engagés entre le groupe PACP et l'UE. Actuel-lement, Fidji et la PNG sont les seuls uniquement lorsqu'il s'agit de navires loués ou affrétés par des opérateurs « Le secteur espagnol des conserveries a demandé à transformation et réexportation. Bien ACP qu'il soit indispensable pour les paysprovisionnement pour les importateurs et détaillants, aussi bien en termes de loppement d'une approche internationale contre la pêche PNA remet en question l'approche des PACP dans le cadre des négociations plus faibles, des coûts plus élevés des transports et des services publics en de vie que sont la transformation, le transport ou la consommation. En chés internationaux alternatifs s'ils ne Les marchés régionaux pour les pro-sont pas conformes aux normes émer-duits de la pêche ACP se développentrejets et de l'utilisation de méthodes de manipulation et de conservation Le secteur de l'aquaculture dans les pays ACP fait également l'objet de En 2012, la mise en oeuvre de la régle-mentation de l'UE pour combattre la en exergue dans le dernier accord de partenariat économique bilatéral signé (voir article Agritrade « Étendre l'appro-visionnement global pour les produits Certains ont critiqué le fait que le de données et un soutien inadéquat des institutions existantes. Dans ce En outre, tout assouplissement poten- le plus grand marché mondial dans la pêche INN, y compris un cer-pays dans le Pacifique à avoir signé namibiens, à condition que les opéra-ce que le thon soit considéré ACP de tirer profit des possibilités de quantité que de qualité. Il s'agit d'un INN » d'APE sur la pêche », 28 janvier 2013). PNG, et la proximité culturelle entre les revanche, les impacts environnemen-gentes de l'UE font qu'il est d'autant également, notamment pour les pro- inappropriées. Elles mettent également toutes les attentions des investisseurs pêche INN a continué à susciter des entre ces trois pays ESA et l'UE, dans de la pêche des ACP du Pacifique », secteur du thon thaïlandais ne se contexte, en 2012, le MSC a développé tiel futur des règles d'origine de l'UE le plus grand marché mondial dans la pêche INN, y compris un cer-pays dans le Pacifique à avoir signé namibiens, à condition que les opéra-ce que le thon soit considéré ACP de tirer profit des possibilités dequantité que de qualité. Il s'agit d'un INN » d'APE sur la pêche », 28 janvier 2013). PNG, et la proximité culturelle entre les revanche, les impacts environnemen-gentes de l'UE font qu'il est d'autant également, notamment pour les pro-inappropriées. Elles mettent également toutes les attentions des investisseurs pêche INN a continué à susciter des entre ces trois pays ESA et l'UE, dans de la pêche des ACP du Pacifique », secteur du thon thaïlandais ne se contexte, en 2012, le MSC a développé tiel futur des règles d'origine de l'UE pour le poisson et les produits tain nombre de pays ACP et de l'UE un APEI, qui leur offre une dérogation teurs européens aient bénéficié d'un comme un produit sensible Veiller à ce que les normes incitatif important pour l'investissement industries thonières équatorienne et taux de la production primaire pour-plus important d'améliorer les capaci- l'accent sur l'amélioration de l'efficacité européens et chinois. En 2012, un nou-préoccupations, celle-ci étant considé-lequel un nouvel article met l'accent 19 novembre 2012). soit pas pleinement conformé aux une approche basée sur les risques pour les produits de la pêche pour- pour le poisson et les produits tain nombre de pays ACP et de l'UE un APEI, qui leur offre une dérogation teurs européens aient bénéficié d'un comme un produit sensible Veiller à ce que les normesincitatif important pour l'investissement industries thonières équatorienne et taux de la production primaire pour-plus important d'améliorer les capaci-l'accent sur l'amélioration de l'efficacité européens et chinois. En 2012, un nou-préoccupations, celle-ci étant considé-lequel un nouvel article met l'accent 19 novembre 2012). soit pas pleinement conformé aux une approche basée sur les risques pour les produits de la pêche pour- de la pêche, traduisant la (Ghana et Tanzanie, Italie et Espagne). dans le domaine de la pêche pour un droit de premier refus. Cela s'applique dans les négociations com-de durabilité de l'UE soient à la fois en biens d'équipement et dans Dans le contexte de la réforme de « Les propositions visant à lier européenne, ont tous été cités comme raient être combattus par la coopéra-tés des pays ACP à gérer efficacement des opérations de pêche, par exemple veau projet financé par l'UE et géré par rée comme une barrière non tarifaire sur l'encouragement à la mise en place normes sanitaires de l'UE (22 viola-qui peut être utilisée pour évaluer les rait être lié à de nouvelles demandes de la pêche, traduisant la (Ghana et Tanzanie, Italie et Espagne). dans le domaine de la pêche pour un droit de premier refus. Cela s'applique dans les négociations com-de durabilité de l'UE soientà la fois en biens d'équipement et dans Dans le contexte de la réforme de « Les propositions visant à lier européenne, ont tous été cités comme raient être combattus par la coopéra-tés des pays ACP à gérer efficacementdes opérations de pêche, par exemple veau projet financé par l'UE et géré par rée comme une barrière non tarifaire sur l'encouragement à la mise en place normes sanitaires de l'UE (22 viola-qui peut être utilisée pour évaluer les rait être lié à de nouvelles demandes croissance démographique et Il est intéressant de noter que les listes « approvisionnement global » du thon même dans les cas où les opérateurs merciales » conformes aux normes Principales sources le développement de marché pour ces la PCP pour promouvoir un système les négociations d'APE entre des raisons justifiant le manque d'inté-tion avec des systèmes d'étiquetage leurs ressources halieutiques, confor- en réduisant l'utilisation de carburant la FAO a été lancé en Ouganda, au au commerce potentielle. Des craintes d'un environnement favorable au déve-La région de la Communauté de tions en 2012), l'ANFACO, un groupe pêcheries pauvres en données par d'accès de l'UE aux ressources halieu- croissance démographique et Il est intéressant de noter que les listes « approvisionnement global » du thon même dans les cas où les opérateurs merciales » conformes aux normes Principales sourcesle développement de marché pour ces la PCP pour promouvoir un système les négociations d'APE entre des raisons justifiant le manque d'inté-tion avec des systèmes d'étiquetage leurs ressources halieutiques, confor-en réduisant l'utilisation de carburant la FAO a été lancé en Ouganda, au au commerce potentielle. Des craintes d'un environnement favorable au déve-La région de la Communauté de tions en 2012), l'ANFACO, un groupe pêcheries pauvres en données par d'accès de l'UE aux ressources halieu- l'augmentation de la consom-de l'UE et des États-Unis identifient des en tant que matière première, élargis-non européens sont meilleur marché internationales produits. international de certification des cap-l'UE et la région Pacifique à rêt des investisseurs pour la PNG (voir agro-halieutiques suffisamment stricts mément aux normes internationales pour aider à maximiser les bénéfices Kenya et en Zambie pour promouvoir particulières ont été exprimées par les loppement des affaires et de l'investis-développement d'Afrique aus-qui représente les conserveries de rapport aux standards, y compris les tiques. En 2012, la demande des pays l'augmentation de la consom-de l'UE et des États-Unis identifient des en tant que matière première, élargis-non européens sont meilleur marché internationalesproduits. international de certification des cap-l'UE et la région Pacifique à rêt des investisseurs pour la PNG (voir agro-halieutiques suffisamment stricts mément aux normes internationalespour aider à maximiser les bénéfices Kenya et en Zambie pour promouvoir particulières ont été exprimées par les loppement des affaires et de l'investis-développement d'Afrique aus-qui représente les conserveries de rapport aux standards, y compris les tiques. En 2012, la demande des pays mation par habitant » Le Parlement européen a également pays différents, avec très peu de cor-sant ainsi les possibilités d'exportation et offrent de meilleures conditions à S'agissant des négociations com-FAO tures, prouvant qu'un poisson a été l'octroi de droits de pêche sou-article Agritrade « Étendre l'approvi-(voir article Agritrade « La possibilité environnementales et sociales de plus économiques nets. l'aquaculture en tant qu'instrument de gouvernements des pays ACP du Paci-sement, et à la « création d'entreprises trale (SADC) thon espagnoles, appelant ainsi à pêcheries artisanales ACP. PACP pour élargir l'approvisionnement mation par habitant » Le Parlement européen a également pays différents, avec très peu de cor-sant ainsi les possibilités d'exportation et offrent de meilleures conditions à S'agissant des négociations com-FAOtures, prouvant qu'un poisson a été l'octroi de droits de pêche sou-article Agritrade « Étendre l'approvi-(voir article Agritrade « La possibilité environnementales et sociales de pluséconomiques nets. l'aquaculture en tant qu'instrument de gouvernements des pays ACP du Paci-sement, et à la « création d'entreprises trale (SADC) thon espagnoles, appelant ainsi à pêcheries artisanales ACP. PACP pour élargir l'approvisionnement appelé la CE à présenter une proposi-respondances. Étant donné qu'il existe en franchise de droits vers le marché ces opérations d'affrètement. merciales en général, l'ANFACO a L'un des principaux objectifs avoués Bien que certains pays ACP tels que capturé légalement, la proposition de lèvent des préoccupations » sionnement global pour les produits d'étendre l'écolabel UE aux produits en plus strictes. lutte contre la faim. Cela s'inscrit dans fique (PACP). La plupart des îles du conjointes (…) qui devraient respec-ce que la CE ne reconnaisse plus global à d'autres produits a été enten- appelé la CE à présenter une proposi-respondances. Étant donné qu'il existe en franchise de droits vers le marché ces opérations d'affrètement. merciales en général, l'ANFACO a L'un des principaux objectifs avouésBien que certains pays ACP tels que capturé légalement, la proposition de lèvent des préoccupations » sionnement global pour les produits d'étendre l'écolabel UE aux produits en plus strictes.lutte contre la faim. Cela s'inscrit dans fique (PACP). La plupart des îles du conjointes (…) qui devraient respec-ce que la CE ne reconnaisse plus global à d'autres produits a été enten- La majeure partie du marché européen tion législative d'ici le 1er janvier 2015 un plan d'action international de la FAO de l'UE. demandé à ce que le thon soit consi-de la réglementation adoptée en 2012 la Namibie et l'Afrique du Sud restent la CE pourrait contribuer au développe-de la pêche des ACP du Pacifique », halieutiques évaluée », 28 mai 2012). « Pour que les producteurs le cadre d'une politique plus géné-Pacifique n'ont pas l'autorité compé-ter systématiquement les législations L'échéance du 1er octobre 2014 pour les autorités de santé thaïlandaises « Les écolabels n'offrent pas due, la contrepartie étant de fournir La majeure partie du marché européen tion législative d'ici le 1er janvier 2015 un plan d'action international de la FAO de l'UE. demandé à ce que le thon soit consi-de la réglementation adoptée en 2012la Namibie et l'Afrique du Sud restent la CE pourrait contribuer au développe-de la pêche des ACP du Pacifique », halieutiques évaluée », 28 mai 2012).« Pour que les producteurs le cadre d'une politique plus géné-Pacifique n'ont pas l'autorité compé-ter systématiquement les législations L'échéance du 1er octobre 2014 pour les autorités de santé thaïlandaises « Les écolabels n'offrent pas due, la contrepartie étant de fournir est toujours approvisionnée par les pour introduire un nouveau système fournissant un cadre commun pour des Un autre point problématique pour la déré comme un « produit sensible » est de créer « des règles du jeu équi- parmi les dix principaux fournisseurs ment d'une telle approche harmonisée. Les propositions visant à lier les négo-19 novembre 2012). Devancer les développements poli- puissent accroître leur partici-rale visant à aider les pays à faible tente pour délivrer des certificats de des deux parties » (voir article Agri-l'abolition du règlement d'accès au comme étant aptes à délivrer des des primes sur les prix au un accès garanti au thon du Pacifique est toujours approvisionnée par les pour introduire un nouveau système fournissant un cadre commun pour des Un autre point problématique pour la déré comme un « produit sensible » est de créer « des règles du jeu équi-parmi les dix principaux fournisseurs ment d'une telle approche harmonisée. Les propositions visant à lier les négo-19 novembre 2012). Devancer les développements poli-puissent accroître leur partici-rale visant à aider les pays à faible tente pour délivrer des certificats de des deux parties » (voir article Agri-l'abolition du règlement d'accès au comme étant aptes à délivrer des des primes sur les prix au un accès garanti au thon du Pacifique importations. Au total, les importations d'étiquetage écologique de l'UE pour pays tels que les États-Unis ou l'UE En 2012, d'autres membres PACP ont Namibie est la manière dont le merlu plutôt que comme une « monnaie tables » entre les produits de la pêche (de merlu) sur le marché de l'UE, glo-ciations d'APE à l'octroi de droits de En 2012, le Word Wide Fund for Nature tiques dans ce domaine pourrait offrir pation au commerce interna-revenu et à déficit vivier à développer capture prouvant la légalité des cap-trade « Entrée en vigueur de l'APEI des marché (RAM) 1528/2007 -qui fournis-certificats sanitaires. Une telle déci-producteur mais aident plutôt à pour les flottes de l'UE. importations. Au total, les importations d'étiquetage écologique de l'UE pour pays tels que les États-Unis ou l'UE En 2012, d'autres membres PACP ont Namibie est la manière dont le merlu plutôt que comme une « monnaie tables » entre les produits de la pêche(de merlu) sur le marché de l'UE, glo-ciations d'APE à l'octroi de droits de En 2012, le Word Wide Fund for Nature tiques dans ce domaine pourrait offrirpation au commerce interna-revenu et à déficit vivier à développer capture prouvant la légalité des cap-trade « Entrée en vigueur de l'APEI des marché (RAM) 1528/2007 -qui fournis-certificats sanitaires. Une telle déci-producteur mais aident plutôt à pour les flottes de l'UE. ont augmenté d'environ un demi-million les produits de la pêche (voir article en vue de définir les pays ne luttant réaffirmé leur volonté de voir ces dis-est commercialisé en Europe par les d'échange » dans toutes les négocia-de l'UE et importés. Cependant, toute balement, la Chine est devenue le Certains progrès ont été enregistrés pêche à la flotte de senneurs thoniers Le secteur européen des conserveries (WWF) a commandé une analyse de des opportunités de promouvoir les tional, il est capital d'assurer des politiques durables en matière tures de poissons -de facto, elles ne pays d'Afrique de l'Est exportateurs de sait un accès en franchise de droits et sion fermerait de fait le marché de consolider la présence sur les ont augmenté d'environ un demi-million les produits de la pêche (voir article en vue de définir les pays ne luttant réaffirmé leur volonté de voir ces dis-est commercialisé en Europe par les d'échange » dans toutes les négocia-de l'UE et importés. Cependant, toutebalement, la Chine est devenue le Certains progrès ont été enregistrés pêche à la flotte de senneurs thoniers Le secteur européen des conserveries (WWF) a commandé une analyse de des opportunités de promouvoir lestional, il est capital d'assurer des politiques durables en matière tures de poissons -de facto, elles ne pays d'Afrique de l'Est exportateurs de sait un accès en franchise de droits et sion fermerait de fait le marché de consolider la présence sur les de tonnes depuis 2006, pour atteindre Agritrade « La Commission pêche du pas contre la pêche INN, certains se positions d'approvisionnement global importateurs espagnols, la question tions commerciales (voir article Agri-nouvelle législation de l'UE doit être plus grand fournisseur de poisson sur sur cette question durant l'année de l'UE au sein des ZEE des pays par-de thon a soutenu la signature rapide quatre systèmes d'étiquetage écolo-qualités environnementales et sociales un accès aux informations d'aquaculture (voir article Agritrade peuvent se conformer aux exigences thon », 24 juin 2012). de contingents aux pays ACP dont les l'UE aux exportations de thon thaï-marchés existants et peuvent « Une alternative à l'assouplis- de tonnes depuis 2006, pour atteindre Agritrade « La Commission pêche du pas contre la pêche INN, certains se positions d'approvisionnement global importateurs espagnols, la question tions commerciales (voir article Agri-nouvelle législation de l'UE doit êtreplus grand fournisseur de poisson sur sur cette question durant l'année de l'UE au sein des ZEE des pays par-de thon a soutenu la signature rapide quatre systèmes d'étiquetage écolo-qualités environnementales et socialesun accès aux informations d'aquaculture (voir article Agritrade peuvent se conformer aux exigences thon », 24 juin 2012). de contingents aux pays ACP dont les l'UE aux exportations de thon thaï-marchés existants et peuvent « Une alternative à l'assouplis- un nouveau record de 9,548 millions Parlement européen vote sur l'Organi-sont interrogés sur les raisons pour élargies au thon frais et réfrigéré, leur étant de savoir si cette commerciali-trade « Les négociations commerciales conforme aux normes convenues au le marché de l'UE. Les importations 2012, avec une déclaration conjointe tenaires ont été vigoureusement soute-d'un accord commercial entre l'UE et gique pour les produits de la mer, à des produits ACP de façon à donner commerciales et de marché « Un nouveau projet financé par l'UE de la réglementation INN, et ne peuvent gouvernements ont paraphé un APE landaises, à moins que des agences faciliter l'ouverture de nou-sement des règles d'origine un nouveau record de 9,548 millions Parlement européen vote sur l'Organi-sont interrogés sur les raisons pour élargies au thon frais et réfrigéré, leur étant de savoir si cette commerciali-trade « Les négociations commerciales conforme aux normes convenues aule marché de l'UE. Les importations 2012, avec une déclaration conjointe tenaires ont été vigoureusement soute-d'un accord commercial entre l'UE et gique pour les produits de la mer, à des produits ACP de façon à donnercommerciales et de marché « Un nouveau projet financé par l'UE de la réglementation INN, et ne peuvent gouvernements ont paraphé un APE landaises, à moins que des agences faciliter l'ouverture de nou-sement des règles d'origine de tonnes en 2011. Globalement, la sation commune du marché », 13 août lesquelles certains pays figurent sur permettant ainsi de s'approvisionner sation est faite de façon à maximiser internationales devraient contribuer à niveau international car, dans le cas de la Chine sont souvent dérivées des signée par l'UE et le Japon pour coo-nues par le secteur thonier espagnol. l'Équateur, qui est le principal fournis-savoir l'Alaska Seafood Marketing Insti-aux fournisseurs ACP un avantage pertinentes » pour développer l'aquaculture contre approvisionner les transformateurs des La région des Caraïbes intérimaire -inquiète tout particuliè-de certification européennes soient veaux marchés » -telle que poursuivie dans le de tonnes en 2011. Globalement, la sation commune du marché », 13 août lesquelles certains pays figurent sur permettant ainsi de s'approvisionner sation est faite de façon à maximiser internationales devraient contribuer à niveau international car, dans le casde la Chine sont souvent dérivées des signée par l'UE et le Japon pour coo-nues par le secteur thonier espagnol. l'Équateur, qui est le principal fournis-savoir l'Alaska Seafood Marketing Insti-aux fournisseurs ACP un avantagepertinentes » pour développer l'aquaculture contre approvisionner les transformateurs des La région des Caraïbes intérimaire -inquiète tout particuliè-de certification européennes soient veaux marchés » -telle que poursuivie dans le dépendance à l'égard des importations 2012). une liste et pas sur l'autre (voir article en thon frais et réfrigéré auprès de les bénéfices et renforcer la position créer des conditions équitables, selon contraire, les pays tiers pourraient matières premières envoyées par le pérer dans le combat contre la pêche Selon ce dernier, l'investissement dans seur de longes de thon vers l'UE et le tute, le Friend of the Sea, l'Iceland Res-comparatif par rapport à d'autres la faim », 22 octobre 2012). îles du Pacifique avec du poisson léga-rement le secteur de la pêche nami-utilisées, un processus qui augmen-Pacifique -est le repavillonne- dépendance à l'égard des importations 2012). une liste et pas sur l'autre (voir article en thon frais et réfrigéré auprès de les bénéfices et renforcer la position créer des conditions équitables, selon contraire, les pays tiers pourraientmatières premières envoyées par le pérer dans le combat contre la pêche Selon ce dernier, l'investissement dans seur de longes de thon vers l'UE et le tute, le Friend of the Sea, l'Iceland Res-comparatif par rapport à d'autresla faim », 22 octobre 2012). îles du Pacifique avec du poisson léga-rement le secteur de la pêche nami-utilisées, un processus qui augmen-Pacifique -est le repavillonne- est montée à 65 %, le chiffre le plus Agritrade « La NOAA épingle 10 pays sources autres que les flottes locales du merlu namibien sur les marchés les conserveurs de l'UE », 8 octobre contester cette nouvelle réglementation secteur de la pêche de l'UE en Chine, INN. L'UE et le Japon sont premier et la capacité de transformation locale deuxième plus grand fournisseur de ponsible Fisheries et le MSC. L'étude a fournisseurs. lement capturé pour exportation vers Les Caraïbes étaient la première région bien. Actuellement, la Namibie exporte terait considérablement les coûts (voir Cependant, cet écolabel n'offre pas ment de bateaux étrangers » est montée à 65 %, le chiffre le plus Agritrade « La NOAA épingle 10 pays sources autres que les flottes locales du merlu namibien sur les marchés les conserveurs de l'UE », 8 octobre contester cette nouvelle réglementationsecteur de la pêche de l'UE en Chine, INN. L'UE et le Japon sont premier et la capacité de transformation locale deuxième plus grand fournisseur de ponsible Fisheries et le MSC. L'étude a fournisseurs.lement capturé pour exportation vers Les Caraïbes étaient la première région bien. Actuellement, la Namibie exporte terait considérablement les coûts (voir Cependant, cet écolabel n'offre pas ment de bateaux étrangers » élevé depuis la création de l'UE. ayant pratiqué la pêche INN, notam-ou de l'UE (principalement les flottes européens (voir interview Agritrade 2012). comme ayant des effets de distorsion où elles subissent une transformation deuxième dans la liste des principaux dans des pays tels que la PNG, les thon en conserve sur les marchés de révélé qu'aucun des quatre systèmes les marchés de l'UE. Dans certains à signer un accord de partenariat éco-principalement du merlu cru vers l'Es-article Agritrade « Le secteur espa-une prime sur les prix au producteur élevé depuis la création de l'UE. ayant pratiqué la pêche INN, notam-ou de l'UE (principalement les flottes européens (voir interview Agritrade 2012). comme ayant des effets de distorsionoù elles subissent une transformation deuxième dans la liste des principaux dans des pays tels que la PNG, les thon en conserve sur les marchés de révélé qu'aucun des quatre systèmesles marchés de l'UE. Dans certains à signer un accord de partenariat éco-principalement du merlu cru vers l'Es-article Agritrade « Le secteur espa-une prime sur les prix au producteur ment des pays de l'UE et du groupe de palangriers de Taïwan, du Japon, « L'absence de contrôle de la Namibie du commerce. Ceci explique en par- primaire avant réexportation vers l'UE importateurs de produits de la mer, Seychelles et Maurice augmentera l'UE. L'Équateur a accusé un certain ne se conforme à tous les critères de Un soutien approprié -financier, tech- cas, les coûts d'établissement d'une nomique (APE) avec l'UE en 2008. Un pagne. Les aspirations du gouverne-gnol de la transformation souhaite mais aide plutôt à consolider la pré- ment des pays de l'UE et du groupe de palangriers de Taïwan, du Japon, « L'absence de contrôle de la Namibie du commerce. Ceci explique en par-primaire avant réexportation vers l'UE importateurs de produits de la mer, Seychelles et Maurice augmentera l'UE. L'Équateur a accusé un certain ne se conforme à tous les critères de Un soutien approprié -financier, tech-cas, les coûts d'établissement d'une nomique (APE) avec l'UE en 2008. Un pagne. Les aspirations du gouverne-gnol de la transformation souhaite mais aide plutôt à consolider la pré- Q uelques espè ces sont deve-ACP », 11 février 2013). de Corée et de Chine présentes sur sa filière de ressources halieutiques tie pourquoi l'UE promeut un système (voir article Agritrade « L'UE reste le tous deux important du poisson des la demande locale de matières pre-retard dans la conclusion d'un ALE durabilité du WWF. Le MSC les res-nique, informationnel, etc. -doit éga- autorité compétente dépasseraient développement positif depuis lors a ment namibien à obtenir un APE favo-que l'UE ferme ses portes au thon sence sur les marchés existants et peut Q uelques espè ces sont deve-ACP », 11 février 2013). de Corée et de Chine présentes sur sa filière de ressources halieutiques tie pourquoi l'UE promeut un système(voir article Agritrade « L'UE reste le tous deux important du poisson des la demande locale de matières pre-retard dans la conclusion d'un ALE durabilité du WWF. Le MSC les res-nique, informationnel, etc. -doit éga-autorité compétente dépasseraient développement positif depuis lors a ment namibien à obtenir un APE favo-que l'UE ferme ses portes au thon sence sur les marchés existants et peut nues essentielles pour les marchés dans la région). Il a été considéré que affecte les bénéfices retirés des pêche-international de certification des cap- marché le plus important pour le pois-pays ACP. La déclaration conjointe mières, réduisant ainsi l'offre disponible et s'est vu accorder une prorogation pecte à 93 %, tandis que les autres lement être fourni aux producteurs le PIB de certaines îles du Pacifique été le déploiement des enveloppes du rable au développement exigeraient en conserve en provenance de Thaï-faciliter l'ouverture de nouveaux mar- nues essentielles pour les marchés dans la région). Il a été considéré que affecte les bénéfices retirés des pêche-international de certification des cap-marché le plus important pour le pois-pays ACP. La déclaration conjointe mières, réduisant ainsi l'offre disponible et s'est vu accorder une prorogation pecte à 93 %, tandis que les autres lement être fourni aux producteursle PIB de certaines îles du Pacifique été le déploiement des enveloppes du rable au développement exigeraient en conserve en provenance de Thaï-faciliter l'ouverture de nouveaux mar- européens : Par ailleurs, la pêcherie à la palangre cela bénéficierait principalement aux ries », 11 janvier 2013). tures en tant qu'instrument pour lut- son », 19 novembre 2012). engage l'UE et le Japon à échanger pour les conserveries espagnoles. d'un an pour bénéficier du système régimes ont obtenu des notes variant (hommes et femmes) de poisson à (voir article Agritrade « Le directeur des Fonds européen de développement des accords promouvant le dévelop-lande », 11 février 2013). chés, puisque de plus en plus de trans- européens : Par ailleurs, la pêcherie à la palangre cela bénéficierait principalement aux ries », 11 janvier 2013). tures en tant qu'instrument pour lut-son », 19 novembre 2012). engage l'UE et le Japon à échanger pour les conserveries espagnoles. d'un an pour bénéficier du système régimes ont obtenu des notes variant (hommes et femmes) de poisson à(voir article Agritrade « Le directeur des Fonds européen de développement des accords promouvant le dévelop-lande », 11 février 2013). chés, puisque de plus en plus de trans- de thon albacore de Fidji a reçu la petits États insulaires qui n'ont pas de ter contre la pêche INN. En 2012, l'UE systématiquement des informations sur L'Espagne considère par conséquent SPG+, qui lui permettra d'exporter petite échelle des pays ACP, pour maxi- PNA remet en question l'approche des à l'appui de meilleurs systèmes de pement de la transformation locale de de thon albacore de Fidji a reçu la petits États insulaires qui n'ont pas de ter contre la pêche INN. En 2012, l'UEsystématiquement des informations sur L'Espagne considère par conséquent SPG+, qui lui permettra d'exporter petite échelle des pays ACP, pour maxi-PNA remet en question l'approche des à l'appui de meilleurs systèmes de pement de la transformation locale de  "}],"sieverID":"09226826-2b34-4217-ad16-d8a6312241ad","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"077548c3452b21cd9c20a359ec00b594","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/987a885b-54f5-41eb-a5d4-b3da410b017a/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Evaluation of Resistance of Banana Genotypes with AAB Genome to Fusarium Wilt Tropical Race 4 in China","keywords":["Fusarium wilt","tropical race 4","evaluation","Plantain","Iholena","Maia Maoli/Popoulu","Silk","Pisang Raja","Mysore"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Bananas (Musa spp. L.) are one of the world's most important cash crop grown on large plantations for export, and an essential staple food for many developing countries. Most cultivated bananas are seedless triploid varieties (2n = 3× = 33) derived from intraor inter-specific hybridization between the two species M. acuminata (A genome) and M. balbisiana (B genome), resulting in the genome groups AAA, AAB and ABB [1]. The major cultivars are assigned to clusters of subgroups, which are characterized by genotypes that share similar traits of agronomic and fruit quality, such as Cavendish (AAA), East African Highland bananas (EAHB, AAA), and Plantain (AAB) [2]."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Fusarium wilt of banana (FWB), caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), has been considered one of the most devastating diseases in agricultural history [3]. The pathogen can be disseminated by plant material, soil, and water [4]. Once Foc is introduced into a banana field, it cannot be eradicated and survives for many decades (as it forms resistant structures called chlamydospores); moreover, losses of up to 100% may occur depending on the banana cultivar's susceptibility [5]. Upon pathogen infection, FWB symptoms start to appear, first on older leaves as they turn yellow and wilt, and subsequently developing on the younger leaves until the death of the whole plant [6]. Internally, the rhizome of the infected plants becomes discolored, and necrosis of the xylem vessels in the pseudostem occurs [7,8]. It is genetically diverse and capable of infecting a broad range of banana varieties [9]."},{"index":3,"size":193,"text":"Based on its pathogenicity to a group of differential banana cultivars, Foc is classified into three races. Foc race 1 (R1) affects a range of cultivars, such as Gros Michel (AAA), Ducasse (ABB, Pisang Awak), 'Sugar' (AAB, Silk), and 'Lady Finger' (AAB, Pome) [10,11]. This race was particularly known as it wiped out the Gros Michel-based exports in the banana industry in the last century [12]. Foc race 2 (R2), which has a banana cultivar host range overlapping with R1, is recognized for its potential to infect the cultivars of the Bluggoe subgroup (ABB), as well as closely related cooking bananas [10][11][12]. Apart from infecting the Cavendish subgroup cultivars, Foc race 4 (R4) also forms an overlapping continuum of host range potential with Foc R1 and Foc R2. After its initial discovery, R4 infected the Cavendish plants only in subtropical climates or plants under stress. These Foc populations were called as Foc subtropical race 4 (SR4) [11,12]. However, the existence of this structure for Foc might be controversial. For example, it was reported that a race 1 strain (VCG 0126) causing disease in Gros Michel is phenotypically and genetically similar to R4 [13,14]."},{"index":4,"size":178,"text":"A different and highly aggressive strain of Foc R4 was identified in 1990 that affected Cavendish plantations under tropical conditions without any biotic or abiotic stresses. The strain, called tropical race 4 (TR4) can affect a broader range of banana cultivars, including those infected by R1 and R2 [12,15]. Foc TR4 has spread from Asia to Australia, the Middle East and Africa, and was also recently reported in Colombia and Peru in Latin America [16]. A risk-of-spread scale indicated that Foc TR4 could affect 1.65 million ha of banana plantations globally by 2040, on which approximately 36 million tons of bananas are produced, with an estimated value of over USD 10 billion [17]. Foc TR4 threatens the livelihoods and income of millions in poor rural communities that rely on bananas. Therefore, effective management strategies to reduce the impact of this disease are urgently needed. In spite of the value of cultural management tactics related to soil health for instance, most researchers agree that the use of resistant varieties is the most effective means to manage this disease [9]."},{"index":5,"size":190,"text":"It is well documented that Foc TR4 can cause severe epidemics in 'Cavendish' (AAA), 'Gros Michel' (AAA), 'Silk' (AAB) and 'Pisang Awak' (ABB) (ABB) [12]. It has also been reported that Plantains (AAB) and East African Highland Bananas (EAHB, AAA) are resistant to TR4 [18]. Authors showed that 14 cultivars from EAHB and Plantain were evaluated to determine resistance to Foc TR4; the results showed that, with the exception of 'Ibwi' (EAHB subgroup), all the African cultivars sustained relatively low levels of disease ranging from 0-5%, and 'Ibwi' developed FWB symptoms at an incidence level of 32% [19]. A total of 129 accessions of Musa germplasm were evaluated for Foc TR4 resistance; these included 29 from the AA group, two from the BB group, 39 from the AAA group, 7 from the AAB group belonging to Plantains, and 11 from the ABB group. Of these, 'Pahang' (AA), 'Calcutta 4' (AA) and M. itinerans exhibited the highest degree of resistance, with an index of disease of less than 10. Furthermore, 31 cultivars from the AA, AB, AAB, AAAB, and ABB groups and their wild relatives were identified as resistant cultivars [18]."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"A banana cultivar-screening trial took place in the Northern Territory of Australia, which examined the responses of 24 banana cultivars to the soil-borne fungus, including three AA groups, nine AAA groups, two ABB groups, two AAB groups, and another tetraploid group. Several cultivars displayed considerable resistance to Foc TR4, including some FHIA parental lines and hybrids. The 'Cavendish' (AAA) somaclonal selections 'GCTCV 215' and 'GCTCV 247' from TBRI and an Indonesian selection, 'CJ19', showed very little to no plant death due to the disease [20]."},{"index":7,"size":169,"text":"Existing AAB cultivars, such as those from the Plantain and Iholena subgroups, are poorly evaluated and underrepresented for their resistance to Foc TR4. Hence, it is of critical importance to screen banana cultivars so that the novel Foc TR4-resistant cultivars can be identified and developed [21]. The screening of banana germplasms for Foc TR4 resistance can be achieved through pot or field trials. Pot trials enable the evaluation of a large number of different banana cultivars in a controlled environment, as well as screening to detect the resistant ones in the short run [22]. Field screening trials offer the opportunity to screen plants in sites affected by Foc TR4, where the resistant cultivars would be planted, to provide data on agronomical and yield performance as well as useful insights into the market's potential receptivity [23]. In the present research, pot and field trials were conducted to assess the Foc TR4 reaction of 37 banana AAB cultivars from the Plantain, Iholena, Maia Maoli/Popoulu, Silk, Pisang Raja, Pome, and Mysore subgroups."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant Materials","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The germplasms of 37 banana cultivars were evaluated in this study (Table 1), and were provided by the International Musa germplasm Transit Center (ITC), the Centre Africain de Recherche sur Bananiers et Plantains (CARBAP), and the Indonesian Tropical Fruit Research Institute (ITFRI). Previously described methods were adopted for performing rapid tissue culture propagation and plantlet regeneration [24]. "}]},{"head":"Evaluation under Greenhouse Conditions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The strain Vegetative Compatibility Group (VCG 01213/16, Agriculture Culture Collection China, ACCC 37997) was used for inoculation under greenhouse conditions. It was originally collected from the Cavendish (AAA) cultivar 'Baxi' in Guangdong province, China. Previous work confirmed this strain as representing isolates of Foc TR4 [25,26], and it was used in our former germplasm screening [20]. The strain was initially cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium for 5 days, and then, the mycelium was transferred to potato dextrose broth (PDB) to grow for another 5 days at 28 • C with a shaking speed of 180 rpm. The final concentration of spore suspension was adjusted to 10 6 spores/mL [27]."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Four-month-old plantlets from each genotype were inoculated by immersing the roots in the Foc TR4 spore suspension for 30 min, then transferred to sterile perlite. Three replications (six plantlets for each replication) were used for each genotype. Plantlets of the Cavendish (AAA) cultivar 'Baxi' were used as a susceptible control. After inoculation, plantlets were maintained in the greenhouse at 25-28 • C, with 70-80% relative humidity. Disease evaluation was performed at 35 days after inoculation when typical FWB symptoms were observed in the susceptible control 'Baxi'. The disease severity was assessed via the Rhizome Discoloration Index (RDI) according to the rhizome discoloration (internal symptom) ratio (rating scale) as follows: 1: the absence of internal symptoms; 2: the occurrence of several internal spots; 3-5: <1/3, 1/3-2/3, and >1/3 areas discolored; 6: the whole inner rhizome discolored. Additionally, the genotypes were classified as 'susceptible' (S, RDI > '3'), 'intermediate' (I, RDI = '2'-'3') or 'resistant' (R, RDI < '2') [28]."}]},{"head":"Evaluation under Field Conditions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":260,"text":"Between November 2019 and January 2022, field tests were conducted to evaluate the genotypes for their resistance to Foc TR4 in naturally infested soils located in Dongguan, Guangdong province (N23 • 02 17.25\", E113 • 40 52.87\"). This site for field testing was the same place in which we previously carried out germplasm screening of bananas for resistance to Foc TR4 [18]. The Cavendish (AAA) cultivar 'Baxi', used as susceptible control, was previously planted in these plots with >80% of FWB TR4 incidence. The experimental plot was arranged as a randomized complete block design with three replications (blocks), and 10-15 plants within each block for each genotype. Each plant was cultivated according to local commercial growing standards for two cropping cycles, with inter-row spacing of 3.5 m and inter-plant spacing of 2.0 m [29]. No chemicals were applied to control pests and diseases. Disease evaluation was conducted when external symptoms of FWB, such as leaf yellowing on the oldest leaves and occasional pseudostem splitting appeared on the susceptible control 'Baxi'. Once plants were dead or harvested, internal symptom on the rhizome were evaluated. The incidence of disease (ID) was calculated when plants were dead or harvested (2 years after planting) as follows: ID (%) = [diseased plants/total plants] × 100. According to the ID values, the following categories of disease reaction were established: 0% ≤ ID ≤ 20%: highly resistant (HR); 20% < ID ≤ 40%: resistant (R); 40% < ID ≤ 60%: intermediate (I); 60% < ID ≤ 80%: susceptible (S); and 80% ≤ ID: very susceptible (VS) [18]."}]},{"head":"Molecular Characterization of Foc TR4","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"To verify the presence or identity of Foc TR4, rhizome tissues (10 cm × 10 cm) were sampled from the discolored parts of the plants if they showed typical Fusarium wilt symptoms, or randomly sampled if no symptoms were observed. The samples were analyzed via PCR using Foc TR4 specific primers [27]. At least one sample per replicate was collected from each cultivar. All the samples were surface-sterilized with 70% ethanol for 5 min, washed with sterile distilled water, and allowed to dry on the sterile filter paper. Thereafter, they were cut into segments of 2 mm 2 and added to tubes containing 200 µL cell lysate; then, they were ground, boiled for 5 min, and centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 2 min. PCR was performed with 2 µL of the sample as the template for PCR amplification using the Mix MF848 kit (Mei5 Biotechnology Co., Beijing, China) under the following PCR conditions: 3 min at 95 • C, 30 s at 94 • C, 40 s at 56 • C, 1 min at 72 • C for 35 cycles, and 5 min at 72 • C. In the control group, we used genomic DNA (gDNA) extracted from Foc TR4 (VCG 01213/16, ACCC 37997) but not from banana plants. Foc TR4-specific primers were used to detect Foc TR4 [27]."}]},{"head":"Data Collection and Statistical Analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"ANOVA was adopted using SPSS 19.0 statistics for comparing different banana cultivars with varying levels of resistance to Fusarium wilt, assessed under greenhouse as well as field conditions, using resistance parameters such as ID and RDI. The Fisher's least significant difference (LSD) test was applied for multiple comparisons of variables at 0.05 (p < 0.05)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Evaluation under Greenhouse Conditions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":508,"text":"The susceptible control, the Cavendish (AAA) cultivar 'Baxi', developed internal rhizome symptoms of FWB TR4 at 35 days after inoculation, with an RDI value of 6. Plantain cultivars including 'Uganda Plantain', 'French Sombre', and 'Njombe N • 2' cultivars were infected by Foc TR4, with RDI values of 4, 3, and 2.75, respectively (Figures 1 and 2). Six Plantain genotypes showed RDI values of one and eight Plantain cultivars values ranging from 1 to 2.25 (Figure 2).    All the genotypes from the Silk subgroup were severely infected by Foc TR4, showing RDI values higher than 4, with no difference compared to the susceptible control (Figures 1 and 3). Most genotypes of the Iholena and Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroup were infected by Foc TR4. 'Luba', 'Maritú', 'Wisu', 'Uzakan', and 'Pacific Plantain' showed susceptibility (Figures 1 and 3). No disease symptoms were observed in 'Poingo'. There were four cultivars in the Pisang Raja subgroup, with RDI values ranging from 3 to 5. 'Pisang Rajah' had an RDI value of 5 and 'Pisang Radjah' had an RDI value of 1, and no disease symptoms were observed in 'Pisang Radjah', which belonged to the Pome subgroup (Figures 1 All the genotypes from the Silk subgroup were severely infected by Foc TR4, showing RDI values higher than 4, with no difference compared to the susceptible control (Figures 1  and 3). Most genotypes of the Iholena and Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroup were infected by Foc TR4. 'Luba', 'Maritú', 'Wisu', 'Uzakan', and 'Pacific Plantain' showed susceptibility (Figures 1 and 3). No disease symptoms were observed in 'Poingo'. There were four cultivars in the Pisang Raja subgroup, with RDI values ranging from 3 to 5. 'Pisang Rajah' had an RDI value of 5 and 'Pisang Radjah' had an RDI value of 1, and no disease symptoms were observed in 'Pisang Radjah', which belonged to the Pome subgroup (Figures 1 and 3). 'Pisang Ceylan' belonging to the Mysore subgroup had an RDI value of 2 (Figure 3).  As shown in Table 2, the susceptible Cavendish control ('Baxi') exhibited a resistance rating of susceptible. Likewise, 'Uganda Plantain' was susceptible, while among the other Plantain cultivars, six were classified as resistant, and the other five were assigned as intermediate. All of the four Silk banana cultivars were classified as susceptible. Moreover, 'Poingo' had a rating of resistant, whereas 'Kofi' was classified as intermediate, and the As shown in Table 2, the susceptible Cavendish control ('Baxi') exhibited a resistance rating of susceptible. Likewise, 'Uganda Plantain' was susceptible, while among the other Plantain cultivars, six were classified as resistant, and the other five were assigned as intermediate. All of the four Silk banana cultivars were classified as susceptible. Moreover, 'Poingo' had a rating of resistant, whereas 'Kofi' was classified as intermediate, and the other seven Iholena cultivars were rated as susceptible. Similarly, 'Pisang Radjah' was given susceptible rating. 'YN2' and 'Pisang Raja No.2' displayed intermediate ratings, and 'Pisang Raja Bulu' and 'Pisang Rajah' had ratings of susceptible. A rating of intermediate was obtained for 'Pisang Ceylan' belonging to the Mysore subgroup (Table 2). "}]},{"head":"Evaluation under Field Conditions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":245,"text":"Internal symptoms typical of FWB were first observed in November 2019 (Figure 4). Infection caused by Foc TR4 was confirmed using PCR analyses (Figure 4). To facilitate the comparison and further discussions, disease reaction will be presented by subgroups referring to the susceptible control 'Baxi'. Of the 19 Plantain genotypes evaluated, only seven showed symptoms of FWB (Figure 5). 'Uganda Plantain' and 'Njombe N°2' showed the highest disease intensity, with ID values of 50% and 30.33%, respectively (Figure 5). The other Plantain genotypes affected by Foc TR4 were FHIA-21, Plantain no.3, Ihitisim, French Sombre, and Orishele, with ID values ranging from 10% to 20 % (Figure 5). The remaining genotypes ('Obubit Ntanga green mutant', 'Kakira', 'French P', 'Nakatansese', 'Ntanga 4', 'Batard', 'Batard 2', 'Curare', 'Big Ebanga', 'CB5', and 'CEMSA3/4') did not exhibit any internal symptoms of FWB over the two cropping cycles (Figure 5). Of the 19 Plantain genotypes evaluated, only seven showed symptoms of FWB (Figure 5). 'Uganda Plantain' and 'Njombe N • 2' showed the highest disease intensity, with ID values of 50% and 30.33%, respectively (Figure 5). The other Plantain genotypes affected by Foc TR4 were FHIA-21, Plantain no.3, Ihitisim, French Sombre, and Orishele, with ID values ranging from 10% to 20 % (Figure 5). The remaining genotypes ('Obubit Ntanga green mutant', 'Kakira', 'French P', 'Nakatansese', 'Ntanga 4', 'Batard', 'Batard 2', 'Curare', 'Big Ebanga', 'CB5', and 'CEMSA3/4') did not exhibit any internal symptoms of FWB over the two cropping cycles (Figure 5)."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"All the Silk-type bananas were susceptible to Foc TR4, showing ID values even higher than 'Baxi' (Figure 6). Three genotypes ('Amrithapani', 'Digjowa', and 'Figue Pomme Géante') presented 100% disease incidence after the second cropping cycle, which also evidenced the high Foc TR4 inoculum pressure in the experimental plots (Figure 6). Most of genotypes from the Iholena subgroup and one from the Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroup were highly affected by Foc TR4, with the highest ID values occurring in 'Maritú', 'Uzakan', 'Digjowa', 'Luba', 'Wisu', and 'Pacific Plantain' (Figure 6). 'Kofi' and 'Rukumamb' presented ID values ranging from 6.67% to 48.25%. Interestingly, 'Poingo' from the Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroup did not develop any internal symptoms of the disease (Figure 6). Genotypes from the Pisang Raja subgroup also presented variation regarding Foc TR4 resistance (Figure 6). 'Pisang Raja Bulu', 'Pisang Raja No.2', and 'Pisang Rajah' were considered susceptible. 'YN2' presented only a 15% ID and the Pome cultivar 'Pisang Radjah' did not show any FWB symptoms (Figure 6). These were considered intermediate and highly resistant, respectively. The intermediate genotype 'Pisang Ceylan' from the Mysore subgroup showed an ID value of around 40% (Figure 6)."},{"index":3,"size":498,"text":"Of the 19 Plantain genotypes evaluated, only seven showed symptoms of FWB (Figure 5). 'Uganda Plantain' and 'Njombe N°2' showed the highest disease intensity, with ID values of 50% and 30.33%, respectively (Figure 5). The other Plantain genotypes affected by Foc TR4 were FHIA-21, Plantain no.3, Ihitisim, French Sombre, and Orishele, with ID values ranging from 10% to 20 % (Figure 5). The remaining genotypes ('Obubit Ntanga green mutant', 'Kakira', 'French P', 'Nakatansese', 'Ntanga 4', 'Batard', 'Batard 2', 'Curare', 'Big Ebanga', 'CB5', and 'CEMSA3/4') did not exhibit any internal symptoms of FWB over the two cropping cycles (Figure 5). All the Silk-type bananas were susceptible to Foc TR4, showing ID values even higher than 'Baxi' (Figure 6). Three genotypes ('Amrithapani', 'Digjowa', and 'Figue Pomme Géante') presented 100% disease incidence after the second cropping cycle, which also evidenced the high Foc TR4 inoculum pressure in the experimental plots (Figure 6). Most of genotypes from the Iholena subgroup and one from the Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroup were highly affected by Foc TR4, with the highest ID values occurring in 'Maritú', 'Uzakan', 'Digjowa', 'Luba', 'Wisu', and 'Pacific Plantain' (Figure 6). 'Kofi' and 'Rukumamb' presented ID values ranging from 6.67% to 48.25%. Interestingly, 'Poingo' from the Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroup did not develop any internal symptoms of the disease (Figure 6). Genotypes from the Pisang Raja subgroup also presented variation regarding Foc TR4 resistance (Figure 6). 'Pisang Raja Bulu', 'Pisang Raja No.2', and 'Pisang Rajah' were considered susceptible. 'YN2' presented only a 15% ID and the Pome cultivar 'Pisang Radjah' did not show any FWB symptoms (Figures 6). These were considered intermediate and highly resistant, respectively. The intermediate genotype 'Pisang Ceylan' from the Mysore subgroup showed an ID value of around 40% (Figure 6). The Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' (susceptible control) was rated as very susceptible (VS) during both cropping cycles. In the Plantain subgroup, 'Obubit Ntanga green mutant', 'French P', 'Batard 2', 'Curare', 'Big Ebanga', 'CB5', 'CEMSA3/4', 'Batard', 'Kakira', 'Ntanga 4', 'FHIA-21', 'Nakatansese', 'Plantain no.3', and 'Ihitisim' were ranked as highly resistant in both crop cycles. 'Orishele' was highly resistant in the crop cycle but resistant in the first ratoon crop cycle. 'Njombe N°2' was observed to be resistant in the crop cycle The Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' (susceptible control) rated as very susceptible (VS) during both cropping cycles. In the Plantain subgroup, 'Obubit Ntanga green mutant', 'French P', 'Batard 2', 'Curare', 'Big Ebanga', 'CB5', 'CEMSA3/4', 'Batard', 'Kakira', 'Ntanga 4', 'FHIA-21', 'Nakatansese', 'Plantain no.3', and 'Ihitisim' were ranked as highly resistant in both crop cycles. 'Orishele' was highly resistant in the crop cycle but resistant in the first ratoon crop cycle. 'Njombe N • 2' was observed to be resistant in the crop cycle but intermediate in the first ratoon crop cycle. 'French Sombre' was designated as highly resistant during the crop cycle, whereas during the first ratoon crop cycle, it was resistant. Moreover, 'Uganda Plantain' was ranked as resistant during the first cropping cycle, but susceptible during the second (ratoon) cropping cycle (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":250,"text":"In the Iholena and Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroups, 'Poingo' and 'Kofi' were designated as highly resistant, and 'Wisu' and 'Pacific Plantain' were rated as very susceptible during both crop cycles. 'Tigua' was noticed to be susceptible during the plant crop cycle and very susceptible during the initial ratoon crop cycle. Additionally, 'Rukumamb' displayed resistance to Foc TR4 during the plant crop cycle but intermediate levels of resistance in the first ratoon crop cycle. Susceptibility was noticed in 'Luba' during the plant crop cycle; however, during the initial ratoon crop cycle, the cultivar was very susceptible. 'Maritú' showed intermediate-level resistance during the crop cycle but susceptibility during the initial ratoon crop cycle. Furthermore, 'Uzakan' was rated as susceptible during the crop cycle but quite susceptible during another crop cycle (Table 2). 'Figue Pomme Géante', 'Digjowa', and 'Amrithapani' were designated as very susceptible, and 'Malbhog', which belonged to Silk subgroup, was shown to be susceptible during both crop cycles (Table 2). For the Pisang Raja subgroup, 'YN2' developed high-level resistance in the crop cycle, whereas, throughout the first ratoon crop cycle, it was resistant. The evaluated 'Pisang Raja Bulu' was found to be susceptible during the crop cycle but very susceptible during the initial ratoon cycle. 'Pisang Rajah' demonstrated intermediate-level resistance and susceptibility during the crop cycle and the initial ratoon crop cycle, respectively. The Pome cultivar 'Pisang Radjah' displayed high resistance, and 'Pisang Ceylan' belonging to Mysore subgroup showed intermediate resistance in the plant crop and ratoon crop cycles, respectively (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The use of resistant varieties could be the most efficient measure to manage Foc TR4, which is currently recognized as the most devastating disease in bananas [30][31][32]. In this work, we assessed the resistance level of 37 banana cultivars belonging to the AAB genome against Foc TR4 under both greenhouse and field conditions. The resistance of some cultivars evaluated in the field trial was lower than that obtained in the greenhouse, which might be due to the inoculum concentration and uncontrolled soil characteristics in the field [28]."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Plantains, a very important subgroup referred to as cooking bananas (the AAB genome), are of major importance in the diets of numerous populations of Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean [33]. Our previous results grouped some Plantain cultivars as highly resistant (HR) or resistant (R) [18]. However, in the current results, two and five cultivars were found to be intermediate from field and greenhouse evaluation, respectively. This indicates that some Plantain genotypes, despite displaying a resistant phenotype, are infected by Foc TR4 and, consequently, could disseminate the pathogen through the planting material, for instance. The 'Uganda Plantain' genotype was susceptible, ruling out the hypothesis that all Plantain genotypes display some level of resistance to Foc TR4. Altogether, our results also suggest that French types of Plantain could be more susceptible to Foc TR4, though more studies are still necessary to address this hypothesis."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Banana genotypes belonging to the Iholena subgroup are distinguished by the orange color of their pulp fruits, which is indicative of high pro-vitamin A carotenoid content [34]. Previous result showed that this subgroup is susceptible to Foc R1, but its reaction to Foc TR 4 is almost unknown [7]. In the present results, only one cultivar from this subgroup ranked as resistant to Foc TR4, and the other six cultivars were susceptible (Table 2). Interestingly, the two cultivars from the Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroup, 'Pacific Plantain' and 'Poingo', exhibited different resistance levels to Foc TR4, which might be associated with diverse resistance genes within the genome."},{"index":4,"size":221,"text":"The Silk subgroup contains genotypes bearing sweet acidic fruits with an apple-like flavor and are well known for their susceptibility to Foc R1 [35]. Indeed, our results showed that all Silk genotypes evaluated were also susceptible to Foc TR4. Viljoen et al. (2017)  [28] also found similar results, indicating that Silk genotypes can be used as susceptible references in phenotyping assays for Foc TR4 resistance. Pisang Raja is one of the most economically important local banana cultivars, in Indonesia, particularly in Java [36]. From our results, only one cultivar from this subgroup was found to be resistant, whereas the others were shown to be intermediate or susceptible (Table 2). Pome banana is popularly consumed in India and Australia, and particularly in Brazil, where this subgroup is known as Prata [2]. Mysore banana is widely used in countries such as India, due to its functional and nutraceutical properties, along with great swelling ability to elaborate jellies and meat-based products [37]. In this paper, the Pome cultivar 'Pisang Radjah' and the Mysore cultivar 'Pisang Ceylan' showed resistance and intermediate resistance to Foc TR4, respectively. However, it was reported that the Pome cultivar 'Lady Finger' was susceptible to Foc race 1 and subtropical race 4 in the field [38], whereas it was severely infected by Foc TR4 in a shade house pot trial [22]."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"It is interesting that the screening result of a total of 258 genotypes against Foc race 1 (VCG 0124) revealed that different reactions (from immune to susceptible) existed in Pome and Mysore subgroups [39]. These results indicate that more cultivars from these two subgroups should be included for further evaluation on the reaction to Foc TR4."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"In the field evaluation, some genotypes (Dwarf Nathan, SH-3436, and FHIA-03) showed increased susceptibility throughout their cropping cycles, which was also reported by Mintoff et al. (2021)  [20] and Ndayihanzamaso et al. (2020)  [40]. The increased inoculum density of Foc TR4 could be related to this fact, as infected plants were not eradicated. Therefore, the secondary inoculum generated by infected plants, mainly from Baxi (susceptible control), and by susceptible genotypes increased after each cropping cycle."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"In summary, in this work we assessed the resistance level of 37 banana cultivars against Foc TR4, identifying sources for disease resistance which might support plant breeding. The fact that Plantains can be infected by Foc TR4 is particularly relevant to food security in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean, where these genotypes are staple foods, but also provide a major source of income. Therefore, more efforts are needed to evaluate resistance in global Plantain germplasm banks to Foc TR4. In addition, many other varieties play important roles on food security in many countries around the world where Foc TR4 is not yet present. Therefore, information about the behaviors of these genotypes regarding Foc TR4 resistance might support National Plant Protection Organizations through risk analyses and phytosanitary policies."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"14 Figure 1 . Figure 1. Longitudinal rhizome symptoms of cultivars grown in the greenhouse 35 days after inoculation with Foc TR4. Baxi was the susceptible control. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Longitudinal rhizome symptoms of cultivars grown in the greenhouse 35 days after inoculation with Foc TR4. Baxi was the susceptible control. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Longitudinal rhizome symptoms of cultivars grown in the greenhouse 35 days after inoculation with Foc TR4. Baxi was the susceptible control. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Rhizome discoloration index (RDI) of Plantain cultivars grown 35 days after inoculation with Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 in the greenhouse. Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. The data are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three replicates. R: resistant; I: intermediate; S: susceptible. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Rhizome discoloration index (RDI) of Plantain cultivars grown 35 days after inoculation with Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 in the greenhouse. Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. The data are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three replicates. R: resistant; I: intermediate; S: susceptible. "},{"text":"J . Fungi 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14 and 3). 'Pisang Ceylan' belonging to the Mysore subgroup had an RDI value of 2 (Figure3). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Rhizome discoloration index of the other cultivars belonging to the genome group AAB, grown for 35 days in the greenhouse. Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. The data are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three replicates. R: resistant; I: intermediate; S: susceptible. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Rhizome discoloration index of the other cultivars belonging to the genome group AAB, grown for 35 days in the greenhouse. Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. The data are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three replicates. R: resistant; I: intermediate; S: susceptible. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Symptoms of Fusarium wilt tropical race 4 (TR4) in rhizomes of banana genotypes under field conditions and amplification of PCR products confirming the presence of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense TR4 via PCR analyses (M: marker. 1, 2, 3: replicates per genotype; ck: reference Foc TR4 strain: VCG 01213/16, ACCC 37997). 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Symptoms of Fusarium wilt tropical race 4 (TR4) in rhizomes of banana genotypes under field conditions and amplification of PCR products confirming the presence of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense TR4 via PCR analyses (M: marker. 1, 2, 3: replicates per genotype; ck: reference Foc TR4 strain: VCG 01213/16, ACCC 37997). 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 14 Figure 5 . Figure 5. Incidence of Fusarium wilt Tropical race 4 on Plantain genotypes under field conditions after two cropping cycles. Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. The data are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three replicates. ID1: plant crop; ID2: first ratoon; HR: highly resistant; R: resistant; I: intermediate; S: susceptible; VS: very susceptible. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Incidence of Fusarium wilt Tropical race 4 in banana genotypes in the (a) plant crop and (b) first ratoon; Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. The data are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three replicates. Cultivars marked with an asterisk indicate that the mean is significantly different to the susceptible control, Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' (p < 0.05). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Incidence of Fusarium wilt Tropical race 4 in banana genotypes in the (a) plant crop and (b) first ratoon; Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' was the susceptible control. The data are presented as mean ± SD (standard deviation) of three replicates. Cultivars marked with an asterisk indicate that the mean is significantly different to the susceptible control, Cavendish cultivar 'Baxi' (p < 0.05). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Banana cultivars assessed for resistance to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp cubense tropical race 4. Cultivar ITC Code Genome Subgroup/Type CultivarITC CodeGenomeSubgroup/Type Obubit Ntanga green mutant ITC0519 AAB Plantain/French Obubit Ntanga green mutantITC0519AABPlantain/French Kakira NA AAB Plantain/French KakiraNAAABPlantain/French Uganda Plantain NA AAB Plantain/French Uganda PlantainNAAABPlantain/French French Sombre ITC1668 AAB Plantain/French French SombreITC1668AABPlantain/French French P NA AAB Plantain/French French PNAAABPlantain/French Nakatansese NA AAB Plantain/French NakatanseseNAAABPlantain/French Ntanga 4 ITC0226 AAB Plantain/French Ntanga 4ITC0226AABPlantain/French Njombe N • 2 ITC1124 AAB Plantain/French Njombe N • 2ITC1124AABPlantain/French Batard NA AAB Plantain/French Horn BatardNAAABPlantain/French Horn Batard 2 NA AAB Plantain/French Horn Batard 2NAAABPlantain/French Horn Plantain no.3 ITC0498 AAB Plantain/French Horn Plantain no.3ITC0498AABPlantain/French Horn Orishele ITC1325 AAB Plantain/False Horn OrisheleITC1325AABPlantain/False Horn Curare ITC1165 AAB Plantain/False Horn CurareITC1165AABPlantain/False Horn Big Ebanga NA AAB Plantain/False Horn Big EbangaNAAABPlantain/False Horn CB5 NA AAB Plantain/False Horn CB5NAAABPlantain/False Horn CEMSA3/4 NA AAB Plantain/False Horn CEMSA3/4NAAABPlantain/False Horn Ihitisim ITC0121 AAB Plantain/Horn IhitisimITC0121AABPlantain/Horn FHIA-21 NA AAAB Hybrid/Plantain FHIA-21NAAAABHybrid/Plantain Figue Pomme Géante ITC0769 AAB Silk Figue Pomme GéanteITC0769AABSilk Amrithapani ITC1612 AAB Silk AmrithapaniITC1612AABSilk Malbhog ITC1631 AAB Silk MalbhogITC1631AABSilk Digjowa ITC1633 AAB Silk DigjowaITC1633AABSilk Maritú ITC0639 AAB Iholena MaritúITC0639AABIholena Luba ITC0802 AAB Iholena LubaITC0802AABIholena Wisu ITC0880 AAB Iholena WisuITC0880AABIholena Kofi ITC0912 AAB Iholena KofiITC0912AABIholena Tigua ITC0875 AAB Iholena TiguaITC0875AABIholena Uzakan ITC0825 AAB Iholena UzakanITC0825AABIholena Rukumamb ITC0831 AAB Iholena RukumambITC0831AABIholena  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont.     Cultivar ITC Code Genome Subgroup/Type CultivarITC CodeGenomeSubgroup/Type Pacific Plantain ITC0210 AAB Maia Maoli/Popoulu Pacific PlantainITC0210AABMaia Maoli/Popoulu Poingo ITC1327 AAB Maia Maoli/Popoulu PoingoITC1327AABMaia Maoli/Popoulu Pisang Rajah ITC0587 AAB Pisang Raja Pisang RajahITC0587AABPisang Raja Pisang Raja Bulu ITC0843 AAB Pisang Raja Pisang Raja BuluITC0843AABPisang Raja YN2 NA AAB Pisang Raja YN2NAAABPisang Raja Pisang Raja No.2 NA AAB Pisang Raja Pisang Raja No.2NAAABPisang Raja Pisang Ceylan ITC1441 AAB Mysore Pisang CeylanITC1441AABMysore Pisang Radjah ITC0243 AAB Pome Pisang RadjahITC0243AABPome Baxi NA AAA Cavendish BaxiNAAAACavendish NA: Not available.    NA: Not available.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Reaction to Fusarium wilt tropical race 4 of banana genotypes under greenhouse and field conditions. Cultivar Subgroup/Type Greenhouse RDI-Rating Plant Crop ID (%)-Rating First Ratoon ID (%)-Rating CultivarSubgroup/TypeGreenhouse RDI-RatingPlant Crop ID (%)-RatingFirst Ratoon ID (%)-Rating Baxi Cavendish 6.00-S 80.00-VS 80.00-VS BaxiCavendish6.00-S80.00-VS80.00-VS Big Ebanga Plantain/False Horn 1.00-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR Big EbangaPlantain/False Horn1.00-R0.00-HR0.00-HR CB5 Plantain/False Horn 1.00-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR CB5Plantain/False Horn1.00-R0.00-HR0.00-HR CEMSA3/4 Plantain/False Horn 1.25-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR CEMSA3/4Plantain/False Horn1.25-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Curare Plantain/False Horn 1.00-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR CurarePlantain/False Horn1.00-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Orishele Plantain/False Horn 2.25-I 20.00-HR 25.00-R OrishelePlantain/False Horn2.25-I20.00-HR25.00-R Batard Plantain/ French Horn 1.29-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR BatardPlantain/ French Horn1.29-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Batard 2 Plantain/ French Horn 1.00-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR Batard 2Plantain/ French Horn1.00-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Plantain no.3 Plantain/ French Horn 2.00-I 10.00-HR 13.33-HR Plantain no.3Plantain/ French Horn2.00-I10.00-HR13.33-HR French P Plantain/French 1.00-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR French PPlantain/French1.00-R0.00-HR0.00-HR French Sombre Plantain/French 3.00-I 16.67-HR 25.00-R French SombrePlantain/French3.00-I16.67-HR25.00-R Kakira Plantain/French 1.50-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR KakiraPlantain/French1.50-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Nakatansese Plantain/French 1.60-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR NakatansesePlantain/French1.60-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Njombe N • 2 Plantain/French 2.75-I 30.33-R 42.86-I Njombe N • 2Plantain/French2.75-I30.33-R42.86-I Ntanga 4 Plantain/French 1.50-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR Ntanga 4Plantain/French1.50-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Obubit Ntanga green mutant Plantain/French 1.00-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR Obubit Ntanga green mutantPlantain/French1.00-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Uganda Plantain Plantain/French 4.00-S 50.00-I 66.67-S Uganda PlantainPlantain/French4.00-S50.00-I66.67-S Ihitisim Plantain/Horn 2.00-I 10.00-HR 16.67-HR IhitisimPlantain/Horn2.00-I10.00-HR16.67-HR FHIA-21 Hybrid/Plantain 1.50-R 6.67-HR 10.00-HR FHIA-21Hybrid/Plantain1.50-R6.67-HR10.00-HR Kofi Iholena 2.00-I 6.67-HR 18.18-HR KofiIholena2.00-I6.67-HR18.18-HR Luba Iholena 3.75-S 75.00-S 100.00-VS LubaIholena3.75-S75.00-S100.00-VS Maritú Iholena 4.00-S 50.00-I 66.67-S MaritúIholena4.00-S50.00-I66.67-S Rukumamb Iholena 3.50-S 30.00-R 48.25-I RukumambIholena3.50-S30.00-R48.25-I Tigua Iholena 3.25-S 75.00-S 83.33-VS TiguaIholena3.25-S75.00-S83.33-VS Uzakan Iholena 4.33-S 72.25-S 80.00-VS UzakanIholena4.33-S72.25-S80.00-VS Wisu Iholena 4.00-S 90.00-VS 100.00-VS WisuIholena4.00-S90.00-VS100.00-VS Pacific Plantain Maia Maoli/Popoulu 5.00-S 100.00-VS 100.00-VS Pacific PlantainMaia Maoli/Popoulu5.00-S100.00-VS100.00-VS Poingo Maia Maoli/Popoulu 1.00-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR PoingoMaia Maoli/Popoulu1.00-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Pisang Raja Bulu Pisang Raja 3.50-S 66.67-S 83.33-VS Pisang Raja BuluPisang Raja3.50-S66.67-S83.33-VS Pisang Raja No.2 Pisang Raja 3.00-I 50.00-I 53.00-I Pisang Raja No.2Pisang Raja3.00-I50.00-I53.00-I Pisang Rajah Pisang Raja 5.00-S 50.00-I 67.66-S Pisang RajahPisang Raja5.00-S50.00-I67.66-S YN2 Pisang Raja 3.00-I 16.67-HR 25.00-R YN2Pisang Raja3.00-I16.67-HR25.00-R Pisang Raja Pome 1.00-R 0.00-HR 0.00-HR Pisang RajaPome1.00-R0.00-HR0.00-HR Pisang Ceylan Mysore 2.50-I 42.75-I 50.00-I Pisang CeylanMysore2.50-I42.75-I50.00-I Amrithapani Silk 5.25-S 82.25-VS 100.00-VS AmrithapaniSilk5.25-S82.25-VS100.00-VS Digjowa Silk 5.00-S 85.00-VS 100.00-VS DigjowaSilk5.00-S85.00-VS100.00-VS Figue Pomme Géante Silk 4.00-S 86.67-VS 100.00-VS Figue Pomme GéanteSilk4.00-S86.67-VS100.00-VS Malbhog Silk 4.20-S 66.67-S 71.43-S MalbhogSilk4.20-S66.67-S71.43-S  "}],"sieverID":"76d59c68-8a77-491f-9229-dd9d8c3c51c9","abstract":"Banana cultivars with the AAB genome group comprise diverse subgroups, such as Plantain, Silk, Iholena, and Pisang Raja, among others, which play an important role in food security in many developing countries. Some of these cultivars are susceptible to Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 (Foc TR4), the most destructive pathogen threatening banana production worldwide, and some of them are still largely unknown. We evaluated the resistance of 37 banana genotypes, including Plantain, Silk, Iholena, Maia Maoli/Popoulu, Pisang Raja, Pome, and Mysore, to Foc TR4 under both greenhouse and field conditions. Genotypes from the Silk and Iholena subgroups were highly susceptible to Foc TR4. Pome and Mysore showed resistance and intermediate resistance, respectively. However, Pisang Raja ranged from susceptible to intermediate resistance. One cultivar from the Maia Maoli/Popoulu subgroup was highly susceptible, while the other displayed significant resistance. Most Plantain cultivars exhibited high resistance to Foc TR4, except two French types of cultivar, 'Uganda Plantain' and 'Njombe N • 2', which were susceptible. The susceptibility to Foc TR4 of some of the AAB genotypes evaluated, especially Plantain and other cooking bananas, indicates that growers dependent on these varieties need to be included as part of the prevention and integrated Foc TR4 management strategies, as these genotypes play a crucial role in food security and livelihoods."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"085ff9ccdffb19f7c2e2d93c008c1ec4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/04022b86-7691-4925-aee0-43b62f2a1e87/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #3745","keywords":["• P2290 -Alliances WP2","Engage and Influence • P2239 -Alliances WP1","Strengthen and Enable Other MELIA activity"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"9fbda160-81bf-436a-a5d0-639592eb50f6","abstract":"Annual gender research virtual conference to showcase research, receive feedback, and promote mutual learning and collaboration Commissioning Study: GENDER Platform Part II: CGIAR system level reporting Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs: • Gender-equitable control of productive assets and resources • Improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making • Technologies that reduce women`s labor and energy expenditure adopted Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Description of activity / study: Annual gender research conference 'Cultivating Equality' was a widely attended forum to showcase research, receive feedback, and promote mutual learning and collaboration."}

data/part_5/094a44f4cde14f486ab010619e2cb5d2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"094a44f4cde14f486ab010619e2cb5d2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/862f47ca-3532-45ca-b5ea-a40078d6117d/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Evaluation of performance and stability of new sources for tolerance to post-emergence herbicides in lentil (Lens culinaris ssp. culinaris Medik.)","keywords":["genetic variability","herbicide tolerance","imazethapyr","Lens culinaris","lentil","metribuzin","post-emergence herbicide","weed control"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"Lentil (Lens culinaris ssp. culinaris Medik.) is an important cool-season food legume crop worldwide. It has been incorporated for many decades in the culinary traditions of several countries especially in the Mediterranean, West Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and South Asia regions for being highly rich in protein (26%), prebiotics and micronutrients (Kumar et al. 2014). It is considered as a key option for sustainable intensification and diversification of cereal-based cropping systems due to its positive effect on cereal crops, adaptation to local conditions, ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, and capability to reduce carbon footprints and water use (Joshi et al. 2017;Ouji and Mouelhi 2017). The latest triennium average suggests that the global production of lentil is 6.28 million tons from 5.40 million ha area with an average productivity of 1163 kg/ha (FAOSTAT 2021). The top ten lentil producing countries, namely Canada, India, Australia, Turkey, United States of America, Nepal, Kazakhstan, Bangladesh, Russian Federation, and China, collectively produced more than 92% of global output (FAOSTAT 2021). With rising interest in plant-based protein among health-conscious people, the gap between demand and supply of protein-rich lentils is increasing (Rubiales et al. 2021). To bridge this gap, there is a dire need to increase the productivity per unit area by adopting improved varieties and crop management practices."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"Lentil is a poor weed competitor due to its shallow roots, poor early vigour, and slow vegetative growth. Its open growth habit easily stimulates the emergence and development of a plethora of weeds at early crop growth stages (Smitchger et al. 2012) especially in cool-season environments. The major annual broadleaf weeds competing with lentil are Centaurea balsamita, Ranunculus arvensis, Cephalaria syriaca, Lactuca serriola, Sonchus oleraceus, Sinapis arvensis and Setaria viridis (Wall and McMullan 1994;Erman et al. 2004;Merriam et al. 2021). The estimated yield losses caused by these annual weeds vary from 20 to 80% and may reach 100% in highly infested fields (Erman et al. 2004;Tepe et al. 2005) depending on the environmental conditions, and density and diversity of weed species (Yadav et al. 2007). On the other hand, the parasitic weeds affecting lentil production are broomrapes (mainly Orobanche crenata, and O. aegyptiaca) and dodders (mainly Cuscuta campestris), which can cause severe yield damages of up to 95%, especially in North Africa and Western and Central Asia (Rubiales and Fernández-Aparicio 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":244,"text":"Several weed management practices such as manual weeding, late sowing, higher plant densities, soil sterilisation, fertilisation and irrigation scheduling are suggested to control weeds in lentil fields (Brand et al. 2007). Still, most of these strategies turn out to be costly with low efficiency (Yenish 2007). The pre-emergence application of broad-spectrum herbicides such as metribuzin and imazethapyr is regarded as one of the most effective and economical methods to control weeds in lentil fields because of their ability to suppress weed growth and prevent yield losses (Elkoca et al. 2005). These pre-emergence herbicides control weeds at the early stage of crop growth, but weeds germinating after crop emergence become a menace to crop production (Gaur et al. 2013). Indeed, lentil cultivars are highly sensitive to these herbicides when used as post-emergence treatment. Metribuzin (C 8 H 14 N 4 OS), which belongs to the triazinone family is a pre-and post-emergence herbicide used to control both broadleaf and grass weeds in crops like soybeans (Soltani et al. 2005). Imazethapyr, an imidazolinone herbicide, can be used as a pre-and post-emergence herbicide to effectively control a wide range of weeds in legume crops, especially lentils (Hanson and Thill 2001;Teja et al. 2017). Therefore, selection of germplasm tolerant to post-emergence herbicides would be one of the major strategies to control weeds in lentils. Selection for combined resistance to both herbicides with different modes of action would allow herbicide rotation to retard the selection of herbicide resistance in weeds."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"Several studies were conducted in lentils to identify tolerance to herbicides (Hanson and Thill 2001;Fedoruk et al. 2011;Yadav et al. 2013). In Australia, metribuzin tolerance in lentils has been identified (Mcmurray 2019) as a means of enabling the control of broadleaf weeds. In West Asia and North Africa there is a need to develop herbicidetolerant lentils to control weeds such as Orobanche crenata and Cuscuta spp. and other annual broadleaves. Therefore, the present study was undertaken in the region to identify promising lentil accessions tolerant to both metribuzin and imazethapyr and to assess the efficiency of adopted herbicide tolerance scores. The second objective was to evaluate the performance and stability of selected accessions under diverse environments."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Materials and experiments","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"221 accessions of cultivated lentils, among them 105 landraces collected from 38 countries and 116 breeding lines developed at the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA, Supplementary materials Table S1), were evaluated for their response to imazethapyr and metribuzin applied at the post-emergence stage under field conditions. The experiments were conducted at ICARDA experimental research station, Terbol, Lebanon (33.81°N, 35.98°E) at 890 metres above sea level. Terbol is characterised by cool winters and high rainfall as typical of its continental to semiarid climate, with clay soil. The average precipitation during the crop seasons was 537 mm and the average temperature fluctuated between −1°C and 31°C (Fig. 1)."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"In this study, we conducted four experiments: two preliminary experiments (Experiment 1 and 2) and two validation experiments (Experiment 3 and 4), where imazethapyr and metribuzin were applied at the pre-flowering stage (5-6th node stage, 10-15 cm plant height). Standard agronomic practices were applied as following: soil fertilisation by adding nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertiliser (NPK 15-15-15) at 250 kg/ha; weeds were controlled by a pre-emergence application of pendimethalin at 1200 g active ingredient (a.i.)/ha followed by manual weeding to control weeds; sitona was controlled by spraying lambda-cyhalothrin at 40 g a.i./ha; thrips were controlled by a combination of thiamethoxam and acetamiprid at 200 g a.i./ha each and fungal diseases were controlled by a combination of azoxystrobin and difenoconazole respectively at 72.8 and 45.6 g a.i./ha."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"The experiments were planted in late November and harvested in late May in rotation with cereals; durum wheat [Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum (Desf.) van Slageren] or bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"The plot size of the four experiments was a single row of 1 m length with 0.3 m distance between rows. The details of the experiments are as follows: "}]},{"head":"Experiment 1","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Experiment 1 comprised 221 accessions and two repetitive tolerant checks (IG4400 and IG4605; previously identified at ICARDA in preliminary screening); which were conducted in a strip design with two treatments and two replicates during 2014/15. The two treatments imazethapyr at 112.5 g a.i./ ha (1.5T I ) and metribuzin at 315 g a.i./ha (1.5T M ) were applied at 150% of the recommended dose as per the label recommendation of the two herbicides metribuzin (Sencor: Bayer) and imazethapyr (Pursuit: BASF)."}]},{"head":"Experiment 2","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Experiment 2 comprised 38 accessions selected from Experiment 1, including 34 tolerant and four susceptible accessions (Table 1); it was conducted in an alpha design with two replicates during 2015/16. Two herbicide treatments, imazethapyr 112.5 g a.i./ha (1.5T I ) and metribuzin 315 g a.i./ha (1.5T M ), were applied at 150% of the recommended doses."}]},{"head":"Experiment 3","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The same set of 38 accessions (Table 1) was evaluated for their performance against imazethapyr (1T I : 75 g a.i./ha) and metribuzin (1T M : 210 g a.i./ha) and compared with control (C) during 2016/17."}]},{"head":"Experiment 4","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The same set of 38 accessions (Table 1) was again assessed for their performance against five treatments, namely imazethapyr (1T I : 75 g a.i./ha) and (1.5T I : 112.5 g a.i./ha), metribuzin (1T M : 210 g a.i./ha) and (1.5T M : 315 g a.i./ha) and control (C) during 2018/19. "}]},{"head":"Herbicide damage score (HDS)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"HDS was recorded following a 1-5 scale after 2 weeks (HDS1) and 5 weeks (HDS2) of herbicide application to assess the ability of accessions to recover from the herbicide treatments (Gaur et al. 2013). The detailed description of HDS is as following: HDS = 1: No damage occurred, no symptoms of phytotoxicity shown and the plants are in excellent shape with a similar appearance to the control plants. HDS = 2: Slight damage observed by a light inhibition of growth with a marginal yellowing of some leaves; these plants continue normal vegetative growth to flowering and podding stages. HDS = 3: Moderately damaged accessions showing a clear difference with the untreated plot by the appearance of necrosis on leaves and a lower vegetative growth with a clear deformation on the newly formed apical leaves and a rate of mortality below 25%. Plants at this stage were able to proceed to the flowering and podding stages. HDS = 4: severely damaged accessions where plants have a poor vegetative growth caused by a severe chlorosis, narrowing and burning of leaves. These plants stop the development of new leaves totally and the mortality rate varies between 25% and 75%. The flowering stage is heavily affected since the flowers are burned. HDS = 5: Severe damage of the crop with mortality above 75% per plot."}]},{"head":"Crop phenology","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Observations were taken on days to 50% flowering (DFLR) and 95% maturity (DMAT) on a plot basis."}]},{"head":"Agronomic and yield traits","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"At maturity, three plants were taken randomly to record observations on plant height (PLHT), biological yield/plant (BY), number of pods/plant (NPP), number of seeds/plant (NSP), and seed yield/plant (SY) and the average of three plants was used for statistical analysis."}]},{"head":"Reduction indexes","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Reduction index (RI trait ) was estimated to measure the performance of selected tolerant accessions, as follows (Sharma et al. 2018"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"where ð T ¯Þ is the trait value of an evaluated accession under herbicide treatments, and C ¯ is the value of the same accession under controlled conditions without any herbicide treatments. This reduction index was calculated for plant height (PLHT), biological yield per plant (BY) and seed yield per plant (SY). "}]},{"head":"Recorded observations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Based on the lentil ontology (Kumar and Rajendran 2016), the following observations were recorded:"}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The statistical row-column model was applied to detect differences among accessions (A), herbicide treatments (T) and their interaction (A×T) for phenological and agronomic traits using the Genstat statistical software (Goedhart and Thissen 2010). Differences in the effects of accessions and herbicide treatments were assessed using P values. The best-unbiased values of each accession and treatment were estimated by applying thestatistical software. Ordinal regression analysis was performed between HDS1 and HDS2 and the reduction index to assess the efficiency of the herbicide tolerance score."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"Multiple experiments analysis over the years was conducted using the method of residual maximum likelihood (REML) where A, T and A × T were fitted in the fixed model while years, replicates and blocks were fitted in the random model. In addition, each herbicide treatment in every season was considered an independent environment to assess the stability of 38 accessions selected for herbicide tolerance in the preliminary studies. Genetics, genetics × environment (GGE) biplot of multi-environment trial (MET) analysis of these accessions were conducted using the best linear unbiased predictions (BLUPs) to evaluate their replicability over the seasons under diverse herbicides. A line was drawn to connect each treatment to the biplot origin to visualise the relationship between the herbicide treatments, called vectors. The angle between two vectors was used to approximate the correlation between the two herbicide treatments (Yan and Tinker 2006;Kaya and Turkoz 2016). The smaller the angle between two vectors, the higher is the correlation between the two environments. Finally, the biplot showed the mega-environments by drawing an ellipse around similar environments which share the same sector."}]},{"head":"Results","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Herbicide damage score","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":265,"text":"The HDS1 score of lentil accessions ranged between 2 and 5 for imazethapyr at 112.5 g a.i./ha (1.5T I ) during 2014/15, showing wide range of variation among herbicide tolerance. Among 221 accessions tested, 21 accessions scored two with slight damage on leaves with marginal yellowness, 123 accessions scored three with moderate damage with leaf necrosis, 68 accessions with score four were severely damaged with 25-75% mortality, and nine accessions scored five with total mortality. The HDS2 score, taken after 5 weeks of herbicide treatment, indicated accentuated damage in all accessions. Based on the HDS2 score, ten accessions with marginal leaf yellowness recorded scores of two, 92 with moderate levels of damage scored three, 107 accessions with severe damage scored four and finally, 12 accessions with total crop failure scored five. For metribuzin at 315 g a.i./ha treatment (1.5T M ), HDS1 showed wide variation with seven accessions scoring two with minimum damage (marginal leaf burning), 85 scoring three with moderate damage (leaf necrosis and lower vegetative growth), 127 scoring four with high damage (severe leaf burning) and two accessions scoring five with total mortality for more than 75% of plants in the treated plot. The HDS2 score, taken after 5 weeks of herbicide treatment, showed recovery from the herbicide damage with the formation of new leaves. The HDS2 score showed that only one accession scored one with no visible damage, 31 scored two with slight damage, 114 scored three with moderate damage, 73 scored four with a mortality rate between 25 and 75% and two accessions scored five with a mortality rate above 75%."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Based on the herbicide damage score in the preliminary screening trials, 38 accessions were selected for further evaluation to confirm their tolerance. Validation trials conducted during 2018/19 (Experiment 4) showed that lentil accessions recovered from the herbicide damage within 5 weeks after the application of imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha whereas the damage was accentuated when treated with imazethapyr at 112.5 g a.i./ha (1.5T I ) (Fig. 2). On the other hand, the results of Experiment 3 conducted during 2016/17 showed that the damage was accentuated 5 weeks after treatment with imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha. For metribuzin, lentil accessions showed recovery from the herbicide damage after 5 weeks of metribuzin treatments during 2016/17 and 2018/19 (Fig. 2)."}]},{"head":"Crop phenology","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Combined analysis of variance showed that for days to 50% flowering (DFLR) and 95% maturity (DMAT) data, P < 0.001 among accessions (A), herbicide treatment (T) and years (Y) was detected (Table 2). Analysis of variance for these traits at each experiment among accessions and herbicide treatments also showed that P was less than 0.001 over the years except for DFLR among herbicide treatments (T) during 2015/16 (Experiment 2) (Table 3). Moreover, P < 0.001 obtained for the A × T interactions over the years except for DFLR during 2014/15 (Experiment 1)."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"It was observed that the pre-flowering phase was prolonged in plots treated with imazethapyr than in metribuzin. Experiment 1 showed that flowering date in lentil accessions was delayed by an average of 4.9 days in the imazethapyr treatment at 112.5 g a.i./ha (1.5T I ), when compared to metribuzin treatment at 315 g a.i./ha (1.5T M ). In addition, during 2016/17, the average flowering time in lentil accessions was delayed by 7.6 days for imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha treatment. In contrast, for metribuzin at 210 g a.i./ha, there was no delay when compared with the control (Table 4). The same results were observed in the 2018/19 season. The number of days to maturity of lentil accessions was prolonged in plots treated with imazethapyr (1T I ), but not in plots treated with metribuzin (1T M ) during 2016/17 and 2018/19. Moreover, when increasing the dose of both herbicides, no delays in either flowering and maturity time were observed during 2018/19 (Table 4)."}]},{"head":"Agronomic traits","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Combined analysis of variance showed that for plant height, P was less than 0.001 for plant height, among accessions (A) and herbicide treatments (T) (Table 2). In each experiment, we observed that P was less than 0.001 for plant height among lentil accessions (A) and herbicide treatments (T) over the years except for the herbicide treatments (T) during 2014/15 and 2015/16 (Table 3). The average plant height of lentil accessions was shorter under herbicide treatments than in untreated control plots except when compared with metribuzin treatments (1T M and 1.5T M ) in 2018/19 (Table 4)."}]},{"head":"Yield attributes","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Combined analysis of variance showed that for biological yield (BY), P < 0.01 was observed among accessions (A) and herbicide treatments (T) (Table 2). At the level of each experiment, we observed that P was inferior than 0.001 for biological yield among lentil accessions (A) and herbicide treatments (T) except for treatments (T) during 2014/15 (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":301,"text":"During 2016/17, the average biological yield of the untreated control plots (control) was higher than the Table 2. Combined analysis performed for preliminary and advanced screening trials to analyse significance differences (P value) for the studied traits among years, accessions, herbicide treatments and the interaction between year, accessions and herbicide treatments.   average biological yield of imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha (1T I ) and metribuzin at 210 g a.i./ha (1T M ). However, during 2018/19 (Experiment 4), the average biological yield of the untreated control plots was higher than the average biological yield of lentils treated with imazethapyr with any dose, but showed no difference with either dosage of metribuzin at 315 g a.i./ha (1.5T M ) (Table 4). Combined analysis of variance showed that P was less than 0.01 for seed yield (SY), number of pods per plant (NPP) and number of seeds per plant (NSP) among accessions (A) and herbicide treatments (T) (Table 2). In each experiment, P was inferior than 0.001 for seed yield, number of pods per plant and number of seeds per plant among lentil accessions (A) and herbicide treatments (T) over the years, except for the herbicide treatments (T) of number of pods per plant and number of seeds per plant during 2016/17 and of seed yield and number of pods per plant during 2018/19 (Table 3). The Accessions × Treatment (A × T) interaction showed P value above 0.05 indicating that there is no interaction between accessions and herbicide treatments applied (Table 3). All yield attributes (SY, NPP and NSP) were higher in untreated control plots than the herbicide-treated plots (Table 4). However, increased dosages of herbicides did not further affect the seed yield, number of pods per plant and number of seeds per plant as exemplified in Experiment 4 during 2018/19 (Table 4)."}]},{"head":"Factors","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Reduction index","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Combined analysis of variance showed that P was less than 0.01 for reduction index of plant height (RI PLHT ), biological yield per plant (RI BY ) and yield per plant (RI SY ), among accessions (A) and herbicide treatments (T) (Table 2). At the level of each experiment, the analysis of variance for the reduction index of plant height (RI PLHT ), biological yield per plant (RI BY ) and yield per plant (RI SY ), P < 0.005 among accessions (A), herbicide treatments (T) and A × T interaction during all the cropping seasons except among the herbicide treatments (T) of RI PLHT during 2016/17 (Experiment 3) and among the herbicide treatments (T) and A × T interaction of RI BY during 2018/19 (Experiment 4) (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"The ordinal regression analysis of Experiment 3 conducted during 2016/17 showed that for the reduction index of plant height (RI PLHT ), biological yield (RI BY ) and seed yield (RI SY ), P was less then 0.05 with the herbicide damage score (HDS2) except for RI SY with imazethapyr at 112.5 g a.i./ha (1.5T I ) and for RI BY and RI SY with metribuzin at 315 g a.i./ha (1.5T M ) (Table 5). The average RI PLHT , RI BY and RI SY increased from 27.8 to 39.8%, from 46.5 to 98.3% and from 78.6 to 99.6% when the herbicide damage score (HDS2) increased after the treatment of imazethapyr with 75 g a.i./ha during 2016/17. The same observation was made for metribuzin. The results of Experiment 4 conducted during 2018/19 indicated no ordinal regression between HDS2 score and reduction indexes for plant height, biological yield (BY) and seed yield (Table 5)."}]},{"head":"Selection of tolerant accessions","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Correlation analysis between HDS2 and reduction index of plant height (RI PLHT ), biological yield (RI BY ) and seed yield (RI SY ) showed no correlation between HDS2 of four herbicide treatments (1T I , 1.5T I , 1T M and 1.5T M ) and the estimated reduction indexes of three traits (Table 5). The HDS score was helpful in preliminary screening; however, there is a need to rely on the yield and reduction index for validation. In addition, some accessions showed phenological recovery and vegetative growth after treatment, but none was capable of full recovery because of unfavourable environmental conditions."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Based on the estimated RI SY , four accessions confirmed their tolerance to both herbicides (IG323, IG5722, IG4400, IG4605) (Table 6). The selected accessions (IG323, IG5722, IG4605, IG4400) did not show a delay in flowering and maturity under different metribuzin treatments (1T M : 210 g a.i./ha and 1.5T M : 315 g a.i./ha). Interestingly, IG4605 flowered earlier than the control even under imazethapyr treatments (1T I ) and (1.5T I ). Overall, the phenology of tolerant accessions was not affected when treated with any of the herbicides."}]},{"head":"Replicability analysis","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"The tested accessions under validation trials performed differently among seasons and herbicide treatments as P was less than 0.001 of Accession × Year × Treatment, and Accession × Year and Treatment × Year (Table 2). GGE biplot analysis was conducted for grain yield to assess the replicability of lentil accessions selected previously in the preliminary studies of herbicide tolerance. The biplot accounted for >70% of the variation in grain yield in relation to genotypes and their interactions with environment (Fig. 3). The biplot was divided into eight sectors and four megaenvironments. Two mega-environments were represented by one season-treatment each: Mega-environment 1 (E1: season 2016/17 of imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha) and Megaenvironment 2 (E5: season 2018/19 of metribuzin at 210 g a.i./ha) and the other two representing more than one season-treatment and Mega-environment 3 (E2: season 2016/17 of metribuzin at 210 g a.i./ha and E3: season 2016/17 control untreated with herbicide) and Megaenvironment 4 (E4: season 2018/19 of imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha, E6: 2018/19 season of metribuzin at 315 g a.i./ha and E7: 2018/19 season control untreated with herbicide). The two major mega-environments (3 and 4) aligned with the weather conditions during 2016/17 and 2018/19, respectively (Fig. 3)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Four lentil accessions, namely IG5628, IG5769, IG114670 and IG4152 were located close to the origin, indicating their wide adaptation and highest stability with similar performance under normal growth conditions without herbicide treatments and with either metribuzin and imazethapyr in Mega-environment 1; (E1); and Mega-environment 3; (E2, E3) (Fig. 3). This observation shows the replicability of these accessions in seasons with low rainfall conditions, represented by the environmental conditions of 2016/17, highlighted by a total precipitation equivalent to 458 mm (Fig. 1a)."},{"index":3,"size":295,"text":"Five accessions, namely IG2194, IG4637, IG73647, IG1005 and ILL8008 were located in Mega-environment 4 with no herbicide treatments (control) and were adapted to environments treated by imazethapyr and metribuzin, indicated their wide adaptability with similar performance under the different herbicide treatments. E4, E6 and E7 are 2018/19 environments highlighted by a total precipitation equivalent to 709 mm (Fig. 1a). This shows that the environmental conditions had a higher effect on the accessions than the treatments applied. Fig. 3 also shows Table 5. Ordinal regression (expressed as P value), estimated regression parameter and best linear unbiased predictions of phenotype values for reduction index (%) of plant height (RI PLHT ), biological yield per plant (RI BY ) and grain yield per plant (RI SY ) for different levels of herbicide damage in each treatment. that IG4400 is the most tolerant under Mega-environment 4, thus under high rainfall conditions. The four selected tolerant genotypes showed adaptability to different seasons and herbicide treatments. IG 4400 was located in Mega-environment 4 with no herbicide treatments (control) and was adapted to environments treated by imazethapyr and metribuzin, indicated its adaptability to high rainfall conditions. IG4605 was located in Mega-environment 3 (E2, E3) with no herbicide treatments (control) and was adapted to environments treated by imazethapyr and metribuzin, indicating their adaptability to low rainfall conditions. IG323 is not stable and not adapted to any mega-environment. Still, the yield data (SY) showed that IG323 had low yield under low rainfall conditions and high yield under high rainfall conditions. IG 5722 is located near the centre, and in the sector of E4 and E5 (E4: season 2018/19 of imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha, E5: season 2018/19 of metribuzin at 210 g a.i./ha). Thus, it is a tolerant accession under a high rainfall environment. "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Weeds are considered a major constraint affecting the production of lentil and the application of herbicides is considered one of the most efficient techniques to control weeds and avoid yield losses in many crops (Garcia De Arevalo et al. 1992). In lentil, pre-emergence herbicides are available for use to control weeds efficiently at the early growing stage but not in the North and East Africa regions. Therefore, the selection of lentil accessions tolerant to herbicides is essential to integrate lentil into the cropping system. Our results showed a wide range of genetic variability for herbicide tolerance in lentils which allow introgression of the tolerance to widely adapted cultivars. This observation was reported in earlier studies in lentil (Sharma et al. 2016), chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) (Taran et al. 2010;Gaur et al. 2013;Chaturvedi et al. 2014), faba bean (Vicia faba L.) (Abou-Khater et al. 2021), and field pea (Pisum sativum L.) (Hanson and Thill 2001)."}]},{"head":"Crop response after herbicide treatments","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"The herbicide damage in legume crops can be accentuated in susceptible accessions while tolerant ones can recover after being affected in the first 2 weeks of treatment. This has been reported in various studies in lentil (Sharma et al. 2018), chickpea (Goud et al. 2013) ones showed accentuated damage. This is expected since lentil is sensitive at less than 5% of the recommended dose of Imidazolinone herbicides (Stork 1995). On the contrary, tolerant accessions could recover from the damage after five weeks even when an increased dose of metribuzin (1.5 ×) was applied in our experiments. The recovery of vegetative growth can be attributed to the metabolic degradative ability of each accession to metabolise the herbicidal toxic components and detoxify the plants (Shoup et al. 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Herbicide damage score was found to be associated with reduction indexes in the experiment conducted in 2017/18, which was a moderately rainy growing season. This indicates the efficiency of the HDS for screening for herbicide tolerance in lentils and aligns with the results obtained in faba bean (Abou-Khater et al. 2021). However, this observation was not replicated during 2018/19 in our experiments; this is because of heavy rain during the winter season and abnormally high temperatures during pod set (April) and grain filling (May), which affected the growth habit of the plants. For that reason, the reduction index did not correlate with HDS in 2018/19."},{"index":3,"size":193,"text":"In conclusion, the herbicide damage scores (HDS) give a general overview of the reaction of genotypes against a tested herbicide. In the case of screening a large number of genotypes, the HDS can indicate highly susceptible lines, which can be excluded from further testing. In validation trials with a limited number of test entries, reduction indexes might be more reliable for validating the reaction of tolerant lines. Therefore, the validation of tolerant accessions in our study was based on the reduction index for yield (RI SY ). The same selection method was also adopted in faba bean (Abou-Khater et al. 2021). However, Taran et al. (2013), Gaur et al. (2013) in chickpea and Sharma et al. (2018) in lentils found a high correlation between herbicide tolerance and morpho-physiological traits, yield and yield components. Therefore, they relied on the herbicide damage score to rank the tolerance of the tested genotypes. Our study shows that visual assessment of the plant through the HDS after herbicide application is proved to be a rapid and easy method for identifying tolerance to imazethapyr and metribuzin at preliminary trial but not sufficient and reliable in validating highly tolerant lines."}]},{"head":"Effect of herbicides on crop phenology","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"In all the four experiments conducted, flowering of lentil accessions was delayed under herbicide treatments. Consequently, the pre-flowering phase in treated plots was prolonged. Similar results were also obtained in previous studies in lentils (Sharma et al. 2016(Sharma et al. , 2018)), chickpea (Taran et al. 2010;Gaur et al. 2013;Chaturvedi et al. 2014) and faba bean (Abou-Khater et al. 2021). This might be explained by the fact that the recovery of accessions from herbicide treatments involved secondary plant growth with delayed flowering time and pod setting."}]},{"head":"Effect of herbicides on agronomic and yield traits","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Application of imazethapyr and metribuzin reduced plant height and biological yield. Similar observations were made earlier on lentil (Sharma et al. 2016(Sharma et al. , 2018)), faba bean (Abou-Khater et al. 2021) and chickpea (Taran et al. 2010;Goud et al. 2013). In addition, yield components reduced in all the conducted experiments. These observations are in agreement with the results of Gaur et al. (2013) and Goud et al. (2013). Similarly, in lentils, Sharma et al. (2016Sharma et al. ( , 2018) ) reported a reduction in yield and yield attributes in the herbicide-treated accessions when compared to untreated control."}]},{"head":"Replicability","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The GGE biplot permits us to determine specific and wide adaptability of different accessions to mega-environments."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"Our study indicated two major mega-environments as each of them consistently represents various trials (Yan et al. 2007), where four selected accessions (IG323, IG4400, IG4605 and IG 5722) showed stability to environments. However, two accessions IG4400 and IG5722 were found to be specifically adapted to herbicide treatments under high rainfall conditions and the other two (IG323 and IG4605) were found in highly specific environments characterised by herbicide treatments and low rainfall. This is the first report of the stability of these herbicide-tolerant accessions. The accessions were screened at Terbol station assuming that this station represents ideal environments for screening for herbicide tolerance as observed in faba bean (Abou-Khater et al. 2021). Further investigation is also ongoing to validate the observation made on faba bean by Abou-Khater et al. (2021) and to identify suitable environments for screening for herbicide tolerance in lentil. The selected accessions should be crossed to widen their adaptability to different environments."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"This study suggests the presence of tolerance to postemergence herbicide treatments in lentils. An herbicidetolerant variety is an integral part of the integrated weed management package for the most effective and economical approach to for weed management. A large genetic variability for herbicide tolerance was observed in lentil germplasm in our study. Sixteen tolerant genotypes of lentil without any effect of herbicide treatment on phenology were identified. Further investigation is required to study the genetics of herbicide tolerance in these genotypes before their efficient use as a donor in the lentil breeding program."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. (a) Precipitation (mm) trends during the cropping seasons of the years when screening was conducted. (b) Variation of maximum temperature (°C) during the different cropping seasons. (c) Minimum temperature (°C) during the different cropping seasons. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Distribution of lentil accessions along with Herbicide Damage (HDS1 and HDS2) recorded after 2 and 3 weeks of treatment with different doses of imazethapyr and metribuzin. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. GGE biplot of tested accessions in validation trials for yield data (SY) explained 70.19% of total variability. E1: season 2016/17 of imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha, E2: season 2016/17 of metribuzin at 210 g a.i./ha, E3: season 2016/17 control untreated with herbicide, E4: season 2018/19 of imazethapyr at 75 g a.i./ha, E5: season 2018/19 of metribuzin at 210 g a.i./ha, E6: 2018/19 season of metribuzin at 315 g a.i./ha, E7: 2018/19 season control untreated with herbicide.Accessions numbered 1-38 were listed in Table1. The mega environments that share the same sector are joined in one ellipse. If the ellipse extends into another sector and sector lines are plotted, the ellipse lines become dotted when they go into a different sector. Dotted vertical and horizontal lines represent two principal components PC1 and PC2 of the environmental scores. "},{"text":"Table 1 . List of selected lentil accessions evaluated for imazethapyr and metribuzin tolerance in the validation trials during 2016/17 and 2018/19 seasons.  "},{"text":" DMAT, days to maturity; PLHT, plant height; BY, biological yield per plant; SY, yield per plant; NPP, number of pods per plant; NSP, number of seeds per plant; RI PLHT , reduction index of plant height; RI BY , reduction index of biological yield per plant; RI SY , reduction index of yield per plant.  DFLR (df) DMAT (df) PLHT (df) BY (df) SY (df) NPP (df) NSP (df) RI PLHT (df) RI BY (df) RI SY (df) DFLR (df)DMAT (df)PLHT (df)BY (df)SY (df)NPP (df)NSP (df)RI PLHT (df)RI BY (df)RI SY (df) Year (Y) <0.001 (3) <0.001 (2) <0.001 (3) <0.001 (2) <0.001 (2) 0.145 (1) <0.001 (1) <0.001 (1) 0.436 (1) <0.001 (1) Year (Y)<0.001 (3)<0.001 (2)<0.001 (3)<0.001 (2)<0.001 (2)0.145 (1)<0.001 (1)<0.001 (1)0.436 (1)<0.001 (1) Accessions (A) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) Accessions (A)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37) Herbicide treatment (T) <0.001 (4) <0.001 (4) <0.001 (4) <0.001 (4) <0.001 (4) 0.007 (4) <0.001 (4) 0.003 (3) 0.011 (3) <0.001 (3) Herbicide treatment (T)<0.001 (4)<0.001 (4)<0.001 (4)<0.001 (4)<0.001 (4)0.007 (4)<0.001 (4)0.003 (3)0.011 (3)<0.001 (3) A × T 0.002 (148) 0.615 (148) 0.884 (148) 0.011 (148) 0.968 (148) 0.212 (148) 0.732 (148) <0.001 (110) 0.098 (111) <0.001 (111) A × T0.002 (148)0.615 (148)0.884 (148)0.011 (148)0.968 (148)0.212 (148)0.732 (148)<0.001 (110)0.098 (111)<0.001 (111) Y × A <0.001 (111) <0.001 (74) <0.001 (111) <0.001 (74) <0.001 (74) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) 0.005 (37) <0.001 (37) <0.001 (37) Y × A<0.001 (111)<0.001 (74)<0.001 (111)<0.001 (74)<0.001 (74)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37)0.005 (37)<0.001 (37)<0.001 (37) Y × T 0.003 (4) 0.005 (3) 0.025 (4) 0.025 (3) <0.001 (3) 0.001 (2) <0.001 (2) 0.028 (1) 0.576 (1) 0.016 (1) Y × T0.003 (4)0.005 (3)0.025 (4)0.025 (3)<0.001 (3)0.001 (2)<0.001 (2)0.028 (1)0.576 (1)0.016 (1) Y × A × T 0.004 (146) 0.393 (108) 0.795 (137) 0.782 (111) 0.505 (111) 0.196 (74) 0.125 (74) 0.168 (33) 0.02 (37) <0.001 (36) Y × A × T0.004 (146)0.393 (108)0.795 (137)0.782 (111)0.505 (111)0.196 (74)0.125 (74)0.168 (33)0.02 (37)<0.001 (36) DFLR, days to flowering;           DFLR, days to flowering;  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Spatial model analysis performed for preliminary and advanced screening trials to analyse significance differences (P value) for the studied traits among accessions, herbicide treatments and the interaction between accessions and herbicide treatments. Factors Experiment df DFLR DMAT PLHT BY SY NPP NSP RI PLHT RI BY RI SY FactorsExperimentdfDFLRDMATPLHTBYSYNPPNSPRI PLHTRI BYRI SY A Experiment 1 220 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 ND ND ND ND ND AExperiment 1220<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001NDNDNDNDND T  1 0.010 0.114 0.314 0.350 0.021 ND ND ND ND ND T10.0100.1140.3140.3500.021NDNDNDNDND A × T  220 0.362 0.982 0.911 0.001 0.887 ND ND ND ND ND A × T2200.3620.9820.9110.0010.887NDNDNDNDND A Experiment 2 38 <0.001 ND <0.001 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND AExperiment 238<0.001ND<0.001NDNDNDNDNDNDND T  1 0.604 ND 0.111 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND T10.604ND0.111NDNDNDNDNDNDND A × T  3 8 <0.001 ND 0.013 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND A × T3 8<0.001ND0.013NDNDNDNDNDNDND A Experiment 3 43 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 AExperiment 343<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001 T  2 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.037 0.249 0.069 <0.001 0.036 T2<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.0010.0370.2490.069<0.0010.036 A × T  83 0.003 0.039 0.273 <0.001 <0.001 0.06 0.057 0.029 <0.001 <0.001 A × T830.0030.0390.273<0.001<0.0010.060.0570.029<0.001<0.001 A Experiment 4 37 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.001 <0.001 AExperiment 437<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.0010.001<0.001 T  4 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.003 0.012 0.014 0.005 <0.001 0.159 0.001 T4<0.001<0.001<0.0010.0030.0120.0140.005<0.0010.1590.001 A × T  149 <0.001 0.448 0.275 0.323 0.477 0.011 0.092 <0.001 0.233 0.003 A × T149<0.0010.4480.2750.3230.4770.0110.092<0.0010.2330.003 Experiment 1: 2014/15, Experiment 2: 2015/16, Experiment 3: 2016/17, Experiment 4: 2018/19, Accessions (A), Herbicide Treatment (T).   Experiment 1: 2014/15, Experiment 2: 2015/16, Experiment 3: 2016/17, Experiment 4: 2018/19, Accessions (A), Herbicide Treatment (T).  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Means and standard errors of tested traits of lentil accessions as a function of different herbicide treatments in the validation trials at Terbol, Lebanon. Treatment DFLR DMAT PLHT BY SY NPP NSP RI PLHT RI BY RI SY TreatmentDFLRDMATPLHTBYSYNPPNSPRI PLHTRI BYRI SY Experiment 3 (2016/17)           Experiment 3 (2016/17) Imazethapyr (75 g a.i/ha) (1T I ) 140.2 172.9 22.3 4.7 0.4 42.1 12.0 31.4 54.3 84.0 Imazethapyr (75 g a.i/ha) (1T I )140.2172.922.34.70.442.112.031.454.384.0 Metribuzin (210 g a.i/ha) (1T M ) 133.4 168.8 24.7 8.9 0.9 62.4 24.7 22.1 31.6 56.4 Metribuzin (210 g a.i/ha) (1T M )133.4168.824.78.90.962.424.722.131.656.4 Control (C) 132.6 167.0 29.8 16.8 2.5 89.3 54.1    Control (C)132.6167.029.816.82.589.354.1 s.e. 0.5 1.3 1.5 0.67 0.13 6.8 7.8 ND 2.7 4.4 s.e.0.51.31.50.670.136.87.8ND2.74.4 Experiment 4 (2018/19)           Experiment 4 (2018/19) Imazethapyr (75 g a.i/ha) (1T I ) 152.5 194.0 29.4 12.0 1.2 43.4 26.3 26.2 40.0 72.2 Imazethapyr (75 g a.i/ha) (1T I )152.5194.029.412.01.243.426.326.240.072.2 Imazethapyr (112.5 g a.i/ha) (1.5T I ) 152.9 194.6 32.1 12.4 1.4 45.0 30.8 19.4 33.4 75.8 Imazethapyr (112.5 g a.i/ha) (1.5T I )152.9194.632.112.41.445.030.819.433.475.8 Metribuzin (210 g a.i/ha) (1T M ) 143.1 181.8 40.5 14.4 3.2 92.5 77.6 5.4 24.9 30.8 Metribuzin (210 g a.i/ha) (1T M )143.1181.840.514.43.292.577.65.424.930.8 Metribuzin (315 g a.i/ha) (1.5T M ) 145.0 186.6 36.4 15.1 3.1 96.8 76.0 11.3 23.1 35.5 Metribuzin (315 g a.i/ha) (1.5T M )145.0186.636.415.13.196.876.011.323.135.5 Control (C) 142.8 183.5 38.2 18.4 4.3 129.5 103.9    Control (C)142.8183.538.218.44.3129.5103.9 s.e. 1.5 2.9 1.8 2.03 0.5 13.7 9.4 3.2 7.7 3.6 s.e.1.52.91.82.030.513.79.43.27.73.6 1.5T I : imazethapyr 112.5 g a.i/ha, 1.5T M : metribuzin 315 g a.i/ha, 1T         1.5T I : imazethapyr 112.5 g a.i/ha, 1.5T M : metribuzin 315 g a.i/ha, 1T  "},{"text":" herbicide damage score. ND, not determined; RI PLHT , reduction index of plant height; RI BY , reduction index of biological yield per plant; RI SY , reduction index of yield per plant. HDS2 Treatment RI PLHT (%) RI BY (%) RI SY (%) HDS2TreatmentRI PLHT (%)RI BY (%)RI SY (%)    Experiment 3  Experiment 3 1 Imazethapyr (75 g a.i./ha) ND ND ND 1Imazethapyr (75 g a.i./ha)NDNDND 2  27.8 46.47 78.61 227.846.4778.61 3  29.8 49.7 85.08 329.849.785.08 4  39.8 58.37 91.72 439.858.3791.72 5  ND 98.32 99.57 5ND98.3299.57 Regression (P value)  <0.05 <0.01 <0.01 Regression (P value)<0.05<0.01<0.01 Estimated parameter (×10 −3 )  41.3* 28.5** 57.6** Estimated parameter (×10 −3 )41.3*28.5**57.6** 1 Metribuzin (210 g a.i./ha) ND ND ND 1Metribuzin (210 g a.i./ha)NDNDND 2  18.9 48.84 15.14 218.948.8415.14 3  27.69 59.51 38.04 327.6959.5138.04 4  29.81 60.37 63.93 429.8160.3763.93 5  ND 90.25 79.11 5ND90.2579.11 Regression (P value)  <0.05 <0.001 <0.01 Regression (P value)<0.05<0.001<0.01 Estimated parameter (×10 −3 )  43.2* 51.2*** 22.28** Estimated parameter (×10 −3 )43.2*51.2***22.28**    Experiment 4  Experiment 4 1 Imazethapyr (112.5 g a.i./ha)  ND ND 1Imazethapyr (112.5 g a.i./ha)NDND 2   27.72 78.11 227.7278.11 3   44.07 72.79 344.0772.79 4   51.03 75.89 451.0375.89 5   ND ND 5NDND Regression (P value)   0.05 0.84 Regression (P value)0.050.84 Estimated parameter (×10 −3 )   17.55 −2.3 Estimated parameter (×10 −3 )17.55−2.3 1 Metribuzin (315 g a.i./ha)  35.49 38.19 1Metribuzin (315 g a.i./ha)35.4938.19 2   30.63 44.87 230.6344.87 3   34.67 41.82 334.6741.82 4   ND ND 4NDND 5   ND ND 5NDND Regression (P value)   0.32 0.76 Regression (P value)0.320.76 Estimated parameter (×10 −3 )   14.7 −2.86 Estimated parameter (×10 −3 )14.7−2.86 *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.     *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001. HDS2, second     HDS2, second  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Herbicide damage scores, plant height, grain yield per plant; and reduction indexes of grain yield and plant height for the selected accessions, and those used at Terbol in 2018/19. Treatment HDS1 HDS2 DFLR RI DFLR DMAT RI DMAT PLHT RI PLHT SWPP RI SWPP TreatmentHDS1HDS2DFLRRI DFLRDMATRI DMATPLHTRI PLHTSWPPRI SWPP      IG323 (SRB)     IG323 (SRB) 1T I (75 g a.i./ha) 2 2 161.7 11.7 194.8 5.1 28.5 15.5 0.9 31.6 1T I (75 g a.i./ha)22161.711.7194.85.128.515.50.931.6 1.5T I (112.5 g a.i./ha) 3 3 150.7 4.1 188.3 1.6 33.5 2.0 1.6 24.0 1.5T I (112.5 g a.i./ha)33150.74.1188.31.633.52.01.624.0 1T M (210 g a.i./ha) 2 2 160.7 11.1 192.8 4.0 38.0 22.5 4.4 −8.4 1T M (210 g a.i./ha)22160.711.1192.84.038.022.54.4−8.4 1.5T M (315 g a.i./ha) 2 2 150.7 4.1 186.3 0.5 33.0 17.5 2.7 25.1 1.5T M (315 g a.i./ha)22150.74.1186.30.533.017.52.725.1       IG5722     IG5722 1T I (75 g a.i./ha) 3 3 151.8 1.3 197.0 3.1 27.0 29.4 1.7 41.5 1T I (75 g a.i./ha)33151.81.3197.03.127.029.41.741.5 1.5T I (112.5 g a.i./ha) 3 3 154.8 3.3 187.5 −1.8 31.5 18.2 2.2 27.2 1.5T I (112.5 g a.i./ha)33154.83.3187.5−1.831.518.22.227.2 1T M (210 g a.i./ha) 2 1 165.8 10.7 197.7 3.5 42.0 −9.2 2.8 4.1 1T M (210 g a.i./ha)21165.810.7197.73.542.0−9.22.84.1 1.5T M (315 g a.i./ha) 2 2 153.8 2.7 185.5 −2.9 37.0 3.9 3.1 −5.5 1.5T M (315 g a.i./ha)22153.82.7185.5−2.937.03.93.1−5.5      IG4605 (ARG)     IG4605 (ARG) 1T I (75 g a.i./ha) 2 2 136.9 0.7 192.8 6.3 34.0 27.7 2.2 −7.9 1T I (75 g a.i./ha)22136.90.7192.86.334.027.72.2−7.9 1.5T I (112.5 g a.i./ha) 2 2 132.4 −2.6 184.8 1.9 26.5 −32.5 0.8 2.8 1.5T I (112.5 g a.i./ha)22132.4−2.6184.81.926.5−32.50.82.8 1T M (210 g a.i./ha) 2 2 132.3 −2.6 192.0 5.9 40.0 −4.8 3.4 −2 1T M (210 g a.i./ha)22132.3−2.6192.05.940.0−4.83.4−2 1.5T M (315 g a.i./ha) 3 3 132.7 −2.4 178.1 −1.8 40.0 14.9 2.9 5.5 1.5T M (315 g a.i./ha)33132.7−2.4178.1−1.840.014.92.95.5      IG4400 (SYR)     IG4400 (SYR) 1T I (75 g a.i./ha) 3 3 155.0 8.4 195.0 8.3 27.5 5.1 4.1 50.3 1T I (75 g a.i./ha)33155.08.4195.08.327.55.14.150.3 1.5T I (112.5 g a.i./ha) 3 3 146.0 2.1 185.5 3.1 29.5 23.1 1.2 76.6 1.5T I (112.5 g a.i./ha)33146.02.1185.53.129.523.11.276.6 1T M (210 g a.i./ha) 2 1 150.0 4.9 194.0 7.8 47.0 −23.1 5.5 24.6 1T M (210 g a.i./ha)21150.04.9194.07.847.0−23.15.524.6 1.5T M (315 g a.i./ha) 2 2 143.0 0.0 178.5 −0.8 40.0 5.1 4.2 45.7 1.5T M (315 g a.i./ha)22143.00.0178.5−0.840.05.14.245.7      Terbol 2018/19 (Experiment 4)     Terbol 2018/19 (Experiment 4) Standard error (A)   5.7 10.9 1.4 21.7     Standard error (A)5.710.91.421.7 Standard error (T)   5.6 10.8 1.4 22.1     Standard error (T)5.610.81.422.1 P value (A)   <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001     P value (A)<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001 P value (T)   <0.001 <0.001 <0.05 <0.01     P value (T)<0.001<0.001<0.05<0.01 P value (A x T)   0.3 <0.001 0.5 <0.01     P value (A x T)0.3<0.0010.5<0.01 Origin of each accession is shown in parentheses: ARG, Argentina; SRB, Serbia; SYR, Syria. Treatments: 1T I , imazethapyr (75 g a.i./ha), 1.5T I , imazethapyr Origin of each accession is shown in parentheses: ARG, Argentina; SRB, Serbia; SYR, Syria. Treatments: 1T I , imazethapyr (75 g a.i./ha), 1.5T I , imazethapyr (112.5 g a.i./ha); 1T M , metribuzin (210 g a.i./ha); 1.5T M , metribuzin (315 g a.i./ha); HDS1, Herbicide damage score 1; HDS2, Herbicide damage score 2; PLHT, (112.5 g a.i./ha); 1T M , metribuzin (210 g a.i./ha); 1.5T M , metribuzin (315 g a.i./ha); HDS1, Herbicide damage score 1; HDS2, Herbicide damage score 2; PLHT, plant height; RI PLHT , reduction index of plant height; SWPP, seeds' weight per plant; RI SWPP , reduction index of seeds' weight per plant; (A) among accessions; (T) plant height; RI PLHT , reduction index of plant height; SWPP, seeds' weight per plant; RI SWPP , reduction index of seeds' weight per plant; (A) among accessions; (T) between treatments; (A × T) interaction between accessions and treatments.       between treatments; (A × T) interaction between accessions and treatments.  "}],"sieverID":"06a3cb42-05dc-44f9-bda0-3cfc6375622f","abstract":"Context. Yield losses in lentil (Lens culinaris ssp. culinaris Medik.) caused by weeds are estimated at 20-80%. In the absence of effective broad-spectrum herbicides, the menace of weed has emerged as a serious yield constraint in lentil. Aims. Identification of tolerance to two broad-spectrum postemergence herbicides, imazethapyr and metribuzin. Methods. 221 lentil accessions were screened at the experimental research station of the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Terbol (Lebanon) over four crop seasons (2014/15-2018/19). During the 2014/15 season, a preliminary screening experiment was conducted with 221 lentil accessions in an alpha lattice design with two replications, where accessions were treated at the pre-flowering stage at 150% of the recommended dose of imazethapyr (112.5 g active ingredient/ha) or metribuzin (315 g active ingredient/ha). Based on the preliminary results, 38 accessions were selected for further evaluation. In subsequent testing, the selected accessions were screened at 100% and 150% of the recommended doses of imazethapyr or metribuzin. Key results. Herbicide treatments delayed the flowering time and maturation of tested lentil accessions. The plant height of selected tolerant accessions was reduced by 15% and 8% in the plots treated by imazethapyr and metribuzin, respectively. Reduction index (RIsy) was an effective tool to select for herbicide tolerance. Stability analysis indicated that two accessions (IG4400 and IG5722) performed under high rainfall environments while two other accessions (IG323 and IG4605) were adapted to low rainfall environments. Conclusions. Four accessions (IG323, IG5722, IG4400, IG4605) were identified as independently tolerant to metribuzin and imazethapyr. Implications. The identified herbicide-tolerant accessions can be used to develop herbicide-tolerant cultivars."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"096da78fa772a46c35273a88b6e018be","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/74267209-c16c-43ee-ad07-e27568fc2c29/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Weather-index insurance and climate-smart agriculture","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Traditional agricultural insurance pays out to individual producers who can prove actual losses. Proving such losses can be expensive and time-consuming for insurers and insured. In contrast, index insurance uses proxies or indices such as rainfall or vegetation cover that closely mirror actual crop or livestock losses. When these indices indicate that losses are likely in a given area, all policyholders in that area receive a payout, irrespective of individual losses. This approach allows insurers to provide coverage in previously inaccessible areas and reduces their operational costs. This can enable access to affordable weather insurance for smallholder farmers and livestock keepers."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Agricultural index insurance is thus an important financial-inclusion and riskmanagement tool. Moreover, index insurance helps enhance the adaptive capacity of policyholders by protecting their investment in inputs and innovation. It is, therefore, considered as a tool to promote climate-smart agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"Weather-index insurance allows farmers to take on the 'risk' of borrowing money to invest in inputs and other improvements needed to implement climate-smart innovations. It also encourages investors to provide these resources as they are also protected from loss. In many countries, lenders require farmers to take out index insurance. Farmers benefit by being less exposed to risks, while financial institutions can increase their agricultural portfolio by reducing both absolute and proportional risk. This should ultimately result in more competitive agricultural loans, better access to credit, lower interest rates and reduced collateral requirements."}]},{"head":"Weather-index insurance challenges and solutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Affordability","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Cost is a major issue for all insurance schemes aimed at small-scale farmers and livestock owners. The economics have to work for the investor, the insurer and the reinsurer, as well as the farmer."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Many programmes, such as the index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) project in Ethiopia and the Scaling Up Micro-insurance in Africa (SUM-Africa) project in Uganda, subsidise premiums, at least initially. For example, the IBLI project subsidised premiums by 35%, while the Government of Uganda subsidises 30% of the premium for commercial farms and 50% for smallscale farms, rising up to 80% in 33 of the most disaster-prone districts of the country, where the risks are higher. This directly reduces the amounts that the farmers have to pay from their pocket, but the long-term sustainability of this approach is debatable."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"Incofin Investment Management (Incofin) and its partners in Nicaragua are trying a different approach. Here, indexbased weather insurance is taken out by microfinance institutions that are lending money to farmers. This setup reduces basis risk and administrative costs, making the coverage more accessible compared with traditional models. If weather conditions trigger a payout, it is the microfinance institution that receives the payout; it then Overcoming challenges to deliver agricultural weather-index insurance applies the funds received to the borrowers' loans, based on the impact of the weather event on each borrower's location. This prevents these clients from falling into arrears and avoids the need for them to sell off productive assets in order to repay their loans. This approach has resulted in some 6,000 farmers being covered by the insurance in the first 4 months of the programme -far more than might have been expected to purchase insurance individually. Combining agricultural portfolios of smaller microfinance institutions resulted in sufficient scale to allow the reinsurer to design a product that would satisfy the microfinance institutions' expectations in terms of coverage and price."}]},{"head":"Weather data and models","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Accurate, localised weather data are the foundation of any weather-index insurance, as is the technical knowledge in translating this into realistic predictions of impact on agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Earlier attempts to introduce weather-index insurance in Nicaragua failed because of the lack of weather stations and lack of accurate climate modelling (Arce, 2009). Developments in satellite-derived weather information have largely overcome such constraints and such information is now the de facto standard for weather-index insurance products."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"There are several approaches that can be followed. For example, IBLI uses the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index to assess the amount of plant biomass present, while the project in Uganda uses drought indices based on relative evapotranspiration (RE), a very good measure of plant available water and therefore of agricultural drought."}]},{"head":"Understanding and trusting the product","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"All of the projects reviewed found that smallholder farmers and livestock owners have limited understanding of what index insurance is, how it works and how they would benefit from having it. In its early stages, the IBLI project in Ethiopia had to invest heavily in awareness-raising among pastoralists, government officials and even insurance company staff as well as in marketing activities. This led to increases in the cost of providing the insurance and hence higher insurance premiums."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The Incofin project in Nicaragua had similar experience, with limited awareness among the microfinance institutions about their real exposure to agro-climatic risks and the importance of mitigating such risks through an insurance product. To address this, Incofin supported a comprehensive diagnostic study that helped to understand the regulatory context and the institutional preparedness of the institutions, as well as to quantify and raise awareness of the agro-climatic risk to which their portfolios are exposed. It also conducted training in the technical mechanics behind the operationalisation of the insurance product."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"In Uganda also, it is still a major challenge to build understanding about the benefits of insurance. This is further complicated by the limited trust that farmers, and indeed the general population, have in the insurance sector. One approach that SUM-Africa took to overcome these challenges is working with trusted, farmer-based organisations"}]},{"head":"\"Accurate, localised weather data are the foundation of any weatherindex insurance, as is the technical knowledge in translating this into realistic predictions of impact on agriculture.\"","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"that already provide extension services. For example, NUCAFE (the National Union of Coffee Agribusinesses and Farm Enterprises) has been incorporating awareness-raising about and subscriptions to coffee drought insurance into their field campaigns. This has proven quite cost-effective and has resulted in good subscription rates."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Overall, it is clear that increased understanding and trust in agricultural insurance is necessary before any upscaling can be realised. It continues to need attention even as the market for insurance starts to grow."}]},{"head":"Policy and regulatory framework","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Strong policy and regulatory frameworks are essential to the success of efforts to introduce index-based insurance."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"For example, during the early phases of the SUM-Africa project, the Agro-Insurance Consortium (AIC), or Kungula as it was known at the time, participated in a working group developing policy on agricultural insurance. Other participants included the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industries and Fisheries, the Ministry of Finance and two national farmer-based organisations, the Ugandan Cooperative Alliance and Ugandan National Farmers Federation (UNFFE). This ultimately led to the Uganda Agriculture Insurance Scheme (UAIS), a subsidy on agricultural insurance products by the Ugandan Government. Considered as a pilot, this scheme will run until at least 2021, aiming to enhance climate resilience of the agricultural sector in Uganda. Government support and the development of a sound regulatory framework to ensure good implementation of the subsidy have played a vital enabling role in upscaling of agricultural insurance in Uganda."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"In the case of the Incofin project, keeping the regulator actively involved during each phase has been essential for the success of the project. The Superintendence for Banks and Financial Institutions (SIBOIF by its Spanish acronym) supervises all regulated microfinance institutions (MFIs) in Nicaragua and has shown great willingness"}]},{"head":"\"Strong policy and regulatory frameworks are essential to the success of efforts to introduce index-based insurance.\"","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"and support throughout the project. The lead consultant held frequent meetings with SIBOIF in order to ensure their alignment and full understanding of the product and its specifications. Given that the product is \"meso\" level and does not directly involve individual producers, the approval process followed a special regimen (Reforma a la Norma de Reaseguros, Fronting y Coaseguros del 11 de abril de 2018) whereby the product could go into effect without the SIBOIF having issued its formal resolution of approval, and did so on 1 July 2018, while the formal resolution was obtained in August 2018."}]},{"head":"Linked or stand-alone product?","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Linking insurance to credit facilities has proved to be a successful way to boost both sales of insurance and uptake of credit. For example, in 2017, 95% of the 46,000 weather-index insurance policies sold by SUM-Africa came from the credit-linked insurance scheme, and the sums insured were much larger: the average sum insured per farmer covered by credit-linked insurance was around US$1,750, compared with only US$300 for stand-alone insurance."}]},{"head":"Index-based livestock insurance in Ethiopia","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Cornell University and the Government of Kenya have demonstrated the potential of index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) to help protect pastoralists' herds against drought-related losses in northern Kenya (ILRI, 2014). IBLI (https:// ibli.ilri.org) triggers payouts to contract holders in the event of severe seasonal forage scarcity during the dry season, helping pastoralists purchase the inputs and services they need to keep their animals alive. The IBLI index is derived from Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), a satellite-imagery-based indicator of greenness that serves as a proven proxy for forage availability in the rangelands. Historic NDVI readings are used to normalise current NDVI values."}]},{"head":"Weather-index insurance cases","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The project in southern Ethiopia introduced IBLI products to pastoral and agro-pastoral populations in the Borana zone of Oromia regional state. It also coordinated and managed a range of capacity building activities including training of agents; sourced re-insurance; conducted marketing and extension programmes; identified and addressed regulatory concerns; and managed the delivery channel and related management information systems."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Key partners in the project include Oromia Insurance Share Company, ILRI, mobile-phone app developers, non-governmental organisations, farmers' cooperatives and local and regional government."}]},{"head":"Administrative capacity and claims handling","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Another common weakness that indexinsurance initiatives have to deal with is the limited capacity in the local insurance industry to design, develop and operationalise index-based insurance. Staff commonly lack up-to-date knowledge on index-based insurance, including recent experiences from other countries."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"In the case of the Incofin project, for example, this was solved by involving the Swiss reinsurer that was involved in the design of the product. The reinsurer undertook a historical analysis of the performance of the MFIs' loan portfolios during climatic events and presented a full technical proposal, including design of the precipitation indices and triggers per region and proposed data sources. Additionally, they prepared a simulation of the theoretical payouts that would have occurred over the past 10 years had the coverage been in force, with the goal of demonstrating to the MFIs that the product was properly designed and would be expected to pay out in the future should the same climatic patterns happen."}]},{"head":"Scaling Up Micro-insurance in Africa","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The Scaling Up Micro-insurance in Africa (SUM-Africa) project started in Uganda in 2014 to demonstrate the technical and commercial viability of low-cost and large-scale index-based drought insurance in Uganda. The approach to scaling has focused on different market channels, such as credit-linked versus stand-alone insurance, or bundled with other services such as agronomic advice and e-extension. Multiple crop-specific index-insurance products are available as well as generic drought coverage."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Virtually all agricultural insurance products in Uganda are delivered through a consortium of local insurance companies, the Agro-Insurance Consortium (AIC). The index-based drought insurance schemes, sold through the AIC consortium, are designed and monitored by EARS Earth Environment Monitoring BV, using time-series of daily relative evapotranspiration (ETa/ETp) from 1982 to date with real time hourly data"}]},{"head":"Satellite-based weather-index insurance in Nicaragua","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Through its technical assistance project, Incofin Investment Management (www. incofin.com), a leading impact investment company investing in financial inclusion and sustainable agriculture in emerging markets, has partnered with two of its investee microfinance institutions -Fundenuse and Micrédito -to implement the first ever meso-model agricultural index-insurance product in Nicaragua. The project is supported by the Multilateral Investment Fund (a member of the Inter-American Development Bank Group), the Dutch development bank FMO and Belgium-based social impact fund Incofin cvso."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The product is a meso-model index-based satellite agricultural insurance against drought and excess rain. The product's innovation lies in its unique design. Whereas traditional insurance schemes reception and drought monitoring at three-kilometre ground resolution."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"The Ugandan Government subsidises 30% of the premium for commercial farms and 50% for small-scale farms, rising up to 80% in 33 of the most disaster-prone districts of the country, where premiums are higher. Basic premium rates on all subsidised products are limited to 5% of the sum insured (10% in disaster-prone areas) to ensure affordable prices and adequate coverage, although farmers in higher-risk areas still have to bear part of the drought risk themselves."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Sales of index-based insurance reached approximately 70,000 smallholders in 2018 and is forecasted to double in 2019/2020."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"As a project SUM-Africa finished in August 2018. Since then, operations have continued on a commercial basis."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"require selling and administering individual policies for each farmer, in this case (meso model), the microfinance institution acts as policy holder and risk aggregator."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"Within the first 4 months, the insurance was effectively protecting nearly 6,000 coffee and basic grain smallholders, more than 90% of whom possess fewer than 10 hectares of land. The product triggered its first payout in September 2018 due to the ongoing drought in Central America."},{"index":8,"size":51,"text":"In an effort to scale up the initiative, Incofin are supporting a third Nicaraguan MFI, Financiera Fundeser, to implement a similar product adapted to the needs of their agricultural clients. This product will help protect an additional 12,000 coffee farmers from the adverse economic effects of flooding during Nicaragua's rainy season."}]},{"head":"About the series","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"CTA Technical Briefs document experience and learning in topical issues of interest to the ACP agricultural development community. They are intended as a practical guide for people involved in an issue professionally or for people with a strong interest in the topic. Disclaimer This work has been made possible with the financial assistance of the European Union. However, the contents remain the sole responsibility of its author(s) and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of CTA, its co-publisher or the European Union, nor of any country or member State. The user should make his/her own evaluation as to the appropriateness of any statement, argument, experimental technique or method described in the work."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Copyright notice This work is the sole intellectual property of CTA and its co-publishers, and cannot be commercially exploited. CTA encourages its dissemination for private study, research, teaching and non-commercial purposes, provided that appropriate acknowledgement is made:"},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"-of CTA's copyright and EU financing, by including the name of the author, the title of the work and the following notice \"© CTA 2019 EU financing\", -and that CTA's or its co-publishers', and European Union's endorsement of users' views, products or services is not implied in any way, by including the standard CTA disclaimer. Viktoria Popova is Technical Assistance Manager at Incofin, where she strengthens the capacities of Incofin portfolio companies to improve the wellbeing of rural entrepreneurs and smallholder farmers in emerging markets. Through the provision of technical assistance, Incofin helps to maximise the potential of its investments to generate social impact and to promote inclusive progress."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"Eleni Vakaki works for EARS Earth Environment Monitoring in the Netherlands on the design and monitoring of index insurance products in several African countries, mainly using the EARS relative evapotranspiration dataset. She also models and evaluates basis risk and investigates the suitability of various satellite data sources for index insurance products."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Joost van der Woerd is a remote-sensing scientist and project manager at EARS Earth Environment Monitoring in the Netherlands. He works on data processing and index insurance product development and oversees implementation of insurance projects including the SUM-Africa project in Uganda."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Yihenew Zewdie is an economist with research interests in natural resource management and resilience-building issues. He currently works as a consultant for the International Livestock Research Institute on issues of index-based livestock insurance. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation P.O. Box 380 -6700 AJ Wageningen -The Netherlands Tel: +31 (0) 317 467 100 | E-mail: [email protected] | www.cta.int Overcoming challenges to deliver agricultural weather-index insurance Experience capitalisation series 8 "},{"text":" Photo creditsPage 1: 1) IFAD/Amadou Keita; 2) CTA/Charlie Pye-Smith Page 2: FAO Page 3: CTA/Charlie Pye-Smith Page 4: CTA/Charlie Pye-Smith Page 7: FAO "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" This article was created through a CTA-led process to document and share actionable knowledge on 'what works' for ACP agriculture. It capitalises on the insights, lessons and experiences of practitioners to inform and guide the implementation of agriculture for development projects.A series of video recordings with participants gives personal perspectives on the issues raised during the workshop. See: https://bit.ly/2FROq7rThe products of the workshop can be found and downloaded at: https://bit.ly/2sRaSVHAuthorsGetaneh Erena is Senior Livestock Insurance Officer at the Microinsurance Department of Oromia Insurance Share Company based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. His role is to facilitate and provide leadership on index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) and multi-peril livestock insurance.  "}],"sieverID":"9d28886a-1f73-4e05-be40-bc5d1072e108","abstract":"Overcoming challenges to deliver agricultural weather-index insurance The recent CTA workshop on 'implementing climate-smart solutions for next-generation ACP agriculture' identified four fundamental challenges to address: increase uptake and adoption of interventions and solutions, make more convincing cases for climate-smart interventions to farmers, promote appropriate policy frameworks and processes, and improve information, communication and feedback flows that enhance awareness and better connect actors and interventions. Interventions that work were targeted at five climatesmart priorities: expanding the evidence base, developing supportive policy frameworks, building stronger institutions, devising alternative financing options and prioritising farm-centric implementation. This brief by Getaneh Erena, Viktoria Popova, Eleni Vakaki, Joost van der Woerd and Yihenew Zewdie identifies and addresses key issues facing weather-indexbased agricultural insurance. Drawing on diverse experiences from Africa and Experience capitalisation series25 CTA Technical Brief MAY 2019Central America, it zooms in on key challenges such as affordability, quality of weather data and models, raising awareness and trust in the benefits of insurance products and policy and regulatory frameworks. To have real impact, scale is the first requirement. Scaling strategies require reliable products, access to the rural areas, increased awareness about insurance and cost-effective delivery channels."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0adb153cb64c71e665f9bf2bf79d3139","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3b0a8ffc-b320-4140-8850-e68c2c2ff15e/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"ASSOCIATION BETWEEN MOLECULAR MARKERS AND RESISTANCE","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The molecular data are being analyzed using QTL packages (QTL cartographer Qgene) to determine linkages between the markers and the phenotypic characterization. As preliminary analysis X 2 at the 5% level was done using SAS. Putative associations were found between 43 SSRs markers and the resistance."}]},{"head":"MOLECULAR ANALYSIS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Both parents, MEcu-72 and MCol-2246, were evaluated with 343 cassava SSR markers (Mba et al, 2001), including 156 cDNA SSRs developed by Mba et al (submitted). Approximately 155 of the SSRs were polymorphic in the parentals and were evaluated in the F1 (286 individuals). For the construction of the linkage map, 103 SSRs were analyzed, of which 71 were anchored and segregating from the heterozygous female parent (MEcu-72) of an interspecific cross. The map consists of 19 linkage groups; which represent the haploid genome of cassava (Fig. 4). These linkage groups span 550,2 cM and an average marker density of 1 per 7,9 cM. The position of the 71 SSRs markers is shown in figure 5 of the cassava molecular genetic map (LOD = 25 and tetha ( θ ) = 25). Map distances are shown in Kosambi map units. So far, 26 SSRs markers (shown in green, Fig. 4) have been previously placed on the cassava framework map (Fregene et al, 1997), the other 45 SSRs are new. Thirty one of the 71 SSRs were cDNA sequences (Mba, in preparation) and the others were genomic DNA."}]},{"head":"ON GOING WORK","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"-Saturation of Linkage map of Ecu-72, using AFLPs."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"-Isolation, cloning, sequencing and mapping of AFLPs polymorphic bands between resistants and susceptibles genotypes and design of SCARs for marker assisted selection."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"-QTLs analysis for resistance to whitefly."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"-The whitefly resistance will be the target for map-based cloning using the BAC libraries as tools."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"-Isolation of expressed sequences during the defense response of MEcu-72 to white fly attack."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"-In order to identify differentially expressed sequences, a new technology known as DNA chips or microarray is available to scan a significant number of clones. Microarray expression profiling detailed experiments will be used to identify putative early-response regulatory and/or signaling genes and to test the function of selected candidate genes using reverse genetics.  "}]},{"head":"AFLPs Analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"An analysis was done of 128 combinations of primers with both parentals, MEcu-72 and MCol-2246, and both bulks of 10 whitefly resistant and 10 susceptible DNA. We obtained 53 polymorphic combinations, in which we found 425 polymorphic bands between the resistant and the susceptible (Fig. 5)."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION FIELD EVALUATION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Field evaluations carried out at Nataima (Tolima) demonstrate that there was considerable whitefly pressure as plant damage and pest populations were high (from 4 to 6 on the damage and population scales). However, some genotypes, in spite of the high pressure, had low damage levels. It can therefore be concluded that these genotypes have resistance levels similar to those of the resistant parent."},{"index":2,"size":251,"text":"Whiteflies are considered one of the world's major agricultural pest groups, attacking a wide range of plant hosts and causing considerable crop loss. There are nearly 1200 whitefly species with a wide host range. As direct feeding pests and virus vectors, whiteflies cause major damage in agroecosystems based on cassava in the Americas, Africa and to a lesser extent, Asia. The most damaging species on cassava in northern South America is Aleurotrachelus socialis. Typical damage symptoms include curling of apical leaves, yellowing and necrosis of basal leaves and plant retardation. The \"honeydew\" excreted is a substrate for a sooty-mold fungus that interferes with photosynthesis (Fig. 1). The rate reduces root yield by 4 to 79% depending on the duration of attack (Bellotti, 2002). More than 5,000 cassava genotypes have been evaluated at CIAT and CORPOICA for whitefly resistance. At present, the major source of host resistance in cassava is the genotype MEcu-72 (Bellotti and Arias, 2001) (Fig. 1). When feeding on MEcu-72 A. socialis had less oviposition, longer development periods, reduced size and higher mortality than when feeding on the susceptible genotype, (Fig, 2). Due to the importance of whiteflies as a pest and virus vector, it is important to understand the nature of genes that confer resistance in the genotype MEcu-72. To study the genetics of this resistance, a cross was made between MEcu-72 (resistant genotype) x MCol-2246 (susceptible genotype), to evaluate F1 segregation, using molecular markers. This will accelerate the selection of whitefly resistant germplasm and isolate resistant genes. "}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PLANT MATERIAL","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"For the present work we have used the cross MEcu-72 (as the resistant parent) x MCol-2246 (as the susceptible parent). A total F1 offspring of 286 genotypes (family CM8996) was produced from this cross. These materials were sowed and evaluated in the field during 2002 and 2003 at two different locations in Colombia: Espinal-Tolima, (CORPOICA-NATAIMA) at 350 m.a.s.l. and Santander de Quilichao, Cauca, at 990 m.a.s.l. With this evaluation we will identify gene segregation in the offspring and we will be able to select the resistant and susceptible materials. The evaluation was performed in the field using population and damage scales."}]},{"head":"MOLECULAR ANALYSIS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"We are using Simple Sequences Repeat (SSR) and AFLPs to find markers associated with resistance for mapping the resistant gene(s). We are using RGAs sequences (isolated from cassava previously)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Cassava damage and whitefly population ratings due to A. socialis feeding on parental genotypes MEcu-72, MCol-2246 and clones from the family CM 8996 at CORPOICA, Nataima (Tolima, Colombia). "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 5. Silver stained polyacrylamide gel showing: combination ACA-CTT of AFLP of both parents (R resistant, S susceptible) and Bulks resistants and susceptibles, show the polymorphic band # 50 unique in the resistants. "}],"sieverID":"0d6d07ad-bc41-4d02-877e-d4b4228364e4","abstract":"http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/ipm/index.htm RECENT ADVANCES IN HOST PLANT RESISTANCE TO WHITEFLIES IN CASSAVA Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical International Center for Tropical Agriculture RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS Field evaluations in the family CM 8996 and their parentals confirm resistance of the genotype MEcu-72 and susceptibility of the parental MCol-2246; this allows us to do preliminary selection of F1 genotypes.Using SSR markers, putative association with the parental lines were found.A linkage map is being constructed using the SSR data, a RGA and the field phenotypic characterization."}

data/part_5/0af428f7f74f0d89afd7a88bf892ee7d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0af428f7f74f0d89afd7a88bf892ee7d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ccf69641-2292-4716-bded-24949dbe3a9d/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Agri-WorldSources, an open online platform that integrates hydrological models and environmental data to inform design of water harvesting for agriculture","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"• Building on previous work, stakeholder capacities and information platforms are developed in at least two additional countries (Ghana and Senegal), leading to more feasible, gender-responsive, and locally-led restoration projects in productive landscapes"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"• 28 -Increased resilience of agro-ecosystems and communities, especially those including smallholders 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:40 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Project Title: P611 -Restoration of deforested/degraded areas in Colombia, Peru, Haiti and El Salvador Description of the innovation: Report: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: This is an open online platform initially developed in Honduras but now being extended to support design of water harvesting for agriculture and domestic water. Started in Honduras and in 2021 was expanded to African countries. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: CIAT (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Regional Hub (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical) Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • CDB -Caribbean Development Bank • SDC -Swiss Development Cooperation • FAO -Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations • SERNA -Secretaría de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente (Honduras) • USAID -U.S. Agency for International Development "}],"sieverID":"3c3cbc44-7b84-4725-9108-aa347b649f85","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0b932e5ebf7d46455ddb02cee437be09.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b932e5ebf7d46455ddb02cee437be09","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/73540ecb-1fd8-4c07-b36f-0d233fcab369/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"CGIAR Portfolio Performance Management and Project Coordination Practice Change (Type 3) 2022 Report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The CGIAR Technical Report constitutes a key component of the CGIAR Annual Performance Report (APR). Section 2 Implementation status: Management Responses to CGIAR evaluations"}]},{"head":"CGIAR APR","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The table below provides information on the four evaluations that were completed between 2021 and 2022 (also available on the Management Response Tracker):"},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"*Out of the 108 actions that are in progress, 12 actions (11%) are delayed. 4. Quality assurance of reported results data: Reported data will be screened against defined criteria and adjusted as necessary to ensure every reported result meets quality criteria. In case of significant disagreement between the reporting Initiative and the Quality Assurance Team, a senior third party will provide a 'tiebreaker' function. a. Status: This objective has largely been achieved"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"with key data points undergoing quality assurance, mediated through a third-party tie breaker."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"5. Access to reported results through an interactive dashboard: A new results dashboard will provide easy and customizable access to CGIAR results. a. Status: This objective has been achieved and the new Results Dashboard is available here. "}]},{"head":"Primary purpose and benefits: • The Reflect component allows Initiatives and","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Science Managing Directors (SMDs) to adapt their plans based on lessons learned, thereby enhancing their contributions to impact."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• It demonstrates to funders, partners, and stakeholders that Initiatives are using experience to update plans."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• The Reflect component offers SMDs an opportunity to review and approve key recommendations for change, contributing to portfolio coherence."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• It allows other stakeholders and partners to engage with Initiative teams as they consider lessons and recommendations."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"The Reflect process was designed to be lean, flexible, and adaptable to the varying capacities, budgets, and circumstances of different Initiatives."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Initiative teams can choose their reflection methods, timing, and resource allocation, resulting in a onepage write-up for inclusion in their annual report (Section 7 -Adaptive Management). To support this process, on-demand support has been provided to Initiative teams and peer-to-peer sharing of practices and approaches has been encouraged. Results of the Reflect process will be captured in the Re-Plan phase, which is consistent with the enhanced planning process presented in Section 4 of this report."}]},{"head":"Progress to date:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Reflect guidance was tested and agreed upon before its launch in November 2022. Reflect activities have been conducted since December 2022, with varying timelines based on individual Initiative needs. All active Initiatives have incorporated Reflect elements into their implementation activities, often aligning them with reporting, learning, planning with partners, or launch events. A Reflect peer-to-peer community was established for periodic check-ins and to share experiences, which proved valuable in identifying and prioritizing necessary adjustments. The most critical adjustments were formalized in the Type 1 Annual Initiative Reports."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Early feedback has been very positive, and an after-action review is planned for mid-April to assess Reflect's success and identify areas for further development and improvement. The findings will inform the refinement of guidance and processes for the second Reflect cycle in 2023/24."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"The Reflect component is a crucial development in enhancing CGIAR's adaptive management and ensuring the continuous improvement of Initiatives. With its lean and flexible design, the Reflect component promises to address previous challenges and allow for better decision-making in the years to come."}]},{"head":"Other noteworthy 2022 achievements include:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"• The original Scaling Readiness approach was redesigned to meet the minimum viable CGIAR requirements. Profiling innovations now takes less than 60 minutes, and the more complex innovation package process requires a one-day workshop, while still assuring quality data."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Initiatives had indicated in their proposals that they would profile 250 innovations during the 2022-24 cycle. With the 476 innovations reported in 2022 alone, this target has already been exceeded."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• More than 1,600 colleagues from CGIAR and beyond enrolled in an online course on innovation and scaling developed in English, French and Spanish."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• Over 25 IPSR webinars, online meetings and in-person sessions were organized in 2022 to introduce the IPSR approach to CGIAR Initiative teams and the broader CGIAR community."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"• The IPSR team co-organized the 'CGIAR week of science and practice of scaling agrifood systems innovation' with the GIZ taskforce on scaling team in Nairobi in November 2022, bringing together CGIAR's and GIZ's scaling communities for networking and learning."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"• Initial interest in IPSR was expressed by other CGIAR funders and partner organizations, including the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the World Bank."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"• Increased awareness and use of IPSR in the CGIAR system, with Initiative teams appointing dedicated scaling experts and consultants, the Senior Leadership Team emphasizing the importance and potential of IPSR, and CGIAR investment in capacity to mainstream IPSR."},{"index":8,"size":112,"text":"IPSR-powered Innovation Portfolio analytics comparing the Innovation Readiness of Regional Integrated Initiatives (RIIs) to the Global Science Initiatives (GSIs). This allows CGIAR to tell the story of how RIIs focus more on innovation adaptation, validation and scaling (medium/high readiness levels), whilst GSIs focus more on innovation ideation, formulation and testing (lower/ medium readiness levels). The Initiative PORBs detail their planned results against a timeline, based on each Initiative's Theories of Change. The planned results are disaggregated by Work Package and implementing Center, and connected with annual budgets, providing an estimate of the resources allocated to achieving the results planned for the year. This approach ensures that resources are aligned to results delivery."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"Guidance materials and support were provided to Initiatives and quality checks were conducted to ensure consistency in PORB template use. The PORBs now form a core component of the Decision Letters accompanying fund allocation."}]},{"head":"Section 4 Project Coordination progress CGIAR Project Lifecycle","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"We would like to thank all funders who supported this work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"6. Baking in adaptive management: All Initiatives and Impact Area Platforms will include a 'Reflect' adaptive management process to inform their 2023 Plan of Results and Budget. a. Status: This objective has largely been achieved. 7. Rollout of Innovation Packages and Scaling Readiness: All Initiatives will start implementing their Innovation Packages and Scaling Readiness plans. a. Status: This objective has been achieved. 8. A new Performance and Results Management System (PRMS): A new PRMS will house relevant Initiative and Impact Area Platform information including Theories of Change, Plans of Results and Budget, and reported results. a. Status: This objective has largely been achieved. Colourful display of local fruits on sale at a traditional market in Astambul, Indonesia. Credit: F. de la Cruz/Bioversity International 3.2 Report/Reflect/Replan rollout: Enabling adaptive management Previously, CGIAR Research Program (CRP) leaders found it challenging to adjust financial and staff plans in light of experience gained from the previous year. This difficulty arose due to the misalignment of reporting and planning processes, as well as the convoluted process of adjusting budgets based on lessons learned. The Reflect component, an integral part of the Report-Reflect-Replan annual adaptive management cycle, was introduced for CGIAR Initiatives in 2022. This new component addresses the challenges faced by CRP leaders by providing a streamlined process for reporting, reflection, and re-planning within the new Technical Reporting Arrangement. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"805a91cb-f709-4831-9531-efdba22b33d7","abstract":"Section 1 Introduction This report forms part of CGIAR's new Technical Reporting Arrangement and provides an 'under the hood' update on key aspects of Performance Management and Project Coordination progress for 2022. It relates specifically to the Pooled Funding portion of the CGIAR Portfolio. The content of this first Type 3 Report is largely representative of the core aspects related to activating the Performance and Results Management Framework and the Technical Reporting Arrangement in 2022. It includes updates on: • CGIAR implementation of Management Responses to evaluations, to demonstrate how CGIAR is learning and optimizing research management and delivery."}

data/part_5/0bb20a2370cc55b0d0180b3f9fe44048.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bb20a2370cc55b0d0180b3f9fe44048","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f3f09127-4576-4a6c-862d-e94518a75912/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Animal source foods (AFS) are an important part of the cuisine with pork, fish, and poultry products widely consumed in Cambodia. The majority of livestock products are produced by smallholders, many of them women, and sold in traditional, wet markets where women also predominate as retailers. In recent years, Cambodia has seen growing food safety concerns."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The overall aim of the Safe Food, Fair Food (SFFF) for Cambodia project is to reduce the burden of foodborne disease in informal, emerging formal, and niche markets and targeting small and medium scale producers. The project has five objectives with associated activities, outputs, and outcomes. To reach this objective, it is necessary to build capacity to better understand what food safety risks are, how to manage food safety and how to communicate it effectively among stakeholders including the government, private sector, academia, donors, and the media."}]},{"head":"Workshop proceedings","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The workshop took place 21-22 June 2021 in the office of National Animal Health and Production Research Institute (NAHPRI) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia (for partners based in Phnom Penh), and partners elsewhere joined virtually on Zoom platform. The event was co-hosted by NAHPRI in collaboration with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"The objectives of the meeting were:"},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"• To share key findings and recommendations from the SFFF Cambodia project, • To discuss the policy implication of the project and project intervention scaling up opportunities, • And, to discuss with relevant stakeholders the food safety challenges and how to address them."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"The meeting brought together about 70 experts who are Cambodia's national institutes and central and provincial governments, civil society, academia, NAHPRI, Livestock Development for Community Livelihood (LDC) and ILRI. participated in the meeting."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"Day 1 started with an opening remark by Gbola Adesogan, director of the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Livestock Systems (LSIL) who called on the country's private sector and civil society organizations to partner the government in scaling up the productive work achieved in this pilot project across Cambodia. He added that his lab will be looking for ways to spread adoption of this project's interventions in other countries across the world."},{"index":6,"size":130,"text":"Following was the opening by Hull Davun, deputy director general of Cambodia's General Directorate of Animal Health and Production (GDAHP). He reminded the participants that food safety and food security are key priorities of the Cambodian government, particularly in light of the need for the country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Foodborne diseases are not only a public health problem but also a barrier to smallholders who wish to sell products in high-value domestic and export markets. He noted that though six governmental ministries are involved in managing food safety and food quality-Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery; Commerce; Industry and Handicrafts; Health; Tourism; and Economy and Finance-their overlapping mandates constrain their ability to work in harmony and to implement a food safety and quality control system in the country."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"The opening session was followed up by a talk by Arie Havelaar, University of Florida sharing risk ranking experience from the TARTARE project in Ethiopia, and the reporting session by the SFFF Cambodia project team with nine presentations updating the project key achievements from different components."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"Sothyra Tum, director, NAHPRI wrapped up the meeting then."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"Day 2 focused much on policy advocacy and how to scale up the project interventions after the project is over."},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"Rob Readnour, Mountain Group, a private partner of SFFF Cambodia gave a talk on innovation technology for food safety."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"Sothyra Tum gave a presentation on the intervention package at the traditional market."},{"index":12,"size":50,"text":"Delia Randolph presented on scaling opportunities. This evidence-based study was successfully implemented with all project objectives being fully achieved. There were also additional outputs on Japanese encephalitis and system effect modelling. Regulation and consumer demand will be the main drivers in scaling up the intervention, with the latter more so."},{"index":13,"size":51,"text":"Hung Nguyen-Viet talked about taskforceresearch to policy and practice. The multi-sector task force developed through stakeholder consultation will help to strengthen capacity in risk-based food safety assessment. The task force is expected to continue its work with support from ILRI to scale up beyond the six provinces involved in the project."},{"index":14,"size":28,"text":"A plenary session was dedicated to discussing the question 'What we know and what is missing?' about food safety in Cambodia. Here are some reflections from the provinces"},{"index":15,"size":42,"text":"• In Siem Reap, the practice of cleaning equipment and disinfecting cutting boards was adopted. There were some challenges in other provinces with adoption of recommended plastic covers for chopping boards as the meat sellers prefer to use marble and stainless-steel boards."},{"index":16,"size":92,"text":"• Training provided by the project team did not always lead to improved food safety practices. Some consumers, for example, prefer buy their meat from the roadside rather than from market stalls where vendors handle meat more hygienically. • The project's partners argued for the need to engage more local stakeholders to scale up the project's interventions. • The additional stakeholders include market managers, who can monitor vendor compliance with good food safety practices, as well as officials of relevant ministries, who can help to improve the infrastructure of these traditional markets."},{"index":17,"size":33,"text":"Following the meeting, the project team plan to scale up their interventions among local markets by disseminating a video and handbook showcasing 'Five key ways to retail safer pork in Cambodia's traditional markets'."},{"index":18,"size":38,"text":"In his closing remarks, Dieter Schillinger, deputy director general for biosciences at ILRI, said he expected that the meeting would help serve to reinforce food safety recommendations among Cambodia's several ministries and agencies concerned with ensuring food safety. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"f9316a58-bd27-4044-92a9-92d49eaf8207","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0bd5a850889c950958db7f2ec44b35c6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bd5a850889c950958db7f2ec44b35c6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5ebe41a5-ceb1-494d-8713-6d79bfc10b81/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Addressing rural youth livelihood development should not be misinformed or based on assumptions relating to unemployment, passiveness or restiveness of youth but on research evidence including stakeholders validation. Our research shows rural youth have diverse capacities and involvement based on available resources, parental influence and mentoring by social networks; they learn and actively choose and grow their livelihoods. Within our study area, identified rural youth livelihood are a mix of agricultural and gendered vocational/skilled works. Youths among the rural areas in Nigeria perceive agriculture as a crucial means of survival and food security and not so much as a main income generating business."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"Agriculture is however part of the imagined future of many youths and many have a passion for it but also many see the dominant manual labour and related drudgery as a major bottleneck to profitability. Youths are prepared to work hard but expect a corresponding reward. Hence, the call for inclusive, dynamic policies related to agriculture as well as off farm activities that create more opportunities in the rural areas and will make agricultural and off farm activities more lucrative. This demand for engagement of policies with rural social networks. The creation of accessible education with special attention for the disadvantaged position of girls related to their cultural assumed role of caretakers together with sustainable infrastructural facilities and basic amenities and generating strong linkages to all economic sectors. It should also involve levy reduction in relation to the movement of agricultural produce. These recommendations are not necessarily youth specific but concern the whole rural population. Aligning policies and interventions with existing opportunities within the rural space and with youth's active and entrepreneurial spirit can complement efforts on rural youth development and rural transformation in Nigeria in general and will largely contribute to reverse outmigration from rural areas to cities."}]},{"head":"Key Messages","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"• There is enough affection among rural youth for agriculture. Many rural young people have not turned their back on agriculture as a present livelihood option and imagined future. This research acknowledges that rural young people actively combine work in agriculture with other non-farm self-and/or wage employment and domestic work. While most engage in agriculture in one way or another, it is neither correct nor helpful to assume they are simply or even primarily 'farmers' or stuck in 'waithood'."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"• Reactions to our research results by some stakeholders assumed that youths are not doing enough to shape their livelihoods actively and they were depending on interventions or support mainly from the government."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"Our results however show the contrary: most youths in the study area have no experience with aids from the government or NGOs and are used to coping with the challenges of no or dilapidated infrastructure. Therefore, youth are obliged to practice and aspire a combination of very different activities for their upkeep. • Off farm income has been identified as a requisite to facilitate the necessary investment to perform agriculture in a more mechanised and profitable way, including less drudgery. o The culturally assumed domestic roles of young women impinges on their aspirations especially in acquiring higher levels of education and/or vocational skills in their communities. • Social networks within selected communities have been identified to mentor and assist youths' livelihoods as much as possible and to foster positive transformation."}]},{"head":"• Policies and targeted interventions should seek beyond","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"creating survival opportunities towards transformative livelihood options for the youth and seek to improving rural infrastructure and basic amenities that affect both youth and non-youth. This will also contribute to reverse outmigration from rural areas to cities."}]},{"head":"Research methodology","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Between  study areas validated the research results. As a result, the research is unique and has in itself been an active process of developing young people's capacity to participate, validate, lead and think about appropriate policies. The research heightened awareness and provided an opportunity for rural youths to articulate their views and make inputs to an informed and evidence-based policy brief."}]},{"head":"Researchers and youth involved","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Some key quantitative results of the study."}]},{"head":"Identifying challenges and harnessing existing opportunities and resources","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Young people's livelihoods reflect shifting patterns of engagement with the rural economy, combining unpaid caring and domestic work, with farming, non-farm wage employment and/or non-farm self-employment."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"Through their own hard work and with the support of their families and social networks, male and female youths set about to build their livelihoods and aspire that the gains from their livelihoods will not only meet their survival needs but extends to transformative gain that is recognised and impacts their communities. Our research results show that the majority of young people in rural areas continue to maintain engagement with agriculture. The idea that rural young people have turned their backs on agriculture en masse is clearly not supported by the evidence. There is widespread involvement of male youths in farming, while females feature more in supportive value chain roles. In the selected sites, it may be quite wrong to conceive of or label these young people simply as 'farmers' (or even 'primarily farmers'). While some young people admit a deep attachment to farming, for others farming is the obvious (and perhaps only) choice for food security, earn some income, and forge a potential path to raising a family. Currently, these livelihoods are been identified by youth as essential to raise income for investment in agricultural practices that are more mechanized making them more profitable with less drudgery involved."}]},{"head":"Policy Recommendation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Insight from the study conducted in Osun and Anambra States Nigeria, revealed the need for government recognition of youth's activeness in chosen livelihoods, agricultural and non-agricultural, and positively engage them by leveraging on identified local social networks within targeted interventions (infrastructure, inputs, and loans) to enhance these livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"• Explore how one or more social protection interventions could be used to mitigate the negative effects of shocks and hazards on young people's efforts and the rural population in general to build their livelihoods. Effective protection during the early stages of livelihood building could be transformative for many young people."}]},{"head":"Specific protection interventions may include:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"o Bringing down multiple taxation/levies or total exemption from levies, especially related to movement of agricultural produce. o Effective access to loans (exempt collateral). o Training on and facilitation of affordable agriculture-related and non-agricultural insurance schemes to reduce risks associated with both livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"being built under severe and persistent constraints due to infrastructural deprivation, taxation / levies of agricultural produce, limited access to productive resources and seasonal nature of economic activities; creating instability, diverse risks, limited financial reward, and lack of protection."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"In spite of these challenges, access to land within the rural space (selected study sites) remains the assuring asset partly stable for rural youth engagement in agriculture, while other opportunities like trainings on how to access soft loans from the government do not reach the intended youths. Therefore, while young people will continue to be involved in agriculture because there are few other options, there is uncertainty about the scope for obtaining decent livelihoods from agriculture with limited opportunities. Rural youth livelihoods are clearly enhanced through social networks of community leaders and influential persons who provide guidance and financial and inputs support."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"An approach to development driven and guided by young people's and adults' (who importantly mentor youths and often share the same needs) energy and skills to create positive change is key. Access to resources (infrastructure, inputs, training etc.) is crucial for addressing identified challenges. Beyond meeting basic needs that are mostly not youth specific, intervention must be linked to the potential to raise productivity and income in both agricultural and non-farm livelihoods. Non-farm income has • Go back to the rural development basicsincluding provision or renovation of better infrastructure, market access, rural services, and education to reduce the transaction cost of marketing for enhanced livelihoods."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"• Explicit attention should be given to facilitate schooling and training of girls given their serious restriction because of their assumed and \"unpaid\" roles of household managers and caretakers that becomes even more restrictive when reaching the age society assumes them to marry and have children. In Anambra, there is informal tutorage on business related to young men dropping out of school. This tutorage should be connected to formal education."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"• Emphasis on inclusive approaches, considering partnership or collaboration with identified 7 local social networks in addressing challenges facing young people. These challenges can be influenced by location (distance from the cities), and social factors like gender, age and ethnicity; and the local and national politics that can significantly influence who is able to access economic and other opportunities."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"• Involvement in non-farm income is seen as a perquisite to be able to perform agriculture in a more (mechanised) profitable way so mechanisation with units that fit existing farming and processing activities and initiatives and improve working conditions, should be encouraged."},{"index":8,"size":45,"text":"• The livelihoods of youth that necessarily combine many different activities together with their aspirations and activities outside of agriculture can provide an opportunity for interventions encouraging investment in agriculture by other domains and the development of value chains linking agriculture to these other domains."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Young researchers were part of the project research team, undertook roles as enumerators, facilitators and workshop coordinators and youths from the Youth representatives (squatting), Government officials, NRCRI-IITA Director representatives and community leaders at the stakeholder's research results' validation workshop event in Awka, March, 2021. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Oke and Idi-Amu communities) in Osun State, while the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) carried out the research in two sites (Umumbo and Igbariam communities) in Anambra State.Analysis of 416 interviews using life histories, photo voices, and eight focus group discussions with young people (aged between 15 and 29) gave findings validated by a short film and a workshop with stakeholders. IITA provided support to IDS UK in making a short film in the Osun State research locations featuring highlights of the research in 2020: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1aYJNlOwLsk. A stakeholder's validation workshop was organized in March 2021 to bring together relevant Nigerian government state and federal ministries to respond to the research findings and the key messages presented by the rural youth representatives from the study areas. The discussions and feedback obtained during this meeting and the research results informed the development of this policy brief. (Oba- Idi Amu/Igbo Umumbo (Oba-Idi Amu/IgboUmumbo  Kiti  Kiti  Oba Oke Igbariam Oba OkeIgbariam Osogbo  Awka OsogboAwka OSUN  ANAMBRA OSUNANAMBRA  "}],"sieverID":"c1dea2ea-d544-4e30-ad54-c11d91d26f35","abstract":"Youth representatives and researchers at the results validation workshop event in Awka, March, 2021."}

data/part_5/0cdac42bc2d76501bd23b87829661728.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cdac42bc2d76501bd23b87829661728","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2ca56f08-31e4-4573-a6b8-86bb7e307868/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Climate-Smart Small Ruminant Innovations (Smart Pack) Implemented by Universities Background The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), in partnership with ILRI and Ethiopian NARs, has been pilot-testing climate-smart integrated small ruminant value chain development innovations (Smart Pack) over many years in Ethiopia. Smart pack encompasses innovations such as sheep and goat genetics, improved feeding, gender capacity development and transformation, herd health package and marketing. Results of the evaluation of the implementation of the Smart Pack have revealed that such packages are technically feasible to implement and result in the improvement of the livelihood of the resource-poor. Therefore, they are ready to scale. Consequently, we worked with Ethiopian Universities to see if they could assist in the scaling of the innovations in nearby villages to meet their teaching, research and community service mandate. Our sustained effort has resulted in 16 Universities investing in establishing 42 breeding cooperatives involved in implementing Smart Pack. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) is a project that helps deliver a climate-smart African future driven by science and innovation in agriculture. It is led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT and supported by a grant from the International Development Association (IDA) of the World Bank. Discover more at aiccra.cgiar.org About AICCRA About AICCRA • Capacity building for each all actors • Capacity building for each all actors • Cooperative establishment • Cooperative establishment • Field implementation of Smart Pack • Field implementation of Smart Pack • Close monitoring of the implementation • Close monitoring of the implementation Output Output • 16 universities, 42 Villages (37 men-led and 5 women-led) and 4200 members • 16 universities, 42 Villages (37 men-led and 5 women-led) and 4200 members (21,000 small ruminant keepers) involved in Smart Pack implementation. (21,000 small ruminant keepers) involved in Smart Pack implementation. Evidence Evidence • Letters from the Universities are included below. • Letters from the Universities are included below.  "}],"sieverID":"8048f13f-247f-4f80-94ec-23f3dcb66b43","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0cdd5945b209cc7b0156014cc299f02e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cdd5945b209cc7b0156014cc299f02e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a1f5251a-3faf-4262-8ae0-f1ada84b5e90/retrieve"},"pageCount":50,"title":"Manuel pour les agents de santé animale communautaires : L'élevage de lapins et de cobayes pour la production de viande dans des petits exploitations en République démocratique du Congo Manuel pour les agents de santé animale communautaires : L'élevage de lapins et de cobayes pour la production de viande dans des petits exploitations en République démocratique du Congo","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Annexe 2 : Conseils pratiques pour l'alimentation de lapins et de cavités pour les petits éleveurs dans les parties méridionales du République Démocratique du Congo v L'élevage de lapins et de cobayes pour la production de viande dans des petits exploitations en République démocratique du Congo Avant-propos   Presque tous les pays du monde connaissent un niveau de malnutrition qui constitue un grave risque pour la santé publique. Entre 2 et 3 milliards de personnes sont sous-alimentées ; elles souffrent d'une certaine forme de malnutrition, sont en surpoids ou obèses ou souffrent d'une carence en micronutriments (minéraux, vitamines)."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Environ 2 millions de personnes, en particulier les femmes, sont touchées par une carence de fer et environ 1,6 million de personnes vivent dans des zones où la carence en iode est endémique. Environ 230 millions d'enfants souffrent de carence en vitamine A dans le monde."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Les visages de la mauvaise nutrition sont nombreux : des enfants qui vivent dans des conditions de famine présentant des corps squelettiques, aux adultes qui ont du mal à respirer à cause de l'obésité, aux nourrissons qui ne vivent pas pour leur premier anniversaire à cause d'une combinaison de régimes alimentaires inadéquats, de mauvaises pratiques d'alimentation des nourrissons et de l'exposition aux maladies infectieuses."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"En RD Congo, la malnutrition est trop bien connue dans les campagnes pour qu'on en discute. La nutrition protéique est presque partout déficiente, parfois même très aiguë dans certains endroits où la population est extrêmement élevée (les bidon villes) et ne peut laisser personne indifférent."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"Plusieurs donateurs et ONG s'intéressent à l'amélioration de la sécurité alimentaire et de la nutrition, mais malheureusement, il y a encore beaucoup à faire dans ce domaine car le problème persiste et appelle chacun à agir."},{"index":6,"size":94,"text":"C'est un défi qui exige une action efficace dans un certain nombre de secteurs et de domaines. L'un de ces secteurs est l'agriculture et l'élevage. Le projet Tuendelee Pamoja II a choisi d'accroître la variété nutritionnelle des ménages ciblés en associant tous les groupes sociaux à la production et à la consommation de produits agricoles biologiques enrichis, et le développement du petit bétail en tant que source de protéines animales afin d'améliorer la sécurité alimentaire et la qualité de la nutrition, ainsi que d'augmenter les revenus et d'améliorer la résilience des populations rurales pauvres."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"Le micro-élevage (les lapins et les cobayes) qui sont prolifiques et faciles à élever (tant en pratique que le coût de l'investissement) semble être une solution rapide et réalisable qui peut être utilisée pour pallier l'insuffisance de protéines dans les zones rurales pour diverses raisons :"},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"Procurer une alimentation équilibrée aux familles 2. Fournir des revenus (supplémentaires) aux familles par la vente des animaux 3."},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"Faciliter la production d'engrais (compost)"},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"Pourquoi la viande de lapin et de caviar est-elle bonne pour la nutrition et la santé des familles ?"},{"index":12,"size":15,"text":"Comment un agriculteur pauvre en ressources peut-il élever avec succès des lapins et des cobayes?"},{"index":13,"size":63,"text":"Ce manuel donnera une réponse à ces deux questions à travers un aperçu de l'importance de la consommation de viande de lapin et de cobaye. Il montrera la bonne conduite de l'élevage du lapin et des cobayes (logement, alimentation, élevage et gestion des maladies), et aussi l'abattage et la cuisson des lapins et des cobayes pour la consommation domestique dans les zones rurales."}]},{"head":"Sommaire exécutif","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Ce manuel se concentre sur l'élevage des lapins et des cobayes destinés à la production de viande et non comme animaux domestiques. Le contenu du manuel traite de questions fondamentales telles que"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Les espèces à choisir : considérations économiques et préférences personnelles,"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• Choix de la race et des animaux de reproduction,"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Logements pour lapins et cobayes,"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• Alimentation de lapins et de cobayes,"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"• Signes de malaises et maladies,"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• Présentation des maladies courantes, leur prévention et leur traitement,"},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"• La reproduction,"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• Abattage et cuisson pour la consommation domestique."},{"index":10,"size":36,"text":"L'accent est mis sur la prévention des maladies grâce à de bonnes procédures d'élevage et, en cas d'apparition d'une maladie, sur un traitement rentable et sur le contrôle de la propagation des maladies à d'autres animaux."},{"index":11,"size":34,"text":"Si les traitements deviennent nécessaires, le propriétaire et l'ACSA doivent décider si les coûts du traitement sont justifiables ou si l'abattage de l'animal et -si possible -la consommation domestique peuvent être un meilleur choix."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Les lapins et les cobayes -aussi nommés faussement « cochons d'Inde » 1 -font partie des espèces dites « non conventionnelle » à l'usage d'alimentation ou source de revenus en milieu rural dont le potentiel n'est pas encore totalement exploité classés par CIRAD comme mini-élevage . Ce groupe comprend également l'agoutis et les herbivores (souvent appelés à tort agoutis en Afrique de l'Ouest). Les lapins et les cobayes se nourrissent des herbes, fruits et graines. Ils constituent une part importante de l'alimentation humaine pour les populations pauvres 2 confrontées à des contraintes de terres dans de nombreux pays du monde, en particulier en Amérique du Sud. La principale distinction entre les lapins et les cobayes est que les lapins sont des mammifères alors que les cobayes sont des rongeurs (un groupe d'animaux auquel appartiennent également des rats)."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Les principales raisons pour lesquelles on garde des lapins et des cobayes comme source de viande pour la consommation domestique et la commercialisation sont les suivantes:"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"• Ils produisent de grandes quantités de viande délicieuse, savoureuse, saine et hautement nutritive contenant beaucoup de protéines (jusqu' à 21%), la viande est faible en calories, matières grasses, sodium (sel) et cholestérol."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Contrairement aux animaux plus gros, comme les porcs et les chèvres, les lapins et les cobayes peuvent être consommés en un seul repas, éliminant ainsi le besoin de réfrigération."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"• Lapins et cobayes se multiplient rapidement. Avec une alimentation et des soins excellents, un éleveur peut commencer avec 2 femelles et 1 mâle et produire 50 lapins ou plus en un an. Même quand il n'y a que du fourrage et de la nourriture locale, 3 à 4 femelles et 1 mâle peuvent fournir 2 kg de viande par semaine pour renforcer le régime alimentaire familial. D'autre côté, 50 à 150 femelles constituent une entreprise qui fournit des emplois et des revenus supplémentaires."},{"index":6,"size":91,"text":"• Les coûts d'alimentation sont faibles, car les lapins et les cobayes peuvent être nourris avec des herbes, des légumineuses, des légumes, des feuilles et des fruits, et occasionnellement quelques grains céréales. Lapins et cobayes ont des estomacs simples à une seule chambre et sont équipés de bactéries qui digèrent la cellulose des plantes (comme les chevaux ou les éléphants). Ils peuvent consommer de petites quantités de différentes qualités de fourrage tout au long de la journée et sont capables de tirer un maximum de nutriments même de petites quantités d'aliments."},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"• Les lapins et les cobayes produisent du fumier qui est un engrais de haute qualité contenant du phosphore et de l'azote destiné à la culture maraîchère. Comme le fumier est riche en protéines il peut également être séché et ajouté aux régimes alimentaires d'autres espèces (porcins, poules)."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"• Les lapins et les cobayes sont faciles à élever, même dans une petite exploitation ou un plot urbain. Les clapiers (logements) ne prennent pas beaucoup d'espace et sont faciles à entretenir (les lapins sont de plus propres, silencieux, les cobayes par contre un peu plus bruyants)."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"• Les peaux de lapin ont une valeur commerciale (par contre, les caries comme les peaux qu'ils sont souvent consommés) comme elles peuvent être transformées en chapeaux, pantoufles, oreillers, petits tapis, etc."},{"index":10,"size":147,"text":"La mise en oeuvre d'un nouveau projet de micro-élevage familial nécessitera d'examiner la préférence du bénéficiaire mais aussi de considérer certaines questions économiques. La réponse à la question de savoir quelles espèces il faut élever devrait être discutée avec le futur éleveur sur la base de la considération donnée ci-après. Une solution doit cependant être exclue, à savoir la solution consistant à garder ensemble des lapins et des cobayes. La Société Anglaise de la Protection des Animaux (RSPCA) recommande : « Nous déconseillons de garder les lapins et les cobayes ensembles car ils ont des besoins différents (par exemple, l'alimentation et l'espace). Les lapins peuvent intimider les cobayes, ce qui peut les stresser s'ils ne peuvent pas s'enfuir. L'agent pathogène -une bactérie appelée Bordetella bronchiseptica -trouvé chez les lapins sans provoquer des symptômes cliniques est la cause la plus commune de maladie respiratoire chez les cobayes »."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"2. Préparation à l'élevage de lapins ou de cobayes pour la production de viande "}]},{"head":"Reproduction","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Les lapins peuvent produire -à travers de 7 portées par an et 6 à 8 kits par portée -jusqu' à 56 petits par an. Ils sont sevrés après 3 à 4 mois, avec un poids de 2,0 à 2,5 kg représentant environ 1 à 1,25 de viande de qualité (le pourcentage de ce qui est réellement consommé est plus haut et dépend des coutumes locales, par. Ex. si la peau est consommée). Ainsi, une femelle peut produire jusqu' à 70 kg de viande de qualité par an."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Les cobayes produisent des portées de 1 à 7 petits (2 petits par portée sont fréquents). Un petit cobaye gagnera un poids entre 0.7 et 1kg après environ 3 à 5 mois dans la moities est de la viande de qualité (0,35 à 0,5 kg). Les carcasses de cobayes ont beaucoup de petits os, et la viande de qualité est en grande partie dans la tête. Le temps total entre la saillie et l'abattage est d'environ 6 mois (grossesse de 2 mois + 4 mois pour atteindre le poids d'abattage). Les cobayes se reproduiront 4 à 5 fois par an."}]},{"head":"Résumé :","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Une lapine peut avoir de 5 à 7 portées, avec un total de 30 à 56 kits par an, produisant jusqu' à 70 kg de viande par an."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Une femelle de cobaye peut avoir 4 à 5 portées par an avec un total de moins de 20 petits par an ne produisant pas plus de 10 kg de viande."}]},{"head":"Besoins en logements","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Les cobayes nécessitent moins de 0,1 m 2 par adulte. Les lapins ont besoin d'environ 0,3 m 2 par adulte. Sur environ 1 m 2 , on peut garder 3 lapins (1 mâle et 2 lapines). Alors que dans ce même espace, 10 cobayes (9 femelles, 1 mâle) peuvent être gardées."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Chaque lapin a besoin de son propre mangeoire, de son abreuvoir et de son propre place pour coucher. D'autre part, plusieurs cobayes peuvent partager la même mangeoire et le même abreuvoir. Cela signifie que les frais de démarrage de l'élevage des lapins sont beaucoup plus élevés que ceux des cobayes."},{"index":3,"size":183,"text":"Les deux espèces sont très sensibles au soleil et aux températures chaudes dépassant les 29 degrés mais moins sensible au froid. Les cobayes souffrent plus que les lapins, car ils ont une couche de graisse sous-cutanée étonnamment épaisse. Les températures élevées ont un effet négatif sur la fertilité des mâles, pour cela l'accouplement doit avoir lieux dans les heures fraiches, matin et soir Les cages de lapin doivent également être nettoyées beaucoup plus souvent, car leur urine contient de l'ammoniac et peut entraîner des problèmes respiratoires (l'utilisation des grillages permettant un auto-nettoyage est recommandée)). Cependant, les cobayes peuvent avoir des problèmes de pieds si la litière n'est pas nettoyée ou rechargée régulièrement. Les cobayes ne peuvent pas sauter en hauteur ou vraiment grimper, donc s'ils sont en pâturage libre des clôtures ou des murs d'une hauteur 20 cm suffissent pour les contenir. Un grillage de protection contre les prédateurs peut être nécessaire. Les lapins sautent, donc les clôtures doivent être plus hauts (environ 1,20 m). De plus, les lapins creusent des terriers, et les côtés des enclos doivent être enfouis profondément sous terre."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Les couvercles ou couvertures en treillis métallique doivent être solidement fixés sur les côtés."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Les cobayes sont des animaux de troupeau. Ils n'ont besoin que de 0,1 m 2 d'espace à l'âge adulte et ils préfèrent être groupés."},{"index":6,"size":91,"text":"Valeur nutritive de la viande La viande de lapins et de cobayes est considérée comme saine prévenant l'hypertension, les maladies cardiaques, protégeant contre les accidents vasculaires cérébraux, bonne pour la formation des os et des dents. De plus, les lapins et les cobayes qui n'ont pas de foin ou de fourrage frais dans leur alimentation ont tendance à mâcher plus de fourrure (le leur mais aussi d'autres animaux dans la cage), ce qui peut entraîner la formation des trichobezoars, c'est-à-dire des masses de poils qui sont piégées dans le tube digestif."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Le foin encourage également lapins ou cobayes à boire plus d'eau, ce qui aide à prévenir la formation de calculs dans les voies urinaires. En outre, un régime de foin décourage la suralimentation (les animaux sont gourmands), et aide également à maintenir un équilibre sain des bactéries intestinales qui peuvent prévenir la constipation et l'entérite."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"Le foin fournit du fourrage (matériel végétal, principalement des feuilles et des tiges) qui nécessite la mastication et le broyage, ce qui empêche les dents de pousser trop 4 ."},{"index":9,"size":37,"text":"Les lapins ont l'estomac très sensible, ils ont donc besoin d'une meilleure alimentation et en particulier du foin. Les lapins sont prédisposés à l'obésité (plus que les cobayes) et la reproduction diminue chez les animaux en surpoids."},{"index":10,"size":59,"text":"Les cobayes ne peuvent pas produire leur propre vitamine C (comme les humains). Il est donc important de donner les fruits et légumes riches en vitamine C, par exemple les tomates, les oranges, les pois verts, la papaye ou le chou (très riche en vitamine C, mais peut être toxique si l'apport est trop élevé) deux fois par semaine."},{"index":11,"size":29,"text":"Lapins et cobayes peuvent être facilement pâturé durant la journée (attention aux prédateurs et au fait que les lapins creusent des trous et peuvent échapper). Cela prévient également l'obésité."}]},{"head":"Avantages supplémentaires","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Les lapins et les cobayes produisent du fumier qui peut remplacer les engrais chimiques."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"La fourrure des lapins peut être tannée et traitée. C'est également possible pour les peaux de cobaye, mais celles-ci sont souvent consommées."}]},{"head":"Coûts de démarrage","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Les coûts de démarrage se composent des éléments suivants "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Les lapins sont plus efficaces sur le plan de la production (la progéniture, le rendement en viande, la qualité de la viande et la valeur ajoutée de la peau)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Les coûts de démarrage pour un élevage des lapins sont plus élevés (prix des reproducteurs, hébergement, alimentation). Les cobayes sont moins exigeants dans alimentation Les cobayes sont plus résistants aux maladies."}]},{"head":"Mise en place d'une production de lapins","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Il n'y a que quelques règles simples à suivre pour élever des lapins avec succès"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Commencez par un cheptel reproducteur en bonne santé ;"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Construire un bon clapier ;"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Fournir de bons soins aux animaux (alimentation, abreuvement, prévention des maladies)."}]},{"head":"Sélection des reproducteurs","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Élever des lapins avec succès exige de commencer par des lapins en bonne santé. Pour vous assurer de choisir un lapin en bonne santé, il est impératif de répondre OUI aux six questions suivantes avant de ramener les lapins à la maison:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"1. L'animal est-il actif et alerte?"}]},{"head":"2.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Ses yeux sont-ils clairs et brillants?"}]},{"head":"3.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Son nez est propre, sans écoulements?"}]},{"head":"4.","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Ses oreilles sont-elles propres et sèches à l'intérieur?"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"5. Sa fourrure est-elle lisse et propre?"}]},{"head":"6.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Ses pieds sont-ils secs et exempts de plaies?"},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Si le lapin correspond à ces critères, vous devez aussi vérifier les portées d'où vient le lapin. Choisissez le lapin qui provient de grandes portées et de femelles qui ont eu de bonnes et grandes portées. Ne choisissez pas de frères et soeurs pour l'élevage, ils ne produiront pas de jeunes en bonne santé. N'achetez que des jeunes animaux."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Il y'a des races différentes. Commencez par des lapins déjà adaptés à l'environnement. L'élevage croisé avec des races exotiques nécessite une bonne expérience, de l'hygiène et une meilleure alimentation."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Les races de taille moyenne sont la meilleure option pour commencer."}]},{"head":"Construisez un bon clapier/une bonne cage","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Les lapins sont très sensibles à la pluie, au vent et au soleil. En construisant un logement pour vos lapins, ces trois facteurs sont à garder à l'esprit pour construire un logement qui protège bien le lapin."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Indépendamment de la taille ou de la conception un bon logement devrait assurer que :"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• L'intérieur du logement est bien éclairé ;"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Le clapier protège les animaux contre la pluie et le vent ;"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Le logement est tranquille et sûr (protège contres chien, chats et rats) ;"},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"• Le sol est autonettoyant (grillage) ou facile à nettoyer et désinfecter ;"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• La cage possède un bon toit qui ne fuit pas ;"},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"• Cage pour un mâle : cette cage est aussi utilisée pour l'accouplement. Les éleveurs choisissent généralement la même dimension pour toutes les cages, ce qui assure une plus grande flexibilité lors de l'augmentation du nombre de parents."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"Cages d'engraissement : vous pouvez garder environ 10 lapereaux dans une cage standard."}]},{"head":"Matériaux de construction de clapier:","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"De simples cages à lapins peuvent être construites de différentes façons, y compris:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"• Planches de bois,"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Fil métallique de reliure"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• Bambou fendu,"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"• Nervures de la raphia,"},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"• Bâtons lisses,"},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"• Filet métallique,"},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"• Treillis métallique de 1 cm Fond en lattes de bambou En l'absence de grillage, l'éleveur peut rendre le fond de la cage accessible avec les matériaux locaux, par exemple avec du bambou fendu ou, si nécessaire, avec des lattes de bois dur. Mais dans ce cas, la désinfection n'est pas facile et l'hygiène est moins assurée. L'espace entre deux lames en bois dur ou en bambou est de 1,1 à 1,5 cm."}]},{"head":"Prendre soin des lapins","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Lorsque les logements sont prêts et la sélection des lapins (sains) est terminée, l'élevage proprement dit de lapins peut commencer. Dans les paragraphes suivants, l'alimentation et l'abreuvement, les maladies, leur prévention et leur traitement sont présentés"}]},{"head":"Alimentation et abreuvement","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Le nombre de repas pris est estimé entre 20 à 30 fois par jour et surtout la nuit. La quantité moyenne de nourriture consommée par jour (aliments distribués à volonté) est:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• 150 à 350 g par lapin en fonction de son stade physiologique,"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• 100 à 120 g par lapin pour l'engraissement."},{"index":4,"size":91,"text":"Le lapin est un gros consommateur d'eau potable, en particulier les lapins en lactation et les lapins en croissance. La consommation d'une femelle allaitante est de presque 1 litre par jour. Celle d'une femelle avec ses petits est de 1,5 à 2 litres par jour. L'eau doit toujours être propre. • On trouve des protéines dans les verdures mais aussi dans le maïs, les arachides, les graines de coton et le soja. Ces graines sont habituellement moulues et ajoutées à la farine (il faut légèrement humidifier les farines) de provende ;"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Énergie dérive su son de riz ou des féculentes (farine de tubercules) ;"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Les fibres sont dans les verdures (herbes),"},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"• Les vitamines (A, D et E) nécessaires aux lapins sont fournies par des plantes vertes fraîchement coupées, certaines cultures de racines et du foin de haute qualité ;"},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"• Les minéraux sont présents dans toutes les plantes vertes sèches et fraîches."},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"Les résidus de récolte, les surplus alimentaires de la ferme, les sous-produits agricoles et les déchets de cuisine peuvent également servir à nourrir le lapin."},{"index":10,"size":69,"text":"Le lapin pratique la coprophagie ou pseudo-rumination. Il s'agit de la réingestion des excréments, autrement dit de la recirculation d'une partie de la nourriture à travers le corps. Pendant la nuit, le lapin produit des crottes molles enveloppées dans une fine membrane. Elles ne sont pas comme les petites « billes » sèches bien connues Le lapin mange ses crottes molles, mais ne touche pas à ses crottes sèches."}]},{"head":"Reproduction","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Les lapines n'ont pas de cycles de chaleur, elles ovulent lorsqu'elles sont en contact avec un mâle pour la reproduction. La gestation dure 30 à 32 jours. Les lapines ont -en moyenne -6 à 8 lapereaux (et même plus). Les lapines peuvent être accouplées au bout de six mois, et pour les mâles, on doit attendre l'âge de 6 à 7 mois. Avec jusqu' à 7 portées par an et 6 à 8 petits par portée, une femelle peut produire jusqu' à 56 jeunes par an pour la consommation ou la vente."}]},{"head":"Comment accoupler un lapin","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"L'accouplement a toujours lieu dans la cage du mâle. Avant de transférer la femelle, il est nécessaire de vérifier sa santé et d'observer la vulve pour savoir si elle est en chaleur et prête à accepter le mâle. La lapine en chaleur a une vulve rose à rouge foncé. Par contre, toute vulve rose pâle, pourpre ou blanche indique qu'elle ne sera pas réceptive (prêt à s'accoupler)."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Lorsque vous accouplez des lapins, assurez-vous que le couple n'est pas dérangé par la présence des personnes ou des animaux qui peuvent effrayer les lapins et les empêcher de s'accoupler. Palpez la biche 14 jours après l'accouplement pour vous assurer qu'elle est enceinte. De 4 à 5 jours avant la date prévue de la mise-bas une petite boîte -le nid -est placée dans la cage de la femelle. La lapine accouchera dans la boîte."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"Age pour l'accouplement L'âge de la biche au premier accouplement est d'environ 6 mois et de 7 mois pour le mâle au premier accouplement. Le moment de la reproduction d'une lapine dépend de la taille de la portée (plus la dernière portée est grande, plus l'intervalle entre la mise bas et le prochain accouplement doit être long, plus la durée de la période de repos doit être longue, une moyenne raisonnable est de 20 jours) et de la qualité des aliments distribués. Si l'alimentation des lapins se compose essentiellement de fourrage vert auquel aucun complément n'est ajouté, l'éleveur doit attendre que les petits soient sevrés avant de procéder à la reproduction du lapin (environ 45 à 50 jours après la mise bas)."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Par contre, si l'éleveur utilise un aliment composé équilibré, l'intervalle entre les reproductions peut être de 10 à 15 jours."}]},{"head":"Comment tenir le lapin pour déterminer son sexe La mâle La femelle","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Exemples de cycles de production des lapins (Nombre de jours)"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Système semi-intensif : l'accouplement a lieu 10 jours après la mise-bas Système extensif : la saillie a lieu 5 jours après le sevrage"}]},{"head":"Maladies du lapin Prévention des maladies du lapin","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Il est préférable de prévenir les maladies plutôt que de les traiter, ce qui est souvent difficile. Suivre ces règles simples peut faire beaucoup pour garder les lapins à l'abri de la maladie:"},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"• Gardez la cage, les boites de nid, les abreuvoirs d'eau et les mangeoires propres : Les planchers des cages et les mangeoires sont nettoyés chaque matin avec de l'eau et du savon."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Donnez aux lapins des aliments frais à manger. Retirez les aliments périmés de la cage et des mangeoires,"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Protéger les lapins du soleil intense, de la pluie et des courants d'air."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• Éloigner les chiens méchants ;"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"• Dans la mesure du possible, utilisez un grillage métallique pour les planchers de la cage parce que avec le grillage le system devient autonettoyant,"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• Enlevez immédiatement les lapins malades des autres lapins. "}]},{"head":"Maladies communes du lapin","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Comment administrer les médicaments","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Administration par voie orale : Utilisez une seringue, vous pouvez prolonger la seringue avec un petit tuyau en caoutchouc, par exemple, comme ceux qui ont utilisé pour le carburateur dans les motocyclettes pour s'assurer que le médicament reste dans la bouche."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Injections : voir images ci-après "}]},{"head":"Tenir des registres","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Des modèles pour l'enregistrement des données relatives à la production pour les lapins et cobayes sont présentés en Chapitre 5."}]},{"head":"Production des cobayes 4.1 Sélection des reproducteurs","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Du point de vue de la production de cobayes pour la viande, les races à poil long nécessitant un soin particulier doivent être évitées. Les grands animaux jeunes et en bonne santé devraient être sélectionnés pour commencer pour la reproduction. La couleur des cobayes sauvages est brune, mais il y a aussi des cobayes bi-et tri-colorées avec des poils courts ou longs. Les photos de ce manuel montrent différentes races."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Pour les critères de sélection, voir également la section «Choix du cheptel reproducteur pour la production de lapins»."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Si vous achetez de nouveaux animaux, n'oubliez pas de les séparer de votre stock existant. Cette quarantaine est nécessaire pour s'assurer que les nouveaux animaux ne transmettront pas de maladies à votre stock existant."}]},{"head":"Construisez une bonne cage","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Les conditions suivantes doivent être remplies lors du choix du lieu de construction de la clavette:"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Pas trop chaud (exposé �� la lumière directe du soleil)"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Pas de vent violent"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Non exposé à la pluie,"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"• Pas d'humidité."},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"La huche doit être à proximité de la maison ou même dans la maison si un endroit bien ventilé et suffisamment éclairé peut être trouvé. La niche doit être bien protégée contre les chiens et les chats car les cobayes sont très craintives."}]},{"head":"Matériaux de construction d'une cage","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Les cobayes ne grimpent pas, et leurs cages n'ont donc pas besoin d'être hautes. Une profondeur de cage de 36 à 55 cm est recommandée. Une cage peu profonde permet d'utiliser des charnières permettant de soulever le toit pour les contrôles réguliers et le nettoyage. Les cobayes doivent être séparées selon le sexe et l'âge. Si deux ou plusieurs mâles sont logés avec une ou plusieurs femelles, ils peuvent se battre et un mâle peut être blessé. Par conséquent, un seul mâle à la fois devrait être enfermé avec des femelles à accoupler. Cependant, les males dans l'absence des femelles peuvent être logés ensemble. D'autres types de cages peuvent loger les jeunes mâles, les jeunes femelles, les femelles enceintes, les femelles et leurs petits. La surface au sol minimale par animal est de 700 cm 2 ."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Les cobayes aiment dormir sur un sol solide. Une petite boîte amovible en bois est recommandée. Les femelles avec leurs petits chercheront refuge à l'intérieur de la boîte tandis que les animaux plus grands dormiront à l'étage supérieur."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Les cobayes sont sensibles aux courants d'air. Certains côtés ou le dos et les côtés peuvent être en bois massif,"}]},{"head":"Âge de reproduction","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"La femelle peut avoir le premier oestrus dès l'âge de 5 semaines, mais pour éviter les complications il est préférable d'attendre que la femelle atteigne l'âge de 5 mois avec un poids d'environ 700g. Les mâles ne devraient pas être utilisés pour l'accouplement avant l'âge de 6 mois, bien qu'ils deviennent sexuellement matures à environ 6 semaines."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Tous les 15 à 20 jours, la femelle sera de nouveau en chaleur"}]},{"head":"Période de gestation","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Environ 68 jours"}]},{"head":"Le sevrage et l'engraissement des jeunes cobayes","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Les femelles ne sont pas des mères attentives, heureusement, les jeunes animaux sont très précoces : ils marchent juste après la naissance, ont les yeux ouverts et ont des dents. Le sevrage peut être fait après 3 semaines. En raison de la maturité sexuelle précoce, les jeunes mâles et femelles doivent être gardés séparément lorsqu'ils sont retirés de la femelle."}]},{"head":"Mâle","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Une paire de mamelons"}]},{"head":"Difficultés d'élevage","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"La stérilité chez les femelles est fréquente, surtout avec l'âge. Si les femelles accouplées ne produisent pas dans les deux mois après avoir passé un mois avec des mâles, elles devraient être remplacées. Les femelles devraient être remplacées après un an et demi, non seulement pour éviter la stérilité mais aussi pour permettre une amélioration par sélection. Les mâles peuvent aussi être stériles. Elles doivent être remplacées lorsqu'elles ne sont pas sexuellement actives, ou lorsqu'on soupçonne qu'elles sont stériles."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Pour éviter la consanguinité, il est nécessaire d'enlever les petits de leurs parents et de séparer les jeunes mâles et femelles avant l'âge de reproduction. Il est également recommandé d'échanger des mâles avec d'autres éleveurs."}]},{"head":"Maladies des cobayes","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Les cobayes sont sensibles à un certain nombre de médicaments couramment utilisés (même pour les lapins). Une liste des médicaments recommandés figure à l'annexe A 5 ."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"5. Cette liste ne devrait être communiquée qu'au personnel responsable de la santé animale, y compris l'ACSA."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Si votre cobaye présente une perte de poils et démange ou se gratte, vérifiez s'il y a des poux ou des acariens. Les poux et leurs oeufs sont habituellement observés dans les zones chauves derrière les oreilles du cobaye. Les cobayes peuvent se contaminer entre eux, mais ils peuvent aussi les obtenir à partir de la nourriture et de la litière sale. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 'élevage de lapins ou de cobayes pour la production de viande 2.1 Considérations économiques et autres2.2 Avantages et inconvénients des deux "},{"text":" Une bonne aération. Testez le débit d'air avec une bougie, à 25 0 C le débit d'air doit être compris entre 0,5 et 0,6 m/ seconde, entre 32 et 35 0 C 1m/s. Notez que chaque lapin adulte doit avoir sa propre cage. C'est très important. Les tailles varient en fonction de l'utilisation : cage d'élevage pour les dots, cages pour les mâles. Les lapins destinés à l'abattage peuvent être gardés ensemble dans une cage. Il faut toutefois un nombre suffisant de réservoirs d'eau pour chaque lapin La cage de maternité avec un nid pour le lapin de race moyenne doit mesurer environ 75 cm de large, 1 m de profondeur et 60 cm de haut (taille standard suggérée). "},{"text":" Vignes ligneuses ou une combinaison de celles-ci Modèles de construction Clapier avec boite de nid Cages faites par les bénéficiaires des lapins En général, tous les matériaux sont bons pour la construction d'une cage. Mais ce qui importe le plus, c'est la fabrication du fond de la cage. Pour plus de commodité et indépendamment des matériaux choisir, le plancher de la cage devrait être autonettoyant pour prévenir les maladies et facile à désinfecter. En effet, un sol autonettoyant peut être réalisé clouant du treillis métallique carré de 1 cm diamètre dans le cadre en bois. Le fumier et l'urine de lapins passent par les trous du fil et tombent au sol. L'intérieur de la cage reste ensuite propre, sec et hygiénique. "},{"text":" Pour assurer leurs leur bonne santé et leur croissance, les lapins ont besoins des aliments fournissant d'énergie, de protéines, vitamines, minéraux et fibres. Tous ces nutriments se trouvent dans les feuilles des plantes et d'autres aliments faciles à trouver.Bouteille d'eau comme abreuvoirPot en terre cuite comme abreuvoir Mangeoire accroché à la porte Exemple d'aliments qui peuvent être consommés par le lapin et qui fournissent les nutriments mentionnés ci-dessus: "},{"text":" Pot en terre cuite comme nid Ne tenez jamais des lapins de la manière ci-dessus Vérification de la gestation par palpation Nid en boîte Si une femelle doit accepter un mâle, cela se fait dans les 3 à 4 minutes suivant l'introduction de la femelle dans la cage du mâle. Après cette période, il est inutile d'insister. La lapine peut être remise avec le mâle environ 5 heures après le premier accouplement. L'accouplement doit avoir lieu le matin ou le soir, quand les températures ne sont pas trop hautes. L'accouplement peut avoir lieu deux fois pour assurer une stimulation adéquate. Dès que la lapine a été accouplée, elle est remise dans sa cage. Conservez les registres de l'accouplement (voir ci-après « La tenue des registres »). "},{"text":"3. 6 Abattage d'un lapinLes lapins sont prêts à être abattus à l'âge de 4 mois et/ou avec un poids de 2,0 à 2,5 kg (le meilleur poids d'abattage est lorsque l'animal a atteint environ 60 % du poids des parents, par exemple si les parents ont un poids de 3,5 kg, le poids d'abattage des jeunes animaux devrait être d'environ 2 kg). Dans les exploitations de petits exploitants agricoles extensives où l'alimentation est médiocre, l'âge d'abattage est plus tardif (entre 4 et 6 mois).1.Méthode 1 : Frappez le lapin avec une matraque derrière l'oreille 2. Méthode 2 : Tordre le cou en plaçant le pouce derrière l'oreille 3. Saignement : Le lapin est pendu la tête en bas. Coupez immédiatement la gorge avec un couteau tranchant morcelé La viande est ensuite bouillie pour éviter/détruire tout (Photos de»Elevage du lapin en milieu tropical») "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Les lapins et les cobayes sont des herbivores, c'est-à-dire qu'ils tirent leurs éléments nutritifs du matériel végétal. Des stratégies d'alimentation et d'abreuvement correctes sont nécessaires pour s'assurer qu'elles sont maintenues dans un état de santé optimal à tout moment. Les animaux devraient avoir accès en tout temps à de l'eau propre et fraîche. Cependant, plusieurs aliments sont riches en eau et peuvent diminuer la quantité d'eau supplémentaire nécessaire. Le climat (températures) et la lactation peuvent également influencer le volume d'eau nécessaire par animal.  20,8 10,2 795 20,810,2795 Cobayes + 20 8 650 Cobayes+ 208650 Poulet (de chair, avec abats) 20 11 810 Poulet (de chair, avec abats)2011810 Veau (moyennement gras) 19,1 12 840 Veau (moyennement gras)19,112840 Agneau (moyennement gras) 15,7 27,7 1420 Agneau (moyennement gras)15,727,71420 Boeuf (gras) 16,3 28 1440 Boeuf (gras)16,3281440 Porc (moyennement gras) 11,9 45 2050 Porc (moyennement gras)11,9452050  "},{"text":" Les cobayes sont sensibles aux courants d'air froid et peuvent facilement développer une infection des voies respiratoires supérieures ou, pire encore, une pneumonie. Les lapins, les chiens et les chats peuvent contaminer les cobayes avec un agent pathogène contre lequel ils sont résistants mais qui peut être mortel pour les cobayes. Par conséquent, ne gardez pas les lapins et les cobayes ensemble. Yeux croûtés, yeux larmoyants, yeux troubles, yeux saillants, yeux ulcéreux. Ces symptômes sont souvent des signes de maladies réelles telles que les maladies respiratoires, les blessures, les cataractes, les problèmes dentaires, les abcès, les allergies.Le tableau ci-après fournit également une liste des herbes trouvées dans les champs et sur les berges des rivières utilisées par les éleveurs de lapins et de cobayes dans le monde entier. La plupart d'entre eux sont susceptibles d'exister aussi en République Démocratique du Congo.Attention aux aflatoxines dans le tourteaux, les lapins mangent l'arachide, les cobayes n'aiment pas les grains, les feuilles sont de bons fourrages verts, le foin a une teneur en protéines plus faible. Teneur élevée en protéines, contient de la mimosine donc l'apport alimentaire maximum devrait être limité à 60% de la ration, un bon complément au son de maïs.Mucuna (pois msacate) la farine de graines et les feuilles peuvent être données, nutritionnellement semblable à la farine de soja.Moringa oleiferaHaute teneur en protéines, riche en calcium, le moringa est dit avoir un certain effet coccidiostatique, ne devrait pas dépasser 50% de la ration totale Panicum maximum (herbe de guinée) Faible teneur en protéines, mais bonne fibre brute et de l'énergie, la paille est une bonne litière, l'alimentation ad libitum Pennisetum (herbe à éléphant), Napier Bana , Kikuyu Mauvais rendement en raison de la faible teneur en protéines, source de fibres brutes. La paille est une bonne litière mais bon fourrage grossier quand on donne des aliments concentrés ou des farines Canne à sucre et mélasse Bonne nourriture pour lapins, mais faible en protéines, feuilles séchées, feuilles vertes et canne à sucre hachée peuvent être nourris. Stylosanthes (Stylo) Bon fourrage vert, pousse toute l'année (pas plus de 50%)Trypsacum laxum (herbe de Guatemala) Faible teneur en protéines, peut être nourri librement mais doit être complété par de la farine de poisson ou de soja Riche en énergie, pauvre en protéines, doit être complétée, les feuilles peuvent être utilisées comme fourrage vert, tiges hachées. Bonne source de vitamine C mais peut causer de l'indigestion et des coliques, tiges doivent être hachées. Problèmes digestifs Aliment Aliment Aliment Nom Image  Lapins Lapins Lapins Cobayes Cobayes Cobayes Observations Problèmes digestifs Aliment Aliment Aliment Nom ImageLapins Lapins LapinsCobayes Cobayes Cobayes Observations Constipation Signes Causes Traitement Quantités (en pourcent des régimes alimentaire quotidiens) Quantités (en pourcent des régimes alimentaire quotidiens) Quantités (en pourcent des régimes alimentaire quotidiens) et ConstipationSignesCausesTraitement Quantités (en pourcent des régimes alimentaire quotidiens) Quantités (en pourcent des régimes alimentaire quotidiens) Quantités (en pourcent des régimes alimentaire quotidiens) et Tagetes minuta La cobaye ne défèque Pas assez d'eau, pas assez de fibres Offrir aux légumes une haute teneur en eau et et avertissements et avertissements avertissements Plante médicinale utilisée Tagetes minutaLa cobaye ne défèquePas assez d'eau, pas assez de fibresOffrir aux légumes une haute teneur en eau et et avertissements et avertissements avertissements Plante médicinale utilisée Traitements Poux, acariens Diarrhée Arachides et tourteau d'arachides, les feuilles fraiches et Teigne pas (âge brut) Ne pas manger, dépressif, Les cobayes ont un système Carences vitaminiques un accès illimité à l'eau. gastro-intestinal sensible (comme Si les causes provoquées par l'alimentation changent le régime alimentaire, fournir plus sèches (foin) Leucaena leucocephala Farine de poisson, de viande (oeillets d'Inde) comme anthelminthique, Source de protéines dans les peut être utilisé comme aliments concentrés pour animaux insectifuge. Problèmes hormonaux Traitement local avec un produit antiparasitaire (shampooing à la pyréthrine) Injection d'Ivermectine Onguent antifongique comme le clotrimazole (présent dans les pharmacies locales) Améliorer l'alimentation, aliments équilibrés Disparaîtront généralement après la mise bas Pododermite Causes déshydratation, basse température corporelle les lapins). La diarrhée est causée par l'alimentation d'un trop grand nombre de légumes verts, par la suralimentation, les changements de régime alimentaire, mais aussi par des infections bactériennes, la coccidiose et les vers gastro-intestinaux. de fourrage grossier, libre accès à l'eau propre (bouillie) à laquelle du sel est ajouté. Si elle est causée par des vers : vermifuger avec un vermifuge approprié (ivermectine, albendazole, etc.). N'utilisez pas d'amprolium pour traiter la coccidiose, utilisez plutôt de la sulfadimidine. Maladies respiratoires Tourteau de grains de coton Bonne source de protéine Racines , tubercules et leur feuillage Feuilles aromatiques des arbres (Eucalyptus) L'eucalyptus en plus grande quantité est toxique Cobayes n'aiment pas des feuilles à forte odeur Fraîches ou séchées comme du foin. A Annexe 2 : Conseils pratiques pour Epluchures : avec 5.2% de protéine et 10% de fibre brute Pueraria spp Bon fourrage vert pendant toute l'année Eau Si aucun fourrage frais n'est fourni République Démocratique du Congo Farine de manioc, épluchures de manioc, feuillage de manioc Farines : jusqu'à 45% de la ration des dents Supplémentation avec protéines et fibre brute intestinales Branches des arbres et arbustes Oui, pour éviter la malocclusion Moins appréciées petits éleveurs dans les parties méridionales du être bouillies. Ne donnez pas des pommes de terres vertes ou en Charbon végétale (petits morceaux de charbon) oui Oui pour combattre des infections germination Minéraux (sel mélangé avec la farine d'os) oui oui l'alimentation de lapins et de cavités pour les Pommes de terres, et leur épluchure Jacinthe d'eau (existe dans les eaux de la RDC) Tiges, bulbes et les racines Toute la plante est toxique combiner à d'autres Les épluchures des pommes de terre sont des résidus de cuisine, mais peuvent être utiliser comme aliment, les épluchures doivent peuvent être mangés variétés de foin Traitements Poux, acariens Diarrhée Arachides et tourteau d'arachides, les feuilles fraiches et Teigne pas (âge brut) Ne pas manger, dépressif, Les cobayes ont un système Carences vitaminiques un accès illimité à l'eau. gastro-intestinal sensible (comme Si les causes provoquées par l'alimentation changent le régime alimentaire, fournir plus sèches (foin) Leucaena leucocephala Farine de poisson, de viande (oeillets d'Inde) comme anthelminthique, Source de protéines dans les peut être utilisé comme aliments concentrés pour animaux insectifuge. Problèmes hormonaux Traitement local avec un produit antiparasitaire (shampooing à la pyréthrine) Injection d'Ivermectine Onguent antifongique comme le clotrimazole (présent dans les pharmacies locales) Améliorer l'alimentation, aliments équilibrés Disparaîtront généralement après la mise bas Pododermite Causes déshydratation, basse température corporelle les lapins). La diarrhée est causée par l'alimentation d'un trop grand nombre de légumes verts, par la suralimentation, les changements de régime alimentaire, mais aussi par des infections bactériennes, la coccidiose et les vers gastro-intestinaux. de fourrage grossier, libre accès à l'eau propre (bouillie) à laquelle du sel est ajouté. Si elle est causée par des vers : vermifuger avec un vermifuge approprié (ivermectine, albendazole, etc.). N'utilisez pas d'amprolium pour traiter la coccidiose, utilisez plutôt de la sulfadimidine. Maladies respiratoires Tourteau de grains de coton Bonne source de protéine Racines , tubercules et leur feuillage Feuilles aromatiques des arbres (Eucalyptus) L'eucalyptus en plus grande quantité est toxique Cobayes n'aiment pas des feuilles à forte odeur Fraîches ou séchées comme du foin. A Annexe 2 : Conseils pratiques pour Epluchures : avec 5.2% de protéine et 10% de fibre brute Pueraria spp Bon fourrage vert pendant toute l'année Eau Si aucun fourrage frais n'est fourni République Démocratique du Congo Farine de manioc, épluchures de manioc, feuillage de manioc Farines : jusqu'à 45% de la ration des dents Supplémentation avec protéines et fibre brute intestinales Branches des arbres et arbustes Oui, pour éviter la malocclusion Moins appréciées petits éleveurs dans les parties méridionales du être bouillies. Ne donnez pas des pommes de terres vertes ou en Charbon végétale (petits morceaux de charbon) oui Oui pour combattre des infections germination Minéraux (sel mélangé avec la farine d'os) oui oui l'alimentation de lapins et de cavités pour les Pommes de terres, et leur épluchure Jacinthe d'eau (existe dans les eaux de la RDC) Tiges, bulbes et les racines Toute la plante est toxique combiner à d'autres Les épluchures des pommes de terre sont des résidus de cuisine, mais peuvent être utiliser comme aliment, les épluchures doivent peuvent être mangés variétés de foin • Obésité, • Plancher en fil de fer mal entretenu • Blessures ou fractures de chair • Pauvres conditions d'élevage. Les blessures initiales prédisposent aux infections bactériennes secondaires Traitement Signes cliniques Traitement Léthargie Manteau poil dur Écoulement nasal Éternuements Mort subite utilisé comme aliment unique, le foin est difficile à digérer. Tomates Bonne source de vitamine C, ne nourrissez pas les feuilles et les tiges Souvent avec une infection de l'oreille, l'animal penche la tête. Sulfonamides, tylosine, Méfiez-vous des autres antibiotiques courants comme l'ampicilline, l'oxytétracycline, la pénicilline ou la streptomycine qui ne conviennent pas aux cobayes. La liste suivante ne comprend pas les aliments commerciaux pour lapins ou cavités Les détails du tableau ci-après sont tirés de • FAO: Le lapin, l'élevage, la santé et la reproduction • http://www.ladureviedulapinurbain.com/cueillette2.php Cultures, arbres , arbustes fouragers, Lucerne Vaste variété de minéraux, Vitamine C, E. K, lucerne verte peut être Salade Oui car elle peut causer la diarrhée. Colocase Toutes les parties de la plante sont toxiques Oui, mais elle devrait être limitée • http://wabbitwiki.com/wiki/Toxic_plants élevée en sucre Ignames Avec modération Non Europe être toxiques. Champignons A éviter, même ceux qui peuvent être mangés par les humains des quantités plus élevées peuvent • Feedipedia informations sur les ressources en aliments pour animaux Sesbania Feuilles vertes Aliments dangereux Feuilles : les feuilles ont une teneur élevée en protéines (ne donnez pas plus de 20 % des feuilles fraîches et 40 % des feuilles séchées) Patates douces Bonne source d'énergie, feuilles riches en protéines, épluchures nourrissantes, bon gain de poids chez le lapin (on peut donner des feuilles de patate douce jusqu' à 80%, peut remplacer la racine) Betteraves Doit être coupé en petits morceaux, la peau peut aussi être nourrie (déchets ménagers), Méfiez-vous des feuilles de betteraves car elles sont riches en calcium et en oxalates. Carottes Les feuilles et la racine, à haute teneur en protéines, les feuilles sont riches en minéraux, limitez toutefois l'ingestion en raison de la teneur Setaria Avocat A éviter Produits laitiers, oeufs, légumes cuites, viande, produits de la boulangerie Le lait dilué avec de l'eau (50%) peut être donné à des femelles enceintes A éviter Ail non non Ognons non non Ocimum gratissimum, Basilic Africain Ocimum basilicum Basilic A quelques effets médicaux comme diurétique, baisse la fièvre, calmant. Lutte contre les infections bactériennes, a un effet Pauvre en protéines Légumes Choux rouges et verts aliment standard pour lapins en Bonne source de vitamine C, mais Pilli pilli non non commun antifongique • Obésité, • Plancher en fil de fer mal entretenu • Blessures ou fractures de chair • Pauvres conditions d'élevage. Les blessures initiales prédisposent aux infections bactériennes secondaires Traitement Signes cliniques Traitement Léthargie Manteau poil dur Écoulement nasal Éternuements Mort subite utilisé comme aliment unique, le foin est difficile à digérer. Tomates Bonne source de vitamine C, ne nourrissez pas les feuilles et les tiges Souvent avec une infection de l'oreille, l'animal penche la tête. Sulfonamides, tylosine, Méfiez-vous des autres antibiotiques courants comme l'ampicilline, l'oxytétracycline, la pénicilline ou la streptomycine qui ne conviennent pas aux cobayes. La liste suivante ne comprend pas les aliments commerciaux pour lapins ou cavités Les détails du tableau ci-après sont tirés de • FAO: Le lapin, l'élevage, la santé et la reproduction • http://www.ladureviedulapinurbain.com/cueillette2.php Cultures, arbres , arbustes fouragers, Lucerne Vaste variété de minéraux, Vitamine C, E. K, lucerne verte peut être Salade Oui car elle peut causer la diarrhée. Colocase Toutes les parties de la plante sont toxiques Oui, mais elle devrait être limitée • http://wabbitwiki.com/wiki/Toxic_plants élevée en sucre Ignames Avec modération Non Europe être toxiques. Champignons A éviter, même ceux qui peuvent être mangés par les humains des quantités plus élevées peuvent • Feedipedia informations sur les ressources en aliments pour animaux Sesbania Feuilles vertes Aliments dangereux Feuilles : les feuilles ont une teneur élevée en protéines (ne donnez pas plus de 20 % des feuilles fraîches et 40 % des feuilles séchées) Patates douces Bonne source d'énergie, feuilles riches en protéines, épluchures nourrissantes, bon gain de poids chez le lapin (on peut donner des feuilles de patate douce jusqu' à 80%, peut remplacer la racine) Betteraves Doit être coupé en petits morceaux, la peau peut aussi être nourrie (déchets ménagers), Méfiez-vous des feuilles de betteraves car elles sont riches en calcium et en oxalates. Carottes Les feuilles et la racine, à haute teneur en protéines, les feuilles sont riches en minéraux, limitez toutefois l'ingestion en raison de la teneur Setaria Avocat A éviter Produits laitiers, oeufs, légumes cuites, viande, produits de la boulangerie Le lait dilué avec de l'eau (50%) peut être donné à des femelles enceintes A éviter Ail non non Ognons non non Ocimum gratissimum, Basilic Africain Ocimum basilicum Basilic A quelques effets médicaux comme diurétique, baisse la fièvre, calmant. Lutte contre les infections bactériennes, a un effet Pauvre en protéines Légumes Choux rouges et verts aliment standard pour lapins en Bonne source de vitamine C, mais Pilli pilli non non commun antifongique • https://bagrepole.jimdo.com/elevage Amarantes (lenga lenga) feuilles Haricots et petites pois  Forte teneur en protéines, utilisez comme supplément du son de Oui mais en quantités limitées. Seulement des feuilles • https://bagrepole.jimdo.com/elevage Amarantes (lenga lenga) feuilles Haricots et petites poisForte teneur en protéines, utilisez comme supplément du son de Oui mais en quantités limitées. Seulement des feuilles Pieds normaux Maladies diverses • Malocclusion (voir photo ci-dessous) Croissance excessive des prémolaires et des molaires (voir photo ci-dessous) Pododermatite • http://www.medirabbit.com/EN/GI_diseases/Food/Herbs/herbs_en.htm • https://www.cuniculture.info/Docs/Elevage/Figur-Tropic/chapitre3/plantes-00-Composition.htm Bonne source de Vitamine C maïs ou des tourteaux Andropogon (herbe de Gambie) Ne donnez pas des haricots crus Feuilles. Bas teneur en protéine Bracharia mutica/ruziziensis (originaire des pays des grands lacs) Concombre Oui mais pas nutritif, une forte teneur en eau peut causer la diarrhée. Faible teneur en protéines nécessite l'ajout de légumineuses, il est préférable d'utiliser des foins contenants les mélanges de bracharias/ Choux fleurs Oui Oui Pieds normaux Maladies diverses • Malocclusion (voir photo ci-dessous) Croissance excessive des prémolaires et des molaires (voir photo ci-dessous) Pododermatite • http://www.medirabbit.com/EN/GI_diseases/Food/Herbs/herbs_en.htm • https://www.cuniculture.info/Docs/Elevage/Figur-Tropic/chapitre3/plantes-00-Composition.htm Bonne source de Vitamine C maïs ou des tourteaux Andropogon (herbe de Gambie) Ne donnez pas des haricots crus Feuilles. Bas teneur en protéine Bracharia mutica/ruziziensis (originaire des pays des grands lacs) Concombre Oui mais pas nutritif, une forte teneur en eau peut causer la diarrhée. Faible teneur en protéines nécessite l'ajout de légumineuses, il est préférable d'utiliser des foins contenants les mélanges de bracharias/ Choux fleurs Oui Oui Signes cliniques Paprika Perte de poids, salivation excessive, traumatisme de la langue Pois d'Angole (du Congo). Cajanus cajan Epinards Fruits (attention au teneur en sucre) Talinum Aliment Callandria calothyrus (arbre aux houppettes) Causes Hérédité, carences vitaminiques, stylosanthes Oui alimentation trop molle, alimentation déséquilibrée Feuilles vertes et petites branches de pois pigeon sont utilisés comme Oui, bon teneur en vitamine C, ne Traitement donner que du paprika mûr Taillage des dents, mais cette fourrage, riche en protéines, le foin peut remplacer le foin de luzerne, Ne donnez pas souvent à cause de sa teneur en oxalates solution n'apportera qu'un peut être utilisé jusqu' à 35% dans les régimes alimentaires. Pas plus de 20% d'un soulagement temporaire Lapins Cobayes Feuilles fraîches, moins protéiques que la Leucaena Orange Oui Ne doit pas être nourri trop triangulare régime alimentaire Signes cliniques Paprika Perte de poids, salivation excessive, traumatisme de la langue Pois d'Angole (du Congo). Cajanus cajan Epinards Fruits (attention au teneur en sucre) Talinum Aliment Callandria calothyrus (arbre aux houppettes) Causes Hérédité, carences vitaminiques, stylosanthes Oui alimentation trop molle, alimentation déséquilibrée Feuilles vertes et petites branches de pois pigeon sont utilisés comme Oui, bon teneur en vitamine C, ne Traitement donner que du paprika mûr Taillage des dents, mais cette fourrage, riche en protéines, le foin peut remplacer le foin de luzerne, Ne donnez pas souvent à cause de sa teneur en oxalates solution n'apportera qu'un peut être utilisé jusqu' à 35% dans les régimes alimentaires. Pas plus de 20% d'un soulagement temporaire Lapins Cobayes Feuilles fraîches, moins protéiques que la Leucaena Orange Oui Ne doit pas être nourri trop triangulare régime alimentaire Les yeux des cobayes se déclinent en plusieurs couleurs : rouge, rubis et rose. L'écoulement oculaire sous forme de Cultures de rente, céréales Riz, son de riz, foin de riz Son de riz, riz brisé Les cobayes n'aiment pas les grains Niébe (Vigna ungulculata) Le foin est équivalent au foin de lucerne, les haricots doivent être décortiqués et fermentés., pas plus que 60% Banane (fruit, tiges, feuilles) Maladies oculaires Quantités (en pourcent des régimes alimentaire quotidiens) et avertissements Centrosème pubescens (Haricot sauvage) souvent car il contient de l'acide (Epinard Feuilles fraîches, riches en protéines oxialique sauvage, grassé) Les yeux des cobayes se déclinent en plusieurs couleurs : rouge, rubis et rose. L'écoulement oculaire sous forme de Cultures de rente, céréales Riz, son de riz, foin de riz Son de riz, riz brisé Les cobayes n'aiment pas les grains Niébe (Vigna ungulculata) Le foin est équivalent au foin de lucerne, les haricots doivent être décortiqués et fermentés., pas plus que 60% Banane (fruit, tiges, feuilles) Maladies oculaires Quantités (en pourcent des régimes alimentaire quotidiens) et avertissements Centrosème pubescens (Haricot sauvage) souvent car il contient de l'acide (Epinard Feuilles fraîches, riches en protéines oxialique sauvage, grassé) liquide blanc laiteux est normal. Maïs, son de maïs. feuillage Herbe etoile, Cynodon dactylon  Faibles en protéines, nécessite une supplémentation, les cobayes L'herbe fraîche des Bermudes est utilisée comme supplément aux Feuilles de bananiers: pas plus de 40%. liquide blanc laiteux est normal. Maïs, son de maïs. feuillage Herbe etoile, Cynodon dactylonFaibles en protéines, nécessite une supplémentation, les cobayes L'herbe fraîche des Bermudes est utilisée comme supplément aux Feuilles de bananiers: pas plus de 40%. Manguier   n'aiment pas les grains. concentrés, mais les animaux ne l'aiment pas beaucoup. Feuilles Manguiern'aiment pas les grains. concentrés, mais les animaux ne l'aiment pas beaucoup. Feuilles Les signes de problèmes oculaires sont: Blé et son de blé Sorgho Desmodium Plantains (feuilles) Oléagineux et tourteaux Gliricidia Pulpe de citrons/ananas  oui Feuilles fraîches, à forte teneur en potassium, pas plus de 30% dans Les cobayes n'aiment pas les grains oui l'alimentation Grains et feuilles de sorgho. Les cobayes n'aiment pas les grains Bonne source de vitamine C en particulier pour les cobayes, mais il Max 2% de la ration, peut avoir un impact négatif sur la qualité du sperme, moins appétissant que la Leucaena faut ajouter des protéines. Les signes de problèmes oculaires sont: Blé et son de blé Sorgho Desmodium Plantains (feuilles) Oléagineux et tourteaux Gliricidia Pulpe de citrons/ananasoui Feuilles fraîches, à forte teneur en potassium, pas plus de 30% dans Les cobayes n'aiment pas les grains oui l'alimentation Grains et feuilles de sorgho. Les cobayes n'aiment pas les grains Bonne source de vitamine C en particulier pour les cobayes, mais il Max 2% de la ration, peut avoir un impact négatif sur la qualité du sperme, moins appétissant que la Leucaena faut ajouter des protéines. Papaye Feuilles, D'autres aliments Papaye Feuilles, D'autres aliments  "}],"sieverID":"b3d9cd69-7e3a-45b5-8f86-7cc09dcc35dd","abstract":"ILRI voudrait remercier tous les donateurs et organisations qui dans le monde appui son travail a traver ses contributions au CGIAR system Cette publication répond aux droits d'auteur de l'Institut International de Recherche sur l'Elevage (ILRI) et suit la Licence Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International. Pour voir cette licence visiter https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.fr. Sous réserve d'indications spécifiques, Vous êtes autorisé à partager (copier, distribuer et communiquer le matériel par tous moyens et sous tous formats), adapter (remixer, transformer et créer à partir du materiel) pour toute utilisation, y compris commerciale, selon les conditions suivantes : ATTRIBUTION. Vous devez attribuer l'oeuvre de la manière indiquée par l'auteur de l'oeuvre ou le titulaire des droits (mais pas d'une manière qui iii L'élevage de lapins et de cobayes pour la production de viande dans des petits exploitations en République démocratique du CongoTable des matières Avant-propos v Sommaire exécutif vii 1. 1. Les cobayes ne viennent pas de la Guinée et ils ne font pas partie de l'espèce de cochons qui sont omnivores se nourrissant à la fois de légumes et de viande 2. Dans quelques pays leur viande est toutefois considérée comme délicatesse par toutes les souches sociales"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d1ba5fff51885e73ce82d65689715dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/796d9527-c536-4188-9f62-2dbbd1fc730e/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"SAFEGUARDING THE UNIQUE FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES OF ASIA AND THE PACIFIC","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Forest genetic resources (FGR) are the heritable materials maintained within and among tree and other woody plant species that have current or potential economic, environmental, scientific or societal value. Genetic diversity enables tree species to resist abiotic and biotic threats and adapt to changing environments, and forms the basis for present and future selection and breeding programmes. It contributes food sources for humans and animals, including at times when annual crops fail. Yet, information on genetic diversity is available on less than 1% of the estimated 80,000-100,000 tree species on Earth, as shown in the first report on the State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources, published by FAO in June 2014."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"According to the report, Asia harbors the highest number of tree species and subspecies among the world's continents. Asia also has the highest number of tree species that are actively managed, for diverse purposes such as timber, non-timber forest products, energy and other ecosystem services -a reflection of the enormous cultural diversity of human populations in the continent. Yet Asia also has more threatened tree species than any other continent, numbering more than 1700. The high prevalence of endemism in Asia and the Pacific makes the region's tree species extremely vulnerable to habitat degradation which undermines their ability to provide food, other goods and ecosystem services for the region's 4.4 Billion people and rapidly growing economies. The Pacific Islands are particularly threatened by climate change because of sea-level rise and salinization."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"In recognition of the unique ecological and socio-economic value of the region's Forest Genetic Resources and the urgency to conserve them, the Asia Pacific Forest Genetic Resources Programme (APFORGEN) has developed and agreed on a Strategy for Regional Collaboration to support the implementation of the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation, Sustainable Use and Development of Forest Genetic Resources."}]},{"head":"What is the Global Plan of Action on Forest Genetic Resources?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The Global Plan of Action on Forest Genetic Resources (FGR) is a strategic framework for the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources of trees and other woody plants. It is based on the findings of the first-ever State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources report, published by FAO in June 2014. The report was developed on the basis of 86 country reports covering 85 percent of the world's forested area, input from regional consultations and a series of thematic studies developed by experts around the world."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"The Global Plan of Action on FGR was agreed on by the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture in its 14 th session in January 2013, and subsequently adopted by FAO Conference in its 38 th session in June 2013. The Commission of Forestry, the highest FAO Forestry statutory body, recommended the implementation of the Global Plan of Action on FGR in its 22th session in June 2014."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"The Global Plan of Action has 27 Strategic Priorities, grouped into four areas: (1) improving the availability of, and access to, information on FGR, (2) conservation of FGR (in situ and ex situ), (3) sustainable use, development and management of FGR, and (4) policies, institutions and capacitybuilding. The Strategic Priorities for Action constitute a comprehensive global programme of work. They can assist countries in integrating FGR conservation and management needs into wider policies, programmes and frameworks of action from local to national, regional and global levels, and in developing sound technical and scientific programmes for the successful management of FGR."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Implementation of the Global Plan of Action will strengthen the sustainability of FGR while contributing towards the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the Sustainable Development Goals."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"The Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, in its 14 th session, requested FAO to develop an implementation strategy for the Global Plan of Action on FGR, and encouraged the mobilization of adequate financial resources, preferably from voluntary contributions, particularly to support developing countries in the implementation of the Global Plan of Action."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"The Global Plan of Action on FGR is available from http://www.fao. org/3/a-i3849e.pdf Photo: Neobalanocarpus heimii is highly valued for its timber and has become threatened -Credit: S.L. Lee"},{"index":7,"size":164,"text":"Regional collaboration and coordination is of utmost importance for the conservation and sustainable use of tree species whose distribution does not follow national boundaries and which hold great potential for improvement and enhanced sustainable use across countries but are, at the same time, threatened by illegal cross-border trade and unsustainable resource acquisition. Through regional networking it is possible to gain synergy in research and conservation activities and avoid overlapping efforts. The importance of regional networking for the conservation and sustainable use of Forest Genetic Resources was recognized in the State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources report and in the Global Plan of Action on FGR. APFORGEN, established in 2003, is the only network in Asia and the Pacific that specifically focuses on the conservation and sustainable use of FGR. Its broad membership in the region and achievements to date make it ideally placed for coordinating the implementation of the Global Plan of Action on FGR in the region in close collaboration with FAO."}]},{"head":"OBJECTIVES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"In a meeting of its National Coordinators in September 2014, APFORGEN identified three objectives for a Strategy for Regional Collaboration to support the implementation of the Global Plan of Action on Forest Genetic Resources for the years 2014-2016."}]},{"head":"Political and financial support mobilized for the implementation of the Global Plan of Action on Forest Genetic Resources in Asia and the Pacific","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Although FGR in many Asian countries have been severely depleted, there is limited recognition about their ecological and societal importance, including for timber production and adaptation to and mitigation of climate change. Political and institutional support for conserving the resource base have not kept pace with the economic development in the region. Conservation and the enhancing of sustainable use of FGR are restricted by inadequate funding and limited institutional and human capacities."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"This objective has the following targets:"},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"• Strategic priorities of the Global Plan of Action on FGR are recognized and supported by high-level policy makers and relevant international organizations and incorporated into relevant national and regional planning and implementation processes Tree genera of Dalbergia and Shorea, native to Asia, include many highly valuable tree species that are important for timber production. Some species such as Shorea stenoptera, S. macrophylla and S. robusta also serve as sources of non-timber forest products (resins and oil production from seed) and generate income for local communities. However, because of their high economic value and growing demand for timber and agricultural land, these species are threatened by overexploitation, illegal logging and habitat conversion. Dalbergia cochinchinensis and Shorea stenoptera, among many other species in their genera, are classified as threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Their conservation status is further hampered by unsustainable seed collection practices, limited natural regeneration and limited interest to plant the species for plantations industry because of their slow growth. There is an urgent need for concerted efforts to conserve these species and their genetic diversity and to develop strategies for their sustainable use across their distribution range, to contribute to local, national and regional economies."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"There are existing models for conserving and sustainably using the tree genetic resources through involving local communities and contributing to their livelihoods, and such models could be adapted to other species and countries in the region."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"This objective has the following targets:"},{"index":6,"size":132,"text":"• Genetic diversity and phylogeography of Dalbergia spp. and Shorea spp. is assessed • Germplasm of Dalbergia cochinchinesis and related species is collected from each country within their distribution range to support their conservation in situ and ex situ, tree breeding and sustainable use in the region Many countries in Asia and the Pacific have established large-scale national tree planting and restoration programmes with the aim of restoring and reforesting millions of hectares of land, such as the Great Green Wall of China, the Green Mission of India and the National Greening Programme of the Philippines. Such programmes require huge amounts of quality tree seed and seedlings, especially of native tree species which are preferred for ecosystem restoration. Using planting material of appropriate origin is also crucial for adaptation to climate change."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"Photo: Seedlings of native fruit tree species in a community nursery, Malaysia -Credit: R. Jalonen"},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"However, there is widespread lack of awareness about the importance of quality seed and lack of quality seed sources. Lack of, or poorly enforced, regulations on forest reproductive material have in many cases resulted in mass production of seedlings of unknown origin and quality, often with narrow genetic base, and in their uncontrolled transfer within and across national borders."},{"index":9,"size":68,"text":"Discontinued government and donor support for national tree seed supply systems and the prevalence of tree farms by small-holders in the region justify the development of marketor demand-driven decentralized seed supply systems. Decentralized seed supply systems can both help meet the demand for seed and provide income for local communities, and there are already promising models in the region that could be tested and adapted in other countries."},{"index":10,"size":85,"text":"Tree breeding for multiple purposes, including increased productivity of timber and other tree products and resistance to abiotic and biotic threats, can importantly contribute to provision of livelihoods, addressing land scarcity and adapting to climate change. Countries in the region can benefit from both collaborative breeding programmes for species of common interest and from sharing of expertise. Documenting and sharing past experiences, both successes and failures, in tree planting and breeding is important for strengthening capacities, improving practices and programme outcomes, and using resources efficiently."},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"This objective has the following targets:"},{"index":12,"size":105,"text":"• Strengthened, demand-driven tree seed programmes for ecosystem restoration, plantation and agroforestry APFORGEN is a regional programme and network with a holistic approach to the conservation and management of forest genetic resources in Asia and the Pacific. The broad objective of APFORGEN is to promote the management of tropical forest genetic resources more equitably, productively and sustainably in the member countries. Its aim is to enhance technical, scientific cooperation, training and information exchange among the member countries, through linking and providing technical support to national forest programmes, research institutions, NGOs and individuals interested in the conservation and management of forest genetic diversity in the region."},{"index":13,"size":34,"text":"APFORGEN was established in 2003 through the initiative of Bioversity International and the Asia Pacific Association of Forestry Research Organizations (APAFRI), with APAFRI hosting the secretariat with a modest seed funding from Bioversity International."},{"index":14,"size":95,"text":"Fourteen countries in Asia and the Pacific (Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam) are members of the network. Since its inception, they have participated actively in the network activities through providing updates of the status of Forest Genetic Resources in their countries, organizing and participating in workshops, meetings, training courses, symposium and planning of joint activities. In 2006-2011, APFORGEN implemented a regional project for strengthening national capacities in the conservation and management of Forest Genetic Resources, with funding from the International Tropical Timber Organization."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"160cdd58-9ce3-498f-92fc-e26596ba1626","abstract":"APAFRI) is an association of Institutions with an active interest in forestry research, conservation, management and other forestry related matters in the Asia Pacific. Its objective is to promote collaboration among institutions to enhance and increase the forestry research and conservation capacity in the Asia Pacific.Bioversity International is a global research-for-development organization. We deliver scientific evidence, management practices and policy options to use and safeguard agricultural biodiversity to attain sustainable global food and nutrition security. We work with partners in developing countries where agricultural biodiversity can contribute to improved nutrition, resilience, productivity and climate change adaptation. Bioversity International is a member of the CGIAR Consortium, a global research partnership for a food secure future."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d223fcb5682351069d26fc2bf41f693","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8d5e39ea-a367-428d-bab2-1dc7ee5d5d90/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Measurement of potato tuber yield at maturity by crop cut at plot level SOP ID: 009 Version: 1 Crop: Potato (Solanum tuberosum) Relevant KPIs: Productivity -yield; Resource use efficiency -nutrient use efficiency R&D stage (example of activities): • Discovery stage (yield decomposition) • Proof-of-concept stage (testing of improved agronomic practices in on-station and/or on-farm trials) • Pilot stage (on-farm participatory trials, randomized control trial) • Scaling stage (panel studies, ex-post impact assessment) This work was financially supported by the Excellence in Agronomy for Sustainable Intensification and Climate Change Adaptation Initiative","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Procedure","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Step 1: Identify the right harvest time. Harvesting should be done when the crop is well mature, at complete death of the foliage, and when the tubers' skin is firm and cannot be removed by lightly rubbing the tubers with fingers. It is recommended you dehaulm plants when the foliage begins to turn yellow, and harvest 10-15 days later. Dehaulming is removing or destroying the shoots above the soil ahead of the complete maturity of the plant. It is recommended that you apply superficial irrigation 2 to 3 days before harvesting the tubers to facilitate digging them up."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Step 2: Select the net harvest area (m 2 ) following SOP001 Determination of the minimum number of plants and the minimum area to be harvested for correct crop yield determinations."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Step 3: Locate and mark the net harvest area by placing four pegs -one at each corner. Only tubers that are inside the delineated area should be harvested."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Step 4: Count the number of plants within the net harvest area."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Step 5: Dig up all tubers in the net harvest area and leave them on the ground to dry until the soil caked on the tubers dries and falls off (maximum 2 hours)."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"Step 6: Count the number of tubers. Optionally disaggregate the tubers as (i) small tubers (diameter < 3 cm); (ii) large, diseased/damaged tubers (diameter ≥ 3 cm and severe to extremely severe symptoms of diseases/pests); and (iii) large, marketable tubers (diameter ≥ 3 cm and no to mild symptoms of diseases/pests)."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"Step 7: Measure the fresh weight of the tubers. Optionally disaggregate the tubers as in Step 6."},{"index":8,"size":109,"text":"Step 8: Take one or more (sub-) samples of the tubers (all tubers or disaggregated by size and disease damage as in Step 6) of about 100-200 grams per (sub-) sample for dry matter assessment and record the fresh weight. Place them in bags or sacks with proper labels (barcode, or site, date, treatment, replication, plot number, etc.). We recommend you sample at least 1% of the total tuber weight harvested in the net plot to make sure the sample is representative. If 1% of the total harvested tuber weight is more than 200 g, divide the sample into several subsamples and place them in different bags for oven-drying."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"Step 9: Transport samples to a research station or any other place where samples can be properly processed, dried and stored."},{"index":10,"size":56,"text":"Step 10: Cut the tuber samples into small pieces and oven-dry (with forced air circulation) at 105 ͦ C for 72 hours or until constant weight. Keep some space between samples in the oven to allow a flow of air inside the oven and avoid fermentation of the samples. Measure the dry weight of the samples."}]},{"head":"Calculation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Step 1: Calculate the fresh tuber yield (kg/ha) using formula (1)."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Fresh tuber yield (kg/ha) ="},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Fresh tuber weight of the net harvest area (g) × 10,000"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"(1) 1000"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Net harvest area (m 2 )"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"Where the division by 1000 is the conversion of grams to kg; and the multiplication by 10,000 is the conversion from m 2 to ha."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"You may also calculate fresh marketable tuber yield (kg/ha) using the fresh weight of the marketable tubers (diameter > 3 cm and no to mild symptoms of diseases/pests) in the net harvest area."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"Step 2: Calculate the dry matter content of the fresh tubers (%) using formula (2)."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"Dry matter content of the fresh tubers (%) = Dry weight of the sample (g) × 100"},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"(2) Fresh weight of the sample (g)"},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"Step 3: Calculate the dry tuber yield (kg/ha) using formula (3). "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" • String or rope • Paper or cloth or woven bags or sacks • Sickle • Digging fork or hoe • Digital weighing balance • Data recording tools/sheet • Drying oven • Kitchen knife • Cutting board. "},{"text":" Rinza, David Ramirez and Johan Ninyana (International Potato Center [CIP]) Suggested citation: Vandamme E, Rinza J, Ramirez D and Ninyana J. 2023. Measurement of potato tuber yield at maturity by crop cut at plot level, v1. Standard Operating Procedure 009. In: Saito K, Johnson J-M, Hauser S, Corbeels M, Devkota M and Casimero M. Guideline for measuring agronomic gain key performance indicators in onfarm trials, v. 1. Excellence in Agronomy for Sustainable Intensification and Climate Change Adaptation Initiative. "}],"sieverID":"20f679c5-24b3-4153-852c-b32e4de87229","abstract":""}