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data/part_2/005d13b99e806c51638e32c4f515f35b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"005d13b99e806c51638e32c4f515f35b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6cab30ce-a235-450e-a9a8-b94c6880560b/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Building capacity for bioinformatics -Latin America","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Firstly, there is an urgent need to fight neglected tropical diseases, such as Zika virus, malaria and dengue fever that affect humans, but also on plant diseases indirectly affecting human health through their effects on crops. Bioinformatics can help scientists understand the genomic make-up of pathogens and the susceptibility of individuals to infections, but there has been little attention paid to collecting genome data from Hispanics and indigenous peoples. Secondly, data-driven biology has potential to promote sustainable food production, particularly by identifying varieties that are resilient to the impacts of climate change. Finally, the region harbors more than 30% of the world's biodiversity. Scientist need to study natural systems efficiently to acquire a good understanding of how resources can be used sustainably, while continuing to preserve unique ecosystems. The International Potato Center (CIP) will actively work on all these challenges. The 'Capacity building for bioinformatics in Latin America' (CABANA) project is designed to strengthen local capacity for data-driven biomolecular research and thereby to speed up efforts to overcome these current obstacles to development."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"CABANA's vision is to address the current slow implementation of data-driven biology in Latin America by creating a sustainable capacity-building program focusing on the three key development challenges: communicable diseases, sustainable food production, and protection of biodiversity. The main aim is to enable scientists, including from CIP and its partners, to become more competent at analyzing and interpreting biomolecular data and placing their own data in the public domain. CIP, and other partner scientists will in turn, help build capacity for research management and develop a sustainable bioinformatics research infrastructure in Latin America."}]},{"head":"Approach","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The project brings together a consortium of ten partners across six Latin American countries and builds wider collaborations, for example with scientists in the UK. CIP researchers and others from Latin America will undertake six-month secondments to the European Bioinformatics Institute to develop their bioinformatics skills. CIP scientists will also attend 'train the trainer' workshops, with view to developing a network of bioinformatics training centers throughout Latin America. Short courses, hosted by the partner institutions, such as CIP, will focus on research management as well as development of bioinformatics competencies. Finally, the program will create e-learning resources to inspire the next generation of bioinformatics-aware researchers. Activities will encourage participation from minority groups, including women and indigenous peoples."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Data-driven biology could have a major impact on health, agriculture, and environmental management, but Latin American scientist have yet to fully benefit from this new approach. The 'CABANA' project aims to promote the use of bioinformatics in lead institutions, which will form hubs for wider dissemination throughout the continent."}]},{"head":"Expected outcomes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Secondments will be the main route to developing lasting collaborations. Latin American researchers will be invited to apply for six-month fellowships at the European Bioinformatics Institute to work on a specific project relating to the three key development challenges. As the network grows, the program will support transnational secondments within Latin America. 'Train the trainer' activities will underpin the entire project by transforming scientists into effective and confident trainers who will share their knowledge through a program of workshops and short courses. Many of the trainers will have undertaken a secondment."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Annual workshops and short courses will be held in each participating country, with CIP responsible for the workshop held in Peru. Hosted by different institutes, these will focus on the topics of greatest interest locally. Some will be 'summit' meetings on special topics, including how to inspire the next generation of bioinformatics-aware life scientists, and how to develop a sustainable bioinformatics research infrastructure. Development of e-learning tools will provide a shared resource and catalyze the roll-out of bioinformatics education to universities, as well as supporting ongoing collaboration with partners. These resources will include a web-based system to support workflow-based courses."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"As with the other consortium members, the participation of CIP was selected on the basis of its strong links with the global research community, policymakers and other sectors. This will help build a broad network and develop new collaborations. Data-driven biology depends on collaboration and open sharing of information, and there is a growing number of initiatives aiming to combine data stewardship with the goal of enhancing research and contributing to better healthcare and sustainable development globally. Current programs focus on the need for capacity-building and CABANA takes a similar approach to create a bioinformatics community in Latin America that will contribute to both regional and global challenges."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"19bb1971-545b-435d-9c16-d0bc69cf7964","abstract":"Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that links biological data with techniques for information analysis, storage and distribution. It aids the interpretation and understanding of large volumes of biological data, such as genome sequencing and measuring gene expression patterns. This hybrid science has enormous potential to address Latin America's three key development challenges."}

data/part_2/0062f9675369b3fa722eaa9f3a87b413.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0062f9675369b3fa722eaa9f3a87b413","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3edea7f6-4239-4076-8e09-00b77cedf864/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"M E T H O D S & D A T A","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"To model the underlying structure of the climate-socio-economic-conflict relationships, we use a regularized partial correlation networks (Epskamp & Fried, 2018), as part of the more general class of pairwise Markov random fields models (Koller & Friedman, 2009). It is a statistical modelling technique used to analyze the relationships between variables in a complex system that can be represented as an undirected network with nodes and edges. A network is a graphical representation of the relationships (edges) between different entities (nodes)."}]},{"head":"Network representation of the climate-socio-economic-conflict relationships","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The variables, represented by the nodes, are categorized as (a) climate variables, (b) conflict variables, and (c) socio-economic risk variables which are further sub-categorized as follows: inequality, low productivity, migration, resources scarcity and undernutrition. The edges between nodes, representing the partial correlation coefficients encode the remaining linear dependency between two variables after controlling for the effect of the rest of the variables in the network (conditional independence associations). The width of an edge reflects the strength of the corresponding partial correlation. The size of a node reflects the sum of the widths of all edges that are linked to that node, and reflects the importance of that node through its level of degree of connectivity, also termed as its weighted degree."}]},{"head":"Building the network model","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"To estimate the partial correlations, we first compute the direct correlations between all pairs of variables as a basis. After controlling for multicollinearity among the variables, the correlation coefficients were calculated from Spearman's rank correlations for continuous variables. Polychoric correlations were used for categorical variables, polyserial and biserial correlations used between variables of different types. The resulting correlation matrix is then used to estimate the inverse covariance matrix of which elements represent the partial correlations.  "}]},{"head":"e d t o e a c h o t h e r a l t h o u g h t h e y s h o w a n o n -z e r o p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n . T h i s e n s u r e s t h a t w h e n e s t i m a t i n g t h e i n v e r s e c o v a r i a n c e m a t r i x ( i . e . t h e p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x ) , w e r e t a i n t h e n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e t h a t e l i m i n a t e s n o n -s i g n i f i c a n t ( s p u r i o u s ) r e l a t i o n s h i p s . F o r t h e","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" T h e n , i n a r e g u l a r i z e d p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n n e t w o r k , t h e g o a l i s t o e s t i m a t e t h e p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n a l l p a i r s o f v a r i a b l e s w h i l e t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s p a r s i t y o f t h e n e t w o r k . T h e s p a r s i t y a s s u m p t i o n o f a r e g u l a r i z e d n e t w o r k a s s u m e s t h a t m o s t v a r i a b l e s i n t h e n e t w o r k a r e n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t "},{"text":" r e g u l a r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , w e u s e d t h e g r a p h i c a l l a s s o a l g o r i t h m ( F r i e d m a n e t a l . , 2 0 0 8 ) . I t c o n s i s t s o f i m p o s i n g a p e n a l t y o n t h e n u m b e r o f n o n -z e r o p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n s , e n c o u r a g i n g s p a r s i t y i n t h e n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e w h i l e e l e m e n t s o f t h e i n v e r s e c o v a r i a n c e m a t r i x a r e u p d a t e d i t e r a t i v e l y i n a n a lg o r i t h m t h a t o p t i m i z e s t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f o b s e r v i n g t h e d a t a f o r e a c h e s t i m a t e p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n . T h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e b e s t c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i al c o r r e l a t i o n n e t w o r k f o l l o w s f r o m a n E B I C m o d e l s e l e c t i o n ( C h e n & C h e n , 2 0 0 8 ) . W e b u i l t t h e n e t w o r k m o d e l u s i n g t h e R e n v i r o n m e n t f o r s t a t i s t i c a l c o m p u t i n g ( R C o r e T e a m ) w i t h t h e p a c k a g e q g r a p h ( E p s k a m p e t a l . , 2 0 1 2 ) . D a t a s o u r c e s C o n f l i c t d a t a a r e f r o m A C L E D ; c l i m a t e d a t a a r e f r o m C H I R P S , T e r r a C l i m a t e , a n d A g E R A 5 ; a n d s o c i o -e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s a r e f r o m t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r H e a l t h M e t r i c s a n d E v a l u a t i o n ( I H M E ) , F a c e b o o k ' s w e a l t h m a p s , M a l a r i a A t l a s P r o j e c t , M O D I S , N A S A S E D A C a t t h e C e n t e r f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l E a r t h S c i e n c e I n f o r m a t i o n N e t w o r k , E a r t h O b s e r v a t i o n G r o u p , P a y n e I n s t i t u t e f o r P u b l i c P o l i c y , C o l o r a d o S c h o o l o f M i n e s , E n v i r o m e t r i X L t d , a m o n g s t o t h e r s . M o s t o f t h e s e d a t a a r e d i r e c t l y a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h G o o g l e E a r t h E n g i n e p l a t f o r m . "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b6f78d8c-d4e7-4eab-8e7c-458649aa3e04","abstract":""}

data/part_2/008e20becc6b48b2c968c9b09e2875ee.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"008e20becc6b48b2c968c9b09e2875ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/65a1352b-cb0a-46e8-bbf8-6c9b368474fb/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Targeting for the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA-CP): ILRI outcome story 2005","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"971e7a79-0434-48a9-bee7-0325002a4d14","abstract":"ILRI developed a number of methodologies and tools for targeting Research and Development interventions in developing countries. The Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) asked ILRI to use these research outputs in helping FARA to develop a framework that would identify Pilot Learning Sites (PLS) for the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA-CP).This research was first planned in the 1998-2000 MTP and achieved in 2005. Two main outputs from ILRI research were used for identifying PLS; (1) continent-wide maps of agricultural potential of the underlying resource base; (2) characterization of agricultural systems based on spatial overlays of agricultural potential, population density, market access and poverty levels. These outputs were then used by Sub-Saharan Africa's sub-regional research organizations (SROs) to identify candidate PLS based on the potential impact for science and technology (S&T) interventions to alleviate poverty A number of actors were involved. ILRI led a small task force to develop a framework for identifying suitable sites for implementing SSA-CP activities. ILRI targeting research outputs were then combined with information from rapid assessment conducted by partners at these sites to identify entry points and priorities for S&T interventions appropriate for the region. The three SROs (ASARECA, CORAF and SAD-FANR) held stakeholder consultations to use the targeting framework, information from the rapid appraisal and the ILRI-derived maps and data from the candidate sites. Using criteria guided by ILRI, the stakeholders ranked the pilot learning sites and selected among those top-ranked one site for each sub-region of Africa.The use of the targeting framework derived from ILRI research was very influential in allowing FARA and the SROs to systematically choose PLS based on reproducible criteria."}

data/part_2/01817fa469a8970e49408742323e6e81.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01817fa469a8970e49408742323e6e81","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/755e3b4e-626a-493a-bca1-d7c173f9653e/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"The role and impacts of irrigation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"What are fisheries? 'Fisheries' are defined as the exploitation of fish and other aquatic resources (crustaceans, plants, etc.), including capture fisheries, stocking and aquaculture activities."}]},{"head":"Increasing irrigation benefits and sustainability by integrating fisheries","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Irrigation systems and their reservoirs are complex, dynamic socio-ecological systems. With the right management, crop and fish production can both be increased, with the benefits shared equitably among nearby communities. A forthcoming guide will detail how to realize these outcomes by better integrating fisheries into irrigation systems at all scales."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Coming soon: A how-to guide for water managers A new irrigation guide is being developed to assist water planners, water managers and civil engineers to develop and implement improved, sustainable irrigation systems. The guide will provide practical ways to better integrate fisheries into irrigation planning, construction, operation and management to increase the benefits of irrigation by safeguarding or even enhancing fisheries and the livelihoods of those who depend on them."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Due out by the end of 2019, the guide combines the experience of irrigation and fisheries specialists. It is being developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), WorldFish and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI)."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Irrigation schemes designed, built and operated solely for crop production can negatively affect fisheries. By blocking the movement of fish and altering river flows, water control infrastructure-like reservoirs, embankments, weirs, gates/ tidal barrages, canals and pipes-can have harmful impacts on capture fisheries. Impacts range from reduced productivity and biodiversity to a loss of nutritious food and livelihoods. Such effects can, in some situations, create conflict between fishers, farmers and irrigation managers."}]},{"head":"Much to gain: Bringing together fisheries and irrigation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Throughout Asia, and particularly Africa, there remain significant opportunities to develop new areas of irrigation. There is also much to gain from investments to upgrade and modernize older systems, many of which need to be rehabilitated. But for such investments to contribute to a sustainable and green economy, irrigation systems must be designed and operated to sustain and, if possible, enhance ecosystem services, including fisheries. This is critical to attaining the UN Sustainable Development Goals."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Significant benefits can be achieved by integrating fisheries into irrigation schemes from the outset of project planning and design, through to operation and management. Without undermining the initial purpose of the irrigation scheme, it is possible to mitigate negative impacts and sometimes even enhance fisheries. In addition, disputes and conflicts that often delay the implementation of projects and undermine economic benefits may be avoided."}]},{"head":"A stepped approach to integrating fisheries","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Integrating fisheries into irrigation systems requires technical solutions and, perhaps even more importantly, sound institutional and governance arrangements. Recognizing this, the forthcoming guide promotes integrated and participatory processes that involve working closely with local communities. By understanding local peoples' needs and motivations, it is possible to develop systems that are more productive as well as equitable in the use of water and land resources."}]},{"head":"Citation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"This publication should be cited as: FAO, WorldFish and IWMI. 2019. Increasing irrigation benefits and sustainability by integrating fisheries. Penang, Malaysia. 2 pp. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO."}]},{"head":"Contacts:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• FAO: Simon Funge-Smith, [email protected] • WorldFish: Mark Dubois, [email protected] "}]},{"head":"Related resources:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Gregory, R., Funge-Smith, S.J. and Baumgartner, L. 2018."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"An ecosystem approach to promote the integration and coexistence of fisheries within irrigation systems. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" • IWMI: Matthew McCartney, [email protected] © FAO, WorldFish and IWMI, 2019 Led by WorldFish Water managers shouldn't be resistant to integrating fisheries into irrigation systems. Rather, it's an opportunity to sustain the benefits of irrigation projects and, at the same time, increase fish production and reduce conflict between water users. ©WorldFish/Michael Akester ©WorldFish/Michael Akester "},{"text":" FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No.1169. FAO, Rome. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.z. • McCartney, M., Funge-Smith, S. and Kura, Y. 2018. Enhancing fisheries productivity through improved management of reservoirs, dams and other water control structures. Penang, Malaysia: CGIAR Research Program on Fish Agri-Food Systems. Program Brief: FISH-2018-11. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"d3d984d9-e1f5-4dd8-a5a3-e9ee93f8e251","abstract":"Irrigation development has greatly increased crop production worldwide. This has improved national food security and livelihoods and helped to reduce extreme poverty, particularly in Asia, where 70 percent of the world's irrigated area is located. Today, irrigated agriculture represents about 21 percent of the total cultivated land but contributes approximately 40 percent of the total crop production worldwide.Fisheries are often overlooked in the design, planning and management of irrigation. This is despite increased recognition of the importance of fisheries, especially in Asia and Africa. Fisheries can, and often do, play a crucial role in food and nutrition security and in the resilience of rural livelihoods, while also being socially and culturally important."}

data/part_2/01dd44abe6951cb20040ea2ae77aa3f5.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01dd44abe6951cb20040ea2ae77aa3f5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/188f2c99-64ac-44bf-8871-62804c372376/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Informations climatiques et conseils agricoles au bout des doigts au Mali Sommaire Message Date de publication : Octobre 2017","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"2. La Plateforme Sènèkèla/Sandji a l'avantage d'être régulièrement disponible et accessible par les producteurs sur l'ensemble du territoire national pour fournir des conseils sur les sujets relatifs au développement rural tels que les informations climatiques, les pratiques agricoles ou la gestion des maladies des cultures, etc."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"3. Le téléphone portable est un bon moyen de diffusion des prévisions météorologiques et climatiques auprès des producteurs et les aide à prendre des décisions par rapport aux dates de labour, de semis, de l'application des engrais pour les activités agricoles ou de la lessive et séchage pour les femmes."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"4. Pour rendre le système Sènèkèla/Sandji durable et plus accessible, il serait bon de renforcer le partenariat public-privé, et de réduire le coût d'appel/SMS ou d'établir un numéro vert afin de favoriser les zones et les populations marginalisées."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Un paysan en communication avec la Plateforme Sènèkèla Photo : Bouba Traoré, ICRISAT-Mali"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Les paysans à la recherche de réseau pour s'inscrire à la Plateforme Sènèkèla/Sandji Photo : Bouba Traoré, ICRISAT-Mali"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Monsieur Tigana est agriculteur à Kolondialan, un petit village dans la région de Koulikoro au Mali. Avec l'appui du Projet RIC4REC, il a souscrit au Programme SMS-Sandji de Orange Mali. Il raconte : \"Un jour en septembre 2016, j'avais prévu de recruter des manoeuvres pour récolter mon champ mais dès que j'ai su qu'il pleuvrait, j'ai annulé ma décision car les gens n'allaient pas pouvoir travailler sous la pluie. Cela m'a permis de reprogrammer l'activité pour le jour suivant et d'économiser de l'argent en ne répétant pas l'expérience de l'année passée\"."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"De nos jours, le changement climatique est une réalité et une menace majeure pour les systèmes de production agricole dans les pays du Sahel (Jalloh et al., 2013 ;Niang et al., 2014). Si rien n'est fait à court et moyen termes, les incidences du changement climatique remettront en question les systèmes de production agricoles qui sont déjà fragilisés et qui devront pourtant produire plus pour nourrir une population de plus en plus nombreuse. "}]},{"head":"Innovation ciblée","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Dans cette étude nous présentons deux innovations combinées avec l'utilisation de téléphone portable pour la dissémination de l'information climatique. Des études similaires au Ghana ont montré que plus de 90 % des producteurs qui ont intégré l'utilisation des informations climatiques via le téléphone dans leurs pratiques agricoles ont vu leurs productions augmenter (Nikoi et al., 2016). "}]},{"head":"Plateforme Sènèkèla","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"SMS-Sandji","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"SMS-Sandji est un système de dissémination des informations météorologiques via l'envoi des SMS à travers les téléphones portables. La Société de téléphonie mobile Orange Mali assure la dissémination de l'information qui est fournie par la société IGNITIA à travers un protocole de partenariat. Avec SMS-Sandji, l'information est plus individualisée, le champ du producteur est géolocalisé, et les prévisions sont plus précises."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"RIC4REC a utilisé ces deux systèmes de communication pour la dissémination des informations météorologiques (Sandji) et du conseil agricole (Sènèkèla). L'accès aux informations fournies par ces deux services renforce la résilience des agriculteurs face aux changements climatiques à travers l'appui à la prise de décision pour la planification des activités à court et moyen termes."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Sènèkèla et Sandji sont des innovations souples dans la mesure où elles font appel à des notions d'organisation, d'accès aux informations climatiques et aux conseils agricoles plutôt qu'à du matériel physique comme des moulins ou des décortiqueuses."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Le caractère innovant de l'approche Sènèkèla et Sandji tient au fait que :"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"1) l'innovation est nouvelle pour les communautés de la zone d'intervention ;"},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"2) c'est la première fois que les deux services Sandji et Sènèkèla sont combinés en un ; 3) l'abonnement est de libre choix et peut se faire individuellement ou collectivement ; 4) l'abonnement ou le désabonnement est libre de choix et sans frais ; 5) le conseil est adapté aux problèmes spécifiques de l'agriculteur (Tableau 1)."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"Tableau 1 : Les cinq caractéristiques de l'innovation Nouveauté • L'approche est nouvelle dans la zone d'intervention du Projet."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• Le producteur paye l'information météorologique et le conseil agricole et les reçoit directement à travers son téléphone portable."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• L'information fournie facilite la prise de décision."}]},{"head":"Adaptation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• Les utilisateurs disposent déjà de téléphones portables qui assurent la liaison avec la source de l'information."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"• L'information fournie est individualisée et adaptée aux problèmes spécifiques de chaque producteur. • RIC4REC a formé ses bénéficiaires sur les types de ressources techniques disponibles au niveau de Sènèkèla."}]},{"head":"Apprentissage, élargissement et diffusion","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"• Dans chaque communauté, RIC4REC a formé un noyau de 10 à 20 utilisateurs lettrés à l'utilisation du système qui sont par la suite chargés de relayer la formation et d'assurer le suivi."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• Diffusion de l'information climatique. "}]},{"head":"Évaluation de la contribution de l'innovation au renforcement de la résilience","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Pour le suivi et l'évaluation de la mise en oeuvre de la Plateforme Sènèkèla et SMS-Sandji en lien avec le renforcement de la résilience, RIC4REC a d'abord effectué des mesures quantitatives qui ont porté sur le nombre d'appels émis et de participants à chaque opération d'appel, et des mesures qualitatives qui ont porté sur l'analyse de la perception des utilisateurs à travers la réalisation des interviews par téléphone. Les questions ont surtout porté sur l'information et/ou le conseil reçu(s) dans le choix des prises de décisions pour la planification des activités quotidiennes, notamment agricoles. "}]},{"head":"Mise en oeuvre de l'innovation","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Résultats","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Utilisation de SMS-Sandji","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Le processus tel que décrit dans la présentation de l'innovation est connu par les agriculteurs, en revanche ceux qui ne sont pas membres des groupes ont pris l'habitude de s'informer auprès des autres membres."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"De l'analyse des données, il ressort une nette efficacité de la prévision pluviométrique en fonction de la réalisation d'août à octobre ; autrement dit, 75 % des prévisions se sont avérées correctes et par conséquent chaque agriculteur peut facilement planifier ses activités quotidiennes."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Il ressort de l'étude de perception que la majorité des utilisateurs sont satisfaits des prévisions et de l'utilisation du service SMS-Sandji comme outil de dissémination des informations météorologiques."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"En revanche, la méthode ordinaire de diffusion de l'information apparaît plus vague et se fait à l'échelle de la région par le canal de la télévision ou la radio nationale. Dans de telles situations, il est difficile pour l'agriculteur de planifier les activités quotidiennes car la probabilité que l'agriculteur ne soit pas concerné par la prévision est élevée."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"La connaissance des informations sur la prévision pluviométrique permet de choisir les dates de labour, de semis et en fonction des types de sol. Il permet aussi de programmer l'épandage des engrais en fonction de l'annonce ou pas de la pluie. Les femmes aussi sont intéressées parce qu'elles peuvent adapter les activités ménagères comme la lessive ou le séchage des aliments en fonction des événements pluvieux."}]},{"head":"Utilisation de Sènèkèla","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Par rapport à l'utilisation de Sènèkèla, les résultats montrent qu'au cours de la période de l'étude, des appels ont été émis impliquant directement 2 865 producteurs. Les informations ont eu un impact positif sur la vie des communautés bénéficiaires à travers la planification des travaux agricoles et le choix des variétés. En effet, la réception de l'information sur le démarrage permet de déclencher le lancement des travaux préparatoires. Les agriculteurs perçoivent le message comme une alerte pour commencer les activités agricoles."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Pour les producteurs, la connaissance des prévisions saisonnières, notamment des dates de début ou de fin de saison, permet de choisir le type de variété (cycle court ou long), de réajuster le calendrier et d'éviter les conséquences néfastes des arrêts précoces de pluies sur les rendements des cultures. Dans les messages SMS-Sandji, la prévision pour le jour suivant est toujours fournie en double, ce qui ne semble pas nécessaire pour les agriculteurs, qui, par conséquent, se désinscrivent pour éviter de payer deux fois."}]},{"head":"Contraintes rencontrées","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Une des principales contraintes à l'adoption de ces innovations est liée au fait que les producteurs sont habitués à recevoir gratuitement les conseils agricoles à travers les services locaux de développement rural malgré le caractère généralisé du message."}]},{"head":"Expériences positives avec l'innovation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Après avoir testé ces innovations, certains producteurs ont donné des récits sur le contexte d'application de la technologie. Il en ressort globalement que ces innovations ont aidé les producteurs à mieux planifier leurs activités quotidiennes."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Malado Cissé est ménagère à Touba Sylla dans la région de Koulikoro et a bénéficié de l'apport de RIC4REC, elle raconte : « Pendant le mois d'août, il est difficile pour nous les femmes de faire la lessive car il pleut presque tous les jours mais maintenant avec ce Programme Sandji je planifie de faire la lessive ou de sécher mes céréales au soleil à chaque fois que je reçois le message qu'il ne pleuvra pas sur mon téléphone »."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Issou Guindo est agro-pasteur dans le village de Brigo Dogon à Bankass. Il raconte : « J'ai semé un 1 ha de niébé et traité avec le produit phytosanitaire que j'avais l'habitude d'utiliser mais malheureusement ma parcelle fut toujours infectée. Après plusieurs tentatives, j'ai alors appelé la Plateforme Sènèkèla pour demander des conseils. C'est ainsi que les agro-conseillers m'ont proposé un produit qui a permis de résoudre le problème et de sauver ma production. »"}]},{"head":"Apport de l'innovation aux populations marginalisées dans le cadre de la mise en oeuvre","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"La constitution des groupes d'appel a pris en compte toutes les couches sociales, y compris les femmes qui sont les plus marginalisées en milieu rural."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"L'implication directe des femmes n'a pas suffisamment fonctionné à cause de leur faible capacité à lire les messages ou parce qu'elles ne possèdent pas généralement de téléphone portable. En revanche, lorsque c'est le chef de famille qui a souscrit au programme, il partage tout de même les prévisions avec les femmes de sa famille qui planifient à leur tour leurs activités de culture dans les champs de case. Ceci renforce ainsi l'implication et la participation des femmes, et du coup change leur position et situation dans la famille et dans la communauté. Au cours de ce processus, nous avons aussi inclus les jeunes qui, du fait de leur niveau d'alphabétisation, sont plus actifs et aident à la lecture et au reportage, bien qu'ils ne participent pas toujours aux prises de décisions."}]},{"head":"Comment l'accès à l'information climatique renforce-t-elle la résilience au changement climatique ?","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Pour mesurer les résultats en termes de résilience, BRACED utilise un cadre fondé sur quatre types de changements dans la capacité des personnes (Bahadur et al., 2015) :"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"A. CAPACITÉ À ANTICIPER LE CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE : action proactive avant un événement prévu afin de prévenir un bouleversement, en évitant et en réduisant au minimum la vulnérabilité à des risques spécifiques. Au nombre des exemples, on peut citer la préparation, la planification et l'information sur les risques. "}]},{"head":"B. CAPACITÉ À S'ADAPTER AU CHANGEMENT CLIMATIQUE","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Capacité à anticiper le changement climatique","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Lorsque les prévisions saisonnières annoncent des précipitations normales ou excédentaires, les agriculteurs choisissent des cultures exigeantes en eau telles que le maïs, ou évitent les basfonds, qui pourraient être affectées par des inondations. En revanche, lorsque les niveaux de précipitations attendus sont déficitaires, ils optent pour des cultures tolérantes à la sécheresse comme le mil et le sorgho."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"La connaissance des prévisions journalières permet à l'agriculteur de planifier les activités quotidiennes à l'avance. Ainsi, la facilitation de l'accès des communautés vulnérables aux prévisions météorologiques offre à celles-ci la possibilité de mieux anticiper les chocs grâce à une prise de décision judicieuse pour l'exécution des activités agricoles. Par exemple, un agriculteur peut annuler son programme de traitement phytosanitaire ou retarder le semis dès qu'il reçoit une prévision de pluie dans la journée ou dans les 24 heures qui suivent."}]},{"head":"Capacité à s'adapter au changement climatique","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Les agriculteurs adoptent des technologies d'agriculture intelligente face au climat telles que les techniques du zaï ou de microdose. La combinaison de l'utilisation de l'information climatique et de l'application des technologies d'agriculture intelligente face au climat permet aux agriculteurs de mieux s'adapter à la variabilité climatique grâce à l'amélioration des rendements des cultures et de la production."}]},{"head":"Capacité de transformation","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"Étant donné que ces innovations sont encore à leurs débuts, il est difficile de déterminer clairement leur impact sur la société. Toutefois, on a constaté une tendance de diffusion spontanée à l'échelle communautaire. Les communautés ne perçoivent plus le téléphone comme un moyen de passer ou de recevoir des appels, mais plutôt comme un outil pour recevoir des informations météorologiques et climatiques. L'implication de sociétés de développement locales telles que la CMDT ou de certaines antennes d'ONG nationales et internationales au Niger, ainsi que les nombreuses campagnes publicitaires sur les ondes de la télévision nationale, déclenchent un processus de transformation. Un suivi ultérieur permettrait de constater cette transformation. En tant qu'innovation pour renforcer la résilience climatique, à ce stade, nous disposons de données qui démontrent une évolution anecdotique des comportements au jour le jour en fonction de l'information reçue et de leur choix de continuer avec le service en fonction de l'exactitude de l'information reçue. Le Projet obtiendra plus de données sur les changements dans les moyens de subsistance et le bien-être au cours de l'année prochaine et sera en mesure de réfléchir plus clairement sur les impacts sur la résilience sur une plus longue période de temps."}]},{"head":"Diffusion et durabilité","index":21,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Objectifs initiaux de l'innovation dans le Projet 3.4. Évaluation de la contribution de l'innovation au renforcement de la résilience 3.5. Mise en oeuvre de l'innovation Expériences positives avec l'innovation 4.5. Apport de l'innovation aux populations marginalisées dans le cadre de la mise en oeuvre 5. Comment l'accès à l'information climatique renforce-ta innové pour les producteurs maliens en utilisant le téléphone mobile en expansion pour fournir des informations météorologiques et climatiques aux agriculteurs. "},{"text":" C'est un service d'information agricole qui a été officiellement lancé au Mali en juillet 2013 avec pour objectif d'informer, de former et de guider les agriculteurs ainsi que les commerçants sur le conseil agricole et les prix des produits agricoles. En 2016, RIC4REC a utilisé cette plateforme comme canal de communication pour conseiller ses communautés bénéficiaires sur les bonnes pratiques agricoles et l'implémentation des technologies  "},{"text":" 'utilisation de Sènèkèla et Sandji a pour objectif de faciliter l'accès aux informations climatiques et aux conseils agricoles par les producteurs. Il s'inscrit aussi dans les orientations politiques du Gouvernement sur le renforcement des actions d'adaptation aux impacts des changements climatiques en faveur des ménages les plus pauvres et les plus exposés aux aléas du climat. Pour faciliter l'accès de 5 000 personnes, y compris celles qui sont le plus économiquement Pour faciliter l'accès de 5 000 personnes, y compris celles qui sont le plus économiquement et physiquement à risque, aux informations climatiques et aux technologies d'agriculture et physiquement à risque, aux informations climatiques et aux technologies d'agriculture intelligente face au climat, RIC4REC envisage de renforcer les capacités de 110 communautés intelligente face au climat, RIC4REC envisage de renforcer les capacités de 110 communautés à s'adapter et à faire face aux chocs climatiques à travers la fourniture de deux types à s'adapter et à faire face aux chocs climatiques à travers la fourniture de deux types d'informations : (i) l'information saisonnière et (ii) l'information météorologique. L'information d'informations : (i) l'information saisonnière et (ii) l'information météorologique. L'information climatique porte sur les dates de début/fin de saison et des poches de sécheresse au cours de climatique porte sur les dates de début/fin de saison et des poches de sécheresse au cours de la saison. Tandis que l'information météorologique porte sur les prévisions pluviométriques du la saison. Tandis que l'information météorologique porte sur les prévisions pluviométriques du jour et du jour suivant. jour et du jour suivant.  "},{"text":" Un groupe de suivi Sandji, composé de 10 à 15 agriculteurs, a été mis en place dans chaque village. Ainsi, avec l'appui du Projet RIC4REC, 1 501 agriculteurs ont directement souscrit au Programme et bénéficié de la formation sur l'inscription, la désinscription, la lecture des SMS, les interprétations et l'impact des prévisions sur les prises de décision. Chaque producteur ayant souscrit au Programme SMS-Sandji reçoit directement des prévisions saisonnières et journalières sur son téléphone portable en fonction du lieu d'enregistrement.Pour la mise en place du réseau Sènèkèla, on a d'abord constitué un groupe de discussion de cinq à dix personnes dans les 110 villages. Chaque groupe était présidé par un chef qui était chargé d'organiser et d'animer les séances d'appels et un secrétaire qui était chargé de la documentation. Les agriculteurs ont été formés sur les modalités de fonctionnement du système (inscription, passer l'appel, tenir une conversation avec l'agro-conseiller) et remplir la fiche de notation. Avant chaque opération d'appel les membres de chaque groupe étaient invités à proposer des contraintes liées à la mise en oeuvre des activités agricoles et/ou  "},{"text":" Par ailleurs, pour accéder aux services SMS-Sandji, il faudra disposer d'au moins une unité d'appel correspondant à 25 FCFA/SMS (0,04 $) soit 750 FCFA/mois (1,29 $) ou disposer d'unités suffisantes pour assurer la communication. Il est aussi observé que certaines communautés ne peuvent accéder à ce service à cause de la non-couverture des zones par le réseau téléphonique de Orange Mali.  "},{"text":" : la capacité des systèmes sociaux à s'adapter aux risques multiples, à long terme et futurs liés au changement climatique, ainsi qu'à tirer des leçons d'une catastrophe et à s'y adapter. Par exemple, on peut citer l'accroissement des revenus et des moyens d'existence. et des et des politiques stratégiques, du leadership, de l'autonomisation et de l'innovation. politiques stratégiques, du leadership, de l'autonomisation et de l'innovation. L'utilisation des plateformes Sènèkèla et Sandji au sein de ces communautés a permis L'utilisation des plateformes Sènèkèla et Sandji au sein de ces communautés a permis d'améliorer la capacité des agriculteurs à anticiper le changement climatique et à s'y adapter. d'améliorer la capacité des agriculteurs à anticiper le changement climatique et à s'y adapter. Ceci repose sur la fourniture d'informations sur les événements futurs à court et moyen termes Ceci repose sur la fourniture d'informations sur les événements futurs à court et moyen termes (quotidiens et saisonniers), ainsi que de conseils et de recommandations sur les pratiques (quotidiens et saisonniers), ainsi que de conseils et de recommandations sur les pratiques agricoles adaptées aux besoins spécifiques des producteurs. agricoles adaptées aux besoins spécifiques des producteurs.  "},{"text":"Recommandations pour adapter/développer cette innovation pour renforcer la résilience Pour faciliter l'utilisation de la Plateforme de Sènèkèla et SMS-Sandji par les agriculteurs, l'équipe RIC4REC a mis sur pied un groupe d'agriculteurs dans 110 villages des régions administratives de Mopti, Ségou et Koulikoro pendant la campagne 2016-2017.À la fin de chaque mois, les agriculteurs de chaque groupe se réunissent pour examiner les difficultés rencontrées dans leurs systèmes de production agricole ou d'élevage et identifient clairement les questions à aborder avec l'aide de conseillers agricoles. Le groupe examine les conseils prodigués par les conseillers agricoles et décide des mesures appropriées pour chaque participant. En outre, le choix est laissé à chaque agriculteur de contacter, à titre personnel, les conseillers afin de régler les problèmes spécifiques à son exploitation. Les agriculteurs peuvent partager les informations avec les membres de leurs familles et/ou avec les habitants des villages voisins.Une année après l'introduction des innovations, et après la fin du cadre de subvention et de programme, le système demeure opérationnel. Plusieurs producteurs ont continué de communiquer avec le service Sènèkèla ou de recevoir des SMS-Sandji, soit individuellement soit collectivement. Ceci donne une indication précoce de l'intérêt continu et de la durabilité potentielle, ainsi que de la volonté de payer pour le service sur mesure.Pour assurer une large intégration de l'utilisation de l'information climatique par les producteurs, il est nécessaire qu'il y ait une pleine implication de l'État et d'autres acteurs dans la fixation des coûts de communication pour qu'ils soient plus accessibles aux populations notamment rurales. Un plaidoyer de l'ensemble des ONG utilisateurs de Sènèkèla pour la réduction des coûts est en cours de préparation et doit être soutenu.En général, les femmes rurales ont difficilement accès à l'information climatique ; pour cela il est souhaitable de faciliter leur accès au téléphone et/ou de passer l'information par le canal des sites maraîchers qui constituent un lieu de rencontre des femmes. L'État pourrait dans une certaine mesure favoriser la mise à disposition d'un numéro vert, surtout pour les zones marginales ou les populations vulnérables.De façon générale, il en ressort que la majorité des producteurs ne savent pas lire les SMS. Pour prendre en compte cette contrainte, il est souhaitable que Orange Mali fournisse des messages vocaux en lieu et place des SMS. Pour assurer une large diffusion au niveau local (village), il serait intéressant d'impliquer davantage les radios locales et les relais (mosquées, églises, marchés et foires) dans la diffusion des informations.L'utilisation du téléphone portable qui a connu un essor au Mali constitue un nouveau moyen d'accéder à l'information climatique notamment dans les zones rurales. Le coût relativement bas et le caractère individuel et interactif du service adapté au langage et à la réponse à des questions spécifiques rendent le dispositif encore plus utile. L'innovation a été mise en oeuvre par plus de 5 000 bénéficiaires dans 110 communautés du Projet et fait partie d'un ensemble plus large de projets en Afrique de l'Ouest qui cherchent à fournir des informations climatiques par téléphone portable aux populations rurales qui sont difficilement accessibles. Il est du devoir de l'État de promouvoir le développement social et économique des Il est du devoir de l'État de promouvoir le développement social et économique des populations, en particulier les populations rurales. Cependant, compte tenu des contraintes populations, en particulier les populations rurales. Cependant, compte tenu des contraintes budgétaires, il est dans l'obligation de restreindre ses actions et de se concentrer uniquement budgétaires, il est dans l'obligation de restreindre ses actions et de se concentrer uniquement sur les questions urgentes. sur les questions urgentes. Une solution viable consiste à collaborer avec le secteur privé, qui dispose, en général, des Une solution viable consiste à collaborer avec le secteur privé, qui dispose, en général, des moyens financiers et techniques nécessaires pour concevoir ces innovations et les mettre moyens financiers et techniques nécessaires pour concevoir ces innovations et les mettre à la disposition des populations moyennant une compensation financière. L'État pourrait à la disposition des populations moyennant une compensation financière. L'État pourrait  "}],"sieverID":"bfe84100-0754-47d6-b464-cdf07a9bdf1f","abstract":"Informations climatiques et conseils agricoles au bout des doigts au Mali. Innovation pour la résilience climatique. Série de cas d'études. BRACED."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0255325b0fd69cc9b4c63ea4928f592f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/13e0c4a1-60c3-4c67-8c49-549508a7c1ad/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Who has the better story? On the narrative foundations of agricultural development dichotomies","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Since the 2000s, there has been renewed interest among African governments, development organizations, civil society, and the scientific community in promoting agricultural development in Africa. Such renewed interest is evident in the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), and the New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition in Africa (NAFSN). Yet, disagreements exist regarding the policy instruments that should be used to promote agricultural development in Africa. What role should the government play? Are input subsidy programs an effective strategy to increase agricultural productivity? Do small-scale farms have development potential or is supporting them ''romantic populism\"? Such questions have remained contested among policymakers and analysts for a long time (see, e.g., Harrigan, 2003;Jayne, Govereh, Mwanaumo, Nyoro, & Chapoto, 2002;Collier, 2008;Deininger & Byerlee, 2012;Jayne & Rashid, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"In his seminal work on ''Development Dichotomies\", Paul Streeten (founding editor of World Development) highlighted the fundamental divisions in ideas and beliefs that he observed among development economists. To name just two, there is the division between those who believe ''bigger is better\" and those who believe ''small is beautiful\" (Streeten, 1983, 355ff). Likewise, there is a division between ''pedants\", a term Streeten used to refer to those ''who tend to advocate models that have, by their standards, worked: export orientation, reliance on market forces, and reduced interventions by the central government\" and what he called ''utopians\", a group that wants to ''experiment with a wide range of institutional arrangements\" and ''passionately dislikes precision both in analyzing what exists today and in drawing up the blueprints of their ideas for a better society in the future!\" (Streeten, 1983, 359-360)."},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"With regard to agricultural development, such dichotomies exist, as well. In particular, there is a divide between those who believe in state-led approaches and those who believe in marketled approaches to promote agriculture. This dichotomy featured prominently in seminal writings about the political economy of agricultural policy, such as Bates (1981) ' ''Markets and States in Tropical Africa\", Krueger (1996) ''Political Economy of Agricultural Policies\", Van De Walle (2001) ''African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis\" and Jayne, Govereh, Mwanaumo, Nyoro, and Chapoto (2002)'s ''False Promise or False Premise\". The debate remains important for agricultural policy-making to date. In Malawi, for instance, Harrigan (2003) found a dichotomy between a belief in ''state minimalism and pricism\" that opposed input subsidies (Harrigan, 2003, 848) and a belief in ''structural revisionism\" that accepted subsidies and other government interventions (Harrigan, 2003, 850). Likewise, a study by Mockshell and Birner (2015) conducted in Ghana and Uganda points to a dichotomy in policy beliefs between donors and domestic policy-makers regarding agricultural policy choices."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"In explaining contested agricultural policy choices, the early quantitative literature focused on the economic interests of different groups and the resulting incentives of politicians to stay in power. The role of ideas and ideology was not considered. As Binswanger and Deininger noted in their 1997 review of this literature: ''It is not clear to what extent ideas and ideologies are used to bring about political and policy changes, rather than to merely legitimize policies that would have been adopted anyway because of interest group pressure. Nor is it clear to what extent ideas and ideologies facilitate the spread of specific policy mixes across countries. The literature on agricultural policies and agrarian relations does not address these issues. Further research is needed.\" (Binswanger & Deininger, 1997)."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"Since then, the economic models to explain agricultural policy choices have become more complex, e.g., to capture the influence of regime types; but the role of ideas and ideologies has continued to play a minor role (see reviews by Binswanger & Deininger, 1997;De Gorter & Swinnen, 2002;Swinnen, 2010;Anderson, Rausser, & Swinnen, 2013). Only few quantitative studies have been published that included ideas or ideologies as an independent variable that may influence policy choices. An example is Olper (2007), who found evidence that political orientation (left-wing versus rightwing) influences agricultural policy choices, but the relation was found to be complex and influenced by other factors, such as land inequality."},{"index":6,"size":157,"text":"In the qualitative literature on agricultural policy change, the role of ideas and ideology has received relatively more attention. This applies both to the early literature, which identified, for example, ''African socialism\" or the ''Washington consensus\" as factors influencing agricultural policy choices (see review by Birner & Resnick, 2010), and to the more recent literature. An example of the latter is a study by Resnick, Haggblade, Babu, Hendriks, and Mather (2018), who used the Kaleidoscope model of policy change, which explicitly takes ''norms, biases, ideology and beliefs\" into account. Applying this model to analyse agricultural policies in Zambia, the authors concluded that these factors influenced the government's input subsidy program (Resnick, Haggblade, Babu, Hendriks, & Mather, 2018, 115). Another example is the study by Mockshell and Birner (2015) quoted above, who used the Advocacy Coalition Framework developed by Jenkins-Smith and Sabatier (1994) to identify how ideas and policy beliefs influence agricultural policy choices in Uganda and Ghana."},{"index":7,"size":226,"text":"The political science literature suggests that it may also be important to study how the use of language influences policymaking. According to this literature, it matters for political outcomes how ideas and beliefs are formulated in the public discourse and what argumentative strategies are used to defend particular ideas and beliefs. A prominent example of this position is the book ''The Argumentative Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning\", edited by Fischer and Forester (1993, 1), who pointed out: ''What if our language does not simply mirror or picture the world but profoundly shapes our view of it in the first place?\" Research that followed this quest for an ''argumentative turn\" has employed various types of discourse analysis to study the way in which language is used in argumentative processes to influence policy outcomes (Fischer & Gottweis, 2013). A policy field where this research has produced particularly interesting insights is environmental policy. For example, researchers were able to identify how different actors influence environmental policy choices by imposing a particular framing of an environmental problem, thus influencing ''what can and cannot be thought\", thus delimiting the range of possible policy options (see review by Hajer & Versteeg, 2005, 177-178). More recently, the analysis of narratives is also finding its way into mainstream economics, as the recent book ''Narrative Economics\" by Nobel Prize winner Robert Shiller (2019) indicates."},{"index":8,"size":268,"text":"In the literature on agricultural policy processes, there are still relatively few empirical studies that have adopted this research agenda and aimed to identify how the use of language influences agricultural policy choices. One example is a study by Erjavec and Erjavec (2015), who analysed the discourses associated with different directions in the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy of the EU. Feindt and Kleinschmit (2011) examined how the framing of the outbreak of mad cow disease (BSE) in the German media influenced a far-reaching change in agricultural policy in Germany in the early 2000s. With regard to agricultural policymaking in developing countries, discourse analyses have been conducted to identify the ideas and policy beliefs of different actors (Birner, Gupta, & Sharma, 2011;Mockshell & Birner, 2015), but studies that focus specifically on the argumentative structure of agricultural policy discourses have been relatively scarce. The present paper aims to address this gap in the literature by conducting an empirical analysis of agricultural policy processes in Senegal, which combines the application of the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) with the Narrative Policy Analysis approach developed by Roe (1991Roe ( , 1994)). The ACF is used in this paper to identify the main policy themes that dominate the debate about agricultural development and to identify the groups of actors (advocacy coalitions) who share similar ideas and policy beliefs (as in Mockshell & Birner, 2015). On this basis, Narrative Policy Analysis is applied to examine the use of language by the different advocacies by examining how they formulate their ideas and beliefs and how they argue against each other in the policy process."},{"index":9,"size":192,"text":"Narrative Policy Analysis makes it possible to identify the ''stories\" that different actors tell, and to examine the argumentative structure of these stories. As pointed out by Roe (1994, 36), a story ''has a beginning, middle, and end (or premises and conclusions, if cast as an argument) and revolves around a sequence of events or positions in which something is said to happen or something is said to follow.\" Narratives thus ''have the objective to get their hearers to assume or do something\". (Roe, 1994, 37). A key insight of Narrative Policy Analysis is that ''stories commonly used in describing and analysing policy issues are a force in themselves, and must be considered explicitly in assessing policy options\" (Roe, 1994, 2). Narrative Policy Analysis also shows that narratives are often treated as continuing to have explanatory power even if some assumptions on which they are based have come into doubt (Roe, 1994, 37). Thus, as demonstrated by our case study of Senegal, the analysis of policy narratives contributes to a better understanding of why ''development dichotomies\" continue to persist in spite of efforts to overcome them, e.g., by promoting evidencebased policy learning."},{"index":10,"size":70,"text":"The paper is structured as follows. The next section outlines the key concepts of the AFC and the Narrative Policy Analysis approach. In Section 3, the dynamic agricultural policy landscape in Senegal, the case study country, is presented. Section 4 describes the quantitative and qualitative research methods used in this study. The results are presented in Section 5 and discussed in the Section 6. Conclusions are drawn in Section 7."}]},{"head":"The advocacy coalition framework and narrative policy analysis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"As explained in the introduction, this study combines the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) developed by Jenkins-Smith and Sabatier (Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier, 1994;Weible & Sabatier, 2017) with the Narrative Policy Analysis approach developed by Roe (1994). The ACF was developed to analyze policy subsystems consisting of different policy coalitions, in which members of each coalition share ideas and policy beliefs (Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier, 1994). The concept of policy beliefs is fundamental in the ACF as the formation of coalitions depends on shared beliefs. Policy beliefs refer to implicit theories about how to achieve certain goals, views on the effectiveness of policy instruments, value priorities, and perceptions of important causal relationships (Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier, 1994;Majone, 1980). They are seen as causal drivers for political behavior (Weible, Sabatier, & McQueen, 2009, 122). In a policy subsystem, the coalition members with similar beliefs interact and engage in a significant degree of coordination to influence policy (Elgin & Weible, 2013;Weible, Sabatier, & McQueen, 2009). A broad range of policy actors consisting of government officials, interest groups, researchers, and private sector actors concerned about a policy problem form beliefs about possible solutions and coordinate their activities in a policy subsystem (Weible, 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"A central concept in the AFC is policy-oriented learning, which is defined as ''enduring alternations of thought or behavioral intentions that result from experiences and which are concerned with the attainment or revision of the precepts of the belief system of individuals or of collectives\" (Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier, 1994, 182;Jenkins-Smith, Nohrstedt, Weible, & Sabatier, 2014, 198). Achieving cross-coalition learning depends on the extent to which policy actors perceive a threat to their core policy beliefs (Jenkins-Smith, Nohrstedt, Weible, & Sabatier, 2014, 199). An intermediate level of conflict increases the likelihood of cross-coalition learning, as opposing coalitions are threatened just enough to attend to the issues and remain receptive enough to new information (Jenkins-Smith, Nohrstedt, Weible, & Sabatier, 2014, 199). Conflicting policy beliefs among coalitions in a policy subsystem can be mediated by policy brokers to facilitate cross-coalition policy learning (Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier, 1994;Jenkins-Smith, Nohrstedt, Weible, & Sabatier, 2014). The aim of promoting policy-oriented learning is to facilitate policy change, which can be measured by the extent to which alterations deviate from previous policies, e.g., by revisions of existing programs, termination of programs, or the launching of new programs (Jenkins-Smith, Nohrstedt, Weible, & Sabatier, 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":303,"text":"While the AFC framework offers an important tool to identify and analyze the role of policy beliefs in the policy process, the framework does not focus on the way in which language is used to express policy beliefs and how the use of language, specifically the argumentative structure, may contribute to the change in policy beliefs and policy learning. Combining the AFC with a framework that addresses this aspect appears useful. As Shanahan, Jones, and McBeth (2011, 536) observe, ''stakeholders use words, images, and symbols to strategically craft policy narratives to resonate with the public, relevant stakeholders, and governmental decision makers, with the aim of producing a winning coalition.\" There are different approaches to analyze narratives, which are divided into two categories (Jones & McBeth, 2010, 333ff): (1) structuralist approaches, which typically involve a quantitative analysis of the structure or format of narratives; and (2) poststructuralist approaches, which employ qualitative methods and focus understanding towards ''how meaning is developed and assigned\" (Jones & McBeth, 2010, 334). As mentioned above, this study applies Roe (1994) Narrative Policy Analysis, which falls into the category of post-structuralist approaches. This approach has been selected, because the focus of this paper is placed on understanding dichotomies in agricultural development policy and Roe's Narrative Policy Analysis is considered to provide ''the most fully articulated methodology for the use of narratives in policy controversies.\" (Jones & McBeth, 2010, 335). Moreover, the framework has been developed to study policy problems that are characterized by uncertainty, complexity, and polarization. Uncertainty and complexity follow from the intricacies of the problem and/or the interrelatedness with other policy issues, while polarization refers to the concentration of groups around extremes in the policy issues (Roe, 1994, 2). As the persistence of dichotomies (see Section 1) indicates, these features play an important role in agricultural development policy."},{"index":4,"size":330,"text":"The Narrative Policy Analysis approach involves the following four steps (Roe, 1994, 2ff). The first step is to identify those narratives that dominate the issue in question and match the definition of a story indicated above, that is having a beginning, a middle and an end. The second step is identifying those narratives that do not conform to the definition of a story (non-stories) and those narratives that are counter-stories. The latter also have a beginning, middle and end, but they are formulated in such a way that ''they run counter to the controversy's dominant policy narratives\" Roe, 1994, 3). A typical type of a non-story is a critique, which ''never tells its own story-its point-by-point rebuttal does not have its own argument, its own beginning, middle, and end-and serves only to raise doubts that the critique itself cannot answer\" (Roe, 1994, 40). Critiques alone, however, are not sufficient to induce policy change. As Roe (1994, 40) observes: ''Refutation of a decision-maker's argument for action doesn't mean you have taken away her or his perceived need to act. Rather, displacing a discredited narrative requires an equally straightforward narrative that tells a better story\". To understand the dichotomies in agricultural development policy and examine how they are translated into actual policy, it is therefore essential to identify both critiques and counter-stories. The third step in Roe's approach is to generate a ''meta-narrative\", which takes aspects of the dominant stories and counter-stories into account and aims to turn the prevailing polarization ''into another story altogether\" (Roe, 1994, 4). The fourth step is to examine if and how the meta-narrative recasts the issue in a way more amenable to decision-making. However, regarding steps 3 and 4, one needs to take into account that not all controversies have a policy-relevant meta-narrative (Roe, 1994, 4). The concept of the meta-narrative is particularly interesting when combining Narrative Policy Analysis with the ACF, because such meta-narratives could play an important role in policy learning across advocacy coalitions."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"In the following, we will apply these concepts to better understand how different narratives influence policy formulation and policy outcomes in the context of a developing country, taking Senegal as an example."}]},{"head":"The policy landscape: Senegal's agricultural sector","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"Since Senegal won its independence in 1960, agricultural development policies have been central to the Senegalese economic development agenda. Yet, annual growth in the agricultural value added has been erratic (below 5 percent in recent years) and characterized by declining performance in total cereal production and in land productivity (USD 160/hectare) and labor productivity (0.5-0.9 ha/worker) (Mockshell, 2016, 4). Overall, the sector remains underdeveloped and confronts numerous challenges (Stads & Sène, 2011). This situation is particularly disturbing for the Senegalese economy because the country heavily depends on agriculture, which supports the livelihood of most of its rural population. Owing to these challenges, the sector has witnessed several policy reforms aimed at promoting its development. The policies of the post-independence (1960-1980s) era were characterized by state investment in the provision of agricultural inputs and credit, and by regulating the output market (Masters, 2007;Oya, 2006). However, because of the fiscal crisis and management challenges, state interventions were abandoned in the early 1980s (Oya, 2006). This period marked an ideological shift from state interventionist agricultural policies to market sector-led polices. There was a move toward liberalization of the agricultural input and output markets through the ''Nouvelle Politique Agricole\" (new agricultural policy) launched in 1984 (Oya, 2006). Apart from the presence of international financial institutions and other donor organizations coming into the agricultural policy arena, there was an inflow of private sector enterprises, non-government organizations, and civil society organizations in the policy arena."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"The limited success in transforming the Senegalese agricultural sector (post-Nouvelle Politique Agricole era) led, in the 2000s, to initiating a consultation process involving multiple stakeholders to develop the ''Loi d'Orientation Agro-Sylvo Pastorale\" (LOASP -Agro-sylvo pastoral act) (Resnick & Birner, 2010). The LOASP was a grand vision for the agricultural sector and aimed at providing a strategy to modernize the sector and reduce rural poverty (Oya, 2006;Resnick & Birner, 2010). The LOASP was complemented by the ''Grande Offensive Agricole pour la Nourriture et l'Abondance\" (GOANA-Great Agricultural Offensive for Food and Abundance) launched after the 2008 food crisis, which aimed at improving domestic food production, reducing food importation, and attaining self-sufficiency. Under the GOANA, state subsidies covered the provision of irrigation facilities, fertilizer (50 percent reduction in price), and seeds (75 percent reduction in price) that was a U-turn from the Nouvelle Politique Agricole mentioned earlier (Stads & Sène, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"The ''Programme National d'Investissement Agricole\" (PNIA-Program of Agricultural Sector Investment) was the next agricultural development policy document of Senegal, covering an implementation period of 2011-2015. It was developed through a multi-stakeholder consultation process involving national policymakers, donors, and civil society organizations. It reflected the diverse policy interests in the agricultural policy subsystem (Government of Senegal, 2012). In particular, it aligned itself with the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) (Plan d'investissement, (n.d.)). Similar to the initial agricultural development program, the PNIA also aimed at promoting economic development, achieving food security, and reducing poverty by 2015 (Government of Senegal, 2012). Although the PNIA was the output of a broad stakeholder consultation process with eight policy objectives, it is generally silent on the policy instruments to be used to realize the outlined policy objectives (Plan d'investissement, (n.d.))."}]},{"head":"Research methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"This section starts with a description of the research study design, followed by an explanation of the empirical research methods that were applied."}]},{"head":"Study design","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"The study combines both the ACF and Narrative Policy Analysis to identify policy beliefs and understand their role in shaping agricultural policy processes and policy choices. To identify the current actors in the agricultural policy subsystem and examine their narratives, a stakeholder mapping exercise was conducted, which was complemented by key informant interviews in Senegal and by a search through policy publications. The main actors were then categorized into four generic interest groups: think tanks, knowledge providers, donors, and government policy-makers. To examine the underlying narratives of the agricultural policy choices in Senegal, in-depth interviews with policy stakeholders were conducted. After every interview, the respondents were asked for additional respondents involved in the policy process, taking into consideration the qualitative research principle of ''completeness\" (covering the broad spectrum of actors) and ''dissimilarity\" (respondents with diverse perspectives) (Blee & Taylor, 2002). A total of 27 indepth interviews (see Table 1) and two participant observation workshops were undertaken. Data triangulation was employed to check for internal validity (see Golafshani, 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"The in-depth interviews with stakeholders were conducted using a semi-structured interview approach. This follows the recommendation of Roe (1994, 158-162) to use open-ended questions without prompting the respondents to facilitate free expression. The interview questions comprised five broad initial questions: (1) What are the challenges affecting the agricultural sector? (2) What are the opportunities existing in the agricultural sector? (3) What is the vision for the agricultural sector? (4) What policy instruments are important for transforming the agricultural sector (5) What is the role of the different policy actors in transforming the agricultural sector? Twenty-three in-depth interviews were recorded with the consent of the respondents. The interviews lasted for an average duration of one hour, and most interviews were conducted in French, with four in English. All recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim for further analysis."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The data analysis process consisted of a content analysis of the transcripts and a two-step cluster analysis. The analysis aimed at examining the narrative polarizations through cluster analysis and applying content analysis to determine the storyline."}]},{"head":"Content analysis of transcripts","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"All transcripts were uploaded into the NVivo 10 software for a detailed content analysis of each transcript 1 . The five broad interview questions (see above) were used to guide the content analysis. Two independent researchers who had regular discussions during the coding process to check for inter-coder reliability conducted this analysis. The categories consisted of challenges affecting the agricultural sector, vision of the agricultural sector, role of the actors, and the policy instruments. A total of 25 policy themes relating to the agricultural policy debates were identified in the transcripts of the respondents. In this analysis, labels were applied to describe recurring policy themes. For example, the label ''rainfall-dependent agriculture\" describes a policy theme, which focuses on the problem that agricultural production systems mainly rely on natural rainfall and are characterized by low productivity because of the absence of irrigation technologies. As indicated above, the researchers identified those policy themes without prompting or using leading questions (see Appendix A for details). The identified policy themes were grouped according to constraints affecting the agricultural sector and agricultural policy instruments."}]},{"head":"Quantitative data generation and cluster analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Transformation of the qualitative data into a quantitative data set was carried out to identify the advocacy coalitions and policy actors (see Section 2 for explanation). The first step was the coding of the interviews (cf. Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). The coding of interviews in this paper builds on an approach designed by Birner, Gupta, and Sharma (2011) for analyzing the political economy of agricultural policy reforms in India. The transformation into quantitative data followed an approach developed by Mockshell and Birner (2015). Each policy theme identified in the content analysis (coding) was assigned a binary value (1 = yes was assigned if the policy theme appeared in the policy narrative of a respondent and 0 = no was assigned otherwise)."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Subsequently, a two-step cluster 2 analysis was conducted to explore how the policy actors' cluster around the policy themes identified from the in-depth interviews. Cluster membership was determined and cross-tabulated, using an identification number (stakeholder identification variable) for each interviewed stakeholder. The cluster analysis served to identify the number of advocacy coalitions and their composition, based on shared policy themes."}]},{"head":"Analysis of agricultural policy narratives","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"After determining the advocacy coalitions and the policy actors who constitute them, Roe's Narrative Policy Analysis approach (cf. Section 2) was applied to identify and analyze different types of narratives in the interviews held by the policy actors. For this purpose, the policy themes identified as described above were examined with regard to their narrative structure in order to identify stories, non-stories (such as critiques), counter-stories and metanarratives. The analysis of the policy themes showed that they fall into the following groups: (1) Policy themes that refer to constraints affecting the agricultural sector, which are possible beginnings of stories and counter-stories; (2) policy themes that describe policy instruments and their effects, which are possible middles and ends of either stories or counter-stories; and (3) policy themes that were formulated as criticism of policy instruments and therefore, fall into the category of critiques (non-stories)."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"The broad interview questions on challenges affecting the agricultural sector, policy instruments, and vision of the agricultural sector were used to guide this analytical process. For example, a respondent's ''fertilizer input subsidy narrative\" was identified from the interview transcript as follows: The story starts with the problem of depleting soil quality affecting agricultural productivity (beginning of story). Fertilizer input subsidy provision is recommended for improving soil quality (middle of story). Providing a fertilizer input subsidy would contribute to improving soil nutrient and agricultural productivity. This will increase farmers' income and promote agricultural and rural development (end of story). The results are described in the results section, using direct quotes for illustration. In addition, the results are summarized in the form of tables in the Appendix B."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"The analysis of policy themes did not reveal any metanarratives in the transcripts of the interviewees. Therefore, the results presented in Section 4 are based on the first two steps in the four-step approach of Narrative Policy Analysis (see Section 2):"},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"(1) the identification of dominant stories, and (2) the identification of critiques (non-stories) and counter-stories. The remaining two steps, that is (3) identifying meta-narratives and (4) assessing them are conducted as part of Section 5, where potential meta-narratives are discussed that could serve for policy-learning."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Based on the policy themes identified in the data analysis, this section presents how the agricultural policy ideas and policy beliefs were expressed in the form of storylines. The section starts with describing findings regarding the advocacy coalitions and their composition before presenting the findings regarding their narratives."}]},{"head":"Advocacy coalitions in agricultural policy subsystems","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Based on the results of the cluster analysis, two advocacy coalitions were identified. They are labeled as ''agricultural support\" and ''agricultural support critique\", because these terms reflect predominant types of narratives of the respective coalitions. Table 2 shows the advocacy coalitions and the stakeholders that form the two coalitions. A total of 17 stakeholders belong to the agricultural support coalition, which is dominated by actors from government ministries and agencies (except the finance ministry), academia, and interest groups. The six remaining policy actors belong to the agricultural support critique coalition. These coalition members come from international financial institutions, think tanks, research organizations, and academia."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"The results of the cluster analysis are displayed in Appendices C and D. A silhouette 3 measure of 0.6 (cluster results) > 0.5 (average measure) provides a basis for accepting the cluster groupings of the two advocacy coalitions. This implies that the agricultural support narratives and the agricultural support critique narratives are not the same for the two advocacy coalitions (''agricultural support\" versus ''agricultural support critique\") but are similar within the same advocacy coalition. The next section examines the narratives of the two advocacy coalitions. Source: Authors' compilation."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"2 A two-step cluster determines the cluster number automatically compared to Kmeans and hierarchical clustering in which the number of clusters must be specified in the analysis."}]},{"head":"The narratives of the two advocacy coalitions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Based on the detailed analysis of interview transcripts, 63 different narratives were identified in the agricultural support coalition, while 24 narratives were identified in the interviews of the agricultural support critique coalition. The next section presents the policy narratives of the two coalitions."}]},{"head":"Agricultural support narratives","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"The narratives of the agricultural support coalition focus primarily on low agricultural productivity coupled with other agricultural sector constraints, and on instruments to overcome these constraints. In these narratives, the agricultural sector is characterized by low productivity and there is a need to address this problem. The proponents of this coalition construct the agricultural support narratives in a ''cause and effect\" style. At the beginning of the story, the narratives identify problems of poor soil fertility, low input quality, high costs of inputs, unavailability of appropriate technologies, and rainfall-dependent agriculture as fundamental constraints contributing to low agricultural productivity (see Table 3). As a solution to this problem, the middle of the narratives highlight the potential benefits of government investment in modern farm inputs, irrigation facilities, and the provision of input subsidies (for fertilizer and seed) to increase agricultural productivity. Moreover, import protection was recommended to facilitate the development of the domestic market. At the end of the narratives, such policy instruments are said to contribute to poverty reduction, increase farm income, provide employment for youth, improve food security, and promote rural and economic development. The following sections analyze these agricultural support narratives in more detail."}]},{"head":"The narratives of depleting soil fertility, poor seed quality, and input subsidies","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":302,"text":"A recurring theme in the narratives of the agricultural support coalition was the role of poor soil quality and low fertilizer application in contributing to low agricultural productivity. This problem was explained in a cause-effect fashion by the inability of farmers to purchase fertilizer and other complementary inputs due to high cost, quality problems, and insufficient quantities on the market. This type of narrative can be illustrated by the following quote from a farmers' organization representative: ''There are no good seeds . . . so seeds come from everywhere, everyone brings what he wants. The ISRA [i.e. Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles -Senegalese Institute of of Agricultural Research] was helping farmers, but for about 10 years now we do not have certified seeds. If we don't have good seeds, we cannot have a good harvest . . . also there is the problem with depleting soil nutrients and we need fertilizer (R1) 4 .\" A government official expressed this concern as follows: ''Besides that, there is also a problem of availability of certified seeds, thus germination is not always guaranteed (R19).\" To address these problems, the agricultural support coalition recommended a fertilizer and seed input subsidy to improve soil quality and increase productivity. This recommendation was linked to the argument that farmers are poor and unable to access agricultural inputs from the market. Hence, these narratives have a very systematic ''problem and solution\" plot. The findings suggest that these narratives have high acceptability across different stakeholders, as evidenced by the wide range of actors and frequency at which such narratives were identified (see Table 3). In the view of the proponents of agricultural support, subsidies for fertilizer and seeds will contribute to increasing soil fertility, and therefore to increasing agricultural productivity and food security. These were typical ends of the respective narratives."}]},{"head":"The narrative of rainfall-dependent agriculture and the need for irrigation infrastructure","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"This narrative highlights the dependence of Senegalese agriculture on rainfall, which is also seen as a major factor contributing to low agricultural productivity (see Table 3). A government official expressed this concern as follows: ''Currently, our agriculture is confronted with climatic hazards, especially in the Northern region, which affects agricultural productivity (R6).\" Similarly, a representative of a farmers' organization mentioned that ''now  The ''number of respondents\" indicate the number of actors who mentioned the policy theme at least once. The ''frequency of occurrence\" refers to the total number of time the policy theme was mentioned. N = 23. Source: Authors' compilation from in-depth interviews."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"there are other factors of production such as water because if 90% of our agriculture depends mainly on natural rainfall, then this is a haphazard type of agriculture (R3).\""},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"The rainfall-dependence narrative was often framed in a broad climate change context by the agricultural support coalition. The strategic reference to a global phenomenon seems to increase the acceptance and credibility of the rainfall dependency narrative. Coalition members also pointed to the limited exploitation of the Senegal River and other natural water sources, emphasizing that there is an ''under-exploitation of water resources\". Similar to the case of the soil depletion narrative, the agricultural support coalition members emphasized the role that government can play through construction of irrigation facilities to support agricultural production. A respondent stated: ''We have the state; it has an important role to play in terms of providing irrigation (R8).\" In the view of the coalition, such interventions will enable farmers to increase crop cultivation throughout the year."}]},{"head":"The narrative of ''primitive\" versus modern farm equipment","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":249,"text":"The use of the ''hoe and cutlass\" instead of modern farm equipment was a recurring theme among the members of the agricultural support coalition, as indicated by the high frequency of this policy theme (see Table 3). This narrative refers to the low use of improved technology as a major constraint to increasing agricultural production. In this narrative, the current farming system is depicted as ''primitive\" and characterized by the use of a ''hoe and cutlass.\" The solution is seen in the need to ''modernize\" the agricultural production system through the use of tractors. The drudgery in using hand tools (e.g. hoe and cutlass) for farming and the inability of farmers to purchase tractors are the dominant policy themes in this narrative. Members of the agricultural support coalition associated the use of primitive farming equipment with the unavailability of tractors and other modern inputs. A government official described the problem as follows: ''The government supports producers, but this is not adequate . . . the state is currently reviewing its policies to support producers in this direction, but this is insufficient, especially equipment relating to tractors (R6).\" A representative of a farmers' group expressed this point as follows: ''The government should support the manufacturing of new farm machines and sell them to farmers as factories that manufacture these machines are not available . . . also the government has to train our artisans so they can produce some parts since this will make the prices affordable for farmers (R22).\""},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The agricultural support coalition also associated a perceived disinterest of youth in farming and the migration of rural people to urban areas with a lack of modernization in farming. As one respondent said: ''. . . we cannot feed the nation without agriculture. Agriculture in most cases can bring many jobs for young people if we take care of it properly. Many young people do not have jobs today and agriculture can help create jobs for them. It can bring development and reduce poverty if conditions are favorable and we have the right tools to work (R1).\""}]},{"head":"Agricultural support critique narratives","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"For the agricultural support critique coalition, two types of narratives were identified, following the approach outlined in Section 2: critiques (which are non-stories as they do not have beginning, middle and end) and counter-stories, which provide alternatives to the solutions that are criticized."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"Although the agricultural support critique coalition identified similar fundamental problems affecting the agricultural sector as did the agricultural support coalition (Table 4), their narratives were mostly critiques: They emphasized that the prevailing agricultural input subsidy programs were ineffective and inefficient. The arguments focused on the need for efficient use of limited resources, unsustainable input subsidy policies, and the distributional challenges of input subsidies. A typical example of a critique is the following statement expressed by an official: ''There are problems of resource allocation, when you take a sector like agriculture, much of the resources have been directed to subsidies of seeds and fertilizer but we have very low productivity, impacts are still low. We spend this large amount of money, which could have been invested in building irrigation facilities . . . there is a huge potential to develop agriculture in the Kédougou region but the financial resources are not forthcoming; the priorities are mainly targeted toward seed and fertilizer subsidies (R15).\""},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"The argument that input subsidies might crowd out private investment is a similar critique, which is directed against government input subsidy programs. According to the members of the agricultural support critique coalition, fertilizer inputs are private goods that require private investment rather than government investment. Another critique is based on the argument that government investment in fertilizer creates a disincentive for private investment. A representative of a research organization expressed this concern as follows: ''The government should avoid crowding out investment. That is if the government invests in places where the private sector should invest. I, as a private person, I am not going to have any incentive to invest, because the government is already doing what I should do. For example, providing fertilizer to farmers, fertilizer is something I should buy normally if my activity is profitable. If the government is providing fertilizer, where am I going to invest my money? So, government spending should bring a crowding in effect and not a crowding out effect (R20).\""},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"The problem of poor targeting was another concern in the narratives of the agricultural support critique coalition. In the view of the coalition members, fertilizer and seed subsidies are diverted to benefit government officials, and they mostly benefit large-scale farmers rather than small farmers and thus make input subsidy policy options ineffective policy instruments for agricultural development. In the view of some opponents of government input subsidies, such support measures are mainly implemented for political Government resources should be invested in infrastructure (e.g. road, rail, research, etc.) 3 9"},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"The ''number of respondents\" indicate the number of actors who mentioned the policy theme at least once. The ''frequency of occurrence\" refers to the total number of time the policy theme was mentioned. N = 23. Source: Authors' compilation from in-depth interviews."},{"index":6,"size":332,"text":"reasons. A policy researcher said: ''Many governments are taking such a subsidy approach; they are politically efficient but not economically efficient. The distribution is in a political way but not an economic way (R20).\" As indicated in Section 2, critiques are not sufficient to displace a prevailing narrative. What is required is an ''equally straightforward narrative that tells a better story\". (Roe, 1994, 40). The analysis of the discourse showed that the agricultural support critique coalition had relatively few such counter-stories. The most prominent one had the following argumentative structure: In view of the problems affecting the agricultural sector (beginning of the counter-story), the government should strengthen the agricultural credit market (middle of the story), so that farmers can access inputs and increase productivity while the problems of government subsidy programs can be avoided (end of the story). An example of this counter-story is the following statement by a representative of a donor organization: ''Why don't you (government) develop a strong agricultural credit market, so that farmers can go there and access this credit at a subsidized rate, this will allow the fertilizer and seed market to develop rather than government intervention . . . in any case there is really much to do in terms of funding and it needs to be more rational for greater efficiency in the long run. Try to set up an efficient financial system that will replace these agricultural subsidies that dry the budget of the Ministry of Agriculture out, but do not provide any expected results (R21).\" The provision of public infrastructure (e.g. road, railway, research and development) was another issue of critique. According to a respondent, ''there is a lack of investment by small farms, that is why we do not see any outcome (results) on the ground.\" As reflected in the statements, the coalition emphasized the need for the private sector to lead investment rather than government input subsidy provisions. Their main argument was that public sector finance crowds out private sector investment."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"As highlighted in the introduction, the main goal of this paper was to contribute to a better understanding of the narrative foundations of prevailing dichotomies in agricultural development policy. Combining the ACF with Narrative Policy Analysis, the paper aimed to identify the coalitions of actors associated with different positions regarding these dichotomies and to analyze the stories, critiques and counter-stories that they tell. In this section, we will discuss the relevance of the narratives for policy-making and the potential role that meta-narratives could play for policy learning."}]},{"head":"Who has the better story?","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"As the results of the analysis show, the narratives of two advocacy coalitions reflect, as expected, the major dichotomy in agricultural development policy that exists between those who believe in state-led approaches and those who believe in market-led approaches. The narratives of the agricultural support coalition emphasize the need for strong government support, especially by providing input subsidies, while the narratives of the agricultural support critique coalition demonstrate a preference for market-oriented policies. Thus, the study confirms the earlier findings regarding this dichotomy quoted in the introduction (Bates, 1981;Krueger et al., 1991;Van De Walle, 2001;Jayne, Govereh, Mwanaumo, Nyoro, & Chapoto, 2002;Mockshell & Birner, 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"The narrative analysis presented in this paper shows that two advocacy coalitions that represent this dichotomy use rather different argumentative strategies. The agricultural support coalition tells a range of stories that explain why government support is necessary and how such support will address the problems of low agricultural productivity. In contrast, the coalition that promotes market-based approaches formulates mostly critiques of government subsidies. In the interviews conducted for this study, there was clearly a lack of what Roe (1994, 40) called ''an equally straightforward narrative that tells a better story.\" Only two of the policy themes identified in the transcripts could be identified as counter-stories, while five policy themes were critiques."},{"index":3,"size":317,"text":"Possible reasons for the lack of counter-stories include the following: Both coalitions shared the view that low agricultural productivity is the major problem facing the agricultural sector. This problem makes a good beginning of a government subsidy story, but it does not make a good beginning for a market-oriented story, because it is well established in the agricultural economics literature that market failures are wide-spread in agriculture and contribute to the problem of low productivity (see, e.g., Binswanger & Rosenzweig, 1986;Morris, Kelly, Kopicki, & Byerlee, 2007). Hence, it is not easy to construct a straightforward story that explains how market-oriented policy instruments can address the problem. If market failures are caused by government intervention, as in the case of crowding out of private companies by fertilizer subsidies, it is unavoidable to formulate a market-oriented argument in the form of a critique. There are market-oriented narratives that are not critiques, but they are not as straightforward as the subsidy story. An example is public investment, e.g., in road infrastructure, which is often required to support the development of markets. Investment in roads does not directly lead to higher agricultural productivity. This effect can only be expected to occur as a consequence of a chain of causes and effects, such as the following: Better transport infrastructure leads to new marketing opportunities, which lead to higher prices for output or lower prices for inputs, which then provide incentives to farmers to increase productivity. This is a more complex story than the subsidy story, as it depends on additional assumptions. Moreover, even this story is often told in connection with a criticism of current policies. In many African countries, a considerable share of the agricultural budget is dedicated to subsidies (cf. Birner et al., 2018). Therefore, proponents of the market-oriented story often argue that subsidies need to be reduced to make resources available for investments in infrastructure and other public goods."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Reference to other countries was not prominent in the narratives of the respondents. However, even if respondents would refer to international experience, members of the agricultural support coalition are likely to maintain a competitive edge. Industrialized countries have a strong track record of heavily supporting agriculture (Anderson & Masters, 2009) and, thus, do not serve as examples for a good story on how agricultural productivity can be increased without government support."},{"index":5,"size":179,"text":"Overall, the findings suggest that the agricultural support coalition has ''a better story\" as far as the structure of their narrative is concerned. This does, of course, not imply that their story is better in a normative sense that is in the sense that the prescribed policies are indeed better suited to reach their intended goals than the policies suggested by the agricultural support critique coalition. Moreover, since the number of respondents was limited, the findings cannot be generalized. It is also difficult to compare the findings of this study with the literature, since narrative analyses in the field of agricultural policy are scarce, as indicated in the introduction. However, a discourse analysis on agricultural policies conducted in two different countries, Ghana and Uganda, indicated that proponents of market-oriented policies there often formulated their arguments in the form of a critique of prevailing government policies, as well (Mockshell & Birner, 2015). Hence, for future research, it appears justified to pay more attention to the narrative foundations of development dichotomies and study how proponents of different positions tell their stories."}]},{"head":"Implications for agricultural policy","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":350,"text":"Even though it was beyond the scope of this paper to conduct an analysis of how the different narratives influence actual policy choices, evidence suggests that the agricultural support coalition has gained policy influence in recent years. Government initiatives presented in Section 3, such as the ''Loi d'Orientation Agro-Sylvo Pastorale\" (LOASP) and the Grande Offensive Agricole pour la Nourriture et l'Abondance\" (GOANA) provide smallholder farmers with subsidized fertilizer and other forms of government support (Stads & Sèn, 2011). Such programs have become rather popular in the past decade, not only in Senegal, but also in other African countries (Jayne & Rashid, 2013). The World Bank's project ''Distortions to Agricultural Incentives\" showed that many developing countries did not only stop taxing their agricultural sector during the past decades, they have actually started to subsidize it. The widely popularized fertilizer input subsidy program in Malawi and the global food price crisis of 2008 are often cited as catalysts of the resurgence of input subsidies and the spread to other countries (see Jayne & Rashid, 2013). It would be an interesting topic for further research to analyze how international narratives of the Malawi fertilizer subsidy program have influenced the narratives in other countries, such as Senegal. In 2007, the New York Times praised the program on its title page as follows: ''Ending Famine, Simply by Ignoring the Experts\" (Dugger, 2007). The narrative in this article was a straightforward story: Hunger prevailed in Malawi due to poor soil quality contributing to low productivity (beginning), the fertilizer subsidy increased production (middle) and the hunger was overcome (end). As the title of the story indicates, the article also dismissed the critics of such input subsidies. The Malawi fertilizer story was not only told in the popular press, it also had strong supporters among development economists, most notably, Jeffrey Sachs, one of the most outspoken proponents of fertilizer subsidies in the international development community. In 2009, he and his colleagues published a paper that praised the Malawi case as a splendid example of the ''Africa Green Revolution\" (Denning, Kabambe, Sanchez, Malik, Flor, Harawa, & Sachs, 2009, 7)."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"International financial and development organizations have been largely critical of such subsidy policies. This is not surprising considering their position in the development dichotomy. Anderson and Masters (2009, 63), for example, describe the fact that developing countries moved from the taxation of the agricultural sector to subsidizing it as ''overshooting\" and criticize it as follows: ''In response to rural poverty and inequality, many countries start protecting agriculture soon after they stop taxing it. This imposes large costs on consumers and slows national economic growth\" (Anderson and Masters, 2009, 63). These ideas and beliefs are also echoed in the donor policy environment, and making input subsidies and other government-supported programs a less favorable policy choice (Dugger, 2007;Harrigan, 2003). For the agricultural critique coalition, the historical failure of some past donor funded initiatives (e.g., agricultural tractor service programs), high transaction costs, and governance challenges associated with implementing input subsidy programs in Africa have been the narrative foundation of the prevailing ideas and beliefs (see Daum & Birner, 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"In spite of their critique, donor organizations often co-finance input subsidy programs under budget support or under initiatives such the investment plans of the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Program (CAADP), which do not necessarily specify for what types of policy instruments the funds are being used (Mockshell & Birner, 2015, 10). Hence, in spite of criticizing such policies, they alternatively work with governments and jointly develop strategies to make such policy instruments more effective. A meta-narrative might be helpful to reach this goal, as will be discussed in the next sub-section."}]},{"head":"Options for a meta-narrative","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"As outlined in Section 2, Roe (1994) narrative policy involves the generation of a ''meta-narrative\", which turns the polarization into a new story that includes aspects of both the dominant stories and the counter-stories. This is step 3 in Roe's framework, following the identification of dominant narratives (step 1) and of counternarratives and non-stories (step 2). One also needs to examine whether the meta-narrative facilitates political decision-making (step 4). As Roe (1994, 6) points out: ''Meta-narratives [. . .] come about in very different ways: some are created, others are preexisting, some have to be discovered, and others just aren't there.\""},{"index":2,"size":344,"text":"In case of the agricultural policy dichotomy analyzed here, a concept was created that had the potential of a meta-narrative: ''market-smart subsidies\". This concept was elaborated by a group of World Bank authors in a book entitled ''Fertilizer Use in African Agriculture\" (Morris, Kelly, Kopicki, & Byerlee, 2007). The book has elements of the agricultural support narrative, as it explains the need for an increased use of fertilizer in Africa. It also has elements of the agricultural support critique, as it concludes, after a detailed review of the evidence, that past subsidy programs were expensive and had questionable benefits (Morris, Kelly, Kopicki, & Byerlee, 2007, 43). The book identified market-smart subsidies as a component of a possible solution to the fertilizer problem. Market-smart subsidies were defined as temporary subsidies that are designed in such a way that promote rather than undermine the development of fertilizer markets, e.g., by using fertilizer vouchers. Morris, Kelly, Kopicki, and Byerlee (2007) did not develop a straightforward narrative to promote market-smart subsidies, they rather portrayed them as an option that ''may be justifiable on a temporary basis\" (Morris, Kelly, Kopicki, & Byerlee, 2007, 124). The 2008 World Development Report on ''Agriculture for Development\" also referred to market-smart subsidies, but it also did so in a rather precautionary style: ''Market-smart fertilizer subsidies can be justified, but the conditions for using them efficiently are demanding.\" (World Bank, 2007, 152). Still, with regard to step 4 in Roe's framework (see above), the concept of market-smart subsidies had clear recommendations for policy-makers (see Morris, 1994, 103ff). Subsidy schemes that can be labelled ''market-smart\" have, indeed, been implemented in several African countries. A recent review by Jayne, Mason, Burke, and Ariga (2018) found that such subsidies had a limited effect on productivity, partly because the market-smart principles were ''watered down or overturned during implementation\" (Jayne, Mason, Burke, & Ariga, 2018, 11). Thus, it appears that neither of the two coalitions fully embraced market-smart subsidies, and they did not become the basis of a powerful meta-narrative that could promote policy-oriented learning across the two coalitions."},{"index":3,"size":208,"text":"What are other potential candidates for a meta-narrative, which have better prospects to help bridging the gap in agricultural development dichotomies? This is a question for future research. One candidate can be found in the conclusions of the review by Jayne, Mason, Burke, and Ariga (2018, 11): ''Going forward, a much more holistic approach is needed in most instances to sustainably raise agricultural productivity in Africa.\" The narrative analysis presented in this paper suggests such a meta-narrative is promising, because the agricultural support coalition identified a wide range of issues that need to be addressed beyond fertilizer in order to increase productivity, such as access to better seeds, access to finance and use of appropriate farm equipment. It is evident from basic agronomic principles that access to fertilizer alone will have a limited effect on agricultural productivity, as long as other constraining factors are not addressed. Recent empirical research indicates that other factors, such as weed management, have been rather neglected in improving crop productivity (see, e.g., Scheiterle, Häring, Birner, & Bosch, 2019). Therefore, it might be useful if representatives of both coalitions engage in developing a convincing and mutually agreed meta-narrative on holistic approaches to improve agricultural productivity, which could serve as a basis for policy-oriented learning."}]},{"head":"Concluding remarks","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":258,"text":"Paul Streeten wrote ''Development Dichotomies\" in 1983 out of concern that persistent dichotomies had led to the decline of development economics, leading even to ''news of its death\". He explained that he discussed the dichotomies ''to show either that the alternatives were wrongly posed or that only a doublepronged attack will achieve the objective\" (Streeten, 1983, 36). He concluded his article by offering a reconciling perspective on the various dichotomies that prevailed in development economics at the time. As shown in this paper, reconciling perspectives on the dichotomies that prevail in agricultural development policy today have remained scarce. This paper suggests that there is a need to develop a reconciling perspective on a real-world problem that is crucial for economic development in Africa: low agricultural productivity. The dichotomy regarding this problem has led to a deadlock: on the one hand, policy makers continue to implement input subsidy programs that have limited effect in increasing agricultural productivity, but are supported by a strong narrative. This narrative is not only told by domestic policy-makers, who are often accused of having inferior political motives for implementing such policies, it has also been supported by some prominent development economists. On the other hand, agricultural economists and members of international development organizations continue to criticize such input subsidy policies, based on available evidence, but they have not succeeded in establishing a strong counterstory or a convincing meta-narrative on what should actually be done to increase agricultural productivity. Paying more attention to the narrative foundations of development dichotomies may help to overcome this deadlock."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Public investment into infrastructure such as roads, railways, research, etc."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Note: Italicized phrases are direct quotes."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Source: Authors' compilation from in-depth interviews."}]},{"head":"Appendix C","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Auto-clustering results "}]},{"head":"Number of Clusters","index":24,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Interviewed stakeholders. Type Number TypeNumber Government agencies (agriculture policy unit, extension, and 6 Government agencies (agriculture policy unit, extension, and6 finance)  finance) Academic (agricultural economics and political science) 3 Academic (agricultural economics and political science)3 Research and think tanks 5 Research and think tanks5 Donor agencies and International Financial Institutions 4 Donor agencies and International Financial Institutions4 Political party representatives and parliamentarians 2 Political party representatives and parliamentarians2 Interest groups (civil society organizations) 5 Interest groups (civil society organizations)5 Local government 2 Local government2 Total 27 Total27  "},{"text":"Table 2 Advocacy coalitions in the policy subsystem and coalition members. Coalition members Agricultural Agricultural support Coalition membersAgriculturalAgricultural support  support critique coalition supportcritique coalition  coalition  coalition Government ministries and 7 1 Government ministries and71 agencies   agencies Academia 2 0 Academia20 Research and think tanks 1 2 Research and think tanks12 International financial institutions 1 3 International financial institutions13 Political party representatives 2 0 Political party representatives20 Interest groups (civil society 4 0 Interest groups (civil society40 organizations)   organizations) Cluster sizes 17 (74%) 6 (26%) Cluster sizes17 (74%)6 (26%) Cluster quality (silhouette 0.6  Cluster quality (silhouette0.6 measure of cohesion and   measure of cohesion and separation)   separation) The cluster size refers to the total number of members for that coalition. The other The cluster size refers to the total number of members for that coalition. The other numbers represent members for a specific coalition member category. numbers represent members for a specific coalition member category. The silhouette measures cohesion within clusters and separation among clusters. The silhouette measures cohesion within clusters and separation among clusters. The measure provides an indication of cluster ''goodness of fit.\" It ranges from À1 The measure provides an indication of cluster ''goodness of fit.\" It ranges from À1 (poor) to + 1 (good).   (poor) to + 1 (good). Source: Authors' compilation, N = 23.   Source: Authors' compilation, N = 23.  "},{"text":"Table 3 Structure of the narratives of the agricultural support coalition. Policy themes Number of Frequency of Policy themesNumber ofFrequency of  respondents occurrence respondentsoccurrence Beginning of the narratives   Beginning of the narratives Low agricultural growth is caused by:  Low agricultural growth is caused by: Rainfall-dependent agriculture 11 42 Rainfall-dependent agriculture1142 Depleting soil fertility 9 38 Depleting soil fertility938 Primitive farm equipment 11 47 Primitive farm equipment1147 Lack of value addition 14 22 Lack of value addition1422 Lack of market access 11 34 Lack of market access1134 Unavailability of finance 8 17 Unavailability of finance817 Middle of the narratives   Middle of the narratives Solving the agricultural problems requires:  Solving the agricultural problems requires: Investment in water harvesting 13 25 Investment in water harvesting1325 technologies   technologies Investment in value addition of 8 1 7 Investment in value addition of81 7 primary products   primary products Modern farm equipment 6 18 Modern farm equipment618 Input subsidy provision: fertilizer 9 5 3 Input subsidy provision: fertilizer95 3 and seed   and seed End of the narratives   End of the narratives Growth in agricultural production will lead to:  Growth in agricultural production will lead to: Increased farm income 14 40 Increased farm income1440 Better food security and food 7 1 6 Better food security and food71 6 sovereignty   sovereignty Reduction in rural poverty 15 35 Reduction in rural poverty1535 Youth employment opportunities 6 22 Youth employment opportunities622  "},{"text":"Table 4 Agricultural support critique policy themes. Policy themes Number of Frequency of Policy themesNumber ofFrequency of  respondents occurrence respondentsoccurrence Underlying problems identified   Underlying problems identified Low agricultural growth is caused by:   Low agricultural growth is caused by: Rainfall-dependent agriculture 4 11 Rainfall-dependent agriculture411 Depleting soil fertility 3 6 Depleting soil fertility36 Primitive farming equipment 2 11 Primitive farming equipment211 Lack of investment by smallholder farmers 2 4 Lack of investment by smallholder farmers24 Arguments of the critique that subsidies are not the solution:  Arguments of the critique that subsidies are not the solution: Input subsidy provision by the government is 6 1 7 Input subsidy provision by the government is61 7 not a sustainable solution.   not a sustainable solution. Subsidies are costly. 5 15 Subsidies are costly.515 Subsidies benefit mostly large farms, not 3 8 Subsidies benefit mostly large farms, not38 small farms.   small farms. Subsidies cause crowding out of investment. 1 3 Subsidies cause crowding out of investment.13 Subsidies are politically efficient but not 1 2 Subsidies are politically efficient but not12 economically efficient.   economically efficient. Counter-story   Counter-story Subsidized credit should be provided through 1 2 Subsidized credit should be provided through12 banks   banks  "},{"text":" The changes are from the previous number of clusters in the table. b. The ratios of changes are relative to the change for the two-cluster solution. c. The ratios of distance measures are based on the current number of clusters against the previous number of clusters.  Schwarz's Bayesian information Criterion BIC Ratio of BIC Ratio of Distance Schwarz's Bayesian information CriterionBICRatio of BICRatio of Distance  (BIC) Change a Changes b Measures c (BIC)Change aChanges bMeasures c 1 733.078    1733.078 2 557.562 À175.516 1.000 2.688 2557.562À175.5161.0002.688 3 537.559 À20.003 À0.114 1.354 3537.559À20.003À0.1141.354 4 541.618 4.059 À0.023 1.271 4541.6184.059À0.0231.271 5 560.196 18.578 À0.106 1.357 5560.19618.578À0.1061.357 6 592.870 32.675 À0.186 1.288 6592.87032.675À0.1861.288 7 634.362 41.492 À0.236 1.227 7634.36241.492À0.2361.227 8 681.525 47.163 À0.269 1.710 8681.52547.163À0.2691.710 9 739.045 57.520 À0.328 1.053 9739.04557.520À0.3281.053 10 797.299 58.253 À0.332 1.109 10797.29958.253À0.3321.109 11 856.911 59.613 À0.340 1.097 11856.91159.613À0.3401.097 12 917.624 60.713 À0.346 1.077 12917.62460.713À0.3461.077 13 979.156 61.531 À0.351 1.219 13979.15661.531À0.3511.219 14 1042.588 63.432 À0.361 1.044 141042.58863.432À0.3611.044 15 1106.386 63.799 À0.363 1.089 151106.38663.799À0.3631.089 a.     a.  "}],"sieverID":"3a8acb6b-fbae-49d1-8165-a3cab8e8ffb6","abstract":"While there is consensus on the need to promote agricultural development in Africa to achieve food security and use agriculture as an engine of growth, there is a lively policy debate on appropriate policies to achieve this goal. In the past two decades, there has been a revival of policies that favor government support to agriculture in Africa, especially in the form of input subsidies. Such policies have remained highly controversial, reflecting a long-standing dichotomy in agricultural development policy between those who consider subsidies as essential to increase agricultural productivity and those who criticize such state-focused policy instruments and favor market-oriented approaches. In the literature, agricultural policy choices have mainly been analyzed using models that capture economic or political interests. Some studies have focused on policy beliefs to explain the dichotomy, but what has not received much attention is the use of language in agricultural policy discourses, in spite of increasing evidence that narratives matter for policy-making. To address this gap, we combine the Advocacy Coalition Framework with Narrative Policy Analysis to examine agricultural policy discourses in Senegal. Applying a cluster analysis to coded transcripts of in-depth interviews with policy stakeholders, we identified two opposing advocacy coalitions and labelled them ''agricultural support coalition\" and an ''agricultural support critique coalition\". An analysis of the argumentative structure of the narratives of each coalition revealed interesting differences: while the agricultural support coalition told a range of straight-forward stories that explain how government support, such as input subsidies, addresses the problem of low agricultural productivity, the opposing coalition formulated their stories mostly in the form of critiques rather than telling equally straight-forward counter-stories. Based on the analysis, we examine possible metanarratives, which take arguments of both coalitions into account and may have the potential to overcome the long-standing dichotomy in agricultural development."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0265eea07a22c8094690cdb633a395ff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da1f34bd-6b45-4d0c-a404-aae74afda19b/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Assessing the Climate-Smartness of the West Africa Agricultural Productivity Programme (WAAPP): What can we learn from Benin, Guinea, Niger, Togo and Chad projects?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Agriculture is the most important sector of the national economies in West Africa. However, the agricultural sector is faced with numerous challenges (declining soil fertility and land degradation, adverse climate change manifestations, demographic pressure, market instability and incidence of crop pests and diseases, etc.), compromising its ability to be a driving engine out of food insecurity and poverty. With the growing challenge of climate change and variability in West Africa, the agricultural production and food systems must undergo significant transformations to meet the interlinked challenges of achieving sustainability, increasing food security and responding to climate change. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is proposed as a solution to transform and reorient agricultural systems to support food security under the new realities of climate change."}]},{"head":"West Africa Agricultural Productivity Programme (WAAPP)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"The WAAPP is a World Bank funded project, implemented in West Africa by CORAF through the national agricultural research systems (NARS) to support the provision of appropriate agricultural innovations and technologies and their dissemination in West Africa. The project is designed to make agriculture more productive and sustainable, to improve the conditions of life of consumers through the provision of agricultural products at competitive prices and to support regional cooperation in agriculture in West Africa in accordance with action plans for agricultural policy managers of ECOWAS/ECOWAP and the NEPAD/CAADP. Its aims to generate and accelerate the adoption of improved technologies in key priority areas of agricultural sectors involved in WAAPP, technologies that align with f the main agricultural priorities of the sub-region. It also aims to provide producers with technologies to enhance and improve the competitiveness of the main speculations in each country. The WAAPP is a ten years program implemented in two phases of 5 years each. The objective of the first phase was to generate and disseminate improved agricultural technologies. The second phase focused on the intensification of the dissemination and adoption of improved technologies in the priority agricultural sectors of the beneficiary countries."}]},{"head":"Capacity building for assessing climatesmartness of WAAPP","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In line with the need to capacitate country stakeholders with relevant CSA tools and approaches for the effective mainstreaming and implementation of CSA in their activities, CCAFS-WA organized two training sessions to benefit countries' specialists involved in the WAAPP and Climate Resilience Agriculture and Productivity Enhancement Project (ProPAD) project implementation. The first workshop took place in Ouagadougou, 4-5 Dec 2018, targeting 3 specific objectives: 1. Strengthen the knowledge of project stakeholders on the challenges, causes, manifestations and impacts of climate change on the farmers' livelihoods; 2. Reinforce the knowledge of project stakeholders on the concept, approaches, tools and implementation technologies of Climate-Smart Agriculture; 3. Identify specific CSA training needs as capacity building activities of WAAPP and ProPAD actors to be undertaken as part of the collaboration between CORAF and CCAFS-WA."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"A second training workshop was then organized in Lome, Togo, 15-17 May 2019, with the attendance of the same actors as for the first workshop, to put emphasis on key selected CSA tools that were found relevant by the country actors. This was an in-depth training session with practical exercises on applying the CSA tools to countries specific projects or activities."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Picture1: Participants to the training workshop in Burkina Faso"}]},{"head":"Assessing the climate-smartness of WAAPP: Methodological approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"During the training workshops, group work was carried out by country project teams to apply the tools. The results of the evaluation were presented in plenary and the assessments made on the projects in the working groups were revisited by all participants."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"The assessment of the projects was done in two stages."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The first focused on the relevance of the objectives of the projects with regard to the CSA pillars using the CSA programming and indicator tool developed by CCAFS program in collaboration with the Feed the Future -USAID. The results of this evaluation are summarized and visualized using a set of indicators related to CSA."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"The second stage focused on agricultural practices and technologies generated or promoted by WAAPP using a matrix of CSA indicators broken down according to the three pillars (productivity, adaptation / resilience, mitigation) as presented in Table 1."}]},{"head":"CSA pillars Categories Indicators","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Productivity","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Food To what extent WAAPP is climate-smart?"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"The CSA Programming and Indicator Tool helps to examine the scope of a given program or intervention through the three-dimensional lenses of CSA (Productivity/Income, Adaptation/resilience and Mitigation)."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"This tool applied to WAAPP showed that the program addressed the three pillars of the AIC at differentiated levels in each country."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Results showed that the WAAPP is addressing 35 to 47% of questions (or outcomes) related to productivity pillar of CSA, 31 to 35 % to adaptation/resilience and 26 to 32% to mitigation in the 5 countries."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"The contribution of WAAPP to productivity pillar is higher in all the countries (0.81 to 1) meaning that the programme is more oriented towards productivity in each country (Figure 1-5). This is not surprising as the WAAPP was designed to respond to the challenges of increasing agricultural productivity. Although this strong productivity orientation, the WAAPP has a potential to deal with the other pillars of CSA such as adaptation/ resilience and mitigation with intentionality indexes varying from 0.50 to 0.82 for adaptation/resilience and from 0.40 to 0.65 for mitigation pillar.  "}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommandations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The participatory assessment of WAAPP country projects has shown that the program has already integrated CSA dimensions at differentiated degrees in the implementation of its activities in all the five countries. The WAAPP is more oriented to productivity pillar. However, the project has a potential for adaptation and mitigation. The analysis also revealed that there are technologies and practices in all the five countries which effectively contribute both to improving the resilience / adaptive capacity of the populations as well as to mitigating climate change. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1 : WAAPP-Benin "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Indicators for the assessment of CSA-related project related  secu- Yield secu-Yield  rity Post-harvest loss rityPost-harvest loss  Income Income IncomeIncome   Water availability Water availability   Water use efficiency Water use efficiency  Water Water quality WaterWater quality   Ecosystem function Ecosystem function Adapta-  Soil water retention capacity Adapta-Soil water retention capacity tion Soil Soil disturbance tionSoilSoil disturbance   Climate risks management Climate risks management  Risks man- Climate risk forecasts Risks man-Climate risk forecasts  agement Agricultural diversification agementAgricultural diversification   Local and indigenous knowledge Local and indigenous knowledge  Energy Use of energy (fossil) Use of energy (renewable) EnergyUse of energy (fossil) Use of energy (renewable)   Biomass (on ground) Biomass (on ground) Mitigation Carbon Biomass (underground) Stock de carbone du sol MitigationCarbonBiomass (underground) Stock de carbone du sol   Methane emission (livestock) Methane emission (livestock)   Organic manure management Organic manure management  Nitrogen Nutrient use efficiency NitrogenNutrient use efficiency  "},{"text":"Table 2 . The System of Rice Intensification was ranked the first CSA practice in Benin and Togo while, the micro-dosing of inorganic fertilizer and Drought tolerant variety of cowpea were the first ranked in Niger and Chad respectively. Togo  Niger Guinea Benin chad TogoNigerGuineaBeninchad System of Micro dose Develop- System Droug System ofMicro doseDevelop-SystemDroug Rice Inten-  ment & of Rice ht tol- Rice Inten-ment&of Riceht tol- sification   dissemi- Intensi- erant sificationdissemi-Intensi-erant    nation of fication variety nation officationvariety    cultural  (cow- cultural(cow-    calendars  pea) calendarspea) Agrofor-  Compost Improved Steam Crop Agrofor-CompostImprovedSteamCrop estry   varieties cooker rota- estryvarietiescookerrota-    of rice for Ablo tion of ricefor Ablotion       (egum (egum       es - es-       Cere- Cere-       als) als) Mycotri ba- Farmer Micro  Use of Or- Mycotri ba-FarmerMicroUse ofOr- sed com- Managed dose  Poly- ganic sed com-ManageddosePoly-ganic post  Natural Re-   eth- ma- postNatural Re-eth-ma-   generation   ylene nure generationylenenure      film for (com- film for(com-      pineap- post) pineap-post)      ple pro- ple pro-      duction duction Direct sow- Use of im- Arabica Fatten- Droug Direct sow-Use of im-ArabicaFatten-Droug ing of proved coffee ing ht tol- ingofprovedcoffeeinght tol- maize un- stove nurseries (chèvre erant maize un-stovenurseries(chèvreerant der vegetal    rousse varie- der vegetalroussevarie- cover     de Ma- ties coverde Ma-ties      radi) (cas- radi)(cas-       sava) sava) PICS bags Zaï Improved Pro- Pro- PICS bags ZaïImprovedPro-Pro-    varieties duction tected varietiesductiontected    of cas- of forest ofcas-offorest    sava  cashew savacashew      grafted grafted      plants plants  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Top five CSA technologies/practices promoted or generated by WAAPP per country  50%  1,00 50%1,00 r    r a l l i p f o h g i e W e v i t 20% 30% 40%  0,40 0,60 0,80 Inten�onality a l l i p f o h g i e W e v i t20% 30% 40%0,40 0,60 0,80Inten�onality a l e R 10%  0,20 a l e R10%0,20  0%  0,00 0%0,00  Produc�vity Adapta�on Mi�ga�on Produc�vityAdapta�onMi�ga�on   Inten�onality Inten�onality  50%  1,00 50%1,00 r    r a l l i p f o h g i e W e v i t 20% 30% 40%  0,40 0,60 0,80 Inten�onality a l l i p f o h g i e W e v i t20% 30% 40%0,40 0,60 0,80Inten�onality a l e R 10%  0,20 a l e R10%0,20  0%  0,00 0%0,00  Produc�vity Adapta�on Mi�ga�on Produc�vityAdapta�onMi�ga�on   Inten�onality Inten�onality  50%  1,00 50%1,00 r    r a l l i p f o h g i e W e v i t 20% 30% 40%  0,40 0,60 0,80 Inten�onality a l l i p f o h g i e W e v i t20% 30% 40%0,40 0,60 0,80Inten�onality a l e R 10%  0,20 a l e R10%0,20  0%  0,00 0%0,00  Produc�vity Adapta�on Mi�ga�on Produc�vityAdapta�onMi�ga�on   Inten�onality Inten�onality  50%  1,00 50%1,00 r    r a    a l l i p f o h g i e W e v i t 20% 30% 40%  0,40 0,60 0,80 Inten�onality l l i p f o h g i e W e v i t20% 30% 40%0,40 0,60 0,80Inten�onality a l e R 10%  0,20 a l e R10%0,20  0%  0,00 0%0,00  Produc�vity Adapta�on Mi�ga�on Produc�vityAdapta�onMi�ga�on   Inten�onality Inten�onality  "},{"text":" These technologies include system rice intensification in Benin and Togo, microdose and Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration in Niger, improved crop varieties in Chad and Guinea. These findings suggest that efforts should be made to scale these top CSA technologies and practices for a sustainable agricultural development in West Africa.  This info note summarizes the findings from participatory This info note summarizes the findings from participatory  assessments of the climate-smartness of World Bank assessments of the climate-smartness of World Bank  funded West Africa Agricultural Productivity Programme funded West Africa Agricultural Productivity Programme  (WAAPP)\". This activity was implemented by CCAFS (WAAPP)\". This activity was implemented by CCAFS  West Africa regional programme in partnership with West Africa regional programme in partnership with  CORAF under the Capacitating Stakeholders in Using CORAF under the Capacitating Stakeholders in Using  Climate Information for Enhanced Resilience in the Climate Information for Enhanced Resilience in the  Agricultural Sector in West Africa (CaSCIERA-WA) project Agricultural Sector in West Africa (CaSCIERA-WA) project  to strengthen the capacity of country stakeholders of to strengthen the capacity of country stakeholders of  WAAPP to mainstream and implement CSA in their WAAPP to mainstream and implement CSA in their  activities in West Africa activities in West Africa  Mathieu Ouedraogo ([email protected]) is a Mathieu Ouedraogo ([email protected]) is a  CCAFS Senior Scientist, based at ICRISAT, Mali. CCAFS Senior Scientist, based at ICRISAT, Mali.  Robert B. Zougmore ([email protected]) is the Robert B. Zougmore ([email protected]) is the  CCAFS Africa Program Leader, based at ICRISAT, Mali CCAFS Africa Program Leader, based at ICRISAT, Mali Further reading Prosper Houessionon ([email protected]) is an agro-economics research assistant at the CCAFS Africa Further readingProsper Houessionon ([email protected]) is an agro-economics research assistant at the CCAFS Africa  Quinney M, Bonilla-Findji O, Jarvis A. 2016. CSA Program, based at ICRISAT-Bamako, Mali  Quinney M, Bonilla-Findji O, Jarvis A. 2016. CSAProgram, based at ICRISAT-Bamako, Mali Programming and Indicator Tool: 3 Steps for  Programming and Indicator Tool: 3 Steps for increasing programming effectiveness and outcome Cesaire Gnangle ([email protected]) is a Researcher increasing programming effectiveness and outcomeCesaire Gnangle ([email protected]) is a Researcher tracking of CSA interventions. CCAFS Tool Beta at the Institut National de Recherches Agricoles du Benin tracking of CSA interventions. CCAFS Tool Betaat the Institut National de Recherches Agricoles du Benin version. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research (INRAB) version. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research(INRAB) Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food  Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). CSA Programming and Indicator  Security (CCAFS). CSA Programming and Indicator Tool  Tool  "}],"sieverID":"de1c97ab-6b40-4e0e-a5b1-330fd1d180ee","abstract":"Findings from participatory assessments of the climate-smartness of the World Bank funded \"West Africa Agricultural Productivity Programme (WAAPP)"}

data/part_2/0352a92e171d66ac9d5f99df7ca4ccba.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0352a92e171d66ac9d5f99df7ca4ccba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ac6714b4-7c2a-450f-97f6-f7078deee9ba/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Study #2648 Contributing Projects: • P13 -ICRAF: East Africa NAMA for Dairy Development with UNIQUE • P1601 -Enhancing capacities for MRV of sustainable livestock actions in East Africa (Kenya and","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"f4965c2f-8529-4b36-a6b1-62f56281e379","abstract":"P9 supported development of a methodology to quantify GHG emissions from smallholder dairy production and piloted a method for quantifying baseline emissions at regional scale. The methodology and survey method were written into the M&E manual of the World Bank funded Kenya Climate Smart Agriculture Project and the manual has been approved. Therefore, CCAFS-supported scientific methods will be used by the Government in reporting on GHG effects of project interventions, national GHG mitigation actions and national GHG inventory."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"036f9741da6c0597925a2447b5668e67","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/48539a15-98bf-4216-9641-73a8a566c668/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Open DataStack to power Government of Uttar Pradesh's AgriStack","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"5.","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Improve the Agri economy and hence overall economic condition of Farmers: Increase agricultural productivity, profitability, and resilience for farmers and have a significant impact on the overall economy."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"6. Enhancing Farmer Trust and Digital literacy: Improve the acceptability of digital solutions and technologies by the farmers through improved accreditation, validation of Ag Tech claims and improved digital literacy. 7. Balancing Farmers interests for Data confidentiality and economic benefit: Ensure that the Farmer data is not misused and the Farmers / State / National interests are protected. At the same time, while protecting confidentiality, ensure that Agri Data is leveraged for its economic potential and a regulated but commercially viable Agri Data market place is created across the Govt, Private sector and the Farmer."}]},{"head":"Alignment of AgriStack and DataStack:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"There has been a lot of work done by the Central and State Governments, Academic, Research Institutions, and the Private Sector in conceptualising different approaches and aspects of an \"AgriStack\" to transform Indian Agriculture. An AgriStack is envisioned as an \"enabling framework of Services (applications) and Agri Data around a data exchange\", built to support several Agri use cases, while encouraging application and data interoperability using well defined interfaces."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"A well designed AgriStack will help reduce duplication by integrating data sources and a vast backend of new and existing applications: Govt's eNam, ITC's eChoupal, NCDEX's NeML, APEDA's TraceNet, etc related to logistics, weather, supply-chain, warehousing, assaying, recommendation engines, etc."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"There is a need to integrate into all this a focussed discussion and engagement on an Open Agri Data Stack which forms the backbone of the AgriStack aligned to the several critical use cases chosen by the State Government of Uttar Pradesh."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"At the core of Digital Agriculture is an increasing amount of live and real-time \"Data\" which is being rapidly generated by boththe Government through its farmer friendly programs (including DBT and other schemes) and also the Private Sector as a by-product of business applications or through remote sensing (satellite imagery). Physical maps being digitized is an example, while another is through the multiplicity of payment and Agri trading platforms. In addition, there is a rapid increase in precision farming applications generating \"machine-data\" from: This mountain of data, once anonymised, aggregated and processed can be re-purposed using AI for different use cases -raising yields, optimising national resources and doubling farmer income."}]},{"head":"Approach to a Data Stack for Uttar Pradesh:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Given this context, this approach paper, seeks to lay down some practical suggestions to start with -using which we can to contribute to the Farmer's benefit as well as the broader debate on an AgriStack architecture and the specific data building blocks needed."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Through this process we will need to understand and uncover both the explicit and the implicit expectations of the Government of Uttar Pradesh and several interested entities (Public, Private, Research, and Academia) from the AgriStack and translate these into defining and designing a data stack reference design that becomes the core building block of the proposed AgriStack. Ultimately, this will need work across multi-stakeholder interest groups to enable deeper clarity in understanding and defining \"Open Agri Data\" for the AgriStack and help converge ideas and actions."}]},{"head":"Use Case led approach:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Very often attempts to work on complex, multi-year Agri problems, however well-intentioned (and regardless of how these attempts begin) end up adopting a \"technology first\", feature focussed approach, sometimes driven by a specific company's solution."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Instead we suggest, adopting a farmer-centric use case approach, with the use cases prioritised carefully by the Government for maximum societal impact. This allows the Government to coalesce several related Agri technologies and overlapping Ag Tech Start-ups together for working on the use case."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"This shift in focus, though subtle, requires tough implementation focus to hold course, but produces long term sustainable results."}]},{"head":"Elements to consider for aligning an Agri Data Stack to an Use Case led approach:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"We recommend, that to inject more specificity, engagement be held as suggested above, in line with key use cases identified by the State Government, which they wish to be enabled by AgriStack and the consequent Agri Data Stack. We need to identify several objectives for each use case, focussing on specific data elements needed for each: a) Build a 360° view of the \"problem statement\" for the Use Case with a \"To-Be\" state for the short / medium / long term. b) Identify the strategic levers needed to solve the use case. c) Identify Data elements and then the consequent Data sets needed for each strategic lever. d) Identify the sources of Data sets / elements with a view of authenticating the data."}]},{"head":"Discussion around each use case will focus on answering the following types of questions (illustrative, not comprehensive):","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"1) What data (spatial and temporal resolution) is needed for the use case to be deployed for a farmer? 2) What data is currently available with central Govt. or the state Govt. or private enterprises? 3) What are the data gaps for this use case to be enabled at the desired level of scale and granularity? 4) How can these data gaps be filled? Does the Govt. need to revamp or adapt existing data collection methods or incorporate secondary or private data sets to fill these gaps? 5) What are the building blocks for each use case which can developed in open source as a Digital Public Good (DPG)? 6) How to build the Agri Data Stack while being cognizant of data governance standards -access, privacy, interoperability, quality and incentive for the data owners? 7) Who are the diverse stakeholders who could play a role in each of the thematic areas? 8) What are the policy measures required to make the data based digital tools deployment beneficial for the Indian farmers?"}]},{"head":"Integrating State Govt's Use cases with Public & Private data sources through an Agri Data Stack:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Some key areas of interest to the Government of Uttar Pradesh:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"1) Credit and Rural finance for the smallholder farmers."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"2) Actionable and context specific advisory for farmers, especially to prevent pest and disease."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"3) Market Linkages and Price forecasting to reduce food wastage."}]},{"head":"Process steps for UP State Govt to AgTechs and Data Stack for different types of use cases:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Adopting a use-case-led approach requires identifying and mapping data sets needed for Agri technologies provided by startups. Identification and validation of these use cases and the shortlisting of startups to implement solutions in turn needs thorough research and review of the market dynamics, the existing startup landscape, and their tech capabilities/solutions. Scoping of the Use case, identifying strategic levers associated to the use case, technology/capabilities maturity and the adoption of emerging technologies can be a few parameters in evaluating startups to participate in a Data Stack Project."}]},{"head":"pg. 4","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Based on these parameters, and feedback from other Stat es, we suggest three categories of use cases that require slightly different approaches in evaluating and selecting the right technology partner for the pilot and eventually the implementation. These categories are briefly described below: 1. \"Broad Scope\" Use Cases: These are problem Identification and selection of start-ups to work on Broad Scope Use Cases can be done by floating a request for proposal. The scope can be narrowed down to suit the requirements of the use case."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Advanced validation is needed to identify the top 2 or 3 start-ups post the evaluation and shortlisting of proposals. An example of a broad-scope Use Case can be Farmer Credit, Market access, Actionable Advisory, Irrigation, etc."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"2. Narrow Scope Use Case: Use Cases that are narrow in scope are those that typically could serve to be building blocks as a part of several other use cases. For instance, Electronic Farm Records, Crop acreage etc are relatively narrow in scope and could be used as building blocks for several \"Broader\" use cases. These would require a request for a limited \"discover pilot\" to assess the specific usability and technical capabilities of the start-ups. Working with a limited number of start-ups who could carry out a pilot to meet the requirements is a way forward. pg. 5 pg. 6"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Annexure1: Strategic considerations for an Agri Data Stack:"},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"Digitization of Agriculture and Agri Data often raise questions about Data Interoperability (standardisation, calibration, certification), policies, privacy, regulation, data sharing, scope, sources (including govt and private), farmer trust, data confidentiality, and data governance. Even though these are initial days for the State Govt of UP's work on Agri Data Stack, below are some important considerations that merit discussion in the context of a Data Stack:"},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• Agricultural Data Interoperability:"},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"Given the overall potential for the Agri sector, it is important for us to ensure an enabling, transparent and well governed framework for data, information, and domain knowledge sharing to allow all players to succeed and grow. Agriculture's economic viability will improve via democratized and streamlined access to finance, advisory, supply chain, and markets."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"The Agriculture sector is plagued by dozens of siloed software applications and islands of data, providing little benefit. Disaggregated and non-standardized data is deemed un-trustworthy and rendered partially ineffective for further processing."},{"index":9,"size":48,"text":"Standardization will help improve \"data-trust\" furthering automation using AI models, also avoiding real-world biases creeping into AI prediction. Agri data interoperability across the Government and the private sector will incubate new business models (Agri and non-Agri) providing transformative impact similar to how Aadhaar with UPI transformed digital payments.."}]},{"head":"•","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Involve the AgTech Ecosystem into creating an Agri Data Stack:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Like in any digital innovation, digital agriculture also flourishes within an ecosystem. The existence of a spectrum of data is the key to spurring innovations in digital agriculture. The concepts of data hubs, data stacks, and data exchanges have emerged to enable a frictionless way of aggregation (data from different sources), organization, management, distribution, sharing, and sub-letting of data while enforcing data governance."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"•"}]},{"head":"Data governance will be crucial to engender Farmer and AgTech Trust","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A key challenge lies in finding a balance between leveraging the Data potential for the sector's growth and farmers' economic interests by fostering greater trust through carefully drafted State policies for monetisation, access, usage etc-while protecting the Farmer privacy and confidentiality of agricultural data."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"State level Data usage policies should be framed for several tricky issues like personal vs public ownership, shared monetization, portability, oversight and protection, processing rights, inter-operability standards, etc., keeping these in context of newly introduced terms in the centrally drafted \"Data Protection Bill\" like Data \"Controller\", \"Processor\", \"Principal\", \"Trustee or Custodian\"."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"These issues have been grouped below for simpler understanding and discussion:"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"1) Data Usage (ownership, access, monetization etc.), 2) Data Trust through data Interoperability (standardization, calibration certification), and enhanced focus on digital literacy."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"3) Data Portability (across digital Agri service providers to enable a competitive environment)"},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"For long term sustenance of these efforts, while we inject digital technology and innovation into Agriculture to drive growth and enable Farmers and Farming to become profitable, resilient, and sustainable -we must adopt sound data governance. Much of this data pertains to small and marginal Farmers largely at the bottom of the financial and digital pyramid and hence we need to ensure they are not unknowingly exploited, financially bypassed by others using their farm data, for selfish business benefit and market manipulation."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"• Regulatory Agri Sandbox can streamline Regulation and Innovation needs of the Government of Uttar Pradesh."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"An Agri Sandbox suitably designed can be a catalyst to help synthesise the often conflicting regulatory and Innovation requirements between the State Govt along and the Ag Tech Start Ups. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) / The World Bank Group, aspires to partner with the Government of Uttar Pradesh, to build and run India's first Hybrid Regulatory Sandbox for Agriculture, created in a unique \"Hub & Spoke\" arrangement."},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"This will help scale-up AgTechs by removing inhibitors and advancing key policy, regulatory, innovation enablers that enhance AgTech competitiveness, scale and impact to the State's Agriculture within a four-year project period."},{"index":10,"size":43,"text":"Within this project we will seek to: a) increase the number of AgTechs in the State, across the entire agricultural value chain b) increase revenue for AgTechs operating in the State, c) increased number of AgTechs graduating from early stage to commercial scale."}]},{"head":"• Data Partnerships will accelerate innovation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Efforts to harness this dataflow and facilitate \"data partnerships\" between Government of Uttar Pradesh and AgTech Start-ups, Corporates, Research, Academia based on either direct or indirect business benefit will accelerate the penetration of innovation."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"3. Emerging Tech-Based Use Cases: Solutions on emerging technologies require considering various use cases to apply the technology. This can help review and narrow down the capabilities and also allows the start-ups in showcasing and demonstrating their technologies. An example can be the use of Robotics for various use cases like the plucking of cotton, precision seeding, removing weeds, etc The process steps for all three categories of use cases in the implementation of a Data Stack are shown below (refer to Diagram 1). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Satellites and remote sensing (providing direct farmer advisory, for yield estimation, early pest warning etc.) Open DataStack to power Government of Uttar Pradesh's AgriStack  • Robotics (e.g. nutrient injection, harvesting, targeting high precision weed removal) • Robotics (e.g. nutrient injection, harvesting, targeting high precision weed removal) • Automated Material Handling (e.g. harvesting equipment, grain/food processors) • Automated Material Handling (e.g. harvesting equipment, grain/food processors) • Farm sensors and management (e.g. for soil moisture, water and nutrient injection) • Farm sensors and management (e.g. for soil moisture, water and nutrient injection) • Mobile cameras (e.g. for identifying pest, nutrient deficiencies) • Mobile cameras (e.g. for identifying pest, nutrient deficiencies) • Drones / UAV (e.g. real-time monitoring of farms enabling mapping, surveying, 3D modelling) • Drones / UAV (e.g. real-time monitoring of farms enabling mapping, surveying, 3D modelling) • pg. 3 • pg. 3  "}],"sieverID":"d9b5f2bb-b38c-4b42-8e85-e6e6b77aed2e","abstract":"Digitalization in Agriculture (including Analytics, AI, Robotics) is transforming existing business processes and enabling new means to deploy innovative services and products at an unimaginable scale and pace.Digital agriculture has a much broader scope with the potential use in the areas of supply chains, access to finance and markets, contextual advisory, building farmer networks etc. The term fourth agricultural revolution is also used interchangeably with digital agriculture -the use of digital and precision tools across agriculture -where hyper spectral satellites, IOT, robotics, AI etc are being used in agriculture and allied sectors and are giving rise to innovations across all stages of the food, inputs and water value chain."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"037e15a526010275819e97d1c7766473","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b3a0ead-2b69-48af-b7f0-41efb007f54b/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"Phenotypic and genotypic screening for rust resistance in common bean germplasm in Uganda","keywords":["Uromyces appendiculatus","Phaseolus vulgaris","SSR markers","broad spectrum rust resistance","AUDPC"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the most widely grown grain legume in Uganda where it serves as a readily available and popular food for both the urban and rural populations (Kilimo Trust 2012;Sibiko et al. 2013). It is a primary source of dietary protein for people in the lower income bracket and is sometimes referred to as \"poor man's meat\" (Nedumaran et al. 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":233,"text":"However, common bean production is significantly affected by a number of diseases that occur naturally in bean growing areas of Uganda (Wortmann et al. 1998). Common bean rust caused by Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers., Pers.) Unger, is one of the major foliar fungal diseases becoming a serious threat to bean production in Uganda (Paparu et al. 2014a). Rust has been reported to cause yield losses as high as 100% in susceptible cultivars depending on the plant stage and the severity of infection (Singh and Schwartz 2010). This disease was first reported in Uganda by Atkins (1973) in the common bean white haricot genotype, but its economic importance (Paparu et al. 2014b) and the need for disease management has just been recently recognized (Paparu et al. 2014a, Odogwu, et al. 2014). Small-holder farmers in Uganda also have a history of planting landraces which are low yielding and susceptible to other fungal diseases such as anthracnose and angular leaf spot (Nkalubo et al. 2007;Ddamulira et al. 2014). These same cultivars also appear to be susceptible to U. appendiculatus (Kelly et al. 2013). According to various research findings (Mmbaga et al. 1996;Souza et al. 2013) the use of host resistance is currently considered to be the most economical, practical and effective strategy to manage the rust problem in Uganda especially for resource poor farmers with restricted access to expensive fungicides (Lunze et al. 2002;Paparu et al. 2014b)."},{"index":3,"size":201,"text":"Screening of available germplasm is normally a prerequisite for identifying effective resistance sources in any breeding programme (Buruchara et al. 2011;Ddamulira et al. 2014). Screening for rust resistance can be accomplished either through the use of disease severity scores where plants are assessed periodically by visual estimation of the leaf area covered by pustules (Sillero et al. 2006) or through calculations of the area under disease progression curve (AUDPC, Friesen et al. 2014). These methods can be enhanced when deliberate efforts are made to situate fields in locations where the disease is endemic or where susceptible cultivars are deliberately planted (Sillero et al. 2006). However, the high virulence diversity of the U. appendiculatus pathogen (Jochua et al. 2008) and fluctuation of infection pressure due to weather (Sillero et al. 2006) can lower the overall disease infection level and hinder the predictability of resistance patterns expressed by different cultivars (Atkins, 1973). The identification of germplasm resistant to common bean rust can be accomplished with the use of molecular markers tightly-linked to resistance genes (Namayanja et al. 2006;Mienie et al. 2005). The use of markers has assisted plant breeders in matching molecular profiles to the physical properties of varieties (Park et al. 2004)."},{"index":4,"size":219,"text":"Unlike morphological markers, molecular markers are not affected by the environment thus authenticating the sources of disease resistance selected phenotypically (Jonah et al. 2011). The use of PCR-based markers such as Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), Sequence Characterized Amplified Region (SCAR) and Microsatellite or Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) markers linked to rust resistance genes have been reported for single or multiple genes that are used in the indirect selection of promising genes and to facilitate gene pyramiding for more durable rust resistance (Park et al. 2004;Miklas et al. 1993;Mienie et al. 2005;Shin et al. 2014). SSR markers offer an ideal marker system that creates complex banding patterns by simultaneously detecting multiple DNA loci (Muhamba et al., 2013). Genetic mapping of chromosome four (Pv04) in common bean has identified the three genes, Ur-5, Ur-14 and Ur-15 which confer broadspectrum rust resistance (Pastor-Corrales and Steadman 2015). Shin et al. (2014) identified 22 SSR markers linked to Ur-15 gene present in the bean cultivar PI 310762 while Pastor-Corrales and Steadman (2015) and Valentini et al. (2015) acknowledged the linkage of these markers to Ur-5 and Ur-14 genes found in the cultivars Mexico 309 and Ouro Negro respectively. Although these markers have limited application, their effectiveness in selecting resistant materials outside the original mapping populations needs to be determined (Namayanja et al. 2006)."},{"index":5,"size":162,"text":"Knowledge about the genetic background present in an existing germplasm provides complementary information that can be used to select promising parents (Singh 2001). Within the common bean germplasm available in Uganda, only 100 accessions have been genotyped to determine their genetic diversity and structure (Okii 2009). It was observed that common beans from the Mesoamerican and Andean gene pools, and the inter-gene pool introgression are present in the Ugandan germplasm ((Blair et al. 2009, Okii et al. 2014), however most of the farmers' preferred genotypes are of the Andean background (Kiwuka et al. 2012). Liebenberg and Pretorius (2010) had recommended that Mesoamerican germplasm is better for rust resistance and is more suitable for use in Africa since most of the farmers' preferred genotypes in Eastern and South Africa regions are of the Andean origin which are susceptible to rust, whereas Pastor-Corrales and Steadman (2015) suggested that combining resistance sources of Andean and Mesoamerican origin should provide broad resistance to bean rust disease."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"It is thus envisaged that the identification of new sources of resistance is important for maintaining and further developing host resistance to diseases in common bean (Miklas et al. 2006). In addition, the selection of sources of resistance using molecular markers to compliment phenotyping is pertinent in the process of developing host resistance to bean rust. Therefore, this study was designed to analyze the reactions of several cultivars of dry beans to the predominant pathotypes of U. appendiculatus prevalent in Uganda and permit selection of broad spectrum rust resistance from available germplasm. This would provide initial information in establishing a breeding programme for improving common bean for rust resistant in Uganda."}]},{"head":"MATERIAL AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant materials:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"The common bean germplasm used in this study was obtained from germplasm collections maintained by National Crop Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), Uganda The Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Uganda, and Dr. J. Steadman, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA. The germplasm consisted of 57 landraces, 20 commercial and 61 introduced genotypes (Table 1). The landraces had been collected from the major bean growing regions in Uganda (Okii et al., 2014). The commercial genotypes with prefixes NABE and K are released commercial varieties from Uganda with either the Andean or Mesoamerican background. The introduced genotypes with the prefixes SCR, SEN, SCN, DAB and DOR were developed at CIAT with tolerance to drought (Beebe et al. 2008), while some were differentials possessing resistance genes for rust, anthracnose, and angular leaf spot (Miklas et al. 2006). The resistant check used was Mexico 309 which has the Mesoamerican resistance gene Ur-5 (Pastor-Corrales and Steadman 2015), and the susceptible check was NABE 16, a popular commercial cultivar that is tolerant to anthracnose but is susceptible to rust in the field in Uganda (Nkalubo 2014 personal communication)."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic screening of Ugandan germplasm","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Field experiment: The field experiment was conducted on-station at NaCRRI (latitude: 0.3910 N; longitude: 32.4270 E; altitude: 1,160 m above sea level). This site has been used in previous studies on bean rust (Paparu et al. 2014b). Two field trials were conducted from March to June known as the first planting seasons in 2014 and 2015 because of the high rainfall and moderate temperature suitable for increased rust infection (Nsubuga 2000). The trials were laid out in an alpha lattice design with three replicates. Each cultivar was planted in a plot sown with 22 seeds in 2 rows of 1m with inter-and intra-row spacing of 30cm and 10cm respectively. There was 1m spacing between plots to avoid inter-plot interference. The susceptible cultivar, NABE 16 was planted after every 2 rows at relatively high plant density to ensure uniformity of natural inoculum and increased disease pressure (Maphosa et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Field data collection and analysis: Three visual assessments and scoring of rust severity and incidence were carried out when 50% of all cultivars were at the first trifoliate leaf stage designated as V3; pre-flowering designated as R5 and pod formation designated as R7 plant developmental stages (Van Schoonhoven and Pastor-Corrales 1991;Paparu et al. 2014a). Disease incidence was estimated as the percentage of the number of infected plants per plot while the disease severity was rated using the CIAT 1 to 9 scale by Van Schoonhoven and Pastor-Corrales (1991), where 1-3 = resistant (no visible pustules to few pustules covering 2% of foliar area), 4-6=intermediate (small pustules covering 5% foliar area to large pustules often surrounded by chlorotic halos covering 10% foliar area) and 7-9 = susceptible (large to very large pustules covering 25% foliar area). For each genotype, the area under the disease curve (AUDPC) was calculated from the disease severity using the midpoint rule (Campbell and Madden 1990) equation:"},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Where \uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56 , is the assessment of the disease at the ith observation, \uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56 is time at the ith observation, and n is the total number of observations. Each bean cultivar was considered resistant (R) when AUDPC value symptom score < 50, intermediate (I) and susceptible (S) when AUDPC value of 50 to 100 and 100 to 150 respectively. Data on yield was recorded and seed yield (kg/ha) was estimated for yield per plot using the Microsoft Excel 2013."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Analyses of variance for disease AUDPC, disease incidence and grain yield were performed using GenStat discovery 12 th edition. The AUDPC of both years (2014 and 2015) was used for selection of promising parental cultivars that would be used in the rust resistance breeding programme. A scattered plot analysis was performed using plot (xy) function of the R statistical package for windows v.3.1.2."}]},{"head":"Genotypic screening of Ugandan germplasm","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":261,"text":"The total genomic DNA of newly emerged trifoliate leaflets of each of the143 cultivars including the resistant and susceptible checks were isolated using the DNEASY 250 plant mini kit (Qiagen, CA) following the manufacturer's protocol at the CIAT molecular laboratory, Uganda. The DNA were quantified using the NanoDrop 8000 UV-Vis Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) at 260/280nm and genotyped using twenty-two(SSRs) primers linked to rust resistance currently used at the Bean Breeding and Genetics laboratory at Michigan State University, USA. The 22 SSR markers obtained from the Soybean Genomics and Improvement Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Beltsville MD and used in this study: bean_ssr_2903, BARC_PV_SSR04719, BARC_PV_SSR04728, SSRbeanur36, bean_ssr_2895, BARC_PV_SSR04703, BARC_PV_SSR04722, bean_ssr_2904, bean_ssr_2892, BARC_PV_SSR04721, bean_ssr_1170, bean_ssr_1170, bean_ssr_2909, bean_ssr_2906, bean_ssr_1168, BARC_PV_SSR04725, bean_ssr_0669, bean_ssr_2898, BARC_PV_SSR04425, bean_ssr_2901, bean_ssr_0778 and bean_ssr_1167. Following the protocol of Shin et al. (2014), the resulting PCR products were analyzed using 3% agarose gel electrophoresis and visualized using the Gel Doc EZ Imager (Bio-Rad). Scoring was done using a binary system where 1 and 0 indicated presence and absence of bands respectively of the SSR markers (Duncan et al. 2013). Resistance of each cultivar was determined based on the presence and absence of SSRs amplification. For more stringent selection measure, cultivars who had 10 SSR markers and above where considered resistant. The polymorphism information content (PIC) was analyzed using the PowerMarker V3.25 software (Liu and Muse 2005). Correlation of the phenotypic data for disease severity and seed yield, and genotypic data was done using the general linear model (GLM) option in the Trait Analysis by Association Evolution and Linkage (TASSEL) 5.2.21 software (Jamshidi and Mohebbalipour 2014)."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotypic variability and reaction of Ugandan common beans to rust.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"In this study a germplasm collection of 138 dry bean genotypes was screened to identify those genotypes which could be used as effective sources for rust resistance. The results of the analysis of variance for rust disease incidence, AUDPC and seed yield evaluated in 2014 and 2015 first planting seasons are presented in Table 2. The results indicated high significant differences (P < 0.001) among genotypes and interaction of the genotype and season for incidence, AUDPC, and seed yield in both years. Although there were high significant differences for yield in 2014 and 2015, there was no difference for disease incidence and AUDPC for both years. The results of correlation analysis among the traits studied are presented in Table 3. Rust disease incidence was shown to be significantly correlated (P < 0.001) with AUDPC (0.6) suggesting that the severity of rust disease increased with disease incidence."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"In general, rust disease incidence, severity and AUDPC were more severe in 2015 than in 2014."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"In "}]},{"head":"Genotypic selection of cultivars with broad-spectrum rust resistance","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"In this study, 138 alleles were detected ranging from 144 to 288 base pairs and the polymorphism information content (PIC) ranged from 0.1 for the marker bean_ssr_2903 to 0.4 for bean_ssr_1167"},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"(Table 4). The frequency of the major alleles ranged from 0.5 to 0.9 with the mean of 0.8 which is below 1. This indicated that all markers where polymorphic and highly informative. The correlation of the plants' reaction to rust indicated by the mean disease severity and the SSRs markers for broad-spectrum resistance were analyzed using the GLM. In this study, three SSR markers, BARC_PV_SSR04725, bean_ssr_0778 and bean_ssr_2892 were observed to be strongly associated (P-values ≤0.05) with the mean disease severity (Table 5). There was no significant correlation observed with the molecular markers and yield."},{"index":3,"size":149,"text":"The number of genotypes per each amplified marker ranged from 9 to 69 (Table 3) while the number of amplified markers per cultivar ranged from 1 to 14 (Table 6). The marker with the highest number of occurrence among the cultivars was bean_ssr_2898 with 69 cultivars while bean_ssr_2903 (9 cultivars) had the least number of occurrence among the cultivars studied. The SSR markers BARC_PV_SSR04725, bean_ssr_0778 and bean_ssr_2892 occurred in 51, 46 and 44 cultivars respectively. The cultivar Ouro Negro (14 markers) had the highest number of markers while NABE 3 (1 marker) had the least number of markers. Amongst the landraces the cultivar with highest number of markers was Nabufumbo (11 markers) while the cultivars Kitinda and Wakiso brown had 2 markers each. For the commercial cultivars, NABE 2 (11 markers) had the highest number of markers while NABE 3 (1 markers) had the lowest occurrence of the markers."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Amongst the introduced drought tolerant cultivars, SEN 92 (11 markers) and SCN-1 (10 markers) had the highest number of markers while SCN-12 (2 markers) had the lowest occurrence of the markers. It was observed that among the anthracnose resistant materials, 6 markers occurred in G2333 while Widusa had 2 markers. For the rust resistant materials, Ouro Negro (14 markers) had the highest number of markers, followed by PI181996 (11 markers) and Mexico 309 (10 markers) while PC50 had three markers. Seven cultivars were identified to have the highest number of occurrence of the broad-spectrum rust resistance SSR markers."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"The field screening of the Ugandan germplasm in the first planting seasons of 2014 and 2015 was useful in establishing the response of genotypes to rust from one season to another. The result of the analysis of variance showed significant differences for disease AUDPC, disease incidence and grain yield that indicated high variability among the genotypes' response to rust in both years and the possibility of obtaining genotypes with different genes for rust resistance among the different genotypes screened. The variation of the cultivars' response to rust complimented the work of Okii et al. (2014), who had recommended that the high genetic variability among Ugandan common bean germplasm would be useful in selecting materials for breeding for biotic constraints."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"The inconsistent responses of the genotypes in 2014 and 2015 could be attributed to either the changes in bean rust races structure or weather conditions. U. appendiculatus is known to be highly variable (Jochua et al., 2008;Liebenberg and Pretorius 2011). This variability may have contributed to the inconsistent response of the resistant check, Mexico 309 in 2014 and 2015. This cultivar has been reported to show 77.3% resistance when challenged with 88 rust races (Pastor-Corrales and Steadman, 2015). Since Mexico 309 showed some level of resistance (AUDPC=36) in 2015, it could be a useful source of resistance to rust in Uganda for some specific rust races."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"However, identification of the rust races within and between fields would need to be further suggested that the severity of rust disease increased with disease incidence in both years. This association was similar to the report by Atkins (1973) in which rust disease levels increased with the disease intensity from season to season."},{"index":4,"size":297,"text":"The use of the AUDPC as a disease severity measure and as a tool for plant resistance evaluation helps to reflect disease progress throughout the whole growing season (Campbell and Madden 1990). It can be used to determine and select promising parental genotypes that are useful in disease resistance breeding programmes (Ferreira et al. 2014). In this study, the rust differentials cultivars Aurora with the Ur-3 and KW184 with the Ur-4 had a consistent resistant response for the years 2014 and 2015. This finding suggest that these genotypes could be used as source of resistance to rust in Uganda. These genotypes are among the sources of rust resistance reported to be suitable for East Africa by Kimani et al. (2001). The cultivars CNCPI181996, Kapchorwa white, G2333, SEN 80, SEN 46, DOR 500 and NABE 2 were also observed as resistant. The genotype CNCPI181996 was developed from the cross of two rust differentials with different resistant genes CNC (Ur-CNC) and PI181996 (Ur-11). Genotypes with multiple rust resistant genes have been recommended as effective genetic resistance strategy to manage bean rust to provide a broader and longer lasting or more durable resistance (Wasonga and Porch 2010). Only one anthracnose resistant and three drought tolerant genotypes showed resistance. These genotypes would be excellent materials for breeding multiple stress resistant dry bean genotypes since the disease pathogens and weather patterns are becoming more variable and unpredictable (PABRA, 2015). The only commercial genotype and landrace to show resistance were NABE 2 and Kapchorwa white respectively. The genotype, NABE 2, is known to be drought tolerant, resistant to bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) and is commonly grown in the Northern region of Uganda (Ugen et al. 2014) while the landrace Kapchorwa white was collected from Kapchorwa district in the eastern region of Uganda."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"The low number of indigenous cultivars from Uganda showing disease resistance have been reported by Atkins (1973) and Ddamulira et al. (2014). Nonetheless, the resistant cultivars identified could be indigenous sources of resistance, especially if the gene conferring rust resistance is identified (Kelly et al. 2003), which can supplement other existing exotic resistance sources to develop durable rust resistance in Uganda."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"The correlation of molecular markers and plant (such as leaf, pod and seed) reactions have been reported in common bean (Arnaud-Santana et al. 1994). Although all 22 markers were informative in this study, only three markers BARC_PV_SSR04725, bean_ssr_0778, bean_ssr_2892 were observed to be strongly associated with the mean disease severity. The marker, bean_ssr_0778 has been reported to be closely linked to the rust resistance gene Ur-15 in PI 310762 (Shin et al. 2014)."},{"index":7,"size":161,"text":"Since this marker is among the SSR markers closely associated with rust resistance among the Ugandan common bean germplasm, it would be suitable for use in marker assisted selection in a rust resistance breeding programme, Among the Ugandan common bean germplasm genotyped, seven cultivars with the highest number of markers were selected as sources of broad-spectrum rust resistance. The highest occurrence of the SSR markers for broad spectrum rust resistance where found in the introduced materials especially the rust differential materials. Similar observation was made by Bokosi et al. (1994). A comparison of the genetic background of the 15 cultivars selected as potential sources for rust resistance by the phenotypic and genotypic screening, indicated that cultivars from the smallseeded Mesoamerican (76.7%) and large-seeded Andean (23.3%) background were resistant to rust. However, most of the resistance materials were of the Mesoamerican background. In Uganda, farmer preferred common bean cultivars derived from the large-seeded Andean background (Kiwuka et al. 2012;Okii et al. 2014)  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 2014, the AUDPC values ranged from 38.5-87.5 with 13% of the genotypes showing resistant response while 87% had intermediate response. However, in 2015 the AUDPC values ranged from 19.4-130 with 41% of the genotypes showing resistance, 43% with intermediate response and 17% showing susceptible response. The scattered plot of the AUDPC estimates in 2014 and 2015 is presented in Fig.1. The scatterplot does not show any strong association between the AUDPC of both years. This lack of association is supported by a correlation of 0.109. However, three main groups of genotypes were observed to have the same response in both years. The first group fell within the AUDPC value range of 1-50, which had nine genotypes that consistently had resistant response in 2014 and 2015. These genotypes and their AUDPC values for 2014 and 2015 were as follows, Aurora (49.0; 19.0), KW814 (50.0; 33.4), CNCPI181996 (43.2; 25.0), Kapchorwa white (48.0; 37.0), G2333 (50.0; 43.0), SEN 80 (48.0; 38.0), SEN 46 (47.0; 43.0), DOR 500 (43.2; 25.0) and NABE 2 (42.0; 38.1). The resistant check, Mexico 309 (65.3, 36) was found in the second group with 78 genotypes that fell within the intermediate response with the AUDPC value range of 50-100 while the susceptible check, NABE 16 (56.0; 96.8) was found in the third group with over 21 genotypes that had the susceptible response with the AUDPC values of 100-130 for the years 2014 and 2015. "},{"text":" investigated. The weather conditions at the NaCRRI research station at Namulonge varied in 2014 and 2015. For instance, the average rainfall at NaCRRI in 2015 was higher (150 mm) than in 2014 (119 mm).Nsubuga et al. (2011)  had reported similar annual increase in rainfall within Namulonge where the research station is located. The increased rainfall and moisture in 2015 may have contributed to increase in rust disease pressure in field. Rust disease incidence and severity have been reported to be influenced by moist conditions such as prolonged periods of water on leaf surfaces(Harveson 2013). Under favorable conditions, rust disease cycles may repeat every 10 to 14 days due to the macrocyclic nature of U. appendiculatus in which the urediniospore stage often called the \"repeating\" stage, which increase the amount of inoculum produced by the pathogen and thus increase the disease intensity and subsequently the disease severity (Pastor-Corrales and Liebenberg 2010). The strong association of rust disease incidence and AUDPC in 2014 and 2015 "},{"text":" The cultivars Ouro Negro with the Ur-14 gene, PI181996 with the Ur-11 gene and Mexico 309 with the Ur-5 gene had the highest presence of the broad-spectrum rust resistance and previously reported to have 98.9% and 77.3% resistance to 88 rust races respectively (Pastor-Corrales and Steadman 2015). The landrace Nabufumbo, the commercial variety NABE 2 from the Andean background, and the drought tolerant cultivars SCN-92 and SCN-1 both from the Mesoamerican background, need to be further explored to ascertain their rust resistance potential. The cultivar NABE 2 which was selected by the phenotypic and SSR marker screening methods can be considered a new source of rust resistance. "},{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Comparison of the AUDPC values (r=0.109) for Ugandan common bean germplasm screened in 2014 and 2015 at the Namulonge Research Station, Uganda. (Note: Black arrow=resistant cultivar, Mexico 309; Red arrow=susceptible cultivar, NABE 16) "},{"text":"Description of the 138 Ugandan common bean collection screened for resistance to rust disease . Still broad based resistance to bean rust can be best achieved by combining different sources of resistance from both the Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools as suggested by Pastor-Corrales and Steadman (2015) to provide durable resistance and more effectively manage the bean rust disease. Table1: S/N  ‡Genotype Genotype Type Stress response Gene pool Table1: S/N  ‡GenotypeGenotype TypeStress responseGene pool NABE 1 Commercial  Susceptible to multiple constraints Andean NABE 1CommercialSusceptible to multiple constraintsAndean NABE 2 Commercial  BCMV resistant/ Drought tolerant Mesoamerican NABE 2CommercialBCMV resistant/ Drought tolerantMesoamerican NABE 3 Commercial  Bean common mosaic virus BCMV resistant Mesoamerican NABE 3CommercialBean common mosaic virus BCMV resistantMesoamerican NABE 4 Commercial  CBB resistant/ALS Andean NABE 4CommercialCBB resistant/ALSAndean NABE 5 Commercial  CBB resistant Andean NABE 5CommercialCBB resistantAndean NABE 6 Commercial  Unknown Mesoamerican NABE 6CommercialUnknownMesoamerican NABE 11 Commercial  CBB resistant/ALS Andean NABE 11CommercialCBB resistant/ALSAndean NABE 13 Commercial  Root rot/low soil fertility tolerant Andean NABE 13CommercialRoot rot/low soil fertility tolerantAndean NABE 14 Commercial  Root rot/low soil fertility tolerant Andean NABE 14CommercialRoot rot/low soil fertility tolerantAndean NABE 15 Commercial  Anthracnose tolerant Andean NABE 15CommercialAnthracnose tolerantAndean NABE 16 Commercial  Anthracnose tolerant Andean NABE 16CommercialAnthracnose tolerantAndean NABE 17 Commercial  Anthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerant Andean NABE 17CommercialAnthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerantAndean NABE 18 Commercial  Anthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerant Andean NABE 18CommercialAnthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerantAndean NABE 19 Commercial  Anthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerant Andean NABE 19CommercialAnthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerantAndean NABE 20 Commercial  Anthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerant Andean NABE 20CommercialAnthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerantAndean NABE 21 Commercial  Anthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerant Andean NABE 21CommercialAnthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerantAndean NABE 22 Commercial  Anthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerant Andean NABE 22CommercialAnthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerantAndean NABE 23 Commercial  Anthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerant Andean NABE 23CommercialAnthracnose, BCMV, ALS tolerantAndean K131 Commercial  BCMV/black root/ anthracnose resistant Mesoamerican K131CommercialBCMV/black root/ anthracnose resistantMesoamerican K132 Commercial  Unknown Andean K132CommercialUnknownAndean DAB 474 Introduced CONCLUSION Drought tolerant Andean DAB 474IntroducedCONCLUSION Drought tolerantAndean DAB 475 In this study, 15 different sources of resistance to bean rust from the Andean (26.7%) and Introduced Drought tolerant DAB 478 Introduced Drought tolerant Andean Andean DAB 475 In this study, 15 different sources of resistance to bean rust from the Andean (26.7%) and Introduced Drought tolerant DAB 478 Introduced Drought tolerantAndean Andean DAB 479 Mesoamerican (73.3%) genetic background were identified. The phenotypic screening identified Introduced Drought tolerant DAB 480 Introduced Drought tolerant Andean Andean DAB 479 Mesoamerican (73.3%) genetic background were identified. The phenotypic screening identified Introduced Drought tolerant DAB 480 Introduced Drought tolerantAndean Andean DAB 482 nine cultivars with different rust resistance response which provided a range of promising sources Introduced Drought tolerant TU Introduced Anthracnose differential Andean Mesoamerican DAB 482 nine cultivars with different rust resistance response which provided a range of promising sources Introduced Drought tolerant TU Introduced Anthracnose differentialAndean Mesoamerican for rust resistance. However, genotypic screening identified seven cultivars with 10 to 14 amplified for rust resistance. However, genotypic screening identified seven cultivars with 10 to 14 amplified SSR markers associated with resistance. The Andean cultivar NABE 2 was selected by the both SSR markers associated with resistance. The Andean cultivar NABE 2 was selected by the both phenotypic and SSR marker screening methods can be considered a new source of rust resistance phenotypic and SSR marker screening methods can be considered a new source of rust resistance in Uganda. This study provided a range of SSR markers and sources of resistance that would be in Uganda. This study provided a range of SSR markers and sources of resistance that would be useful in breeding for resistance to bean rust in Uganda and in other breeding programmes useful in breeding for resistance to bean rust in Uganda and in other breeding programmes worldwide.    worldwide.  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Analysis of variance of the means of disease incidence, yield and AUDPC of 138 bean cultivars infected with bean rust in Uganda. of freedom, MS: Mean square, Values with *, ** and *** implies significant at P = .05, P < .01 and P < .001 respectively; ns: not significant Source of variation Incidence AUDPC Yield Source of variationIncidenceAUDPCYield  DF MS  DFMS Genotype 137 3265.7*** 1312.3*** 496670*** Genotype137 3265.7*** 1312.3*** 496670*** Year 1 35452.7*** 2680.7ns 205604560*** Year1 35452.7*** 2680.7ns205604560*** Genotype. Year 137 3206.2*** 1297.2*** 488368*** Genotype. Year137 3206.2*** 1297.2*** 488368*** Error 548 580.2 467.6 309388 Error548 580.2467.6309388 DF: degree    DF: degree  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Correlation of the means of disease incidence, yield and AUDPC of 138 bean cultivars infected with bean rust in Uganda. Values with ** and *** implies significant at P = 0.01 and 0.001 respectively; ns: not significant Traits AUDPC Yield TraitsAUDPCYield AUDPC -  AUDPC- Yield -0.1083** - Yield-0.1083**- Incidence 0.5490*** 0.0482ns Incidence0.5490***0.0482ns  "},{"text":"Table 4 : 22 SSRs markers, allele size, frequency, allele number, gene diversity and PIC of 138 genotyped common beans in Uganda †Marker Allele size (base pair) Major. Allele. Frequency  Allele   Number of cultivar AlleleNumber of cultivar Number Gene Diversity PIC per markers NumberGene DiversityPICper markers  "}],"sieverID":"acc62a83-d941-4b63-b193-cdf61f726c10","abstract":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0393caedc38eef1a543ee6c4187e4f2e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c7e35eb4-c99b-497b-bd8a-b3e11673fd48/retrieve"},"pageCount":81,"title":"Blazing the trail: People First","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"As a Director at TSBF-CIAT and as Director General (DG) of IITA, I have realized that people are the wings on which an organization flies. Setting goals and issuing instructions is not enough; if the people are not motivated, the progress of the organization is delayed. Hence, I decided to adopt the people approach where the staff are built up, motivated, but not cut-down."},{"index":2,"size":195,"text":"I usually remember the case of President Nicephore Soglo of the Republic of Benin when he became the elected leader after he took over from his predecessor, President Mathieu Kerekou. He found a broke and broken country, in people, economy, and infrastructure. He decided to first tackle the infrastructure component as a strategy for revitalizing his country and he did very well in this respect. But he was not reelected for a second term because people were left out of his rebuilding process. One day as I was moving from my hotel to the IITA station, a young motorcycle rider called \"Zamija,\" gave me a lift. While paying the fare, I shared my admiration for President Soglo's infrastructural achievements. He looked at me bewildered and surprised and then asked me, \"Will we eat road?\"-a surprising response that I was not expecting. I learnt a great lesson from that off-the-cuff statement, that the social welfare of people matters and has to be addressed in conjunction with or before physical assets. Thus, when I became DG of IITA, I remembered Zamija boy and I applied that important lesson to the IITA scenario. My motto is \"people first\"."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"In November 2011, staff morale was very low and there was need for a mindset change. So, we organized a town hall meeting. There, I said, \"If you take care of IITA, IITA will take care of you.\" After that meeting, the staff were convinced that IITA is more than a paymaster; they could see the institute as a place where they could make an impact. On many occasions, I ask staff for their opinions and suggestions; other times I assign tasks to those who least expected them, just to motivate them. The result of that was increased efficiency and focus among staff and especially a sense of ownership of the institute. This, of course, did not come without challenges, such as misunderstanding and resistance from different quarters. In the end, the strategy had been justified by the increased productivity of staff who promote the good image of IITA at home and abroad."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"The IITA Board of Trustees in its May 2010 meeting in Nairobi, Kenya, invited all former staff in the country to participate in a closing dinner. This was where the first information about the announcement of the replacement of the 6th Director General, Dr P. Hartmann, was circulated. My friend, Dr Akinwunmi Adesina encouraged me to apply and wrote a strong recommendation to Dr A. Adesina and N. Sanginga after jogging at Jeffrey Center in Lavington, Nairobi, early 2010."}]},{"head":"Search and Recruitment for the 7th Director General of IITA","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Tom Foster, the recruitment agent from Canada whom IITA had hired for this task. Dr Adesina was then contacted on account of his recommendation and was interviewed for an hour by Tom Foster. He strongly advocated for me. Thereafter, I was contacted by Tom Foster and with this strong move for my candidature, I finally applied for the office of the Director General of IITA."},{"index":2,"size":182,"text":"In 2003, TSBF was a small institute, smaller than the Savanna program that I had been leading at IITA. It worked only in Kenya and had experiments in only two sites (Embu and Western Kenya). To make matters worse, it did not possess a laboratory. There were four international scientists, in addition to the Director and about 11 national staff who were basically in charge of administration and research support. The total budget of the TSBF was $1.2 million with a deficit of $0.3 million; core funding from the Rockefeller Foundation had been cut. This success was demonstrated during the External Program and Management Review of CIAT in 2008. In that review, TSBF was rated as the most dynamic, productive, and innovative program of CIAT. In addition to research and scientific brilliance, TSBF had by this time also increased its budget to about $14.5 million; this contributed about 35% to CIAT 's budget. We swung wholly into resource mobilization which increased the institute's total budget to $14.9 million, while its research staff strength Assuming the IITA DG post: Adopting the \"People Strategy\""},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"will not find that in any annual report and probably not in any internal IITA document either. Yet we all agree that \"people are the most important assets in any institution.\" For me the people strategy is the link between the business strategy and the implications for human resources. were a pipe dream. A strong strategy and approach were essential to address this difficult situation that had been eroding the existence of the Institute. We therefore decided to adopt the following approaches:"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"1 Making IITA meaningful for the staff, 2 Adopting a personal approach, and 3 Openly engaging others outside IITA."},{"index":5,"size":108,"text":"The nationwide strikes during the second week of January 2012 crippled transport, businesses, and other essential services in Ibadan, but this did not stop most staff from coming to work. The strikes were sparked by the removal of the fuel subsidy by the federal government. During this period, many staff had to leave their homes as early as 5:00 am to beat the roadblocks mounted by the strikers. In some cases, staff were compelled to pay from their own pockets fees imposed by the strikers, so that they could safely pass through their barricades on their way to the institute. Although staff were not \"Think first about IITA\"."},{"index":6,"size":224,"text":"The fuel crisis in January 2012 was followed by the discovery of a failed investment of $15 million incurred during the previous administration. With a budget of $47 million, IITA was just in the middle rank of CGIAR centers; this without counting the lost $15 million. My first Board meeting took place in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania on 4 December 2011. The entire board meeting was dominated by the failed investment that had occured in 2008-2009. This was a shock to me and incoming Board Chair, Bruce required to come to work during this dangerous period, some staff, on their own volition, risked life and limb to report to their duty stations while the strike lasted. I described this as \"uncommon courage\". I cited the extraordinary effort and commitment of staff in a special recognition get-together held on 27 January 2012 at the open area beside Building 500. \"I am very proud of you,\" I told staff. They also received letters of commendation signed by me during the event. I also seized the opportunity to address staff regarding the changes within the institute and CGIAR, calling on each one-regardless of rank or status-to contribute their best towards building a stronger institute to tackle the challenges ahead. \"Something as simple as maintaining a clean workplace and showing professionalism contribute to taking IITA to the top.\""},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"The failed investment, unpleasant surprises, and low staff morale Coulman as we were not informed of the lost investment. This event dominated all our activities during 2012 and had negative consequences for IITA. They included a funding cut to IITA for nine months with consequences for other centers, the forced resignation of IITA Board members who participated in the investment decision, their interrogation by the System Council, and an EU Forensic audit that took place at the HQ for 30 days."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"Involving all grades of staff in cleaning the campus environment before opening the sports festival, 2012."}]},{"head":"The people approach","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"The way I see IITA, it is a ship with its passengers (all of us) on a journey (our mission), sailing towards a destination (our vision). Through calm and rough seas, we sail with her. What happens to our ship affects us and what we do affects her. This is the message that I have always wanted people to know, to internalize, and to live by. I have tried to develop a powerful institutional culture within IITA to make employees \"own\" IITA, to believe in what we do and what we stand for by answering their questions-from the lofty (how the future developments of food security will affect IITA's development) to the every day (how it will affect their jobs). I have tried during the last nine years to find compelling answers to these questions by making them personal and relevant to people's lives, by openly and transparently engaging others, and by putting the spotlight on successes. After all, IITA is not simply a collection of structures but a living, breathing organic entity. I believe that IITA's ultimate impact will depend not only on its culture and values but, most importantly, on the people that make it tick. This belief was tested during the early days of my administration, especially in early January 2012 when a national crisis paralyzed the whole country and IITA was adversely affected."}]},{"head":"Sharing the strategic direction IITA to have 200 scientists and double the budget by 2020","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Under its revised 10-year strategy, IITA's target was to improve the livelihoods of 11 million farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and pull them out of poverty, while at the same time increasing its annual budget to US$100 million to support 200 multidisciplinary scientists operating from its five regional hubs. I disclosed this during briefings with international and local staff at HQ and all hubs. The endorsement came during separate meetings that I had with Internationally Recruited Staff and with Nationally Recruited Staff in Ibadan. It was approved by the Board of Trustees in Tanzania during the meeting that was held between 7 and 10 December 2011. "}]},{"head":"Training of Drivers and Hospitality teams","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":369,"text":"My experience at TSBF-CIAT had shown me that drivers are the first contact for external partners, especially donors. Their good or bad behavior can determine the reputation of the institution either favorably or unfavorably. In the case of IITA, they are to pick these important personalities from the airport after which our staff at the hospitality unit, whether at the Ikeja Guest House in Lagos or at the International House at the HQ in Ibadan, will take over. The change of mindset had to start with them. I therefore organized a training workshop for these two units (drivers and staff in the hospitality unit) on basic customer service skills. This was conducted by special consultants in organizational domains. During one of my earliest tours of IITA as DG, I made a visit to the Research Farm Unit (RFU) where I met a staff member called 'Udo'; he was fast asleep at 10 am and did not even notice that I had come in. This came as a shock to me, knowing IITA as an international organization that does not give room for such unprofessionalism. Ordinarily, my reaction to such a scene could have been to make an example out of Udo for other staff to sit up and readjust. I could have meted out a disciplinary measure on fair grounds, after all, everybody ought to know that the office is not a resting place. But I thought to myself, what could be the reason for IITA staff member Samson Udo displays uncommon ability such an attitude, and where were his supervisors anyway? I woke him up and he quickly jumped up seeing the DG in front of him. Then I asked him why he was sleeping when he should be working. Udo said, \"The machine I work with stopped functioning about 17 years ago.\" To say I was dazed is to put it mildly. After regaining my composure, I asked him a few questions about the facilities at the RFU but also charged him to facilitate the repair of the machine. I promised that if he did well in that assignment, I was going to reward him. Two weeks later, the machine was fixed and the unit was revived."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Mr Udo is promoted and presented to the FMS staff in a town hall meeting."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Meeting with all staff of FMS.  DG Sanginga handing out the grand raffle draw prize to Hakeem Opadeyi."}]},{"head":"DG Sanginga in town hall","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"It's IITA's Time! IITA-Ibadan community celebrates","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Open Day 2013"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"It was a day of fun and laughter. But more than that, it was a day of celebration, recognition, and appreciation. On Saturday, 16 November, about 5000 IITA staff and their families celebrated the 2013 edition of IITA Open Day."},{"index":3,"size":173,"text":"The crowd gathered under the main events tent at the Sports Center. The spouses appreciated Management's efforts in beautifying the campus and in rekindling staff morale. Mrs Okome who spoke on behalf of spouses of the Senior Staff Association, said, \"We sincerely thank Dr Sanginga and his wife for bringing happiness to our families. Within the little time that this administration has taken off, we have noticed and felt the positive impact this has had on our families; we now see a new look and attitude among our spouses; the old unhappy/moody look has gone as a result of the new style of administration.\" The spouses also commended the renovation of the campus crèche and promised to support IITA in the fight against hunger and poverty.\"We are excited and happy over the renovation of the crèche because no mother would like to have her child in an untidy environment,\" said Mrs. Okechukwu. It was an exciting moment for us and for them; they even requested that the gathering should not be the last."}]},{"head":"Mrs","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"For some of the spouses, it was their first time on IITA campus."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Dr Sanginga interacting with guests during the luncheon."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"\"See yourselves as stakeholders\" -Mrs Sanginga said to spouses of staff."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"The creche was refurbished to a higher standard that is befitting of IITA staff and their babies."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"Mrs Sanginga at IITA Creche before its renovation."},{"index":6,"size":160,"text":"Renovating the Staff Creche IITA offers a creche facility for nursing parents among general staff. This facility ensures the welfare of the babies and is a means of keeping the babies close to their parents. However, the creche had begun to deteriorate to the point where staff preferred to keep their babies at other locations outside IITA. There had to be an intervention. After the renovation of the creche, it became more conducive for babies, nursing parents as well as the caregivers. The IITA Women's Group scholarship scheme is an annual event that aims to support IITA general staff on PG 1-6. The grant is awarded to secondary and post-secondary school students who are IITA Women's Group Scholarship Scheme children/dependents of IITA general staff. Usually, awardees go through a thorough screening involving filling of forms, writing of exams, and oral interviews. After the screening process, the awards go to the best students.. IITA Women's Group and scholarship awardees in 2018."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"IITA Women's Group and friends/spouses celebrating IITA @50."},{"index":8,"size":101,"text":"Despite the many challenges in 2012, including on the financial front, Management made sure that staff welfare and motivation were given the highest priority. During the first year of my administration, HR announced that IITA Management had approved a 12% increase in annual gross salary/remuneration across all staff categories (PGs 1-15) in recognition of staff commitment to achieving the Institute's goals. In addition, Management equally approved the following 2012 PAR increases: Exceptional -6%, Outstanding -5%, Very Good -4%, Satisfactory -2%. For IRS, the general increase was 3% whereas the merit increases were as follows: Exceptional -5.5%, Outstanding -4.5%, Very good -3.5%,"}]},{"head":"Improving staff morale and early results","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Management announces general increases in remuneration and merit","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Good -2.5%, Satisfactory -1.5%. At the same time, I regularized the appointment of IITA staff on short-term contracts who are currently branded \"Consultants\". This has continued to be the case throughout my administration."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"I sent out a message to encourage all staff to reciprocate its commitment to staff welfare by contributing their very best in ensuring that IITA meets and exceeds its objectives and goals at all times. \"Everyone must contribute his/her share through individual and collective resolve to improve on our performance and commitment to excellence at all levels. We should be strong and committed during both good and difficult times\". Start winning research-for-development grants"},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Achieving the promises made during the visit of Bill Gates at IITA Kano 21 Gates Foundation-funded projects where IITA was the lead implementer, and approximately 25 projects where IITA is a partner to an organization funded by the Foundation. Grants range in size from less than $100,000 to more than $14 million, with a total funding portfolio of more than $105 million under Window 3 funding. As a result of this, the number of our internationally recruited scientists has doubled from 117 in 2012 to 224 in 2016 and that of national staff from 784 to 1350. This financial stability has brought improved capacity and high morale among our scientists and staff over the years, translated into unprecedented achievements in the Institute's AR4D programs."}]},{"head":"Examples of Projects","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"IITA gets US$7M approval for commercial products (COMPRO) project Improvement for Income and Food Security in West Africa (YIIFSWA) project, currently in its second phase, was supported by a US$12 million grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and is being led by IITA in collaboration with the governments of Ghana and Nigeria, the UK's Natural Resources Institute (NRI), the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), and Catholic Relief Services (CRS)."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Drs Audu Grema and Tom Koe of the Gates Foundation visiting IITA to discuss the TAAT Clearinghouse project."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"IITA  Tamo, Manuele (IITA-Benin)"},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"''Dr Sanginga is a good pilot for the IITA plane. He leads by example and not by force. He is a visionary leader and has put smiles on the faces of staff. His personal engagement, touch, and powerful negotiation skills have helped to encourage and motivate staff to focus on the \"bigger picture\" thereby reaching new frontiers''."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Sophia Swai, Receptionist, IITA-Tanzania ''I have seen many changes in the last three years. The most notable for me has been the rapid growth of the Hub. Sanginga has been a good leader. He has taken care of his staff and their welfare. Before Dr Sanginga, we worked for many years at IITA on the same grade and without a significant increase in salary. But after he assumed office, Dr Sanginga recognized staff effort. I was promoted after 10 years of being on the same pay grade''."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"Dr Elizabeth Parkes, Harvestplus Cassava breeder, Ibadan ''The decision of the DG and management to provide a building where the IITA cassava and yam teams can work comfortably was a good decision. He refurbished the old building and put it in very good shape. It is now indeed, like a modern office with a modest laboratory. There is no doubt that good science will take place there."},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"The new building and the modern facilities for staff, students, and technicians alike send a crystal-clear message to all who work for hours on the field in the tropical sun that their hard work, commitment and efforts in driving forward IITA's R4D agenda are greatly appreciated''."}]},{"head":"Rod Bishop, Head, FMS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"There have been a lot of changes; the leadership style of inclusivity, knowledge sharing... We are now seeing the benefits of teams producing excellent results… the same people, the same tools. "}]},{"head":"Femi Akeredolu, President, Management Staff Association","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"There has been a tremendous change and the DG himself is a change agent prepared by God for a time like this and for the transformation of the entire system. The staff morale has increased and not that he doubled people's salary… the infrastructural development is amazing, and everybody is now proud being part of the system."}]},{"head":"Ranjana Bhattacharjee, Molecular Geneticist","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The major change that is visible is the morale of the staff. People are now ready to go the extra mile for the benefit of IITA. Another change is the recognition of staff contributions and also making capacity building and partnership a prime focus. Another is the visibility of IITA. IITA is more visible now than before."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Sami Mazumdar, Head, HOTCAT People are more confident to contribute, and they feel more secure. The place looks much cleaner, better, and we are not lagging behind."}]},{"head":"Stefan Hauser, Systems Agronomist and CRP Leader for Humidtropics","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"A lot has changed in a very short time; historically we were using our facilities for research and relaxation (entertainment). That was not the case when Dr Sanginga took over because large parts were \"no go\" areas."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"We had to open the \"no go\" areas for research. Also, the strategic approach to natural resources management is another change."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Lava Kumar, Head, Germplasm Health Unit"},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"The passion for IITA has dramatically increased. This passion translates into productivity… this is the biggest change I have seen. On the research side, we have been given a new direction to focus upstream.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Assuming the IITA DG post -Adopting the \"People Strategy\" 2. Making IITA meaningful for people • People approach • Sharing the strategic direction • Building a committed top management team • Engaging in social activities with all staff categories 3. Improving staff morale and early results 4. Setting the youth Agripreneurs program 5. Building Strategic Partnership • President O.O. Obasanjo as IITA Ambassador • Important personalities from the Nigerian Government • Partnerships with VIPs of CGIAR • Winning awards Blazing the trail: People First iv "},{"text":" increased significantly from 4 to 110 and worked in various countriues in East and Southern Africa. As the Director of the CIAT-TSBF Institute between 2003 and 2011, I provided a strategic vision that focused on implementing an integrated natural resource management research program which was linked to production intensification, market policies, nutrition, and health. My last days as Director of TSBF-CIAT the 7th DG of IITA and started work on 1 November 2011, I used the People Strategy to inform the Business Strategy (IITA Refreshed Strategy 2012-2020) as the best approach to lead and develop the organization. Both strategies had to work together to enable the organization to deliver on its mission and mandate of transforming the agricultural agenda in Africa. Most staff in IITA and other organizations have asked me about my People Strategy. My answer has been that you "},{"text":"Dr Sanginga presenting the new structure to IITA managers and senior staff in Ibadan. Dr Sanginga sharing his vision for IITA and presenting the new organogram to IRS. Blazing the trail: People First 8 DG Sanginga addressing IITA Ibadan general staff on IITA's strategic direction, 2012-2020.Staff narrating the past and asking a lot of worrying questions about the future. "},{"text":" newly refurbished virology labs. DG Sanginga honors committed young staff of Aflasafe -IITA Malawi with week-long communication training at the Headquarters in Ibadan, 2019. DG Sanginga with his second management team: DDG-PCD K. Dashiell; DDG-R Y. Hillbur; DDG-CS K. Akuffo-Akoto; DoF S. Sholola. DG Sanginga with his third management team: DDG-SS K. Akuffo-Akoto; DDG-R M. Saethre; DDG-CS H. Koper; DoF S. Sholola, DDG-P4D K. Dashiell. DG Sanginga with his first management team: Left: DoF S. Sholola; DDG-CS Lakshmi Menon. Right: with DDG-R Paula Bramel. Building a committed top management team IITA's Management team is an asset in leading IITA. But just as in football where excellent individual players are always important assets, players playing as a team is far more important. Teams always trump individuals. Even with the right team in place, it takes time for a group of highly intelligent, ambitious, and independent people to align themselves and move towards one direction in a coordinated manner. One of my first orders of business as DG was for top management to agree on what we can achieve as a team (not as individuals), how often the team should meet, and what strategic issues should be discussed. I have tried to bring our team together regularly to share almost everything, to make it clear to everyone who is doing what, and to keep IITA's initiatives, budgets, and financial targets knitted together. Blazing the trail: People First 16 DG Sanginga meets the IITA Hub Administrators. DG Sanginga meets the representatives of the staff associations. DG Sanginga's first DDG-R4D Ylva Hillbur planting a tree during the launching of the CGIAR Research Program (CRP) on Integrated Systems for the Humid Tropics. DG Sanginga's second DDG-R4D May-Guri Saethre during a field visit to the Malawi Station, Southern Africa Hub. Hub Directors Robert Asiedu, West Africa; Bernard Vanlauwe, Central Africa; Victor Manyong, East Africa; David Chikoye, Southern Africa; and Tahirou Abdoulaye, Sahel. Delivery and Development IITA has research and administrative hubs and stations spread across the continent, divided into, West, Central, Eastern, Southern, and Sahel. Each hub is placed as a strategic entry point to deliver the intervention that each community needs. Hub activities are administered by the Hub Directors who serve our scientists and partners across sub-Saharan Africa. (Map by IITA) serve our scientists and partners across sub-Saharan Africa. (Map by IITA) Coulman and DG Sanginga visit Emeritus scientist Peter Neuenschwander (left) at his forest site in Drabo, Benin. IITA Board of Trustees and senior staff in IITA Kalambo. Blazing the trail: People First 20 DG Sanginga enjoys a cordial relationship with the Board of Trustees. DG Sanginga meets the Technical Advisory Committee of the Humidtropics. "},{"text":"In 2012 , IITA received approval of about US$7 million from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for the implementation of the second phase of the Commercial Products (COMPRO-II) project. Tagged as Aflasafe TM has caught the attention of several stakeholders. Here Dr Ranajit Bandyopadhyay (left) explains to Mr Bill Gates how the biocontrol product works.'Institutionalization of quality assurance mechanism and dissemination of top quality commercial products to increase crop yields and improve food security of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa,' the COMPRO-II project aimed to institutionalize quality assurance mechanisms and facilitate the rapid dissemination of top quality commercial products to increase yields and improve the food security of smallholder farmers in the region.N2Africa grant negotiations with Prem of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.IITA, partners launch landmark US$12M yam initiative for West AfricaIn one of the most ambitious efforts ever undertaken on behalf of an orphan crop like yam, IITA and a host of partners launched a groundbreaking initiative to dramatically boost yam productivity and double the incomes of three million yam farmers in West Africa. The 5-year Yam "},{"text":" Partnership with IFAD IITA Director General, Dr Sanginga Nteranya welcoming the IFAD President Dr Kanayo Nwanze and other VIP guests. President of IFAD (middle) receives IITA Board Chair NamangaNgongi and DG Sanginga. "},{"text":" Treating people with respect has been the fundamental change that I have seen… also the physical changes. When you give a workman a neat place to work, you can demand neat work. We are also working in Abuja, Tanzania, Bukavu, etc. The tremendous change has uplifted all of us. What has been responsible for this is the leadership. Human beings respond to the leader. When a father behaves in a certain way the children follow.Bukky Adeyemo, President of Senior Staff AssociationFrom the first day Dr Sanginga stepped into IITA, there have been a lot of changes. For instance, right from the gatehouse, you see the beauty of IITA. Also the interaction among staff is better and you can see joy in the eyes of people. The style of administration is transparent and open which builds trust and hope. People are now happy to work. He has the mind for improving the lives of humanity. "},{"text":" As the first African DG of IITA, I brought to the fore the energy and the vibrancy of a true son of Africa, encouraging developments which are linked to the big African organizations-the African Development Bank, the African Union, FARA, and others, while at the same time maintaining IITA's brand as a premier, world-quality research institute working in Africa. However, the failed investmentBuilding strategic partnershipsPresident O.O. Obasanjo as IITA Ambassadorand the reputation of IITA, especially with African partners remained as the most pressing challenges that had to be resolved. I therefore requested help from former President Olusegun Obasanjo, who graciously accepted to become Ambassador of IITA early in my administration. Since then, he has been of tremendous help in turning IITA back into its glory. Blazing the trail: People First 50 Presenting a \"refreshed agricultural strategy\" document to IITA Goodwill Ambassador, Chief O. Obasanjo One of DG Sanginga's several visits to Chief Olusegun Obasanjo's Presidential Boulevard, Abeokuta, 2013. Meeting the Nigerian senators of the Committee of Agriculture in Abuja. DG Sanginga and Ondo State Governor, Senator Olusegun Mimiko. \"I will support IITA,\" the Governor told the DG. Partnerships with VIPs of CGIAR International agricultural chiefs commend high quality of research at IITA The Chair of the Consortium Board of CGIAR, Dr Carlos Pérez del Castillo, commended the high quality of research work being undertaken by IITA, emphasizing that this is needed now more than ever to tackle the challenges to food security of tropical nations not only in Africa but also the rest of the world. Dr Pérez del Castillo was at the Ibadan campus of IITA for an official visit. He was accompanied by the Chief Executive Officer of the CGIAR Consortium, Dr Frank Rijsberman; IITA Board Chair, Dr Bruce Coulman; and the Directors General of two other CGIAR Consortium Centers: Dr Papa Seck of AfricaRice and Dr Jimmy Smith of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). Dr Pérez del Castillo said, \"We are very impressed with our interactions with IITA scientists and the high quality of science they are doing in various fields. Their degree of commitment and passion to IITA's mission of eradicating hunger and poverty through their science is nothing short of amazing. We are extremely happy with what we've seen during this visit.\" IITA Director General, Dr Sanginga welcoming the CGIAR Consortium Board Chairman, Dr Calos Perez del Castello, Consortium Chief Executive Dr Frank Rijsberman, and the Director General of Africa Rice Dr Papa Seck to IITA. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Engaging in social activities with all staff Sportsfest 2012 kicks off, rekindles staff morale Sportsfest 2012 kicks off, rekindles staff morale I love football! As a boy growing up in the Congo, football was more than a pastime-it was the force that built and strengthened a young man's character and ideals. The Agripreneurs Program-probably the brightest shining star in my 10 years as DG-achieved for many Male and staff sang songs pledging loyalty and renewed commitment to the vision and goals of IITA. At the opening, I urged the staff to channel most of the energy displayed into rejuvenating IITA. I challenged staff female Spectators players of from various IITA football units waiting teams in to see the game. 2000. I love football! As a boy growing up in the Congo, football was more than a pastime-it was the force that built and strengthened a young man's character and ideals. The Agripreneurs Program-probably the brightest shining star in my 10 years as DG-achieved for manyMale and staff sang songs pledging loyalty and renewed commitment to the vision and goals of IITA. At the opening, I urged the staff to channel most of the energy displayed into rejuvenating IITA. I challenged staff female Spectators players of from various IITA football units waiting teams in to see the game. 2000. young Nigerians what football did for to see IITA as their own institution, and young Nigerians what football did forto see IITA as their own institution, and me and countless other Africans: it has to work with a sincerity of heart. A call me and countless other Africans: it hasto work with a sincerity of heart. A call built character, fostered determination, to clean the campus was made and built character, fostered determination,to clean the campus was made and promoted self-worth, and inculcated a staff, including Management, went about promoted self-worth, and inculcated astaff, including Management, went about sense of accomplishment through hard picking litter around the sports complex sense of accomplishment through hardpicking litter around the sports complex work, discipline, and teamwork. before the game began. work, discipline, and teamwork.before the game began.  Football Football  players of Football the Red and players from Green teams the Red and before the Green teams start of the before the match. match. players of Football the Red and players from Green teams the Red and before the Green teams start of the before the match. match.  Senior Having a Senior Having a  management good time management good time  staff of IITA with the staff of IITA with the  and other scientists and other scientists  after a spectators after aspectators  enjoying the hard day's enjoying the hard day's  work. game. work.game.  "},{"text":" The meeting is for us to know each other... you are my friends and if I find myself in town, I may call on you and make a visit too.\" Time-out with Time-out with spouses of staff spouses of staff below PG 6 at the below PG 6 at the DG's House in 2012 DG's House in 2012 \"Let us join hands and build IITA \"Let us join hands and build IITA together\" together\" Charlotte Charlotte Sanginga Sanginga welcoming welcoming spouses of spouses of staff to her staff to her residence. residence.  "},{"text":" Bill Gates wrote a letter on 26 October 2011 to me after his field visit of the agricultural projects funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in Kano, Nigeria, encouraging my leadership to make progress in R4D to transform African agriculture. After 5 years, we were able to completely transform Bill and Melinda Bill and Melinda Gates visited Gates visited IITA in Kano IITA in Kano and Abuja with and Abuja with AfDB Pres. Akin The number of cars owned by Adesina in 2011. AfDB Pres. Akin The number of cars owned by Adesina in 2011. national staff national staff increased from increased from 17 to over 700. 17 to over 700.  "},{"text":" , rice, and wheat-four of the six commodities that African Heads of States, through the Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Program, have defined as strategic crops for Africa. It allowed-for the first time ever in a single projectcontinental coverage of the food security challenges in Africa. The project was co-implemented by three Africa-based CGIAR Centers: IITA, AfricaRice, and the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). IITA was the project's Executing Agency. Another CGIAR Center -the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)-a specialized technical agency, supported the other three Centers.Mrs Jane Karuku, AGRA President, (middle) was in IITA-Tanzania on a visit to IITA East Africa Hub. She sees IITA as a dependable \"friend\" in the fight against hunger and poverty. signs agreement  signs agreement with AfDB formalizing  with AfDB formalizing US$63M SARD-SC  US$63M SARD-SC project Vice President, African projectVice President, African  Development Development On 12 March 2012, I signed the Protocol of Bank, Ms On 12 March 2012, I signed the Protocol ofBank, Ms Agreement with the African Development Cecilia Agreement with the African DevelopmentCecilia Bank (AfDB) formalizing the acceptance of the Institute of the US$63.24 million multinational CGIAR project \"Support to Akintomide in IITA genebank during her visit to IITA. Ms Bank (AfDB) formalizing the acceptance of the Institute of the US$63.24 million multinational CGIAR project \"Support toAkintomide in IITA genebank during her visit to IITA. Ms Agricultural Research for Development Akintomide Agricultural Research for DevelopmentAkintomide of Strategic Crops in Africa\" (SARD- was glad that of Strategic Crops in Africa\" (SARD-was glad that SC). SARD-SC was a research, science, and technology development initiative aimed at enhancing the productivity Africa hosts a reservoir of \"seeds of hope\". SC). SARD-SC was a research, science, and technology development initiative aimed at enhancing the productivityAfrica hosts a reservoir of \"seeds of hope\". and income derived from cassava,  and income derived from cassava,  DG Sanginga DG Sanginga  DG Sanginga after and AfDB signing the President, agreement in Dr A.A. Tunisia. Adesina, sign DG Sanginga after and AfDB signing the President, agreement in Dr A.A. Tunisia. Adesina, sign  the TAAT the TAAT  and ENABLE and ENABLE  Youth Youth  program program  agreements. agreements.  "},{"text":" One of my most important legacies has been the creation of the IITA Youth Agripreneurs (IYA) program in August 2012. We started the program to address the high rate of unemployment among African youth, with agriculture sitting as a goldmine, waiting for an explorer. The opportunities across value chains in agriculture are sufficient to gainfully employ millions of unemployed graduates in Africa per year, because the food business is always in season. The IYA initiative has now been adopted by many organizations, especially the AfDB that has scaled it to 24 countries. IYA rekindles the hope of a new generation of African agricultural entrepreneurs that will feed the continent, and create wealth and employment. Setting the youth Setting the youth Agripreneurs program Agripreneurs program opportunities for young people in opportunities for young people in Africa. IITA Africa. IITA Ambassador, Ambassador, Chief Olusegun Chief Olusegun Obasanjo and Obasanjo and Dr Sanginga. Dr Sanginga.  "}],"sieverID":"b8e5d30a-b881-4d4d-9372-1fa7891d958a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"039a5c3960cb9a56ca1c575c2f972551","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d955de84-710e-4a91-93a1-38baf0e5c3bc/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #2382 Contributing Projects: • P344 -Evidence of impacts, impact pathways, synergies and cost-effectiveness of nutrition-sensitive agricultural programs","keywords":["Alive & Thrive","which is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation","Irish Aid","the Tanato Foundation","and UNICEF"],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Since 2015, IFPRI's role in A&T has been to study issues related to program sustainability, delivery of maternal nutrition interventions, and other topics related to strengthening the quality and scale of nutrition behavior-change interventions. This research collaboration has generated several high-impact journal publications and datasets: https://www.ifpri.org/project/alive-and-thrive This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:18 (GMT+0) • Optimized consumption of diverse nutrient-rich foods • Optimized consumption of diverse nutrient-rich foods Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Description of activity / Geographic scope: Description of activity / Geographic scope: • Multi-national • Multi-national Country(ies): Country(ies): • Bangladesh • Bangladesh • Burkina Faso • Burkina Faso • Ethiopia • Ethiopia Comments: <Not Defined> Comments: <Not Defined> Links to MELIA publications: Links to MELIA publications: <Not Defined> <Not Defined> 1 1  "}],"sieverID":"15ad0f50-04ec-4c38-872d-15bbf895d7a4","abstract":""}

data/part_2/03c5f492b727b4f1cff520b68578c395.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03c5f492b727b4f1cff520b68578c395","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0639efd6-f8f8-4f1b-b56d-4e1c3d6ca701/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"Assessment of economic feasibility and farmers' perceptions on wetting front detector (WFD) irrigation scheduling tool for dry season vegetable production in the Upper East Region of Ghana","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Agriculture contributes about 25% to Ghana's GDP, employs over 56% of the labor force and serves as the major source of livelihood for many rural communities in Ghana (Asamoah, 2018). In the Upper East Region of the country, rain-fed agriculture is predominant. Hence, water is the main determinant factor to increase agricultural production and improve agricultural water management (Lankford et al., 2016;Hussain and Hanjira, 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":200,"text":"A first step in agricultural water management is to ensure that the application of the right amount of water at the right time to avoid inefficient and unproductive use of water and energy. Unfortunately, many small-scale farmers do not have the knowledge and/or tools for determining the right amount and the time to apply water. Irrigation scheduling ensures that water is optimally available to the plant if applied according to crop requirements. However, irrigation also entails increased costs for equipment/tools, labor and energy, optimal water allocation from the biophysical and crop production perspective should coincide with the economics of water productivity (Bjornlund et al., 2017;Balana et al., 2019). A simple decision support tools can guide farmers on when to irrigate and in what amount. Irrigation officers, agronomist, agricultural extension agents and some farmers, with minimal training, can use such devices/tools. Although scheduling tools are in use at some formal irrigation schemes in Ghana, the adaptability of the tools to smallholder single farm units is yet to be proven. International Water Management Institute (IWMI) introduced the wetting front detectors (WFD) during the first phase of Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) program in Ethiopia and Ghana."},{"index":3,"size":214,"text":"The WFD is a funnel-shaped device buried in the soil with an indicator above the soil surface which guides irrigators when to turn the water off during irrigation and could assist farmers to improve their understanding of irrigation (Stirzaker, R. J. (2003). The tool could also be used to monitor nutrient leaching (Stirzaker et al., 2017). Results from Africa RISING phase 1 illustrate the technical feasibility of the WFD. For example, in Ethiopia, the use of the WFD in guiding supplementary irrigation of oats and vetch resulted in a 64 % yield increase (Schmitter et al., 2017). Similarly in Ghana, WFD improved water productivity in pepper and cowpea production (Adimassu et al., 2016b;Adimassu and Appoh, 2018). Moreover, there are limited social studies that have examined the economic feasibility and social acceptability of the WFD technology in the study areas. From the perspective of a smallholder farmer, attributes such as ability/technical knowledge, economic feasibility, compatibility with farmers' current practices and the management of risk are crucial factors for the adoption of mater management technology such as WFD (Stirzaker et al., 2010). Hence, this study was initiated to assess the economic feasibility and farmer perception of the WFD irrigation scheduling tool for dry season vegetable production using field data gathered from three communities in northern Ghana."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study sites","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The study was conducted in three communities (Nyangua, Tekuru and Zanlerigu) of the Upper East Region of Ghana where Africa RISING and the Feed the Future (FTF) Innovation Lab for Small Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) projects were implemented. Africa RISING project was implemented in Nyangua and Tekuru while ILSSI project was implemented in Zanlerigu. Farmers in Nyangua and Tekuru grew pepper (Capsicum annuum) whereas farmers in Zanlerigu grew Onion (Allium cepa). The rainfall in the study areas exhibits a unimodal pattern and mainly occurs between May and September/October with a peak in August. The rainfall is highly variable with the average annual rainfall of 950 mm (Adimassu et al., 2016a). Temperature ranges from 23 to 35oC with an average of 29oC. The topography of the area is relatively flat with slope less than 5°. The dominant land cover types in the study areas are open cultivated and savanna woodland (Kadyampakeni et al., 2017)."}]},{"head":"Data sources and analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Economic feasibility","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"The data used in the economic analysis came from the field records of inputs and outputs data collected by the University of Development Studies (UDS) and IWMI researchers. Inputs and output data for onion production were recorded from 16 farmers' field during 2016 and 2017 at Zaleringu. Similarly, data for pepper production were recorded from 5 farmers' field during 2017 and 2018 growing season at Nyangua and Tekuru. The plot size for each farmer is very small ranging from 25m2 to 174m2. The total land size of the 16 onion farmers was 1480 m2 while that of pepper farmers was 360m2. Though cost-benefit analysis (CBA) was applied in this study, we found that conducting CBA at a level of 25m2 plot size is inappropriate because of measurement and valuation problems for such a small plot. Moreover, farmers often practice sharing of production inputs such as irrigation water, fuel and motor pumps. We cannot disaggregate the quantities and values of these shared inputs to an individual small plot level and undertake any meaningful economic analysis for such very small plots. Hence, the data was extrapolated into a 0.25ha plot size equivalent."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The number of WFD units for pilot farmers (i.e. use of 5 WFD per 0.25 ha) was set based on the maximum garden size farmers grow vegetable in the study area, which was about 500 m2. Therefore, the assumption was that if such a farmer uses 1 WFD per a 500 m2 plot which will be equivalent to 5 WFD units per 0.25 ha."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Cost-benefit Analysis (CBA) was used to assess the economic feasibility of the WFD as an irrigation scheduling tool. CBA is a quantitative analytical tool used to determine the worth of a technology, project, program or policy. It is used in appraising the economic feasibility of available options and making investment decisions. This aids decision-makers in the efficient allocation of resources. The most common decision criteria in CBA are the net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR) and benefit-cost ratio (B/C). NPV is defined as the difference between the monetized sum total of the present value of benefit streams and that of cost streams over the life of the project. Equation 1 presents the mathematical expression of the NPV computation. Projects with positive NPV are accepted while projects with negative NPV are rejected."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Bt: value of benefit streams in period 't' (i.e., cash flow benefits at each period) Ct: value of cost streams in period 't' (i.e., cash flow of costs at each period) d: discount rate t: time periods (usually in years) (t = 1, 2,… T) where 'T' is the life span of the project."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"Benefit-Cost Ratio (B/C) is the ratio of the present value of the benefits to the present value of the costs. The decision rule reading B/C is that if the ratio is greater than one, the project is accepted. The IRR is defined as the discount rate at which NPV is zero. The decision criteria are to accept the investment or a given technology if its IRR exceeds the cost of capital i.e., the chosen discount rate). A 3 and 5 year life spans were considered in the analysis for watering-can (onion production) and fuel-powered motorized pumps (pepper production) for water lifting, respectively."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"As in most rural areas of the developing world, we encountered difficulties in estimating the cost of family labor involved in the production activities. This is because of the labour market imperfections or absence labour markets. In some localities, seasonal labor markets may exist, in other localities labor market may not exist, and hence the opportunity cost of labour could be zero. Thus, in this study we undertook the cost-benefit analysis under two plausible scenarios: (i) when the opportunity cost of unpaid family labour was accounted for using the local daily wage rate for unskilled labour; and (ii) when the opportunity cost of unpaid family labour was considered to be zero."}]},{"head":"Framers perception","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Questionnaire-based survey (Annex II) was conducted to understand farmers' perception on the WFD technology. The respondents were purposively selected from the three communities where the technology was introduced by the project for evaluation purposes."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"During the evaluation of WFD, there were two categories of farmers: lead and non-lead farmers. Lead framers were those who undertook actual field experiment on their own plots while the non-lead farmers were indirectly involved and frequently visited the lead farmers' experimental sites. All the lead and non-lead farmers were included in the study. In total, 50 farmers (26 lead and 24 non-lead farmers) were involved in the interview. A field survey was administered using four trained enumerators who were recruited from the study areas."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Enumerators were supervised by lead researchers to ensure data quality standard. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages and means were computed to address the stated objectives."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Economic feasibility of WFD","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CBA of onion production in Zaleringu","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":326,"text":"Cost-benefit analysis was undertaken under two scenarios: (i) when the opportunity cost of unpaid family labour was accounted for, and (ii) when the opportunity cost of unpaid family labour was considered to be zero. Table 1 summarizes the results for the CBA of onion production using WFD irrigation scheduling under the first scenario. As shown in Table 1, the imputed cost of family labour, including nursery, land preparation, digging shallow wells, weeding/cultivation and irrigation labour; accounted for more than 95% of the total cost for onion production. The results indicate that even when the cost of unpaid family labour is valued and accounted for in the analysis, the use of WFD is still economically feasible -with a NPV of 6549 GHS 1 IRR of 210% and B/C of 3.5 (all results are based using 5 WFD units per 0.25 ha). Table 2 depicts the cost-benefit analysis of onion production when family labour was not accounted for. The results (Table 2) show that with an NPV of GHS 17580 GHS per 0.25 ha, (ca. USD 3516/0.25ha), IRR of 496%, and C/B of 9.4, onion production using WFD (5 WFD per 0.25 ha) was economically feasible and generate higher economic returns as as compared to the first scenario (cf. Table 1 and 2). The major question that both farmers and researchers ask is: 'How many WFD units can potentially be installed per a given plot and yet be economically feasible?' The CBA of this study was conducted based on 5 WFD per 0.25 ha (equivalent to 20 WFDs per ha). The number of WFD units to be installed varies mainly according to the variability of the soil and irrigation systems. Figure 1 depicts the effect of increasing the number of WFD on NPV and IRR for onion production. If unpaid labour cost was included, putting up to 22 WFD units per 0.25 ha (about 90 WFD units per ha) could be economically feasible (Figure 1 A, Figure 1B)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"This means that installing WFD beyond 90 units per ha could result in a negative NPV and an IRR value below the chosen discount rate. On the other hand, when zero opportunity cost of labour was considered, installing up to 50 WFD units per 0.25ha (about 200 WFD units per ha) could be economically feasible. This doesn't necessarily mean that 200 WFD can be installed in one ha of onion field. However, this implies that a farmer with plot size of 50-100 m 2 onion garden can install and use a WFD. "}]},{"head":"CBA of pepper production in Tekuru and Nyangua","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Table 3 depicts the CBA results for pepper production using WFD irrigation scheduling when the opportunity cost of unpaid family labour was accounted for. Like onion production, the majority of the total imputed cost of family labour for pepper production was used for nursery, land preparation, digging shallow wells, weeding/cultivation and irrigation. The results indicate that even when the cost of unpaid family labour is valued and accounted for in the analysis, the use of WFD is still economically feasible -with an NPV of 8387 GHS 2 IRR of 76% and B/C of 1.3 (all results are based using 5 WFD units per 0.25 ha)."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Table 4 depicts the cost-benefit analysis of pepper production when family labour was not accounted for. The results (Table 4) show that with an NPV of GHS 19551 GHS per 0.25 ha, IRR of 139%, and C/B of 3.1, pepper production using WFD (5 WFD per 0.25 ha) was economically feasible and generate higher economic returns as compared to the first scenario (cf. Table 3and 4).  Figure 2 shows the change in NPV and IRR when number of WFD increases per a given field."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"For irrigated pepper production (labour cost included), installing more than 17 WFD units per 0.25 ha (≈70 WFD units per ha) could result in a negative NPV and IRR value below the discount rate (Figures 2A and 2B). Similarly, assuming a zero-opportunity cost of labour), installing more than 35 WFD per 0.25ha (≈140 WFD units per ha) for irrigated pepper production could result in a negative NPV and IRR value below the discount rate."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"As the imputed cost of labour accounts for a significant portion of production cost for both crops and in all the study areas; it is intuitive to imply that economic returns could be more sensitive to changes in the number of WFD units per unit area when labour cost is included as against a zero-opportunity cost of labour is assumed. As highlighted in the preceding paragraph and depicted in figures 1a and 1c or figures 2a and 2c, the CBA results are sensitive (i.e., in terms of accommodating more WFD units with economic feasibility) when labour costs are included. With labour costs included in pepper production, a maximum of 70 WFD units per ha can be installed with non-negative economic returns; but if a zeroopportunity cost of labour is assumed; one can install up to 140 WFDs units per ha and can still operate without economic loss. This means a farmer with plot size of 70-140 m 2 pepper gardens can install one WFD. "}]},{"head":"Farmers' perceptions on the use of WFD","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Characteristics of respondents","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Table 5 depicts the major characteristics of the respondents. 72% the respondents were male-headed and 28% female-head. The sex composition of respondents varied between farmer categories -among the lead farmers, 92% of the respondents were male headed. The average age of the respondents was 46.8 years with the minimum and maximum age of 27 and 82 years, respectively. The average household size for the respondents was 6.9 with minimum and maximum values of 1 and 15, respectively. The educational status of the respondents showed that only 40% of the respondents attended education."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Table 5. Major characteristics of the respondents "}]},{"head":"Constraints in relation to small scale irrigation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Both lead-and non-lead farmers were asked to identify major constraints they experienced for the expansion of irrigation agriculture. According to farmers, there is a growing interest to expand irrigation agriculture in the study areas. However, farmers are affected by several constraints in relation to irrigation agriculture (Table 6). On average, the majority of the respondents (80%) perceived that water shortage is the main constraint hindering irrigation agriculture in the area. Of the lead farmers, 85% perceived water shortage as the main constraint of irrigation."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The highest cost of agricultural inputs such as fertilizer and fuel was also perceived as the second important constraint (Table 6) for the expansion of irrigation agriculture. Accordingly, 34% of the respondents (38.5% lead farmers and 29.2% non-lead farmers) mentioned that the high cost of farm inputs and free grazing (damage by livestock) were major problems in relation to irrigation. Similarly, 28% of the respondents mentioned free grazing (damage by livestock) as major constraints that affect irrigation agriculture. As shown in Table 6, only a few respondents considered labour and land shortages as constraints of irrigation agriculture. "}]},{"head":"Farmers' views on the urgency of water saving and irrigation scheduling","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"To understand the perception of farmers on irrigation water, they were asked whether water saving is urgent in the study areas or not. In total, more than half of the respondents (52%) claimed that water saving was urgent/very urgent. The perception varied among farmer categories, of which 65% were lead farmers and 37% were non-lead farmers (Table 7). Farmers were also asked how often they undertook the common irrigation scheduling before the introduction of the WFD. Almost half of the respondents in both farmer categories irrigated their plots randomly, mainly based on water availability and crop need."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"As shown in the Table, the other half of the respondents irrigated at fixed irrigation intervals: every day (20%), every two days (14%) and every three days (10%). Farmers' awareness and motivation on WFD Table 8 depicts the farmers' awareness and motivation on WFD. In total, more than half (56%) of the respondents were aware of the WFD through the project team working in the study areas. Of the total respondents, 24% (all lead-farmers) got the information about the WFD via extension officers (MoFA). The result also showed that non-lead farmers heard about the tool from lead farmers and other non-lead farmers (Table 8). Respondents were asked 'why they got motivated to participate in the experimentation / demonstration of the WFD'. The main motivation to get involved in the experiment was to learn how the WFD works, particularly among the lead farmers who did the actual field experiment on their plots. Of the respondents, 18% of them were motivated because they wanted to help and collaborate with the project team. Only a few respondents (6%) claimed that the motivation to get involved in the experimentation/demonstration was their desire to save water using the tool. "}]},{"head":"Relative advantage of WFD over farmers' practices","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Table 9 shows farmers' views on the relative advantage of the WFD. Relative advantage is the degree to which the farmers perceived the WFD to be better over their current irrigation scheduling practices. The result indicated that the majority of farmers (60%) cited that the WFD as an irrigation-scheduling tool had a relative advantage over their traditional practices. However, one third of the respondents and 50% of the non-lead farmers were unsure about the relative advantage of the WFD. Fewer farmers (6%) perceived that WFD had no relative advantage over their traditional practices. A study in South Africa showed similar results that more than 80% of the respondents felt that WFD had a relative advantage (Stirzaker et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"As shown in Table 9, water saving, labour saving, fuel saving and yield increase were cited as the main relative advantages of the WFD. Accordingly, 69% of the lead farmers and 46% of the non-lead farmers perceived that water saving was one of the main advantages of the WFD. Half of the lead farmers and 12.5% of the non-lead farmers claimed that fuel saving was the relative advantage of the WFD."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Respondents were asked 'for what purpose does the water saved due to the use of the WFD can be used?'. According to the farmers, the water saved due to WFD can be used for expanding irrigation farming and improve water for drinking and domestic purposes. The response varied among farmer categories, of which 61.5% of lead farmers and 37.5% nonlead farmers claimed that the water saved due to the use of WFD could be used for expanding irrigation. "}]},{"head":"Perceived risks associated with WFD","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"In order to understand the perception of farmers on WFD, they were asked to give their opinion regarding any risk associated with the use of WFD. More than 50% of the respondents perceived no additional risk in using the WFD (Table 10). However, one third of the respondents (34.7%) were not sure about any risk associated with WFD. Only few farmers (8%) were doubtful that using WFD is risky. Main risks mentioned include the tool may not work properly and it may be damaged by strong wind and livestock. "}]},{"head":"Easiness, compatibility and adoption of WFD","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"To understand the perception of farmers on the easiness and compatibility of using the WFD as an irrigation-scheduling tool, respondents were asked two questions (Table 11). As shown in the Table, 56% of the respondents think that WFD is easy to use as a scheduling tool. However, 40% of the respondents claimed that using WFD is difficult, mainly during assembling and installation of the device. Similarly, 56% of the respondents reported that WFD is compatible/highly compatible to use in the study areas (Table 11). "}]},{"head":"Farmers interest in the use and adoption of the WFD technology","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Farmers were asked about their interest to continue to use WFD in the future and whether they would be interested in to buy the device. Table 12 presents farmers' perception on the adoption (continuous use) of WFD and their interest to by the tool. The result showed that, on average, majority of the farmers (95.7%) expressed their interest to use the tool in the future. Similarly, majority of them (86%) were interested in to buy the WFD and use it in future. As shown in the table, 44% of the respondents were interested in to buy the tool and offered a bid from 1-10 GHS per WFD. Only 16% of the respondents were interested in to buy the tool for 50-100 GHS which is still below the market price of the device. Although farmers were interested in to buy WFD, their price quote is much lower than the market price of the tool. "}]},{"head":"Limitation of the study","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Ideally, the study should have included a comprehensive assessment of the willingness to pay (WTP) for the WFD tool among the smallholders in the area. However, due to a small sample size and insufficient quantitative data set, we were not able to apply standard econometric tools to estimate the WTP. Essentially, estimation of willingness to pay (WTP) presupposes a data generation process carefully designed and based on behavioral theoretical economics. WTP is not a simple summary statistics based on data from few individuals. Thus, the results reported here can't be considered as WTP values for the population; rather the results are snapshot observations of few individuals and their perceived expressions to buy the WFD tool. This is the major shortcoming of the study."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"This report provides the examples of economic feasibility assessment of wetting front detector as an irrigation scheduling tool and farmers' perceptions on the use of the device in the Upper East Region of Ghana. The use of WFD as the irrigation scheduling tool is economically feasible for smallholder farmers to grow onion and pepper in the study areas."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"The majority of the smallholder farmers reported a positive perception towards the use of WFD as a scheduling tool. Accordingly, farmers perceived the WFD as a low-risk and compatible to use. The result suggests that the majority of the farmers are interested in to adopt and buy the tool. Although farmers expressed their interest to buy the tool, their quote price (an average of about GHS 100 per WFD) is much lower than the market price of the tool. Nevertheless, the study didn't include full-fledge willingness to pay due to lack of sufficient sample households (beneficiaries) and inadequate quantitative data for estimating WTP parameters using econometric tools. Therefore, we suggest further research to understand the true WTP of farmers for the WFD using large sample size, large data set and rigorous estimation method."}]},{"head":"Assessment of 'Willingness to buy the wetting front detector (WFD)","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The aim of this section is to assess the smallholder farmers'/irrigators' willingness to buy the irrigation scheduling technology (WFD). Adopting irrigation scheduling WFD technology could improve irrigation efficiency and water saving. As a SSI irrigator, you will be the beneficiary from increased irrigation efficiency if you adopt a WFD technology. You are requested to provide, as much as possible, accurate and true response whether you are interested in and willingness to pay for WFD."}]},{"head":"Willingness to buy question","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"You have been introduced the WFD tool for irrigation scheduling in the project. We suppose that you gained sufficient knowledge on the advantages/benefits and possible drawbacks of the use of WFD. Here, we are asking you to understand whether you are interested in to continue using the WFD technology and buy the tool. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Effects of increase in WFD units per unit area on the NPV and IRR (Onion production in Zanlerigu). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Effects of increase in WFD units per unit area on NPV and IRR (Pepper production in Tekuru and Nyangua) "},{"text":"1 . Would you be interested in to adopt the WFD technology in irrigated farming?[1]= Yes [2]= No 2.If 'Yes' to Q.1, would you be willing to pay to cover the cost of WFD?[1]= Yes 2]= No 3. If 'Yes' to Q.2, what is the maximum amount you are willingness to pay per WFD device? __________ (GHS) 4.If, 'No', why are not willing to pay for the WFD technology? "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . CBA of Onion production using shallow ground water and watering can (when the cost of unpaid labor is accounted for) Cost items (per 0.25 ha) Cost items (per 0.25 ha)  "},{"text":"Table 2 . CBA of onion production using shallow ground water and watering cane application (when unpaid labor was not accounted for) Cost items (per 0.25 ha) Cost items (per 0.25 ha)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . CBA of pepper production using deep ground water and motorized pump for water lifting (when the cost of unpaid labor is included) Cost Items (Cost/0.25ha) Cost Items (Cost/0.25ha)  "},{"text":"Table 4 . CBA of pepper production using deep ground water and motorized pump for water lifting (when unpaid labor was not accounted for) Cost Items (Cost/0.25ha) Cost Items (Cost/0.25ha)  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Major constraints in relation to irrigated agriculture in the study areas (% of respondents) • Major constraints • Lead-farmers Non-lead farmers • All farmers • Major constraints• Lead-farmersNon-lead farmers • All farmers • Water shortage • 84.6 • 75.0 • 80.0 • Water shortage• 84.6• 75.0• 80.0 • High cost of farm inputs such as fertilizer, • 38.5 • 29.2 • 34.0 • High cost of farm inputs such as fertilizer, • 38.5• 29.2• 34.0 pesticide, fuel    pesticide, fuel • Damage by livestock/free grazing • 30.8 • 25.0 • 28.0 • Damage by livestock/free grazing• 30.8• 25.0• 28.0 • Lack of knowledge how much to irrigate • 26.9 • 8.3 • 18.0 • Lack of knowledge how much to irrigate • 26.9• 8.3• 18.0 • Lack of knowledge when to irrigate • 3.8 • 16.7 • 10.0 • Lack of knowledge when to irrigate• 3.8• 16.7• 10.0 • Lack of finance to purchase inputs and • 26.9 • 0.0 • 14.0 • Lack of finance to purchase inputs and• 26.9• 0.0• 14.0 water lifting pumps    water lifting pumps • Lack of market for vegetable product • 7.7 • 8.3 • 8.0 • Lack of market for vegetable product• 7.7• 8.3• 8.0 • Land shortage • 3.8 • 8.3 • 6.0 • Land shortage• 3.8• 8.3• 6.0 Labour shortage • 0 • 8.3 • 4 Labour shortage• 0• 8.3• 4 N • 26 • 24 • 50 N• 26• 24• 50  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Farmer's opinion regarding the urgency of water saving for irrigation in the study areas (% of respondents) Questions and responses Lead-farmers Non-lead farmers Total Questions and responsesLead-farmersNon-lead farmersTotal How is the urgency of water saving?    How is the urgency of water saving? Very urgent 30.8 4.2 18.0 Very urgent30.84.218.0 Urgent 34.6 33.3 34.0 Urgent34.633.334.0 Slightly urgent 26.9 41.7 34.0 Slightly urgent26.941.734.0 Not urgent 7.7 20.8 14.0 Not urgent7.720.814.0 How often you undertook irrigation scheduling   How often you undertook irrigation scheduling Random/as required/ 50.0 58.3 54.0 Random/as required/50.058.354.0 Fixed-two times a day 3.8 0.0 2.0 Fixed-two times a day3.80.02.0 Fixed-once a day 19.2 20.8 20.0 Fixed-once a day19.220.820.0 Fixed-every two days 19.2 8.3 14.0 Fixed-every two days19.28.314.0 Fixed-every three days 7.7 12.5 10.0 Fixed-every three days7.712.510.0 N 26 24 50 N262450  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Framers awareness about the WFD (% of respondents) • Questions and responses • Lead-farmers • Non-lead farmers • Total • Who/what was the source of information for the WFD? • Project team (IWMI, UDS, WorldVeg, IITA) • 53.8 • 58.3 • 56.0 •Project team (IWMI, UDS, WorldVeg, IITA) • 53.8• 58.3• 56.0 • Extension officers (MoFA) • 46.2 • 0.0 • 24.0 •Extension officers (MoFA)• 46.2• 0.0• 24.0 • Lead-farmer • 0.0 • 25.0 • 12.0 •Lead-farmer• 0.0• 25.0• 12.0 • Non-lead farmer • 0.0 • 16.7 • 8.0 •Non-lead farmer• 0.0• 16.7• 8.0 • Why did you show interest for WFD trial/participation?   • Why did you show interest for WFD trial/participation? • To learn how WFD works • 80.8 • 70.8 • 76.0 •To learn how WFD works• 80.8• 70.8• 76.0 • To save water • 3.8 • 8.3 • 6.0 •To save water• 3.8• 8.3• 6.0 • To help the project team • 15.4 • 20.8 • 18.0 •To help the project team• 15.4• 20.8• 18.0 • N • 26 • 24 • 50 •N• 26• 24• 50  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Relative advantage of WFD over farmers' practices (% of respondents) Questions and responses Lead-farmer Non-lead farmer Total Questions and responsesLead-farmerNon-lead farmer Total Does WFD have an advantage over farmers 'practices?   Does WFD have an advantage over farmers 'practices? Yes 73.1 45.8 60.0 Yes73.145.860.0 No 7.7 4.2 6.0 No7.74.26.0 I don't know/not decide/ 19.2 50.0 34.0 I don't know/not decide/19.250.034.0 What are the relative advantages?    What are the relative advantages? Water saving 69.2 45.8 58.0 Water saving69.245.858.0 Labour saving 26.9 8.3 18.0 Labour saving26.98.318.0 Fuel saving 50.0 12.5 32.0 Fuel saving50.012.532.0 Yield increase 19.2 0.0 10.0 Yield increase19.20.010.0 Does water saved can be used for other purposes?   Does water saved can be used for other purposes? Yes 61.5 37.5 50 Yes61.537.550 No 0.0 0.0 0.0 No0.00.00.0 I do not know/not sure 7.7 8.3 8.0 I do not know/not sure7.78.38.0 For what purpose does the saved water can be used?   For what purpose does the saved water can be used? Expand irrigation farming 61.5 37.5 50.0 Expand irrigation farming61.537.550.0 More water for livestock 12.5 13.3 12.8 More water for livestock12.513.312.8 drinking    drinking More water for domestic use 4.2 0.0 2.6 More water for domestic use4.20.02.6 N 26 24 50 N262450  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Perception of respondents regarding risks of using WFD (% of respondents) Questions and responses Lead farmers Non-lead farmers Total Questions and responsesLead farmers Non-lead farmers Total Is there any risk associated with WFD to use it in the field?   Is there any risk associated with WFD to use it in the field? Yes 7.7 8.3 8.0 Yes7.78.38.0 No 69.2 43.5 57.1 No69.243.557.1 I do not know 23.1 47.8 34.7 I do not know23.147.834.7 What are perceived risks associated with the use of the WFD?   What are perceived risks associated with the use of the WFD?  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Perception of respondents on easiness and compatibility of using WFD (% of respondents) •  "},{"text":"Questions and responses • Lead farmers • Non-lead farmers • Total  • How easy is to use WFD?  • How easy is to use WFD? • Very easy • 50.0 • 8.3 • 30.0 • Very easy• 50.0• 8.3• 30.0 • Easy • 19.2 • 33.3 • 26.0 • Easy• 19.2• 33.3• 26.0 • Difficult • 15.4 • 25.0 • 20 • Difficult• 15.4• 25.0• 20 • Very difficult • 11.5 • 29.2 • 20 • Very difficult• 11.5• 29.2• 20 • I don't know • 3.8 • 4.2 • 4 • I don't know• 3.8• 4.2• 4 • Is the WFD Compatibility to be used?  •Is the WFD Compatibility to be used? • Highly compatible • 38.5 • 12.5 • 26.0 • Highly compatible• 38.5• 12.5• 26.0 • compatible • 34.6 • 25 • 30.0 • compatible• 34.6• 25• 30.0 • slightly compatible • 15.4 • 41.7 • 28.0 • slightly compatible• 15.4• 41.7• 28.0 • Not compatible • 11.5 • 20.8 • 16.0 • Not compatible• 11.5• 20.8• 16.0 • N • 26 • 24 • 50 • N• 26• 24• 50  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Perception of respondents to adopt and willingness to buy WFD tool (%) Questions and responses Lead- Non-lead Total Questions and responsesLead-Non-leadTotal  farmers farmers  farmersfarmers Would you interested to use the tool in the future?    Would you interested to use the tool in the future? Yes 96.2 95.0 95.7 Yes96.295.095.7 No 3.8 5.0 4.3 No3.85.04.3 Are you interested to buy the WFD?    Are you interested to buy the WFD? Willing 96.2 75.0 86.0 Willing96.275.086.0 Unwilling 3.8 25.0 14.0 Unwilling3.825.014.0 If you are interested, what is the maximum amount you would like to pay for a WFD unit?  If you are interested, what is the maximum amount you would like to pay for a WFD unit? 1-10 GHS/WFD 30.8 58.3 44.0 1-10 GHS/WFD30.858.344.0 15-20 GHS/WFD 23.1 12.5 18.0 15-20 GHS/WFD23.112.518.0 30-40 GHS/WFD 11.5 4.2 8.0 30-40 GHS/WFD11.54.28.0 50-100 GHS/WFD 30.8 0.0 16.0 50-100 GHS/WFD30.80.016.0 N 26 24 50 N262450  "}],"sieverID":"20013030-4d21-4a94-9986-dae3f38950ab","abstract":"Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING is creating opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base."}

data/part_2/03d54ebb2ac2eb421591108419707602.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03d54ebb2ac2eb421591108419707602","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/69dac7c9-ebd2-4c5d-9582-8e83785da700/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Where are the climate insecurities hotspots? Spatial analysis","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"OBJECTIVE AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The main objective of the spatial hotspots analysis is to map the climate-conflict nexus, and identify the geographic co-occurrence of specific combinations of conflict, climate conditions, and socio-economic vulnerabilities. The process follows four steps: determination of conflict clusters, determination of climate clusters, identification and mapping of conflict-climate interactions, and identification and mapping of socio-economic vulnerabilities. The purpose of the spatial hotspots analysis is to provide answers to the following research question:"}]},{"head":"Where are the hotspots of climate hazards, conflict, and socio-economic vulnerability?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"In response to this question, a traffic light code is created following three categories:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• green color: limited conflict -good climate,"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• yellow color: moderate conflict -harsh climate, and"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• red color: high conflict -harsh climate."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"All other co-occurrences are colored in gray, for simplicity. The hotspots of climate insecurities correspond to the socio-economic vulnerabilities overlapping with the yellow and red categories of the traffic light code."}]},{"head":"METHODS AND DATA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The hotspots analysis develops four steps: determination of conflict clusters, determination of climate clusters, identification and mapping of conflict-climate interactions, and identification of socioeconomic vulnerabilities."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"The conflict and climate clusters are determined through pattern-based spatial cluster analysis using a regular grid of 30 km 2 of resolution. The labels for the resulting groups are defined by a conflict or climate gradient from descriptive statistics. The socio-economic vulnerability conditions are determined by extreme percentiles (10% and 90%, depending on the variable), based on the assumption that the most extreme conditions (in either tail of the probability distribution) are the most likely spots for urgent intervention. Finally, a simple traffic light code is used to identify the hotspots of climate-conflict and socio-economic vulnerability. Conflict data are from ACLED; climate data are from CHIRPS, TerraClimate, and AgERA5; and socio-economic variables are from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), Facebook's wealth maps, amongst others. Most of these data are directly available through Google Earth Engine."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Conflict events across Uganda during 1997-2021 are widely distributed over the country (Figure 1.A)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Three clusters were identified based on statistical analyses. Conflict events are highly concentrated in specific areas around the cities: Gulu, Lira, Kitgum, Kalongo, Moroto, Kampala, Fort Portland and Rukoki. The high conflict cluster is estimated around Kampala and the districts around the border of Victoria Lake, Fort Portland, Gulu, Lira, and northwestern Uganda. The moderate conflict cluster covers most of the rest of the country. Violence against civilians, battles, and riots are the main conflict events and they have attributed the major number of fatalities in both high and moderate conflict clusters."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"The interaction between conflict and climate clusters is presented through a traffic light color code (Figure 1.B). The red color indicates the co-occurrence of high conflict and harsh climate conditions. Here specifically, the negative climate conditions are determined by high variability in rainfall, a high number of days with moisture stress, long dry spells, and high levels of water deficit."}]},{"head":"The yellow color corresponds to the co-occurrence of moderate conflict and harsh climate","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"conditions. The location of high/moderate conflict but also harsh climate conditions covers the northeastern part of Uganda covering most of the area of the following counties: Dodoth, Chua, Agago, northern Aruu, Labwor, Bokora, and Chekwii. Meanwhile, the green color determines the intersection between limited conflict and good climate settings, as can be seen in the counties: Nyabushozi, Kazo, southern Kyaka, Kabula, Buwekula, central Nakaseke, Bujenje, Buruli, Madi-Okollo, and East Moyo. All other combinations (which cover a substantial portion of the country) are colored in grey, for simplicity in the visualization.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1.C shows the socio-economic hotspots (left) and they are overlaid by the conflict-climate interactions (right). The social vulnerabilities are determined by the pre-existing conflict, land, and livelihood insecurity impact pathway. In the map, the vulnerabilities are represented by the following categories: undernutrition (U), inequality (I), migration (M), low productivity (LP), and their co-occurrences. The high/moderate conflict and harsh climate interactions co-occurred principally with low productivity, inequality, and undernutrition hotspots. This occurs in the following parishes: Lakwor, Oryang Lalano, Palwo, and Parumu. A high number of hotspots determined by different combinations of migration, inequality, undernutrition, and low productivity issues occur in northeastern Uganda where moderate conflict and harsh climate conditions co-occur. Southwestern areas of Uganda are characterized by inequality, undernutrition, and migration hotspots. The central and border areas of Victoria Lake exhibit hotspots interactions where high conflict areas are present, despite the fact that this area is not characterized by harsh climate conditions. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1.A. Conflict distribution: geographical location and distribution per type of conflict. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"7fcada08-eefe-42ea-96b2-19c8297cbe1c","abstract":"A spatial analysis"}

data/part_2/041199ef17f486ab16b00050fe2ddfaa.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"041199ef17f486ab16b00050fe2ddfaa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d7561b94-c7c1-449c-806e-63680df098f8/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Food system resilience measurement: principles, framework and caveats","keywords":["Food system","Resilience","Assessment","Measurement","Methodology","Food security"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"As a concept, food systems have been discussed in academic literature for some time (e.g., Sobal, 1978;Kneen, 1989;Ericksen, 2008;Ingram, 2011). In contrast, food systems resilience is a relatively new subject of (applied) research (Eriksen et al., 2010;Bizikova, et al., 2016;Meyer, 2020;Zurek et al., 2022). Though the literature on food system resilience is still relatively scarce, there is growing recognition that a better understanding of how local, national, or international food systems respond to shocks and adverse events is critical to build and protect the food security of vulnerable populations at local and national levels (Pingali et al., 2005;Dury et al., 2019;Agyemang & Kwofie, 2021;Béné & Devereux, 2023). In addition to the effects of extreme weather events, recent disruptions induced by the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine offer vivid evidence of the urgency and global importance of the task (Dyson et al., 2023;Rabbi et al., 2023)."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"In the context of humanitarian and food security crises, the concept of resilience is, itself, a contested construct, still debated between several schools of thoughts guided by different mental models and epistemological assumptions (Ansha et al., 2019;Birhanu et al., 2017). In this paper, we follow one of the most widely adopted interpretations of resilience (\"resilience-as-a-capacity\"), and propose an analytical framework, along with a series of principles and caveats, on how to assess the resilience of food systems."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The novel element of the analysis lies in the levels at which resilience is considered in this new framework. Combined with the conventional individual or household level found in the majority of the resilience literature, we will introduce here the notion of 'emergent properties' of food systems, arguing that the overall resilience of the food system reflects both the resilience of individuals or households and the resilience at higher levels that result from interactions among food system components."},{"index":4,"size":110,"text":"Empirically the importance of elevating the analysis above and beyond the household and community level and to considering the higher level of resilience at the food system itself makes sense as it reflects more realistically some of the troubling observations often made in the context of protracted crisis or armed conflict affected areas (Maître d'Hôtel et al., 2023;Béné et al., in revision) where households may have managed to maintain/protect the resources and capacities necessary to remain (theoretically) resilient and food secure, yet end up in critical food and/or nutritional insecurity because the local food system and its actors are not resilient and have collapsed in the face of the crisis."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"The paper is conceptual and methodological in nature and is directed at researchers and practitioners interested in assessing food systems' resilience. It is general, out of necessity, to ensure that it remains pertinent across many contexts -even if it must be tailored to context before being applied. It is intended to offer methodological and technical recommendations on how to measure food system resilience at the local level. Although it does not offer an exhaustive review of the literature (see, e.g., Tendall et al., 2015or Zurek et al., 2022 for such reviews), it does acknowledge and build on those other works."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"2 Principles of food system resilience measurement"}]},{"head":"Definition of food system resilience","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Food systems encompass \"all the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation consumption [and waste management] of food, and the output of these activities, including socioeconomic and environmental outcomes\" (HLPE, 2017, p.23)."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"In low and middle-income countries (LMICs), local food systems are both comprised of, and benefit, many of the world's poorest citizens (Smith, 1998;Gómez et al., 2013). At the production end, they include the vast majority of smallholder farmers, pastoralists or fisherfolks in these countries who produce, and trade plant staples, fruits, vegetables, wild and domesticated livestock. These producers commonly sell to local or regional markets through a series of (often but not always informal) \"middlemen\" (aggregators, wholesalers and brokers) (Porter et al., 2007;Veldhuizen et al., 2020). Further down along the supply chain, the retailing segment is also dominated by informality, both in the structures (open markets, street vending, and corner stores) and in the transactional process (informal contracts, and agreements) (Roever & Skinner, 2016;Smit, 2016). Local food systems feed the majority of the rural and urban population in LMICs, a large number of which are living under or close to the poverty line."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"As such, those local food systems are often the only source of affordable, nutritious food for both rural and urban poor communities."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"As is often the case with new concepts, a growing number of definitions of food system resilience have been proposed in the literature (see e.g., Tendall et al., 2015;Bizikova et al., 2016). Building on this literature, we propose to define food system resilience as \"the ability of the different individual and institutional actors of the food system to maintain, protect, or successfully recover the key functions of that system despite the impacts of disturbances.\" This definition highlights several important considerations."},{"index":5,"size":266,"text":"First, under this definition, resilience is conceptualized as the ability (or capacity) of food system actors to act, or react, in the face of shocks and stressors. From a resilience perspective, such actions and/or reactions would have a positive effect on well-being -or otherwise be considered maladaptive. This interpretation puts emphasis on actors and their agency -enacted through their capacities -as the key component of food system resilience analysis. As such, this diverges foundationally from the concept of resilience portrayed as the probability of individuals or other entity (e.g., household, community) to remain above a certain poverty or food security threshold (see, e.g., d 'Errico et al., 2018;Cissé & Barrett, 2018;Vaitla et al., 2020;Hoddinott, 2023;Cattaneo et al., in press, for examples of this statistical approach to resilience). Instead, our proposed approach builds on the\"resilience-as-a-capacity\" 1 body of literature that has emerged in the past 10 years and which emphasizes actors' agency as the main entry point of resilience analysis (Bohle et al., 2009;Constas, Frankenberger & Hoddinott, 2014;TANGO, 2018;Henly-Shepard & Sagara 2018;Ansah et al., 2019). 1 Resilience capacity comprises three types of capacities: absorptive, adaptive and transformative capacity. Absorptive capacity refers to the various coping strategies by which individuals and/or households moderate or buffer the impacts of shocks on their livelihoods and basic needs. Adaptive capacity involves making proactive and informed choices about alternative livelihood strategies based on changing conditions. Transformative capacity refers to systems-level transformative (structural) changes such as institutional reforms, behavioral shifts and cultural changes deemed to be necessary to ensure the long-term survival of the system (Béné et al., 2014;TANGO 2018;Manyanga et al., 2022)."},{"index":6,"size":222,"text":"It is important to highlight here that the resilience-asa-capacity approach asserts unequivocally that resilience capacity is distinct from -but related to -\"realized resilience\" or resilience per se (Béné et al., 2015;FAO, 2020;Ansah et al., 2023). In the literature, realized resilience (hereafter referred to as resilience) translates into the stability/protection of household well-being (e.g., food security) over the course of a shock period (Smith & Frankenberger, 2022a). As a latent variable, it cannot be measured directly but can be approached by proxies such as self-assessed recovery to a specific shock (Béné et al., 2020;Langworthy et al., 2016). In contrast, resilience capacity can be directly measured and reflects a potential represented by the different assets and other resources that actors have at their disposal and that they may utilize to respond to a particular shock/stressor. Resilience and resilience capacity are therefore distinct, but both provide information critical for resilience analysis. The approach proposed here examines the relationship between resilience capacities, in this case of the food system actors, and resilience of the food system, as observed and assessed by the availability and affordability of sufficient, nutritious, and safe food for all in the face of shocks. This is akin to looking at resilience capacities and their relationship to well-being outcomes such as food security in household level analyses that also use the resilienceas-a-capacity approach."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"Second, this definition highlights the mixed nature of food system actors, including both individual and institutional actors, thus recognizing that the resilience of a food system will result from the combined actions of those two types of actors. By individual actors, we mean the different groups of actors engaged in economic activities related to a food system: producers (farmers, fishers, agro-pastoralists, etc.), processors, transporters, wholesalers, retailers/vendors, and consumers."},{"index":8,"size":92,"text":"By choosing the actors of the system as the main entry point for resilience analysis -as opposed to the food system's activities (farming, transporting, processing, retailing, selling) -we also reduce the difficulty created by the fact that in many local food systems, several of these functions are executed by the same actor(s). In LMICs, many producers also process and sell (part of) their own crops, livestock, etc. (Bisht et al., 2020), and in higher income countries, vertical integration means that the same company will often ensure transportation, processing, and storage (Becker, 2014)."},{"index":9,"size":94,"text":"Food system actors can be of various sizes (micro, small, or even medium enterprises). They are, by definition, part of the private sector. Institutional actors, on the other hand, refer to the different local, municipal, (sub)national institutions (statal or parastatal) and private organizations (e.g., cooperatives, chambers of commerce) that are involved in the support, management or regulation of activities related to a food system. This involves, but is not limited to, policies, regulations, rules and actions regarding food safety standards and regulations, labor and business laws, taxes, and consumer access to information, among others."},{"index":10,"size":128,"text":"Third, the definition recognizes that food systems have several functions. We identify three of them as being instrumental in relation to individual and societal well-being. Often considered as the core function of food systems -and the one that should ultimately prevail -is ensuring the availability and affordability of sufficient, nutritious and safe food for all (Ericksen, 2008;Tendall et al., 2015). As such, our conceptualization of food system resilience is fully aligned with other works that stress that the ultimate outcome of resilience strengthening in development and humanitarian crisis contexts is well-being, usually at the household level (Béné et al., 2015;Constas, Frankenberger & Hoddinott, 2014;USAID, 2021). Thus, our approach builds on existing resilience measurement methodology related to resilience-as-a-capacity and realized resilience and applies it at the food system level."},{"index":11,"size":104,"text":"In addition, we argue that two other core functions of food systems should be considered: the generation of decent livelihoods and viable incomes/profits for those who are economically engaged in food systems (Anderson, 2008;Fanzo et al., 2021;Klassen & Murphy, 2020); and the protection (or restoration/rehabilitation) of the environmental integrity of agro-ecosystems (IPES, 2016;Ranganathan et al., 2016). Both functions can also be used as secondary well-being outcomes to measure resilience of the food system. Thus, our definition is important because it maintains a focus on food and nutrition security but also underscores the need to consider livelihoods and acknowledges the environmental dimension of food systems."},{"index":12,"size":152,"text":"Finally, our definition draws attention to the need to analyze the impact of disturbances. Building on the first three features means that it is necessary to conceptualize and analyze the ways in which various disturbances affect resilience capacities of different individual and institutional actors within the food system. It also means that it is important to understand how different functions (e.g., food nutrition security, livelihoods, and environment) are affected by disturbances, and the degree to which resilience capacities can be used to mediate these effects. This is consistent with household level resilience analysis that looks at the relationship between shock exposure, resilience capacities and well-being outcomes. However, in the case of food system resilience, the well-being outcome is the availability and affordability of sufficient, nutritious, and safe food for all despite those disturbances and, secondarily, the generation of decent livelihoods and environmental integrity of agroecosystems (i.e., the three food system core functions)."},{"index":13,"size":30,"text":"In sum, the value-added proposition of our definition is that it offers an integrated conception of food systems resilience that illustrates work at the intersection of capacities, functions, and disturbances."}]},{"head":"Scale and boundaries","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The resilience of food systems can be considered at different scales; local, regional/subnational, national, and international/global (Fanzo, 2023;Tendall et al., 2015). In this paper, we are interested in establishing the methodology to assess food system resilience at the local level. We make this decision because focusing on the local level allows one to understand the food system at a level of specificity needed to diagnose and remedy the functional integrity of the above noted food systems functions. From a measurement perspective, the scale at which resilience is considered has implications for the nature of the indicators that will be included in the analysis and the types of data/ information that will be collected; but it does not (or should not) have implications for the way the overall assessment is to be conducted."},{"index":2,"size":395,"text":"At first, boundaries of food systems can appear somewhat fuzzy. For example, should the suppliers of agro-chemicals or feed for livestock be included in the food system under consideration? If so, what about the international petrol companies that supply the diesel fuel used to operate agricultural equipment and machines, or the electric service provider contracted by the wholesalers to supply energy to refrigerate their stored products? Where do we draw the line? And what about the food products that are imported from other parts of the world; should they be considered in or out of a local food system? Pragmatically, we propose to start the food system at the producer level by focusing on smallholder farmers/ fishers/agro-pastoralists, etc., 2 meaning suppliers (agrochemical, seeds, energy, etc.) would not be included as a primary object of measurement. 3 However, as will be detailed below, the potential effects of disruptions in activities or changes in strategies by those suppliers (referred to as \"ripple effects\" later in this document) will be accounted for. At the other end, the system will end with the consumers, considered as the ultimate beneficiaries of the principal core function of food systems (that is, the availability and affordability of sufficient, nutritious, and safe food for all), recognizing that all actors of the food system are themselves consumers, and in some cases, also consume their own production. By local food system, we mean, therefore, food system run by actors operating in a geographically delimited zone and connected through their livelihood and business activities. This could be conceived as a district or possibly a province and would include both rural and urban areas. In that sense it is slightly different from what some scholars refer to as a \"foodshed\" (Peters et al., 2008). The term foodshed is generally used to describe a \"region of food flows, from the area where it is produced (our emphasis), to the place where it is consumed, including: the land it grows on, the route it travels, the markets it passes through, and the tables it ends up on\" (Feagan, 2007). Under this definition, foodshed may include places in other regions in the same country, or even other parts of the world from where food is imported. In contrast, our definition of local food system is based on the actors living and operating locally, not on the flow of food products."}]},{"head":"Resilience as an emergent property of food system","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"Although actors (both individual and institutional) were identified as the main entry points for assessing the resilience of a local food system, we postulate that part of that resilience also results from emergent properties at the system level. Building partly on the existing literature on social and market resilience (Downing et al., 2018;Kummu et al., 2020;Berkhout et al., 2023), we observe that the following properties are often perceived (or assumed) to play a critical role in maintaining or building the resilience of food systems: connectivity, redundancy, diversity, rule of law/competitiveness, and inclusiveness. This assumption would have to be verified on the ground, but the incorporation of these system-level elements in the analysis -complementary to the assessment of individual actors -represents one of the major conceptual differences with resilience measurements as proposed so far in the literature. Indeed, most of the indicators that have been considered in the food security and humanitarian literature on resilience purport to characterize elements of resilience capacity at the household or community levels (e.g., Arouri et al., 2015;Birhanu et al., 2017;Tariq et al., 2021;Vaughn & Frankenberger, 2018). In the analysis proposed here, we will complement these approaches by adding indicators aimed at capturing system-level properties. Details about the nature of these emergent properties -and how we propose to measure them -are provided in Section 3.1."}]},{"head":"Components of a food system resilience approach","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Our approach draws on a generic framework that has its origins in the work of the Resilience Measurement 2 The focus on smallholder farmers is justified by the fact that the majority of food production in developing countries is generated by smallholder farmers (Lowder et al., 2016;Paloma et al., 2020). 3 Although farmers who are also local seed producers would be included as farmers."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Technical Working Group (RMTWG). 4 The framework (Constas, Frankenberger & Hiddinott, 2014;Constas, Frankenberger, Hiddinott, Mock et al., 2014), which was tested in various contexts (see e.g., Langworthy et al., 2016;Béné et al., 2020;Manyanga et al., 2022), highlights the importance of several key components: (i) the typology of shocks/stressors affecting the system/ community under consideration (ii) the identification of actors' individual and collective resilience capacities; (iii) the documentation of mitigating strategies (responses) adopted by these actors in the face of those shocks/stressors; and (iv) the long-term outcomes of the shock-response combination. 5  The approach we propose here builds on this initial framework and these components. The detailed content and structure of the framework have been adjusted given our new objective of assessing resilience at a local system level. These adjustments are discussed in the next section."}]},{"head":"The Framework","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The overarching organization of the framework is summarized in Fig. 1 with details discussed in the text below. Annex 1 provides additional details. The framework is structured around three complementary components."}]},{"head":"Actors and food system mapping","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The task under Component 1 is to map the local food system under consideration and identify the different groups of individual and institutional actors engaged in it. This requires five different types of analysis, as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"(i) Characterization of the local food system context. The objective of this initial element of the mapping is to gather general information about the status of the local infrastructure systems that are expected to play an important role in the ex-ante functioning and ex-post recovery of food system activities after an unexpected shock. These include road, energy, communications (e.g., mobile phone systems, internet connectivity), and market infrastructures, as well as more general contextual variables such as level of technological innovation and overall governance. The information could be obtained through focus group discussions (FGDs) organized with different food system actors, and their insights possibly triangulated with direct Comprised of approximately 20 international experts in food security measurement, the RMTWG operated under the Food Security Information Network under the auspices of the World Food Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization. https:// www. fsinp latfo rm. org/ resil ience-measu rement 5 Some authors also include the ability to recover as a proxy measure of resilience (see e.g., Béné et al., 2016Béné et al., , 2020;;Sagara & Smith, 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"observational studies. We propose that quantitative or semi-quantitative indicators are used to assess the following variables (acknowledging that other contextual variables could also be considered):"},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• quality and level of local market infrastructure • quality and quantity of local roads • quality and reliability of local electricity grid(s)"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• access to and quality of mobile phone networks"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• availability and quality of other contextual factors (e.g., environment, governance, innovation)"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"These indicators will be used later as control variables in various econometric analyses."},{"index":8,"size":307,"text":"(ii) Food system actor typology. The objective of this second element is to identify the main groups of actors engaged in activities related to the functioning of the local food system and to develop a non-exhaustive list of individual actors for each of these groups. This list will constitute the pool from which a random sample for each group will then be drawn. The ambition is not to achieve a statistically representative sample of the entire system's population. Given that many of the small-scale actors engaged in local food system activities in LMICs are informal, using official lists of local businesses and enterprises would likely introduce a selection bias. Instead, the objective is to capture the diversity of the groups of actors engaged in foodrelated activities and, if possible, to gain a sense of the relative importance/size of each group. 6 (iii) Actors' resilience capacities. The objective here is to collect data regarding each individual actor's resilience capacities as well as some basic socio-demographic information using both quantitative and semiquantitative methods. This information will have to be collected through individual questionnaires administered to a sub-sample of randomly selected actors within each group. Resilience capacities include the different physical, financial, natural, social, political, and psychological capitals and assets that actors may use in response to an adverse event. For instance, financial assets and/or social capital are often reported as important elements for the recovery of farmers when they experience a shock (Aldrich, 2010;Woodson et al., 2016). Table 1 provides a list of variables to be collected as part of exploring the resilience capacities of food system actors. With the exception of business connectivity (i.e., the number of upstream suppliers and downstream clients with whom a given actor works), the other indicators are relatively similar to what is usually collected at the household level for resilience measurement and analysis."},{"index":9,"size":142,"text":"The subjective resilience element in Table 1 requires additional clarification. By \"subjective resilience\", we mean the perceptions that food system actors have about their own capacities to handle current or future adverse events. This concept of subjective resilience builds on the empirical observation that people usually acquire a cognitive understanding of the factors that contribute to their capacity to manage shocks and adverse events (Béné et al., 2019). As such, subjective resilience is strongly related to, and influenced by, psychosocial factors such as risk perceptions, cultural identity, religion, self-confidence and self-efficacy, and aspirations, as well as other more tangible elements such as individual's past experience to similar shocks or current socio-economic situation (Béné et al., 2019;Ensor et al., 2021;Jones & Tanner, 2015). Semi-quantitative psychometric indicators constructed using Likert scales can be used to quantify those different psychosocial factors at the individual level."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"Finally, in addition to information related to resilience capacity, standard socio-demographic information (age, gender, education, household size, etc.) should also be collected as part of this first survey."},{"index":11,"size":173,"text":"Complementing the capture of these resilience capacities at the individual level, we propose that elements of collective resilience capacities are also included in Conventionally, those would be measured at the community level (Ahmed et al., 2016;Álvarez-Mingote et al., 2020;Béné, 2020a;Thornley et al., 2014). In the case of a food system, the unit of analysis will now be the actor groups (producers, processors, transporters, etc.). Table 2 provides a list of proposed indicators for assessing these food system actors' collective resilience capacities. With perhaps the exception of the quality of the formal/informal transaction system, most indicators are comparable to what is collected at the community level when assessing the resilience capacities of farmers, pastoralists, or fisherfolks (see e.g., Bevington et al., 2011;Thornley et al., 2014;Saxena et al., 2016;Stanford et al., 2017). Semi-quantitative indicators should also be used to assess these collective resilience capacity indicators. Note finally that FGDs should not be used to generate this group-level information, because part of the data generated here is to be aggregated in the next analysis (emerging properties)."},{"index":12,"size":221,"text":"Only individual data can be aggregated. (iv) Food system emergent properties. Aggregating the information presented in Tables 1 and 2 at the groupand subsequently at the systems -level will offer very important additional information that can be used to assess what we refer to as the emergent properties of the food system (i.e., systems-level indicators). These emergent properties (not to be confused with collective resilience capacities) are properties/characteristics that are generally considered to be essential to build resilience at a system level. They include connectivity (Turnbull et al., 2018), redundancy (Mackay et al., 2020;Vlajic, 2017), diversity (Hertel et al., 2021;Page, 2011), rule of law/competitiveness and inclusiveness (Campbell, 2014;Derks & Field, 2016;Kilelu et al., 2017). Table 3 offers definitions of emergent properties in the context of food systems. It is important to point out that most of the research on these emergent resilience properties derives either from the theoretical socio-ecology literature (e.g., Biggs et al., 2015) or from supply chain modeling (e.g., Ivanov et al., 2016) and often lacks empirical ground. Virtually nothing is known about those emergent properties in the context of food system resilience in LMICs. Importantly, because these properties are emergent, 7 they cannot be assessed at the individual level (i.e., food system actors). Rather, they emerge from Table 3 Food system emergent properties of interest for resilience analysis"}]},{"head":"Emergent property Definition","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"◾ connectivity Connectivity in a system can be defined by the degree and strength with which components of that system are connected to each other. In the context of food systems, connectivity could be proxied by the number of suppliers and clients with whom a given actor routinely interacts."}]},{"head":"◾ redundancy","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Redundancy refers to the number of connections of the same nature or with the same function in a system. To some extent it is a sub-dimension of connectivity. In the context of a local food system, redundancy would be the average number of connections of the same nature that actors have upstream (suppliers) and downstream (clients). For instance, for transporters or wholesalers it could be the number of (urban or rural) markets they supply -or the number of producers from whom they get their merchandise. ◾ diversity"},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"In the system literature, diversity can be defined in many different ways, is measured through (too) many different indices, and is often seen in opposition to redundancy. In the context of food system resilience, we propose that diversity refers to the different types of products that each actor handles or trades. As such, it complements connectivity and redundancy (in terms of operations between actors) by adding information about operations within an actor's business. ◾ rule of law / competitiveness Rule of law/competitiveness refers here to the degree to which each actor is able to conduct business transactions in a fair (equitable), transparent and trustworthy manner. These characteristics (fairness/ equity, transparency and trustworthiness) can be ensured and reinforced through either formal or informal mechanisms. This system property may sound more 'subjective' than the others above; it is however as critical, and it can be easily assessed and measured at individual level through self-reported semiquantitative techniques."}]},{"head":"◾ inclusiveness","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Inclusiveness can refer to many different 'things' in the literature. Here we consider it is the degree to which each individual actor feels their voice is being heard in the management/functioning of the local food system. It reflects whether every actor can contribute to the governance of the system or, to the contrary, whether some (powerful) sub-groups have a larger influence on the decision-making process within -and between -each group (e.g., transporter group, processor group)."},{"index":2,"size":378,"text":"the aggregation process at the group level. Practically, this means that no specific group survey questions are needed. Instead, questions within the individual actors' survey should be phrased to ensure that information collected at that level can be aggregated to generate the data relevant for assessing emergent properties at the group level. Documenting levels of individual and collective resilience capacities, along with food system emergent properties, before a particular shock/crisis occurs, and linking those to information about disruptions to individuals' businesses as well as their perceived ability to recover after a shock -and ultimately to the food security of local populations (see Section 3.2), will reveal critical information about what is important (or not) for maintaining the resilience of the food system and its actors, and for protecting the key functions of the food system. (v) Characterization of food system exposure to disruption. The last type of information to be collected as part of this initial mapping exercise relates to the different shocks and stressors that affect the actors of the food system. This information is similar to what is collected at the household level for resilience measurement and analysis (Choularton et al., 2015) and includes the nature, intensity, and frequency of the different types of adverse events that actors have experienced in the recent past (e.g., the last 12 months). Data is collected through recall techniques and self-reported information. Although part of the information (e.g., date of an event) can be triangulated with external or secondary data, we recognize (and emphasize) that the impacts of adverse events, even if covariate, are by nature specific to the individual or household. In that context, selfreported information is the only way this specificity can be correctly recorded and accounted for. Questions on adverse events reflecting this specificity should be precoded however, to allow for comparisons and rankings across actors. These questions should not focus just on shocks but also include indicators related to stressors. Paying attention to stressors, which are often less conspicuous than shocks, can help one assess how everyday systemic deficiencies (e.g., poor road infrastructure, weak governance, dysfunctional institutions) and challenging conditions (e.g., looming risks, existence of armed factions, eroding social cohesion) can threaten the integrity of local food systems and undermine the work of food system actors."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Overall, it is therefore advisable to consider -but also distinguish -between, slow-onset stressors (e.g., drought, soil degradation) and sudden-onset shocks (e.g., war, flood, earthquake)."}]},{"head":"Actors' resilience assessment","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The second component of the analysis (see Fig. 1) corresponds to assessment of the individual actor's resilience and is structured around four major elements. The important point to emphasize is that the information in this second component is to be collected from the same individuals sampled in Component 1, that is, based on panel data. In that regard, note that the two components are to be completed using two distinct questionnaires, as some information generated through Component 1 needs to be processed (for instance the identification of the specific shocks/stressors on which the resilience analysis will focused) before Component 2 can be implemented. Note also that only events that have been reported as covariate at the group level will be considered; idiosyncratic events affecting individual actors will not be included in the analysis. 8 The four major elements are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":387,"text":"(i) Direct and indirect effects of the most disruptive shock(s)/stressor(s). It is now well established that the impacts of shocks and stressors on people's livelihood and economic activities are exclusive and specific (Beauchamp et al., 2019;Choularton et al., 2015), as are the responses/ability to recover of the actors. From an analytical standpoint, it is therefore not advisable to pool together all the different adverse events that have impacted one particular actor (during the time frame of the analysis) as it would severely hamper one's ability to understand how households are affected by and respond to different types of shocks, and ultimately, how this affects their resilience. Instead, it is recommended to treat each of these adverse events -and the way actors responded to them -individually (Sagara & Smith, 2018). However, we also recognize that while it is analytically easier to treat shocks and stressors independently and separately, the reality faced by households (particularly in low-income countries) may seriously challenge this assumption, as several distinct adverse events often overlap and their impacts aggregate with each other (Béné et al., 2016). Survey questions should, therefore, be worded in such a way that they help respondents distinguish between individual events and their overlapping impacts. Following this rationale, the first task in this part of the analysis will be to identify a limited number of frequently occurring events that have happened (and are hopefully distinguishable) in the recent past and for which the resilience analysis will be completed. One possible approach is to select the most disruptive event(s) as perceived by the food system actors. An alternative would be to include in that list a specific event, if, for instance, this event is of particular interest to researchers/practitioners, or government, or donors. The important point is that all subsequent steps in the resilience assessment will have to be completed on a one-analysis-to-one-event basis because of the specific nature of adverse events and responses adopted by individual actors. Pragmatically, this means that the number of events considered in the rest of the resilience analysis should not be too large (we suggest one, perhaps two, and certainly not more than three events). If multiple events are chosen, each would still have to be investigated separately, which very rapidly increases the amount of information, number of questions and time necessary to conduct the survey."},{"index":3,"size":479,"text":"The information used to select the event(s) should come directly from the '\"characterization of food system exposure\" described above (cf. (v) in Fig. 1). Once (an) event(s) is/are selected, new information will be collected from individuals from the same subsample of actors that were interviewed in Component 1 (see Subsection 3.1 above) using a panel sampling approach. Table 4 summarizes what types of information should be included in the second round of this panel survey. With the exception of\"intensity/severity of the specific selected event\", the information is new and should include: (a) the direct effects of the selected event on the actors' business performance; (b) the (indirect) ripple effects inflicted on that actor's business by the responses of the other upstream and downstream actors of the system; and (c) changes observed in the col-lective capacities of the actors following the adverse event. All these new data should be collected using carefully crafted quantitative and semi-quantitative recall questions. (ii) Individual actors' response/mitigation strategy. In line with the principles of resilience assessment presented in the first part of this document, the next important task in the analysis will be to document the different responses and mitigation strategies 9 that the actors of the different groups adopted in anticipation of, or in response to, each adverse event selected for the assessment. Based on some recent research conducted in Burkina Faso (Maître d'Hôtel et al., 2023), we know that the nature and types of responses will differ, depending on the group of actors considered. Table 5 presents the type of responses/strategies that would be important to document, along with the groups of actors for which those responses are expected to be observed. (iii) Individual actor's business disruption. Even if they are successful at anticipating or responding to the direct effects of an adverse event and to the ripple effects induced by the responses of other actors/groups of actors, it is likely that individual actors will experience some degree of disruption in their own activity. Documenting the self-reported changes in (i) weekly income/ profit and (ii) weekly volume of activity 10 (i.e., changes in quantity of products harvested, transported, processed, traded, or sold) before and after a specific event is an astute way to assess the level of disruption faced by individual actors in relation to that specific event. This information can be estimated relatively reliably using recall techniques. (iv) Individual actor's self-assessed ability to recover. In addition to assessing the level of disruption that each individual actor has experienced following an adverse event, it is also important to explore the degree to which those actors consider they have recovered (or not) from those disruptions. This type of data, based on self-assessment techniques (Krosnick & Fabrigar, 1997;Schoch-Spana et al., 2019), has been used successfully in the context of producers' (farmers, fisherfolks) resilience measurement in several recent analyses (Béné et al., 2016;Smith & Frankenberger, 2022b)."},{"index":4,"size":209,"text":"The idea is to replicate this type of analysis for all the different actors operating in the food system. (v) Positive deviance. Information collected through the last two elements of the analysis above (actor's business disruption and self-assessed recovery) can be used to identify what is called \"positive deviance\" among food system actors. Individuals whose businesses appear to have been less disrupted by a specific shock than the rest of their fellows, and/or those who appear to have recovered faster than the majority are referred to as\"positive deviants\". Applied to resilience assessment, the concept of positive deviance (Herington & Fliert, 2018) can be interpreted as empirical evidence of higher levels of resilience among some food system actors (Sagara & Smith, 2018). Looking for systematic trends or patterns within the resilience capacities of those actors (element (iii) in Fig. 1, and Table 1) as well as in their responses/strategies (element vii in Fig. 1), while controlling for the food system environment (element (i) in Fig. 1) and the actors' socio-demographic characteristics (gathered as part of element (iii)) will allow us to draw some very important conclusions about who the more resilient actors are (i.e., positive deviants) and the potential contributions of their resilience capacities and responses toward building their resilience."}]},{"head":"Food system resilience and implications for food security outcomes","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":299,"text":"The third and last component in the food system resilience assessment is the analysis of the impacts that local food system actors' resilience (or lack thereof) has on the resilience of the food system itself and ultimately on the local population's well-being, in particular their food security and nutrition status. Conceptually, this is relatively similar to what is usually proposed as the last component of a resilience analysis at the household level (Béné et al., 2015;Henley-Shepard & Sagara, 2018;Ansah et al., 2019). We propose to document this through a two-step process, collecting information about (i) the resilience status of the food system and (ii) the immediate and mid-to-long term outcomes measured in terms of local population's food security and nutrition. This means we concentrate our attention on the core function of the food system, which is \"the ability of the system to maintain, protect, or successfully recover the availability and affordability of sufficient, nutritious and safe food for all.\" As such, this core function will be assessed through indicators of stability over time of four dimensions of the food system: price/affordability; physical availability; physical accessibility; and quality (safety) of food products. Table 6 provides a list of potential indicators for these four dimensions. For each of them, we aim to document potential changes before and immediately after the event under investigation. In the case of clearly time-bound events,\"immediately after\" means a few days. In the case of stressors (e.g., drought, economic or political crisis), the concept of \"immediately after\" is more difficult to define and likely to vary depending on the stressor. In the case of drought, for example, \"immediately after\" may be closer to a few weeks. Regardless, several different loci should be considered when collecting this information (see Table 6), which should be based on recall techniques."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"Information regarding the short-term and mid-to longterm consequences on the food security and nutrition status of the local population must also be collected. Table 7 provides a list of potential indicators (see also Fig. 1). Note that, with the exception of the IPC/CH score, it is unlikely that any of these indicators will have been recorded in the local system prior to the event under consideration. In those circumstances, recall techniques will have to be used and the reliability of the results will, in large part, depend on the attention with which the questions have been worded. Finally, it is worth noticing that many of those indicators may display some relatively high variability that will not be related to the effect of the event but to the way the data is collected (e.g., seasonality). Short-term changes (i.e., seasonal) will have to be interpreted with some caution."}]},{"head":"One important limitation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Assessing the immediate and mid-to long-term impacts of food systems' resilience on the food security of local population is hampered by an important limitation. Degradation in the different dimensions of food security as they may be observed at the household or individual levels following a particular event (cf. Table 7) may in some cases not result only from failure of the food system to deliver its core function; it may also reflect the effects that this event has on the livelihood and income/purchasing power of the households themselves. Figure 2 illustrates this combined effect."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Local armed conflict is a relevant example to illustrate these combined effects. When insecurity and armed conflicts affect a province or an entire region, it is not just the actors of the food system who are affected. Often the entire local economy is impacted; many households experience disruptions or losses in their income and purchasing power (D 'Souza & Jolliffe, 2013;George et al., 2020;Serneels & Verpoorten, 2015), irrespective of, or in addition to, the disruptions taking place within the local food system. To a large extent, the COVID-19 pandemic is another insightful illustration of this issue. It is now well established that the increase in food insecurity observed in many high, middle, and low-income countries during the pandemic was not just the result of disruptions in global and local supply chains, but also -and possibly mainly -the loss of purchasing power that households experienced following the shutdown of entire economic sectors (Béné et al., 2021;Hamadani et al., 2020;Robins et al., 2020;Ruszczyk et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The Implications for assessing the impacts of this type of event, be it armed conflicts or a global pandemic, are important. Untangling the respective effects of these events on the local food system and its actors from the direct effects that these types of events may have on households' food security and nutrition status is methodologically difficult unless the use of some form of (robust) counterfactual is possible."}]},{"head":"Food system resilience analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The overall framework presented in Section 3 lays out the types of information we consider necessary for assessing local food system resilience. In this section, we now review succinctly the type of analyses in which the collected data could be used. We focus our attention on Components 1 and 2 as well as the food system resilience (part of Component 3) for the reasons mentioned above: it is methodologically difficult to untangle the combined impacts that an adverse event has on a local population's food security through its direct impact on households' livelihoods and its indirect impacts on the food system and its actors. As a consequence, the immediate and mid-to-long term effects on household food security and nutrition (the other part of Component 3) are not discussed here."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"As such, two hypotheses are foundational to the entire assessment process and have critical implications from a policy or intervention perspective 11 :"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"1. Hypothesis 1: the final outcomes of Component 2"},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"(measured in terms of disruptions in individual actors' businesses and their self-assessed ability to recover) are determined not just by the severity/nature of the initial shock/stressor under consideration, but also by (i) the resilience capacities (both individual and collective) that the actors have at their disposal and (ii) the type of responses that these actors adopted in anticipation of, or in response to, the event. 12 2. Hypothesis 2: the degree of disruption in actors' businesses and their abilities to recover are also influenced by food system level processes, in particular, the emergent properties of the food system itself as well as any ripple effects."},{"index":5,"size":319,"text":"These two assumptions, if confirmed empirically, would provide important information for identifying intervention and policy entry points. Hypothesis 1 would indicate which resilience capacities and positive responses should be supported through specific interventions/policies. This would also help identify those responses that turn out to be more detrimental or less effective from a resilience perspective (at the individual, group, and system levels) and should be discouraged. In parallel, Hypothesis 2 would provide relevant information about the type(s) of system-level emergent properties that are important for strengthening food system resilience. For instance, is redundancy more important than inclusiveness from a food system resilience perspective? Hypothesis 2 would also allow us to explore the additional complexity introduced by accounting for interactions between (groups of) actors. For example, adoption of responses that seem rational from an individual's business standpoint may create subsequent negative ripple effects for other actors within the food system (Béné, 2020b). A good example would be a transporter who decides to stop supplying rural local markets and instead focus only on townships and small urban centers due to a recent rise in roadblocks and illegal taxes imposed by local guerilla groups. From this individual's perspective, this strategy makes sense. But the implications for the local market actors in the remote rural areas previously served by the transporter are obviously more negative. This example is trivial but suffices to highlight the main point of this discussion: better understanding the extent to which some of these ripple effects appear to be systematically associated with larger disruptions to other food system actors' businesses is of relevance for policy and programme interventions. In particular, it is useful for better understanding concepts such as negotiated resilience (Harris et al., 2018). Adverse event e.g. economic crisis, armed conflict, natural disaster disrupƟon of the food system core funcƟon* disrupƟon of household livelihood, e.g. reducƟon in purchasing power Impact on local food system's actors, e.g. destrucƟon of infrastructure"},{"index":6,"size":109,"text":"Econometric models can then be constructed to test the two hypotheses (or some variants) using the level of disruption in individual actors' businesses and the subsequent self-assessed ability to recover as dependent variables, while various combinations of the other indicators presented in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are used as explanatory or control variables. As mentioned earlier, analyses can also be run with the sub-sample of individuals identified as \"positive deviants\" to determine whether certain of their behavioral and/or structural characteristics diverge statistically from the rest of the actors and could explain their resilience relative to the rest of the group sample (Béné et al., in revision)."},{"index":7,"size":136,"text":"Endogeneity is often identified as a potential issue in relation to resilience analyses (d 'Errico et al., 2016). It will be important to ensure that the structure of the econometric models and the choice of the indicators/variables included in these models address this point. An initial strategy would to ensure that, whenever possible, explanatory variables are chosen amongst indicators reflecting the situation prior to the impact of the adverse event considered. This would apply in particular to the resilience capacities at the individual and collective levels as well as the emergent properties of the food system. In other cases, however, more advanced econometric techniques will be necessary to reduce the risk of mis-interpretation associated with endogeneity, especially when exploring the potential effects of food system actors' responses on their own ability to recover from a shock."}]},{"head":"Assessing food system resilience interventions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"An increasing number of development projects/programs implement activities aimed at strengthening or building the resilience of local food markets or local food systems (e.g., Choptiany et al., 2021;Hudner & Hemberger, 2022;Krishnan, 2021). This section discusses how the framework presented here can offer some insights for rigorous assessments of such food system resilience interventions."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"Generically speaking, development projects that claim to contribute to the resilience of local food systems are structured around activities targeting either (a) the different groups of actors engaged in economic activities within the food system (producers, processers, transporters, wholesalers, or retailers/vendors), or (b) the institutional actors that support these individuals/groups (chambers of commerce, cooperatives, etc.), or both. The objectives of these project activities are generally to build the individual and/or collective resilience capacities of the food system actors (i.e., element (iii) in Fig. 1 and indicators listed in Tables 1 and 2), or to improve the emergent properties of the food system (elements (iv) in Fig. 1 and indicators in Table 3). Those activities should, however, be informed by preliminary analyses that would identify which resilience capacities and food system properties are the most effective at supporting food system actors in their responses to specific shocks (cf. Section 4). Without such preliminary analyses, implementing activities would be equivalent to \"shooting in the dark\"."},{"index":3,"size":288,"text":"Assessing the effectiveness of the project will then be done by comparing indicators of business disruption and self-assessed ability to recover (elements (viii) and (ix) in Fig. 1) between the groups of actors who benefited from project activities (recipients) but who were affected by a specific adverse event in the course of the project, and groups of actors who were not included in the project (controls) but were affected by the same event. Theoretically, we expect that the recipient group would be characterized by a lower level of disruption in their business than the control group; or that the recipients would display higher level of recovery than the control group, or a combination of both. Of course, those are ideal scenarios, and the empirical analysis is likely to be much less clear-cut, as empirical data is seldom behaving as neatly as the theory predicts. But those initial working hypotheses should be used to structure the assessment. Matching techniques (e.g., propensity score matching, coarsened exact matching) could then be used to increase the power of the statistical comparison between the two groups (recipients and controls); and, the same way than analyses of positive deviants may reveal very useful information in identifying factors that contribute to their apparent higher resilience (Béné et al., in revision), focusing on these positive deviants may also reduce drastically the apparent 'messiness' of the empirical data at the programme effectiveness testing stage. In addition, causal analyses could also be conducted by comparing the direct and indirect effects of the adverse event (elements (vi) and indicators listed in Table 4) as well as the different individual actor's responses (elements (vii) in Fig. 1 and indicators listed in Table 5) between the two groups (recipients and controls)."}]},{"head":"Some important caveats","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"In this section, we highlight several important caveats -or limitations -to our approach. The first one is certainly the fact that the framework we presented here is a general framework designed for data collection that is somewhat detached from the reality of resource and time constraints that generally limit empirical research, in particular when the research is led by LMICs governments."}]},{"head":"Feedback loops","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"As previously discussed, analysis of food system resilience involves challenges introduced by the concurrence of two types of impact on households' food security and nutrition: the direct effects of an adverse event on households' livelihoods and purchasing power (e.g., flooding destroying farmers assets and crops) and the indirect effect it has through disruptions to the local food system and its actors (e.g., the same flooding destroying all the road infrastructure in a region, thus disrupting food distribution activities) (cf. Fig. 2)."},{"index":2,"size":238,"text":"Adverse events, however, can also impact the other two core functions of the food system: i) the generation of decent livelihoods and viable incomes/profits for those who are economically engaged in food systems; and ii) the protection of the environmental integrity of agro-ecosystems on which the food system depends. Although some aspects of the impact on decent livelihoods and viable incomes are captured in the framework (through direct and indirect effects of adverse events on food system actors' businesses; cf. Table 4), the effects on the environmental integrity of agro-ecosystems are not considered in the framework. This does not, however, mean that the interactions between food system resilience and these two key functions cannot be explored; but the analysis would be substantially complicated by the strong feedback loops that link resilience of the food system with these two functions (Fig. 3). This follows from the fact that the resilience of a food system is, itself, strongly dependent on the viable incomes/profits that actors of that system derive from their activities and also rests on the integrity of the agro-ecosystems on which the food system is built. Without economic viability and environmental integrity, it would be impossible for food system actors to handle most of the shocks they are facing on a regular basis. 3 is also useful to illustrate that resilience is not the same as sustainability, even if the two concepts are often confounded in the literature."}]},{"head":"Resilience versus sustainability Figure","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Resilience is a necessary but not sufficient condition to achieve sustainability. Irrespective of whether we adopt a narrow interpretation of sustainability (i.e., environmental sustainability) or a more multi-dimensional definition integrating environmental, economic, and social considerations (Béné et al., 2019;Bhattacharyya, 2012;Eakin et al., 2016;Sharifi, 2021), sustainability should remain the ultimate goal of development (TANGO, 2009;Lomazzi et al., 2014); resilience is the means to achieve it. In our case, maintaining the environmental integrity of the agro-ecological system, along with the social and economic objective of generating viable and decent livelihoods, contributes to development programming's ultimate goal of sustainability, while the resilience of the food system is the means by which to secure those viability and integrity conditions in the face of an increasingly volatile and crises-affected world."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Making the conceptual distinction between resilience and sustainability also means that the objective of any food system resilience programming should not be to improve the resilience of the food system per se, but to maintain or protect the well-being (including long-term food security and nutrition) of the population who depends on that food system."},{"index":3,"size":336,"text":"Evaluating resilience at the systems level Measurement of food system resilience and evaluations of food system resilience programming are also hampered by general limitations intrinsic to evaluating changes at a systems level; building counterfactuals at the system level is usually problematic. One will therefore need to remain realistic in one's ambition and make sure that no false expectations are created, especially with donors and other decision makers. That said, the framework presented above provides some clear guidelines Resilience as a latent variable Measuring resilience (that is, realized resilience) will always remain an \"incomplete\" exercise in the sense that we are not measuring an absolute value of resilience. Rather, when we claim that we are \"measuring resilience\", what we actually measure is a change or difference over time in a proxy indicator, such as food security or other well-being indicators (Béné et al., 2015;FAO, 2020;Sagara & Smith, 2018). As a consequence, the best that can be inferred is that i) the resilience of an individual actor (or group of actors) has changed over time, for example, as a result of an intervention, or ii) that an individual actor (or group of actors) at a certain point in time displays a higher (or lower) level of resilience than another. But we will not be able to assign an absolute value to resilience. Likewise, there is no threshold above (or below) which a food system can be said to \"be resilient\" (or \"not resilient\"). In that sense, referring to \"graduation\" in relation to resilience programs (e.g., UNHCR, 2017) may be misleading, as there is no such threshold above which recipients become resilient. Again, when observing changes in outcomes (e.g., food security) in the context of shocks/stressors, we can only say that some households or communities have become more (or less) resilient than they were before; or in our case, by measuring the level of disruption in food system actors' businesses, that some actors are more (or less) resilient than others, but we cannot say that those actors are resilient."},{"index":4,"size":214,"text":"Resilience trade-offs A direct corollary to the point above is the recognition that the resilience of some food system actors may be built to the detriment of other actors within the same system. This point was already mentioned in relation to the question of ripple effects (cf. Sub-section 3.2). However, beyond the technical issue of measuring ripple effects is the more fundamental issue of equity in resilience building (Makwatse et al., 2022;Williams et al., 2020). This issue was not considered critical when discussing building the resilience of (communities of) farmers or agro-pastoralists as it was assumed that the consequence of a change in behavior by the beneficiaries of the program was unlikely to have strong ripple effects on other beneficiaries in the same group. However, once the systemic nature of interactions and interdependence between groups of actors is included in the analysis, this assumption no longer holds. Instead, we now need to recognize that the change in behavior or in business strategy of a group of actors (in response to a shock/stressor) is likely to have significant -and potentially negative -consequences for other groups operating upstream or downstream within the same food system. These resilience trade-offs at the system level need to be considered, especially if they are created, or exacerbated, by program interventions."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"We also note the potential for trade-offs over time in that the resilience of food system actors at one point in time (i.e., the short-term) may disadvantage, or make difficult, resilience in the long-term for other -or even the same -individuals and/or for the food system itself. Specific changes in the short-term that appear to make a food system more resilient could have long-term detrimental consequences. For example, subsidizing access to fertilizer to improve crop yield in the short-term as a strategy for improving farmers' resilience generally have negative impacts on the environmental integrity of the agroecosystem, thus jeopardizing resilience of the whole food system in the long-term (Adhikari et al., 2018;Redlich et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Informal food system actors","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"The informality that tends to characterize the vast majority of food system actors in LMICs was briefly mentioned but not discussed in detail in the framework. Yet it has tremendous implications for the way rigorous assessments of food system resilience can (or cannot) be implemented. In particular, the informality of the majority of the actors means that identifying/locating them may be a challenge. Working with farmers is (relatively) easy. Working with some of the other food system actors is far trickier. Consider, for instance the young men transporting vegetables (or other food commodities) on the back of their motorbikes in northeast Nigeria, or the women processing their garden products in their kitchens in Cono Sur (one of Lima's many slums). How do we make sure that these and the hundreds of thousands of other informal actors who operate in the back streets of small or mid-size towns in Africa, Asia or Latin America, those who make the backbone of food systems and ensure the food security of millions of people in both rural and urban parts of LMICs, are included in our resilience assessment? Specific sampling techniques that have been developed for mobile populations (e.g., hidden population sampling, respondent-driven sampling, Crawford et al., 2018;Heckathorn, 1997) can be used, but even those will have to be adjusted for the specific context of the system to be assessed."}]},{"head":"Non-tangible resilience capacities","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"When it comes to potential interventions aimed at strengthening the resilience of food system actors, we need to make sure we don't consider only the tangible elements of resilience capacity such as income level, livelihood diversification, adoption of improved farming practices, enrolment in safety nets and other easily measured capacities. Evidence from numerous resilience analyses reveals that, beyond those tangible elements, a large part of people's resilience is built on less material, more'fuzzy ' -and difficult to measure -elements such as self-confidence, risk aversion or self-efficacy (Chantarat et al., 2011;Béné et al., 2019;Smith et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2021). We know from empirical experience, for instance, that social capital is key to resilience (e.g., Aldrich, 2010;Schwarz et al., 2011;Kerr, 2018). While most of this evidence has so far been generated with farmers or fisherfolk (Béné et al., 2016;Bunch et al., 2020;Stanford et al., 2017;Woodson et al., 2016), this was recently observed with food system actors in Burkina Faso, where it was shown that the number of people on whom food system actors can rely in times of crisis is critical to their resilience (Maitre d'Hotel et al., 2023)."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"National level food systems Finally, national level food systems have not been considered here and the framework presented is not suitable for assessing food system resilience and subsequent impact on food security at that level. In essence, although it aims at assessing resilience at system level, the proposed framework is still by nature a bottom-up framework; the main unit of analysis (and sampling) is the individual actor, which makes it ill-designed for nationallevel system analysis. Beyond this intrinsic design-related issue, interventions at the national level are often more difficult to assess than interventions at lower levels. Their impact is more elusive and difficult to assess due to the challenge of constructing rigorous counterfactuals at high/country level (de Janvry et al., 2011;Khandker et al., 2010). For example, do policies that encourage food sovereignty contribute to (or erode) national food system resilience? Or, does a national strategy aimed at boosting agro-ecology practices strengthen food system resilience? Although answering these questions would be important (and of growing interest to many policymakers), it is difficult to propose an approach that would offer a rigorous assessment at the national/country level. Tackling the same question at a district level seems more feasible -even if we recognize it will remain methodologically challenging."}]},{"head":"Closing remarks","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"This section offers a brief summary of the main points discussed in this paper and reflects on how our framework compare with other current approaches designed to assess household resilience."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Our work builds on, and expands, one of the most widespread approaches of resilience (resilience-as-acapacity) as it was developed in the past 10 to 15 years in relation to humanitarian and food security crisis (Constas, Frankenberger & Hoddinott, 2014;Béné et al., 2014;TANGO, 2018;Henly-Shepard & Sagara 2018;Ansah et al., 2019). By deconstructing the relationship between resilience capacities, responses, and (realized) resilience in the context of specific shocks/stressors, the resilienceas-a-capacity offers important analytical gains over other approaches that focus only on outcomes, which reduces their ability to provide relevant programming information for resilience interventions."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"Our framework closely parallels, both conceptually and analytically, the way resilience is being measured in this resilience-as-a-capacity approach. Conceptually, both approaches define resilience as the ability of local actors to adopt response strategies that mitigate the impact of shocks and stressors on their well-being. Our framework also embraces the idea that resilience is a means, not an end, similar to the way it is now conceptualized in most of the food security literature (Ansah et al., 2019;Barrett et al., 2021). In the case of food systems, resilience is the ability of the system to maintain or successfully recover its primary function, that is, the availability and affordability of sufficient, nutritious, and safe food for all in the face of adverse events. Food systems resilience is also the means to ensure the long-term objective of the system, that is, its sustainability in performing this function. While such sustainability (understood as a multi-dimensional concept) cannot be achieved if the system is not resilient in the current context of increasing local and global shocks and stressors, eventually the ultimate objective is food system sustainability over the long-term."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"Intimately linked to food system sustainability is the wellbeing of local populations who depend on food systems. The emphasis on well-being in our conceptualization mirrors that of current assessments of resilience at the household level (Constas, Frankenberger & Hoddinott, 2014;Béné et al., 2015;USAID, 2021). The use of immediate and mid-tolong term indicators focusing on food security and nutrition encapsulates this well-being objective but recasts it into the specific context of this work on food systems -in a way comparable to when food security indicators are used as proxies of well-being in the case of household resilience assessments (Ansah et al., 2019;Smith & Frankenberger, 2022a)."},{"index":5,"size":140,"text":"Analytically, the parallel with household resilience is also clear. First, the core elements of analysis remain the same ones: shock/stressors; resilience capacities; mitigating strategies (responses); and well-being outcomes. In our case, the details of these core elements are adjusted to the food system context with the recognition that we are not dealing just with one socio-economic group (the producers) but six different groups: producers, processors, transporters, wholesalers, retailers/vendors, and consumers. But the underlying causal model is the same: when affected by an adverse event (or in anticipation of it), individuals build on, or use, some of the resilience capacities at their disposal to develop responses that mitigate the impact of the event. Ultimately, their ability to recover and their longer-term well-being outcomes are determined by the combined effect of the initial adverse event and the type of response(s) they adopt."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Second, when resilience-building programs are designed, they are generally expected to strengthen actors' resilience capacities in order to improve their abilities to adopt positive responses (those which help rapid and healthy recoveries) and deter the adoption of detrimental responses (those which may lead to further vulnerability). The theory of change is therefore somewhat comparable between resilience programs targeting households/communities and those targeting food systems."},{"index":7,"size":168,"text":"There are, however, some important differences between the food system framework presented here and the way household resilience analyses are conducted. In addition to the fact that our framework involves several groups of actors as opposed to one (see above) and that this implies accounting for ripple effects, the main conceptual difference lies in the fact that the resilience of the food system is here conceived and assessed at two levels: 1) the actors' individual and collective level and 2) the system level. Although resilience dynamics at the actors' level are conceptually comparable to those typically included in household resilience assessments in relation to humanitarian/food security crises (see Hypothesis 1), those at the system level are new and correspond to the system's emergent properties described in Hypothesis 2. The way we propose to measure these system level emergent properties is also worth noting; they are built from the aggregation of individual actors' properties, in line with the conceptual definition of such emergent properties (Gilpin & Miller, 2013;Perrings, 1998)."},{"index":8,"size":118,"text":"This combination of actor and system level resilience processes is also what makes our approach unique and, we believe, conceptually more appropriate than some of the other recent frameworks proposed in the literature in relation to market system or value chain analyses (e.g., Campbell, 2014;Choptiany et al., 2021;Downing et al., 2018). In these analyses, the resilience of the system is assessed through market properties or flux of food or information. It means that perceptions, behaviors, and decisions of individual actors are not considered. The systems and their properties are therefore completely \"depersonalized\", which seems ill-fitted with the concept of food system where the social dimension is omnipresent and interactions/transactions between individuals/agents constitute the primary dynamic of the system."},{"index":9,"size":123,"text":"Finally, and in line with this last remark, a third hypothesis not yet discussed here, is that the two levels at which resilience is expected to materialize may not be of equal importance. In particular, we posit that individual actors' resilience is ultimately what determines the overall resilience of the food system; if all the actors fail to bounce back after a particular adverse event and cease to operate, the system itself ultimately collapses. Thus, the resilience of the overall system is built on the resilience of the individual actors and not the other way around. This last observation is an additional reason why a bottom-up, actor-centered approach is relevant and why conceptualizing food system resilience only through system level processes is ill-advised."},{"index":10,"size":110,"text":"To conclude, the approach presented here was motivated by the growing need for governments and humanitarian agencies to better understand how local, national, and international food systems respond -or fail to respond -to shocks and adverse events. Recent global crises and threats including the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian war in Ukraine or the intensifying effects of extreme weather events, highlight the urgency and critical importance of the task. In this report, we propose an analytical framework and a series of technical recommendations for the measurement of food system resilience at the local level. It would be important to explore how similar analyses could be implemented at national/country (or multi-country) level."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig.2Combined effect of an adverse event on local population's food security. *Food system core function refers to ensuring the availability and affordability of sufficient, nutritious and safe food for all "},{"text":"Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Main feedback loops between the key functions of food systems and their resilience "},{"text":"Food system actor typology (iii) Actors' individual and business (resilience) capaciƟes   Component 1 -actors and system mapping    Component 1 -actors and system mapping (i) Food system context  (v) Shocks/stressors   (i) Food system context(v) Shocks/stressors quality and level of local market infrastructure  (covariant at the actor group level)   quality and level of local market infrastructure(covariant at the actor group level) quality and quanƟty of local roads  nature intensity/severity (self-reported)   quality and quanƟty of local roadsnature intensity/severity (self-reported) quality and reliability of  frequency (self-reported)   quality and reliability offrequency (self-reported) Food system actors producers processors transporters wholesalers retailers/vendors consumers local electricity grid access to and quality of mobile phone networks quality of local governance availability and accessibility (ii) personal assets/savings product diversificaƟon professional experience business assets personal and business network percepƟon on: • informal/formal transacƟon governance • level of system self-organizaƟon • agency, inclusion and empowerment • level of collaboraƟon CharacterizaƟon of food system actors business connecƟvity + socio-demographic informaƟon measures of subjecƟve resilience access to formal/informal credit of environmental resources CharacterizaƟon of food (vi) Effects of specific shock(s)/stressor(s) intensity/severity effects on individual/business performances • loss of assets • forced relocaƟon • closure/reducƟon in business (direct effect) ripple effect: disrupƟon from up/downstream • reducƟon in suppliers/clients • change in quality/quanƟty supplied observed change in collecƟve characterisƟcs (shock/stressor specific) (vii) Individual actor's response/miƟgaƟon strategy subsƟtuƟon of products change in route/markets supplied variaƟon in quality (safety) change in transacƟon frequency change in number of employees Component 2 -actors resilience assessment disrupƟon system exposure to  Food system actors producers processors transporters wholesalers retailers/vendors consumers local electricity grid access to and quality of mobile phone networks quality of local governance availability and accessibility (ii) personal assets/savings product diversificaƟon professional experience business assets personal and business network percepƟon on: • informal/formal transacƟon governance • level of system self-organizaƟon • agency, inclusion and empowerment • level of collaboraƟon CharacterizaƟon of food system actors business connecƟvity + socio-demographic informaƟon measures of subjecƟve resilience access to formal/informal credit of environmental resourcesCharacterizaƟon of food (vi) Effects of specific shock(s)/stressor(s) intensity/severity effects on individual/business performances • loss of assets • forced relocaƟon • closure/reducƟon in business (direct effect) ripple effect: disrupƟon from up/downstream • reducƟon in suppliers/clients • change in quality/quanƟty supplied observed change in collecƟve characterisƟcs (shock/stressor specific) (vii) Individual actor's response/miƟgaƟon strategy subsƟtuƟon of products change in route/markets supplied variaƟon in quality (safety) change in transacƟon frequency change in number of employees Component 2 -actors resilience assessment disrupƟon system exposure to rough esƟmate of each group's respecƟve size non-exhausƟve list of actors in each group AggregaƟon of informaƟon at group and system level • degradaƟon in formal/informal transacƟon governance • loss of connecƟvity • degradaƟon in agency, inclusion and empowerment • erosion of collaboraƟon (viii) DisrupƟon in individual actor's business change in income/profit change in volume of acƟvity variaƟon in price/affordability change in physical availability change in accessibility variaƟon in quality (safety) rough esƟmate of each group's respecƟve size non-exhausƟve list of actors in each groupAggregaƟon of informaƟon at group and system level• degradaƟon in formal/informal transacƟon governance • loss of connecƟvity • degradaƟon in agency, inclusion and empowerment • erosion of collaboraƟon(viii) DisrupƟon in individual actor's business change in income/profit change in volume of acƟvityvariaƟon in price/affordability change in physical availability change in accessibility variaƟon in quality (safety)  (iv) CharacterizaƟon of food (   (iv) CharacterizaƟon of food(  system emergent properƟes    system emergent properƟes  connecƟvity    connecƟvity  redundancy    redundancy  diversity    diversity  rule of the law/compeƟƟveness    rule of the law/compeƟƟveness  inclusiveness    inclusiveness  "},{"text":"ix) Individual actor's ability to recover  Legend  Legend expected causal relaƟonship expected causal relaƟonship data driven (inducƟve) reasoning data driven (inducƟve) reasoning disaggregaƟon  disaggregaƟon Component 3 -food system resilience and Component 3 -food system resilience and implicaƟons for local populaƟon food security implicaƟons for local populaƟon food security  Short-term impact on local Short-term impact on local  populaƟon food security populaƟon food security  short-term variaƟon in FIES short-term variaƟon in FIES  short-term variaƟon in HFIAS short-term variaƟon in HFIAS Immediate effects on local short-term variaƟon in Immediate effects on localshort-term variaƟon in food system's resilience Minimum Dietary Diversity short-term variaƟon in daily food system's resilienceMinimum Dietary Diversity short-term variaƟon in daily  energy intake energy intake  Medium / long-term impact on Medium / long-term impact on  local populaƟon local populaƟon Self-assessed ability to recover  Self-assessed ability to recover from specific past event(s)  from specific past event(s) (x) IdenƟficaƟon of posiƟve  (x) IdenƟficaƟon of posiƟve deviants  deviants  "},{"text":"Table 1 Individual actor's resilience capacity indicators Indicators Type of data IndicatorsType of data ◾ personal assets/savings quantitative ◾ personal assets/savingsquantitative ◾ product diversification quantitative ◾ product diversificationquantitative ◾ professional experience quantitative ◾ professional experiencequantitative ◾ business assets quantitative ◾ business assetsquantitative ◾ personal and business networks quantitative ◾ personal and business networksquantitative ◾ business connectivity quantitative ◾ business connectivityquantitative ◾ access to formal/informal credit binary or semi-quantitative ◾ access to formal/informal creditbinary or semi-quantitative ◾ elements of subjective resilience semi-quantitative ◾ elements of subjective resiliencesemi-quantitative  "},{"text":"Table 4  Information to be collected as part of the Indicators Information to be collected as part of theIndicators one-analysis-to-one-event  one-analysis-to-one-event assessment  assessment  "},{"text":"Table 5  Actors' responses and mitigation strategies Types of responses Groups of actors Actors' responses and mitigation strategiesTypes of responsesGroups of actors  ◾ change in type of products grown, transported, processed, all ◾ change in type of products grown, transported, processed,all  retailed, or sold  retailed, or sold  ◾ change in route/markets supplied or operated transporters, retailer/vendors ◾ change in route/markets supplied or operatedtransporters, retailer/vendors  ◾ change in way to handle food producers, wholesalers, retailer/vendors ◾ change in way to handle foodproducers, wholesalers, retailer/vendors  ◾ change in frequency of transactions all ◾ change in frequency of transactionsall  ◾ change in number of employees all ◾ change in number of employeesall  "},{"text":"Table 6 Indicators of food system resilience a 'Variation/change' refers to observed differences in an indicator as measured before and immediately after an event b Change in availability/supply (g/day/capita) of vegetables / animal-sourced foods / pulse / cereals-staples Food security dimensions Indicators of immediate outcomes Data collection loci Food security dimensions Indicators of immediate outcomesData collection loci ◾ price/affordability variation a in local prices of food items local markets/street vendors ◾ price/affordabilityvariation a in local prices of food itemslocal markets/street vendors ◾ physical availability change a in postharvest and food losses throughout the food system ◾ physical availabilitychange a in postharvest and food lossesthroughout the food system ◾ physical availability variability in availability of food items b local markets/street vendors ◾ physical availabilityvariability in availability of food items blocal markets/street vendors ◾ food accessibility change in number of places where food is sold consumers ◾ food accessibilitychange in number of places where food is sold consumers ◾ utilization -food safety change in quality of food supplied throughout the food system ◾ utilization -food safety change in quality of food suppliedthroughout the food system  "},{"text":"Table 7 Indicators of the local population's food security: short-term and mid-to long-term outcomes a 'Change/variation' refers to observed differences in an indicator as measured before and immediately after an event Food security dimensions Indicators of short-term outcomes Indicators of mid-to long-term Data collection loci Food security dimensionsIndicators of short-term outcomesIndicators of mid-to long-termData collection loci   outcomes  outcomes ◾ food access change a in HFIAS b and/or FIES c  household ◾ food accesschange a in HFIAS b and/or FIES chousehold ◾ food access variation a in daily energy intake variation in energy intake individual ◾ food accessvariation a in daily energy intakevariation in energy intakeindividual ◾ nutrition/health  change in children's MDD individual ◾ nutrition/healthchange in children's MDDindividual ◾ nutrition/health variation in MDD e change in MDD-W f individual ◾ nutrition/healthvariation in MDD echange in MDD-W findividual ◾ general food security  change in proportion of IPC/CH Phase 3 and Phase 4 g when available for the area under ◾ general food securitychange in proportion of IPC/CH Phase 3 and Phase 4 gwhen available for the area under    consideration consideration  "}],"sieverID":"d8b1bc1e-6599-42e3-8727-e86f01e479bb","abstract":"There is growing recognition that a better understanding of how food systems respond to crises is critical to build and protect the food security of local populations. But rigorous and reliable methods to measure food system resilience are still missing. In this paper, we build on the current literature to develop an analytical framework aimed at assessing the resilience of food systems at local level. The novel element of the analysis lies in the levels at which resilience is considered. Combining the individual actor level with the notion of 'emergent properties' of food systems, we argue that the overall resilience of food system results from processes that take place -and need to be measured -at both individual and system levels. The framework is structured around three components: (i) the mapping of the actors and the local food system; (ii) the assessment of the resilience of these actors and that of the food system, and (iii) the outcomes of this resilience, assessed in term of local population's food security. For each of those components, indicators are proposed and the ways to collect them are discussed. The paper then presents the types of analyses that would be necessary to complete to gain a better understanding of the situation regarding the resilience of the local food system under consideration, including the analysis of \"positive deviance\" among food system actors. The paper concludes with a series of reflections about the caveats and challenges that one may face when attempting to assess food system resilience."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0453c6395c406dcb6f390525c2dfa00f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5880cf35-263e-479a-bf19-bba553af2403/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Rice lines with improved water use efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency","keywords":["No milestones associated Sub-IDOs","Contributing Centers/PPA partners","Evidence link","Deliverables associated","<Not Defined> Contributing CRPs/Platforms","• Rice -Rice"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"007f4ec1-27a4-452f-9764-8c5557fcb4dd","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04a8f46a573fbaf5a340ba328e82afd2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06c03bfd-e679-47d8-912e-bdc80df3530c/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Genetic Characterization of Spring Wheat Germplasm for Macro-, Microelements and Trace Metals","keywords":["spring wheat","GWAS","macroelements","microelements","trace metals","functional genes"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"Spring wheat is an important crop in Kazakhstan and Western Siberia with an annual area of 17-18 Mha. This is a short-season crop grown from May to August in an extensive rainfed cropping system dominated by cereals and occasionally rotated with oilseed and legume crops. Wheat produced in the region is traded both regionally and internationally. According to FAO (https://www.fao.org/faostat/en, accessed on 1 July 2022), Kazakhstan and Russia jointly exported 42.5 Mt of wheat grain in 2020. Therefore, grain quality including health benefits or hazards is important for global food security and safety. Elemental concentration is important in defining the safety and nutrition of wheat grain. Minerals comprising wheat grain can be divided into three main groups: macroelements, calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), chlorine (Cl), and sulfur (S) which are important for starch and protein formation; toxic heavy metals, arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb), normally regulated not to exceed certain concentration; and microelements essential for plants and humans, selenium (Se), boron (B), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo) and zinc (Zn), that can be also harmful when exceeding certain concentrations. Five microelements (Se, Mn, Cu, Fe, and Zn) along with Ca and iodine were selected as candidates for biofortification to improve the nutritional value of crops including wheat [1]."},{"index":2,"size":250,"text":"Optimization of wheat grain elemental composition attracted research and development attention from two perspectives: biofortification through genetic or agronomic enhancement of concentration of important microelements, primarily Zn, but also Fe and Se [2,3]; reduction of the concentration of toxic heavy metals such as Cd [4]. Wheat biofortification has been successfully applied for increasing Zn content in grain with commercial cultivars being grown in India and Pakistan [5,6]. A nutritional study with preschool children and women showed that consumption of high Zn biofortified wheat prevented morbidity [7]. The concept of biofortification has not been applied in wheat breeding in Kazakhstan and Russia and only a few studies have assessed the mineral composition of wheat grain produced in the region. Morgounov et al. [8] showed that the average Zn and Fe concentrations in spring wheat grain across five sites in Kazakhstan were 28 µg/g and 48 µg/g, respectively. Variation in these two elements showed a strong positive correlation. In a more recent study, Tattibayeva et al. [9] determined the concentration of toxic and essential elements in wheat grain from different regions of Kazakhstan. The maximum concentrations of As, Cd, mercury (Hg), and Pb did not exceed concentrations specified by EU, FAO, and Kazakh standards. In western Siberia, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn varied over ranges of 44,38,3, and 36 µg/g, respectively [10]. Studies on heavy metal concentrations in wheat grain in Russia were focused on individual regions like Krasnoyarsk [11], and Chelyabinsk [12] and did not identify values exceeding maximum permitted concentrations."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"Three studies were undertaken recently to evaluate the variation of elemental grain composition across Northern Kazakhstan and Western Siberia and its implication for food safety, biofortification, and breeding. The ionomics analysis was conducted at the University of Nottingham in the framework of the European Plant Phenotyping Network. In the first study, 180 samples collected from wheat fields across a wide area, including eight regions of Kazakhstan and Russia were analyzed and demonstrated that toxic elements (As, Cd, Cr, Li, and Pb) were below maximum quantities as defined by FAO, EU and national regulations [13]. The presence of industry in Aktobe, East Kazakhstan, and Omsk did not have a negative effect on grain safety. The concentration of essential microelements was similar to wheat grain produced in other countries with the exception of Zn. The concentrations of this important element were around 50 µg/g in Omsk and East Kazakhstan, above the values targeted by the Harvest Plus biofortification program [2]. Even with the losses of Zn during milling, this grain could be beneficial for human health."},{"index":4,"size":170,"text":"A genotype × environment study was based on a multilocational trial of the Kazakhstan-Siberia Network on Spring Wheat Improvement (KASIB) with 49 entries at six sites in two seasons [14]. The effect of year was least important to variation in grain ionomics composition. For several elements (P, S, Cu, Mn, and Mo), the effect of site was 2-3 times higher than the effect of genotype. The effects of genotype and site were similar for Ca, Mg, Fe, Cd, and Sr concentrations. Average broad-sense heritability was for macroelements: Mg (0.59) > Ca (0.50) > K (0.44) > P (0.30) > S (0.20); and for microelements: Zn (0.44) > Mn (0.41) > Cu (0.40) > Fe (0.38). Protein content had positive and significant genotypic correlations with Mg (0.57), P (0.60), S (0.68), Fe (0.64), Cu (0.50), Mn (0.50) and Zn (0.53). Genotypes Element-22, Lutescens-3-04-21-11, and Silach were characterized by a combination of high grain yield, relatively high protein content, and high concentration of P, S, Mn, Cu, and Zn singly or combined."},{"index":5,"size":221,"text":"The third study focused on the spring wheat genetic diversity panel (GDP) assembled to enhance agronomic and quality traits at Omsk State Agrarian University [15]. The panel comprised three groups of germplasm: primary hexaploid synthetics (CIMMYT and Japan origin), cultivars from Kazakhstan and Russia (primarily KASIB network), and USA cultivars. The panel was genotyped using the genotyping-by-sequencing method resulting in over 46,000 SNPs. The genetic diversity study clearly separated all material into three groups: CIMMYT synthetics, Japanese synthetics, and a combined group of bread wheat germplasm from KASIB and the USA [16]. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) was conducted on yield and 26 yield-related traits, disease resistance, and grain quality traits [17]. The study identified 243 significant marker-trait associations for 35 traits that explained up to 25% of the phenotypic variance, with the most significant of these having already been used in marker-assisted breeding. Shepelev et al. [15] analyzed variation in element concentrations in the GDP. Primary synthetics had significantly higher concentrations of K and Sr, compared to the local check. The synthetics from Japan had the highest concentrations of Ca, S, Cd, and Mo. The USA cultivars had the highest concentrations of Mg and Fe. Local germplasm had average values for most elements. Superior germplasm, with high beneficial and low toxic element concentrations, was found in all groups of material."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"The objective of this study was to identify the genes contributing to the variation of macro-and microelements, and trace metals in the spring wheat genetic diversity panel using GWAS and validate them using the multilocational KASIB trial mentioned above with the overall aim of developing approaches for marker-assisted breeding for grain elemental concentration."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agronomic Performance and Elemental Composition of Different Groups of Germplasm in GDP","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the number of days to heading, TKW, grain yield, and protein content data demonstrated the high significance of genotypes, years, and their interaction except for the effect of years on TKW (Supplementary Table S1). The relative performance of different groups of genetic resources across the two years is presented in Figure 1 and for individual years in Supplementary Table S2. The number of days to heading varied from 35 (USA group) to 47 days (Japanese synthetics) while the KASIB group headed in 39.4 days. The highest grain yield was recorded for the KASIB group (449 g/m 2 ) followed by USA cultivars (320 g/m 2 ), CIMMYT synthetics (236 g/m 2 ), and Japan synthetics (104 g/m 2 ). Early maturing check Pamyati Azieva demonstrated grain yield of 399 g/m 2 and intermediate maturing check Serebristaya 470 g/m 2 . TKW was in a range of 44.0-45.7 g for all groups though USA cultivars had smaller grain (36.9 g). The highest protein content was recorded for Japan synthetics (20%) followed by USA cultivars (17.9%), CIMMYT synthetics (16.7%), and KASIB groups (16.7%). Overall, the research panel used in the study was highly heterogeneous and contrasting especially for the vegetative period duration and grain yield."},{"index":2,"size":306,"text":"Phosphorus had the highest concentration of all the elements in wheat grain at 5170 and 4693 µg/g in 2017 and 2018, respectively (Supplementary Table S2). The other macroelements concentrations (µg/g) in decreasing order were K (3629-3645) followed by S (2053-2063), Mg (1210-1228), and Ca (362-394). The variation between years was limited for K, S, and Mg but exceeded 10% for P and Ca. Among the microelements, Zn had the highest concentration (µg/g) in the grain (41.9-53.3 over the two years) followed by Mn (43.1-44.7), Fe (35.8-37.5), and Cu (3.73-4.67). Among three toxic trace elements, Ni had the highest concentrations at 0.212 and 0.148 µg/g in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Ni was also a highly variable element both within and between years with coefficient of variation exceeding 23.6%. Cd and Co had only low concentrations < 0.044 µg/g. Three remaining trace elements (Mo, Rb, and Sr) were also characterized by low concentrations (0.31-4.37 µg/g). Phosphorus had the highest concentration of all the elements in wheat grain at 5170 and 4693 µg/g in 2017 and 2018, respectively (Supplementary Table S2). The other macroelements concentrations (µg/g) in decreasing order were K (3629-3645) followed by S (2053-2063), Mg (1210-1228), and Ca (362-394). The variation between years was limited for K, S, and Mg but exceeded 10% for P and Ca. Among the microelements, Zn had the highest concentration (µg/g) in the grain (41.9-53.3 over the two years) followed by Mn (43.1-44.7), Fe (35.8-37.5), and Cu (3.73-4.67). Among three toxic trace elements, Ni had the highest concentrations at 0.212 and 0.148 µg/g in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Ni was also a highly variable element both within and between years with coefficient of variation exceeding 23.6%. Cd and Co had only low concentrations < 0.044 µg/g. Three remaining trace elements (Mo, Rb, and Sr) were also characterized by low concentrations (0.31-4.37 µg/g)."},{"index":3,"size":228,"text":"CIMMYT and Japanese synthetics had significantly higher concentrations of K (3984 and 3886 µg/g, respectively) compared to the KASIB group (3584 µg/g) (Figure 2). Japanese synthetics also had the high concentrations of Ca (403 µg/g), S (2195 µg/g), Cd (0.058 µg/g), Rb (465 µg/g) and Mo (0.355 µg/g). USA cultivars had an as high concentration of Ca as Japanese synthetics and the highest concentration of Mg (1304 µg/g) and Fe (37.6 µg/g) (Figure 3). This group was also characterized by low concentrations of K and Mo. KASIB germplasm had near average values for most elements with exception of the highest values for P (4978 µg/g) and as high Ni as USA cultivars (0.180 µg/g). CIMMYT and Japanese synthetics had significantly higher concentrations of K (3984 and 3886 µg/g, respectively) compared to the KASIB group (3584 µg/g) (Figure 2). Japanese synthetics also had the high concentrations of Ca (403 µg/g), S (2195 µg/g), Cd (0.058 µg/g), Rb (465 µg/g) and Mo (0.355 µg/g). USA cultivars had an as high concentration of Ca as Japanese synthetics and the highest concentration of Mg (1304 µg/g) and Fe (37.6 µg/g) (Figure 3). This group was also characterized by low concentrations of K and Mo. KASIB germplasm had near average values for most elements with exception of the highest values for P (4978 µg/g) and as high Ni as USA cultivars (0.180 µg/g)."}]},{"head":"Results from GWAS Analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"GWAS analysis was performed for each element separately for 2017 and 2018 data and separately for original and adjusted values. The exception was data for Ca concentration in 2017, K in 2018, and Co and Rb in both years where only original data was used since adjustment was not justified due to a lack of significant correlations between variables. In total, 55 separate GWAS analyses were conducted for element concentration. Overall, 2997 MEAs with −log 10 (p-value) > 3.5 and significance of effects with p < 0.003 were initially identified for evaluation and further selection (Table 1 and Supplementary Table S3). These 2997 MEAs belonged to 2449 SNPs and 1067 SNP regions covering all chromosomes. All MEAs were grouped into four categories: (1) SNPs with MEAs effect on the same element in the two years using either original or adjusted data (n = 50); (2) SNPs with MEAs effect on the same element in one year using both original and adjusted data (n = 197); (3) SNPs with pleiotropic effect on several elements using either original or adjusted data (n = 341); and (4) SNPs with effect on one element in one year using either original or adjusted data (n = 1861). The group 1 SNPs with effects in both years were most valuable for use as potential markers while the group 4 SNPs were least promising and excluded from further analysis.   "}]},{"head":"Results from GWAS Analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":712,"text":"GWAS analysis was performed for each element separately for 2017 and 2018 data and separately for original and adjusted values. The exception was data for Ca concentration in 2017, K in 2018, and Co and Rb in both years where only original data was used since adjustment was not justified due to a lack of significant correlations between variables. In total, 55 separate GWAS analyses were conducted for element concentration. Overall, 2997 MEAs with −log10(p-value) > 3.5 and significance of effects with p < 0.003 were initially identified for evaluation and further selection (Table 1 and Supplementary Table S3). These 2997 MEAs belonged to 2449 SNPs and 1067 SNP regions covering all chromosomes. All MEAs were grouped into four categories: (1) SNPs with MEAs effect on the same element in the two years using either original or adjusted data (n = 50); (2) SNPs with MEAs effect on the same element in one year using both original and adjusted data (n = 197); (3) SNPs with pleiotropic effect on several elements using either original or adjusted data (n = 341); and (4) SNPs with effect on one element in one year using either original or adjusted data (n = 1861). The group 1 SNPs with effects in both years were most valuable for use as potential markers while the group 4 SNPs were least promising and excluded from further analysis. The number of MEAs varied greatly between the elements, from 19-43 for Co, K, and Mo to 381-499 for Ni, P, S, and Mg (Table 1). Chromosome group 1 had the highest number of MEAs for Mg and P, group 3 for Ni, group 6 for Ca and S, and group 7 for Mn. The contribution of three genomes to MEAs also varied among elements. A genome-hosted highest number of MEAs for K; genome B for Mg, P, Mn, Zn, Co, Ni, and Sr; genome D for Ca and S. Group 1 SNPs with significant MEAs in the two years were identified for Ca (3), Mg (14), P (5), Cu (1), Mn (8), Cd (13), Co (1), Ni (3) and Sr (2) (Table 1 and Supplementary Table S3). There were 197 Group 2 SNPs with −log 10 (p-value) > 3.5 and significant effects for original and adjusted values in one year for all elements with exception of Rb. The largest number of group 2 SNPs was identified for Ni (95) followed by Ca (30) and Cd (23). All SNPs from groups 1, 2, and 3 were screened for validation suitability using KASIB multilocational trial data. The main suitability criteria were SNP presence in 39 KASIB trial genotypes with the frequency of respective alleles at least 10%. There were 50 SNPs matching this criterion and they were subjected to validation. The remaining SNPs from groups 2 and 3 were left for future validation (Supplementary Tables S4 and S5). The SNPs from group 1 which were not subjected for validation are presented in Table 2. For Ca SNPs on chromosomes 3B and 6D had a significant effect on concentration varying from 8.4 to 11.0% in 2017 and 7.1-9.6 in 2018. Three SNPs closely located on chromosome 1B affected Mg concentration in a range of 3.2-6.2% depending on the year. Four other SNPs on 2A, 4B, 5B, 6D, and 7B also contributed significantly to Mg concentration in wheat grain. P concentration was affected by two SNPs from the same QTL region on 6B (2.6-4.7%) and one SNP on 6D (4.0-6.2%). Only one SNP on 6D demonstrated a significant effect on Cu concentration in both years. Five SNPs (2A, 3A, 4B, and 7B) contributed to Mn concentration in a range of 4.2-8.3% in 2017 and 4.3-8.8% in 2018. Notably, the relative effects of these SNPs were comparable in both years of study. The largest SNP (2A, 2B, 3D, 4D, 5D and 7B) effects were recorded for Cd concentration: 16.8-35.3% in 2017 and 15.5-39.6%). Again, similar to the case of Mn, the effects of different SNPs were consistent over the two years, demonstrating their stability. Single chromosome 6D SNP affected Sr concentration by 16.2% in 2017 and 13.6% in 2018. Despite the fact that the effects of these SNPs were not validated, they represent good candidates for marker-assisted selection to enhance the elemental composition of wheat grain."}]},{"head":"Agronomic Performance and Elemental Composition of KASIB Validation Trial","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"There was considerable variation in grain yield across sites and years: trials in Chelyabinsk and Novosibirsk had the highest yields exceeding 3 t/ha in both 2017 and 2018. The lowest yields were in Shortandy at around 2.5 t/ha. Four sites (Karabalyk, Omsk, Novosibirsk, and Tyumen) had high yield variability from 50% to over 100% between years. This is consistent with the large effect of weather and biotic stresses on yield stability in the region. The ANOVA indicated high significance of the three major effects: genotypes, years and locations, and all interactions (Supplementary Table S6). The protein content varied between the sites and years less than grain yield; the majority of the sites produced grain with protein content between 11 and 14%, though it exceeded 16% in Omsk in 2017 and was 10.3-10.7% in Chelyabinsk in 2017 and Tyumen in 2018. The ANOVA indicated highly significant effects for all factors and their interactions."},{"index":2,"size":265,"text":"The average concentrations of 15 elements in the grain across years at each site are presented in Table 3. As expected, the highest concentrations (µg/g) were for macroelements, P (5037) > K (4131) > S (1616) > Mg (1218) > Ca (340). Microelements concentrations were Zn (41.4) > Mn (37.9) > Fe (34.2) and Cu (4.27). The concentrations of trace elements were Rb (3.82) > Sr (2.04) > Mo (0.377) > Ni (0.318) > Cd (0.025) > Co (0.013). For macroelements, the difference between average site minimum and maximum concentrations varied from 10.4% for K to 36% for P whereas the average difference between years across all sites varied from 6.5% for S to 10.5% for Ca. For microelements the difference between the sites varied from 28.1% for Fe to 87% for Zn; between years from 5.1% for Mn to 23.2% for Zn. ANOVA revealed significant effects of the three main factors on all element concentrations (Supplementary Table S6). The only exception was a possible effect of year on Mg and site on Rb, which were not significant. The interaction of year and site was also highly significant for all elements suggesting that relative values and ranking of sites were different between both years. However, the interaction between the genotypes and years was not significant at p = 0.05 for all elements. The comparison of elemental concentration between the GWAS genetic diversity panel and KASIB multilocational validation trial demonstrated similarity between the average values but overall variation across 12 sites × years was very large, thus, allowing relevant validation of SNPs effects in different environments."}]},{"head":"Validated SNPs Affecting Elemental Concentration","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":369,"text":"The list of SNPs with validated effects is presented in Table 4. Overall, 20 SNPs controlling 26 MEAs were validated for eight elements. For P there were three closely located SNPs on chromosome 1B (S1B_9711623, S1B_10111796, and S1B_13242483) with increased concentration in GDP by 2.9-3.0% and significantly increased concentration in 2-7 of the KASIB trials across sites and years by 10.6-12.0%. Two other unrelated SNPs on the same chromosome (S1B_114437220 and S1B_184771090) also significantly affected P concentration both in GDP and in KASIB across 3-4 trials. For Mo, 2A chromosome SNP (S2A_726322626) had a large effect in the GWAS panel in both years (average 12.1%) and a particularly large effect at 10 sites × years of KASIB trial (average 63.1%) For Ni there was SNP S3B_758201335, which affected the concentration in both years with a significant but small effect of 2.7% but demonstrated a significant increase in concentration by 33.3% in the three of the KASIB trials. For S there was only one SNP S4B_23355392 from group 2, which affected the concentration in 2017 in GDP (4.3%) and in six of the KASIB trials (average effect 11.6%). For Ca there were four closely related SNPs on 5A (S5A_568799967, S5A_569526776, S5A_570718644, and S5A_570788577), which affected the grain concentration of Ca by 5.0-6.0% in GWAS panel and by 9.2-13.7% at 4-6 validation trials. Another SNP (S5D_43408942) affected Ca concentration by 7.6 and 24.5%, respectively, in the two years. Strontium: two unrelated SNPs on 5A (S5A_594133493 and S5A_698528417) demonstrated significant effects in both panels and the latter affected concentration by 10.6% in GDP and by 21.1% in four of the KASIB trials.  Five pleiotropic SNPs were validated. Chromosome 1B (S1B_176291121) significantly affected both Mg and P concentrations in two panels. Two SNPs in the same QTL region of chromosome 2B affected Cd and Mn concentration (S2B_780115106), and Cd, Mn, and Zn concentrations (S2B_780665986). Their effect in KASIB trials exceeded 10.7%. Similarly, two closely located SNPs on 6B (S6B_562488824 and S6B_601138481) affected P and Zn in two panels with Zn effects exceeding 20% in two of the KASIB trials. Overall, 20 SNPs identified through GWAS analysis and validated through a multilocational trial can be recommended for use in marker-assisted selection for respective elements."}]},{"head":"Annotation of SNPs Contributing to Wheat Grain Elemental Composition","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The IWGSC RefSeq annotation V2.1 was used to identify the functional annotation of putative candidate genes underlying significant MEAs. The detailed description of each candidate gene underlying MEAs is listed in Table 5. A total of 47 significant MEAs were identified within putative candidate genes and of these, 87% MEAs were located in intergenic regions, 3% in the gene downstream regions, 2% in the gene upstream regions, and 1% introns (Table 5). Twenty-nine of the 47 MEAs were also enriched to other agronomic and yield-related traits. In total, 88 putative candidate genes were obtained for 47 significant MEAs (Table 5), 82 of which were tandem repeats genes. Multitrait candidate genes are the common candidate genes that influence more than one trait. Two candidate genes (TraesCS6D03G0114300 and TraesCS6D03G0114400) encoding 60S ribosomal protein L13-1 were identified for Ca and Cu elements (Table 5). Based on description information of candidate genes, many genes encoded proteins putative to the MEAs. "}]},{"head":"Distribution of SNP Markers among the Germplasm Groups","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":273,"text":"The SNPs with significant effects on elemental concentration in both years (Table 2) and validated through the KASIB trial (Table 4) were evaluated in regard to their frequencies in the four studied germplasm groups. (Table 6 and Supplementary Table S7). The relative share of the respective frequency of each group was taken as a basis (CIMMYT synthetics, 28.5%; synthetics from Japan, 5.1%; USA cultivars, 10.2%, and KASIB material, 56.2%) to compare the frequencies of reference SNP alleles for individual elements or their combination. The average frequencies for SNP contributing to macroelements (Ca, Mg and P) concentration was similar to the frequencies of germplasm distribution (Table 6). However, there was substantial variation among the SNPs for each element (Supplementary Table S7) which has to be taken into account while planning the crossing program. Synthetics from Japan had a low frequency of reference alleles contributing to the concentration of Cu (2.9%), Mn (1.1%), Cd (2.2%), Ni (0%), and Sr (3.3%). It was compensated by higher frequencies of these SNPs in USA cultivars (Cu) and KASIB germplasm (Mn, Cd, Ni, and Sr). For Mo, relatively higher frequencies of SNP were observed in CIMMYT synthetics and USA cultivars. The pleiotropic SNP allele contributing to Mg and P concentration had an 11.3% higher frequency in CIMMYT synthetics and 13.3% lower in KASIB material compared to germplasm distribution shares. SNP alleles affecting Cd, Mn, and Zn were more frequent in Japan synthetics and USA cultivars. Overall, the four germplasm groups possessed SNP alleles affecting all the 11 elements, the frequencies varied depending on an element and there was no dominating advantage or disadvantage of any of the material groups. "}]},{"head":"Superior Germplasm with Optimal Combination of Elements","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"The optimal grain elemental composition will combine high concentrations of beneficial macro-and microelements, and lower concentrations of trace metals including toxic elements. The genotypes used in the study were ranked for all 15 elements from highest to lowest and 20% of the top entries were marked for macro-and micronutrients and 20% of the lowest entries were marked for trace elements. The genotypes with a high concentration of macro-and microelements and low concentration of trace metals are presented in Table 7 and Supplementary Table S8. Cultivar OmGAU-100 was characterized by optimal concentration of seven elements: Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni, Mo, and Rb. Nine genotypes had optimal concentration of six elements: Aisberg/Ae. squarrosa (369)//Demir (Mg, Cu, Zn, Cd, Co., and Mo), Ukr-Od 1530.94/Ae. squarrosa (392) (K, P, S, Zn, Cd, Mo, and Sr), Langdon/KU-2075 (P, Cu, Fe, Mn, Cd, and Rb), Langdon/KU-2093 (K, Mg, S, Zn, Co, and Sr), Freyr (P, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, and Mo), Lutescens-48-204-03 (P, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, and Mo), Lutescens-1103 (Ca, Mg, Mn, Ni, and Mo), Novosibirskaya-41 (P, Cu, Cd, Co, Ni, and Mo) and Silach (Ca, Mg, Fe, Ni, and Rb). The genotypes with an optimal concentration of elements were identified across all four groups of germplasm including synthetic wheat, KASIB, and USA cultivars."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Selected synthetic wheats and USA cultivars were characterized by lower grain yield of 11.5-73.8% compared to local check and higher protein content by up to 30.5% with variable TKW (Table 7). The high-yielding KASIB entries combined high protein content, large grain, and optimal concentration of several elements: Element-22 (Ca, P, S, Cu, and Ni), Lutescens-6-04-4 (K, S, Cu, Mn, and Cd), Uralosibirskaya (K, Mg, S, Fe) and Silach (Ca, Mg, Fe, Ni, and Rb). The superior germplasm identified during this study offers a choice of parents for a targeted crossing program along with the information on SNPs contributing to the concentration of important elements. "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Elements and Underlying Physiology and Biochemistry","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"The ionome is defined as the mineral nutrient and trace element composition of an organism and represents the inorganic component of cellular and organismal systems [32]. Ionomics, the study of the ionome, involves the quantitative and simultaneous measurement of the elemental composition of living organisms and changes in this composition in response to physiological stimuli, developmental state, and genetic modifications. The advantage of the ionomics approach is that complex biochemical processes in plants are reflected through simple concentrations of macro-, micro-, and trace elements. This makes the evaluation of wheat grain or other products relatively simple when the enhancement target is a single element. Similar to the case of biofortification targeting increase of Ca, Fe, Cu, Mn, or Zn concentration, ionomics provides an integrated approach and a value of the element which can be used for the selection of genotypes or technological practices independently of the underlying physiological and biochemical processes. However, this is also one of the limitations of this approach as it is difficult to single out specific compound/s or biochemical cycle/s affecting the element concentration. For this reason, the present study does not attempt the discussion of the underlying biochemistry and physiology though recognizing its importance."}]},{"head":"Differences between the Elements on Number of SNPs","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":356,"text":"The key advantage of the present study was a wide range of 15 elements included in the analysis of genetic control of their concentration in grain. The number of significant MEAs and SNPs affecting a particular element is important for designing and applying marker-assisted selection. There was great variation in this respect with the number of MEAs varying from 20-40 for K, Co, and Mo to over 380 for Mg, P, S, and Ni. However, it is important to determine the possible factors making some elements more suitable for selection using genomic tools while others are less suitable. An assumption can be made that macroelements primarily involved in structural grain composition including protein would have less number of MEAs with possibly stronger effects as compared to microelements involved in a number of regulatory fermentative compounds or trace metals that are involved in specific cell processes. However, the reality is that Ni was identified as an element with a number of MEAs and reliable SNPs which can be used for selection. Taking into consideration SNPs with stable significant MEAs expression in both years as well as the SNPs with validated effect, for five elements (K, Fe, Co, Ni, Rb) there were no SNPs identified with significant reliable effects. The ranking of the remaining elements using the number of reliable MEAs was P (11 MEAs listed in Tables 2 and 4), Mg (9), Cd (9), Ca (7), Mn (7), Zn (3), Sr (3), S, Cu, Ni and Mo (1 each for the latter 4 elements). Previous ionomics study of KASIB multilocational trial [14] rated the elements according to broad-sense heritability values: for macroelements, Mg (0.59) > Ca (0.50) > K (0.44) > P (0.30) > S (0.20); for microelements, Zn (0.44) > Mn (0.41) > Cu (0.40) > Fe (0.38); and for trace elements, Mo (0.56) > Sr (0.55) > Co (0.49) > Cd (0.44) > Ni (0.37) > Rb (0.31). Obviously, there is some confirmation of the elements' suitability for genetic enhancement based on higher H 2 values and the number of MEAs with significant effects identified in the present study; elements Mg, Ca, Cd and Mn."}]},{"head":"Relation to SNPs Identified in Other Publications","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"The mineral content of wheat grain attracts growing scientific attention due to the focus on improving nutritional value. Wheat biofortification by Iron and Zinc has been recently reviewed by Wani et al. [33], and Kamaral et al. [34] summarizing the results and perspectives for the future. There are numerous recent GWAS studies on macro-, micro-, and trace elements by Rathan et al. [35], Wang et al. [29], Hao et al. [36], Alomari et al. [37], and El-Soda and Aljabri [38]. The present study contributes knowledge on the genetic control of 11 elements using a diverse set of germplasm phenotyped in Siberia. The important question is if the MEAs and SNP identified in the study have been reported before in connection with mineral content or other traits. The majority of the loci identified in the present study are new and unique in their effect on wheat elemental composition. This originates from the uniqueness of the germplasm which represents KASIB shortseason high latitude wheat which has not previously been widely studied. The rainfed environment of Western Siberia is also unique and different from similar spring wheat areas in North America or Scandinavia [39]. However, several SNPs identified in the present study have been reported previously."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The SNPs on 5A (S5A_569526776) affecting Ca concentration were reported to contribute to herbicide metribuzin tolerance identified in Gulf Atlantic Wheat Nursery in the USA [27]. Alomari et al. [40] conducted a GWAS analysis of Ca concentration in European wheats and also identified the most significant SNP (RAC875_c8642_231) on chromosome 5A (114.5 cM). The gene underlying this marker encodes a cation/sugar symporter. The second significant Ca concentration locus (wsnp_Ex_c20899_30011827) on the same chromosome (117.7 cM) carries a gene that encodes an AP2-type transcription factor. The relationship between these two loci and the SNPs on 5A identified in the present study needs to be investigated."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"The present study identified SNP S2A_738732586 contributing to Magnesium concentration. The same SNP was identified in CIMMYT synthetics collection contributing to Cu concentration based on both years of study in Turkey [31]. Chromosome 4B SNP S4B_64816370 affecting Mg concentration also had a pleiotropic effect on grain circularity and length at the GWAS analysis of the same material and in the same years for agronomic traits [25]. SNP S6B_610963076 contributed to P concentration in the present study and also was identified as having an effect on stem diameter in the study in Turkey [31]. The related gene TraesCS6B01G346900-TraesCS6B01G347000 controls disease resistance protein and F-box protein-like. The SNP S5A_698528417 contributed to Strontium concentration in the present study and also was identified as QTL for area per spike in the USA winter wheat study [28]. Importantly, none of the SNPs listed above had an effect on the same elements in other studies but rather demonstrated pleiotropic nature. This once again underlines the fact that the connection between the element concentration in grain and its underlying physiological and biochemical processes is not straightforward and not easy to trace."}]},{"head":"Breeding Approaches Based on the Study Results","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"The spring wheat breeding framework in northern Kazakhstan and western Siberia is largely based on traditional approaches with limited application of modern tools. The majority of cultivars grown in the region represent tall, day-length sensitive types with limited genetic diversity [41]. The concept of biofortification through genetic improvement has not yet been incorporated into practical breeding efforts. The series of ionomics studies with spring wheat in the region allows the development of a breeding strategy and methodology to enhance the elemental composition. Two previous ionomics studies in Northern Kazakhstan and Western Siberia [14,15] demonstrated a large effect of protein content on the concentration of both macro-and microelements. Concentrations of Fe, Mn, and S were positively correlated with protein content on both environment and genotype levels. For Mg, P, Cu, and Co, environmental correlations with protein content were low and not significant whereas genotypic correlations were positive and relatively high (0.50-0.62). However, this GWAS study did not identify any pleiotropic effects of protein content on any of the elements. This could be due to the adjustment of element concentration values using multiple regression analysis. Nevertheless, the selection of genotypes with high protein content would be the logical choice to enhance grain nutritional value."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"The analysis of genotype by environment interactions for the KASIB trials showed that genetic improvement for all elements would be highly affected by the uniformity of experimental fields [14]. Broad sense heritability values demonstrated substantial variation between sites and years for all elements. The highest H 2 across both years was observed in Tyumen. If breeding efforts targeting elemental composition are to be undertaken, regional cooperation would be essential to design a selection program with an emphasis on elements with high genetic variation to be evaluated at sites with uniform fields. The availability of high throughput and high precision analytical facilities in the region would be an essential component of such a program."},{"index":3,"size":140,"text":"Primary synthetic wheat developed from crosses of durum wheat with Ae. tauschii has been reported as a source of high concentration of microelements including Fe and Zn [3,42]. In the present study, based on the original values, primary synthetics from Japan also demonstrated a high concentration of a number of elements including Ca, Mg, P, S, Fe, and Zn. However, after adjustment using multiple regression, the synthetic wheat germplasm largely lost its advantage. Superior germplasm combining high concentration of macro-and microelements and low concentration of trace elements was identified in all germplasm groups including KASIB material, USA cultivars, and both synthetics groups. The genotypes with a favorable concentration of five and six elements were also identified in all germplasm groups. There is sufficient diversity for elemental composition and agronomic traits among selected genotypes to plan targeted crossing and selection programs."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"The crossing strategy to incorporate and combine optimal concentration of a wide range of elements depends on the nature of the germplasm. Synthetic wheat with low yield and a number of undesirable traits like spike threshability requires a top and back crossing scheme to transfer useful traits while maintaining and improving grain yield. Several synthetics from the present study possess resistance to leaf, stem rust, and powdery mildew [43] making them attractive as parental material. Pathogen resistance, short stature, and earliness are additional positive traits of USA cultivars for improvement of Siberian wheat for ionome profile. Simple crosses and the development of a large population may be sufficient to combine positive traits of the KASIB and USA material. However, the back-and top-crosses with local material may also be efficiently used. A crossing program within the KASIB breeding network would be straightforward based on simple crosses and consequent selection."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"The molecular markers identified in the present study for 11 elements may require additional validation within the breeding process considering that the crosses made back in 2017 and 2018 are now in preliminary yield tests and can be traced back to specific parents and SNPs. They provide an essential platform for fast and efficient selection to increase the concentration of beneficial elements and decrease the harmful minerals, thus, contributing to food security and safety of the locally grown wheat grain."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"GWAS Genetic Diversity Panel Material, Field Experiments","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"The GDP panel comprised 135 entries including two checks as listed in Supplementary Table S9. The research material included 37 primary hexaploidy synthetics from CIMMYT originated from crosses between Ukrainian winter durum wheat cultivars and several accessions of Aegilops tauschii from the CIMMYT genebank. The development of the synthetics through targeted selection under abiotic and biotic stresses was described by Morgounov et al. [44]. Eight primary synthetics developed by Kyoto University in Japan [45] comprised second group. The USA cultivars (14 in total) included hard red spring wheat entries primarily from University of Minnesota and Syngenta. Material from KASIB was represented by new cultivars and breeding lines (74 in total). The two checks were widely grown spring wheat cultivars in the Omsk region, cultivars Pamyati Azieva and Serebristaya, representing early and intermediate maturity groups, respectively. The main contributors of KASIB germplasm were Omsk State Agrarian University with 17 entries and Omsk Agrarian Research Center with 14 entries. The KASIB group also included 17 cultivars and breeding lines from Kazakhstan."},{"index":2,"size":161,"text":"The trial was planted in the experimental field of Omsk State Agrarian University (55.04 • N, 73.36 • E) as a randomized complete block design with plots of 1 m 2 and four replicates in 2017 and 2018. Soil of the experimental field was meadow chernozem with 5% organic matter content and average availability of NPK. Preceding crop was black fallow. Spring soil preparation comprised harrowing in early May followed by shallow cultivation and harrowing in mid-May. Planting took place between 15-20 May in both years. The trials were harvested in the first week of September. No fertilizer or fungicides were applied. Weeds were controlled by application of a common herbicide after tillering stage in mid-June. The field observations included agronomic traits including heading dates, disease evaluations, yield, and yield components. CIMMYT Wheat Physiology Manual [46] was used as a guide for germplasm evaluations for all traits and diseases. The protein content in the grain was determined using Infratec FOSS 1841."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Weather conditions in 2017 were characterized by 1 • C higher temperature in May-August compared to long-term observations and lower rainfall resulting in drought and yield reduction (Supplementary Table S10). In 2018 the temperature was cooler by 1.2 • C and rainfall 24 mm higher. A high level of stem and leaf rust was observed on susceptible entries."}]},{"head":"Validation Panel KASIB Trial Material, Field Experiments","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"KASIB trial comprised 39 entries including three checks. All of them were included in GWAS GDP and marked in Supplementary Table S9. The research material included 13 genotypes from seven breeding programs in Kazakhstan and 26 genotypes from 10 Russian institutions. Most of the material included in KASIB trial were advanced breeding lines and several new cultivars. The trial included three checks of widely grown spring wheat varieties (Element-22, Pamyati Azieva, and Omskaya-35) with variable maturity ranges. The trial was planted at six sites in Kazakhstan and Russia in randomized complete block designs with plots of 3-5 m 2 and two or three replicates. The seeds used for the first year of the trial originated in the institutions which submitted the germplasm. In the second year, all KASIB cooperators used their own seed. The field observations included three adaptation traits (heading and maturity dates, plant height) and disease evaluations under natural infection. Grain yield was recorded after combine harvesting. CIMMYT Wheat Physiology Manual [46] was used as a guide for germplasm evaluations for all traits and diseases."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Six KASIB testing sites were located between the southernmost Shortandy at 51.6 • N and the northernmost Tyumen at 57.1 • N or around 800 km. The westernmost site Chelyabinsk (60.7 • E) was 1400 km from the easternmost site Novosibirsk (83.6 • E). The large distances between the sites are reflected in soil, climate, and weather variation (Supplementary Table S10). There is a clear tendency for cooler summer temperatures and higher rainfall when moving from south to north: the lowest temperature and highest rainfall was recorded in both years in Tyumen followed by Novosibirsk and Chelyabinsk. In 2017 drought occurred in Shortandy and Omsk with rainfall below 70% of the long-term average whereas Novosibirsk had 23% higher than average rainfall. In 2018 average rainfall in May-August at all six sites exceeded the long-term average by 22.1%. Overall weather variation at 12 locations × years allowed a detailed characterization of the germplasm."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"The soils across this large region were represented by various types of chernozem: ordinary (Karabalyk), leached (Shortandy, Novosibirsk, Tyumen), carbonate (Chelyabinsk) and meadow (Omsk). The soil was generally deep (60-80 cm) and fertile with humus content exceeding 4.5-5.0%. Chelyabinsk soils were characterized by slight salinity. The nitrate nitrogen availability was low in Shortandy, Chelyabinsk, and Omsk. Phosphorus concentration was intermediate in Karabalyk and high at other sites. Potassium availability was low in Novosibirsk, intermediate in Chelyabinsk, and high at other sites."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"The trials were conducted at experimental fields in Kazakhstan at the Karabalyk Experimental Agricultural Station (Karabalyk, Kostanay Region) and Scientific-Production Center of Grain Farming named after A.I. Barayev (Shortandy, Akmola Region), and in Russia at the Chelyabinsk Research Institute of Agriculture, (Chebarkul, Chelyabinsk Region), Omsk State Agrarian University (Omsk), Siberian Research Institute of Plant Production and Breeding (Novosibirsk) and Northern Trans-Ural State Agricultural University, Tyumen. KASIB trial was planted along with the breeding material and followed common agronomy practices for spring wheat at each location. Prior to each trial, the field was under bare (black) fallow. Spring soil preparation was done by cultivation and harrowing. Planting was conducted at optimal dates in mid-May. The seeding rate was 400-450 seeds/m 2 . Weeds were controlled using common herbicides. The agronomy practices applied in the breeding fields to large extent followed the common local commercial practices. Normally fertilizers are not applied on wheat field following bare fallow and this was the case for KASIB trial."}]},{"head":"Grain Ionomics Analysis, Values Adjustment and Analysis of Variance","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":271,"text":"The ionomics phenotyping platform at the University of Nottingham (UK) conducted the ionomics analysis for both GWAS and validation panels. Kazakh Research Institute of Farming and Crop Production (Almaty, Kazakhstan) received and processed all the grain samples, cleaned, and analyzed for protein content using Infratec FOSS 1841 at 14% moisture. Subsamples were sent to the Ionomics Facility at the University of Nottingham and the ionomics analysis was performed using state of the art Perkin Elmer NexION 2000 inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). The samples were prepared for the ICP-MS analysis in the adjoining high throughput preparation laboratory. Wheat grains were transferred into the Pyrex test tubes, weighted, and initially predigested with 1 mL concentrated trace metal grade nitric acid Primar Plus (Fisher Chemicals, Zurich, Switzerland) spiked with 20 µg/L of indium internal standard, for approximately 20 h at room temperature. Indium was added to the nitric acid as an internal standard for assessing errors in dilution, variations in sample introduction, and plasma stability in the ICP-MS instrument. After the pre-digestion step, samples were transferred into DigiPREP MS dry block heaters (SCP Science, Baie D'Urfé, Québec; QMX Laboratories, Thaxted, UK) and digested for 4 h at 115 • C. After cooling down, 1 mL of trace metal grade hydrogen peroxide (Primar, Fisher Chemicals) was added to the tubes, and samples were digested in dry block heaters for additional 2 h at 115 • C and then diluted to 10 mL with 18.2 MΩcm Milli-Q Direct water (Merck Millipore, Burlington, Massachusetts, USA). Five replicate analyses were conducted for each sample from each replication and the mean value represented the sample final readings."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"The ionomics results were obtained for 23 elements: macroelements, Ca, K, Mg, P, and S; microelements, B, Fe, Cu, Na, Mn, and Zn; toxic trace elements, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Se; and trace elements, Li, Mo, Rb, and Sr. The concentrations were either insignificant or below the limit of quantification for B, Na, As, Cr, Pb, Se, Li, and Ti, therefore, these elements were excluded from the analysis. For the remaining 15 elements, the concentrations were normalized to the weight of the samples and expressed in µg/g of dry weight."},{"index":3,"size":190,"text":"Three groups of GWAS GDP varied substantially in grain yield affecting the protein content and elemental concentration. Correlations between individual element concentrations and the other variables, viz., grain yield, 1000 kernel weight (TKW), protein content, and macroelements concentrations, were calculated using Microsoft Excel. The correlation analysis results (Supplementary Table S11) were used to adjust the original element concentration values using multiple regression on the following traits: grain yield, protein content, TKW, and concentrations of Ca, K. Mg, P, and S. The concentration of each element was adjusted only for the traits with significant correlation. Some elements (Co and Rb) did not correlate with any variable and, therefore, no adjustments were made. Some elements (Ca, K and Fe) did not correlate with other traits in one year but correlated in another year, and adjustments were made only for the year with significant correlations. For all other elements, adjustments were made in both years and the number of variables in regression varied from one to five. Both original and adjusted values were used for GWAS analysis. No adjustments were made for the KASIB trial due to comparable grain yield and protein content."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"Factorial ANOVA (genotype × sites for GWAS panel and genotype × sites × year for KASIB trial) was used for statistical analysis for all agronomic traits and for each element independently using R software package version 3.4 [47]. For the GWAS panel, all analyses were conducted separately for the original and adjusted values. Broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) was estimated for each element in individual KASIB trials (for each year separately) based on the ANOVA results."}]},{"head":"DNA Analysis, GWAS and Validation Methodology, Genes Annotation","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Genomic DNA was extracted from fresh young leaves (approx. 14 days after sowing) using BioSprint ® 96 Plant Kit (QIAGEN). The GBS libraries were constructed in 96-plex following digestion with the restriction enzymes PstI and MspI at Wheat Genetics Resource Center at Kansas State University (Manhattan, KS, USA). SNP calling was performed using TASSEL v.5.2.40 GBS v2 Pipeline [48] with a physical alignment to the Chinese spring genome sequence (RefSeq v1.0) [49]. The identified SNPs were filtered for minor allele frequency (MAF) less than 5% and missing rate of more than 20%."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Genome-wide association analyses based on the high-quality SNPs were conducted using the FarmCPU model implemented in R package \"rMVP\" (https://github.com/ xiaolei-lab/rMVP, accessed on 21 June 2022). The top two principal components (PC1 and PC2) and kinship were chosen as covariates to control Type-I error. The principal components were internally calculated, then the package function mvp.data.kin was used to estimate kinship matrix. The multiple tests based on Bonferroni correction are often too conservative, so many MEAs may not pass the stringent criterion of the significant test. To"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Variation for agronomic traits in different groups of genetic resources, average values for 2017-2018. Error bars indicate the standard error. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Variation for agronomic traits in different groups of genetic resources, average values for 2017-2018. Error bars indicate the standard error. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Variation for grain elemental concentration in different groups of germplasm with synthetic material demonstrating higher average values for 2017-2018. Error bars indicate the standard error. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Variation for grain elemental concentration in different groups of germplasm with synthetic material demonstrating higher average values for 2017-2018. Error bars indicate the standard error. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Variation for grain elemental concentration in different groups of germplasm with KASIB and USA material demonstrating higher average values for 2017-2018. Error bars indicate the standard error. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Variation for grain elemental concentration in different groups of germplasm with KASIB and USA material demonstrating higher average values for 2017-2018. Error bars indicate the standard error. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Results of GWAS analysis and identification of significant MEA for grain concentration of 15 elements in 2017 and 2018 in diversity panel. Elements Elements  "},{"text":"Table 2 . SNPs with significant effects on single elements in two years. # SNP QTL Region Element REF ALT Effect, µg/g 2017 Effect, % −log 10 (p-Value) > 3.5 Effect, µg/g −1 2018 Effect, % −log 10 (p-Value) > 3.5 #SNPQTL RegionElementREFALTEffect, µg/g2017 Effect, %−log 10 (p-Value) > 3.5Effect, µg/g −12018 Effect, %−log 10 (p-Value) > 3.5 1 S3B_807804964  Ca A G 39.9 11.0 3.57 37.7 9.6 3.67 1S3B_807804964CaAG39.911.03.5737.79.63.67 2 S6D_27846508  Ca T A 30.4 8.4 4.05 28.0 7.1 3.75 2S6D_27846508CaTA30.48.44.0528.07.13.75 3 S1B_468389275  Mg C A 38.2 3.2 3.78 60.7 4.9 3.71 3S1B_468389275MgCA38.23.23.7860.74.93.71 4 S1B_470419196  Mg C T 38.2 3.2 3.99 60.0 4.9 3.85 4S1B_470419196MgCT38.23.23.9960.04.93.85 5 S1B_483598145  Mg T G 51.4 4.2 4.24 75.6 6.2 3.63 5S1B_483598145MgTG51.44.24.2475.66.23.63 6 S2A_738732586  Mg T G 48.2 4.0 3.81 80.8 6.6 4.15 6S2A_738732586MgTG48.24.03.8180.86.64.15 7 S4B_64816370  Mg C T 46.7 3.9 3.77 75.4 6.1 3.83 7S4B_64816370MgCT46.73.93.7775.46.13.83 8 S5B_679675578  Mg T C 33.3 2.7 3.58 21.2 1.7 4.38 8S5B_679675578MgTC33.32.73.5821.21.74.38 9 S6D_469161928  Mg C G 32.9 2.7 4.03 17.5 1.4 3.78 9S6D_469161928MgCG32.92.74.0317.51.43.78 10 S7B_723334278 1040 Mg C T −52.7 −4.4 3.78 −80.8 −6.6 3.50 10S7B_7233342781040MgCT−52.7−4.43.78−80.8−6.63.50 11 S6B_610963068  P G A −246 −4.7 3.80 −131 −2.8 3.67 11S6B_610963068PGA−246−4.73.80−131−2.83.67 12 S6B_610963076  P G T −135 −2.6 3.88 −131 −2.8 3.67 12S6B_610963076PGT−135−2.63.88−131−2.83.67 13 S6D_376894590  P G A −319 −6.2 3.87 −188 −4.0 4.49 13S6D_376894590PGA−319−6.23.87−188−4.04.49 14 S6D_29369738  Cu C G 0.320 6.9 3.59 0.281 7.5 3.78 14S6D_29369738CuCG0.3206.93.590.2817.53.78 15 S2A_24200649  Mn G A −3.22 −7.5 4.25 −3.13 −7.0 3.96 15S2A_24200649MnGA−3.22−7.54.25−3.13−7.03.96 16 S3A_697506434  Mn G T −2.41 −5.6 3.88 −2.35 −5.3 3.66 16S3A_697506434MnGT−2.41−5.63.88−2.35−5.33.66 17 S4B_603519569  Mn C A −3.52 −8.2 3.56 −3.53 −7.9 3.98 17S4B_603519569MnCA−3.52−8.23.56−3.53−7.93.98 18 S7B_574853540 1015 Mn G T −1.82 −4.2 3.60 −1.93 −4.3 3.94 18S7B_5748535401015MnGT−1.82−4.23.60−1.93−4.33.94 19 S7B_720831474 1039 Mn C T −3.60 −8.3 4.15 −3.93 −8.8 4.83 19S7B_7208314741039MnCT−3.60−8.34.15−3.93−8.84.83 20 S2A_751844369  Cd A G 0.008 18.9 3.87 0.007 21.0 4.88 20S2A_751844369CdAG0.00818.93.870.00721.04.88 21 S2B_772063522  Cd C G 0.016 35.3 4.61 0.010 31.5 3.87 21S2B_772063522CdCG0.01635.34.610.01031.53.87 22 S2B_88259062  Cd G T 0.007 16.8 3.95 0.005 15.5 3.53 22S2B_88259062CdGT0.00716.83.950.00515.53.53 23 S3D_550209436  Cd G A −0.008 −18.1 4.03 0.012 −39.6 3.72 23S3D_550209436CdGA−0.008−18.14.030.012−39.63.72 24 S4D_11471805  Cd C T 0.010 23.0 3.87 0.007 24.0 4.25 24S4D_11471805CdCT0.01023.03.870.00724.04.25 25 S5D_486749507  Cd C T 0.014 32.8 4.50 0.009 28.3 3.55 25S5D_486749507CdCT0.01432.84.500.00928.33.55 26 S7B_677743542 1033 Cd A G 0.008 19.0 3.69 0.006 19.1 3.85 26S7B_6777435421033CdAG0.00819.03.690.00619.13.85 27 S6D_454012454  Sr G A 0.338 16.2 3.62 0.329 13.6 3.79 27S6D_454012454SrGA0.33816.23.620.32913.63.79  "},{"text":"Table 3 . The grain elements concentration of KASIB trials across sites and years in 2017-2018.  "},{"text":"Element Mean Concentration Across 2017-2018, µg/g LSD 0.05 Karabalyk, KZ    Shortandy, KZ Chelyabinsk, RU Omsk, RU Novosibirsk, RU Tyumen, RU  Shortandy, KZChelyabinsk, RUOmsk, RUNovosibirsk, RUTyumen, RU Ca 306 319 309 373 391 341 29 Ca30631930937339134129 K 4176 3908 4276 4022 4093 4313 185 K417639084276402240934313185 Mg 1314 1089 1225 1293 1213 1177 59 Mg13141089122512931213117759 P 4944 3960 5343 5387 5269 5320 360 P494439605343538752695320360 S 1818 1948 1719 1949 1829 1515 111 S181819481719194918291515111 Cu 3.82 5.28 3.46 4.67 4.19 4.20 2.6 Cu3.825.283.464.674.194.202.6 Fe 34.6 32.5 33.7 39.7 33.8 31.0 0.45 Fe34.632.533.739.733.831.00.45 Mn 40.8 42.0 34.1 41.8 38.6 30.3 3.1 Mn40.842.034.141.838.630.33.1 Zn 37.2 26.9 44.3 50.3 44.9 44.9 6.2 Zn37.226.944.350.344.944.96.2 Cd 0.021 0.025 0.026 0.033 0.030 0.018 0.004 Cd0.0210.0250.0260.0330.0300.0180.004 Co 0.020 0.027 0.008 0.011 0.007 0.004 0.006 Co0.0200.0270.0080.0110.0070.0040.006 Ni 0.402 0.249 0.541 0.257 0.123 0.336 0.091 Ni0.4020.2490.5410.2570.1230.3360.091 Mo 0.461 0.571 0.190 0.290 0.268 0.488 0.10 Mo0.4610.5710.1900.2900.2680.4880.10 Rb 1.88 1.76 4.07 3.28 7.06 4.88 1.22 Rb1.881.764.073.287.064.881.22 Sr 2.83 2.34 1.67 2.05 1.69 1.65 0.34 Sr2.832.341.672.051.691.650.34  "},{"text":"Table 4 . SNPs with significant effects on elemental composition validated using KASIB trials. # SNP Element QTL Region Ref. SNP Alt. SNP Year GWAS Panel * Effect, µg/g % −log 10 (p-Value) > 3.5 KASIB Validation Trial ** No. of Sites Effect, µg/g % #SNPElementQTL RegionRef. SNPAlt. SNPYearGWAS Panel * Effect, µg/g %−log 10 (p-Value) > 3.5KASIB Validation Trial ** No. of Sites Effect, µg/g %  S1B_9711623 P 58 C T 2017 157 3.0 4.95 2 598 12.0 S1B_9711623P58CT20171573.04.95259812.0  S1B_10111796 P 58 G T 17 149 2.9 4.69 7 514 10.0 S1B_10111796P58GT171492.94.69751410.0  S1B_13242483 P 59 A G 17 150 2.9 4.89 4 539 10.6 S1B_13242483P59AG171502.94.89453910.6  S1B_114437220 P 82 T C 17 156 3.0 4.87 3 385 7.3 S1B_114437220P82TC171563.04.8733857.3  S1B_176291121 Mg P 96 96 A A G G 17 17 −31.8 152 −2.6 2.9 4.01 4.79 1 3 −75 608 −5.6 12.1 S1B_176291121Mg P96 96A AG G17 17−31.8 152−2.6 2.94.01 4.791 3−75 608−5.6 12.1  S1B_184771090 P 99 T C 17 153 2.9 4.76 4 509 9.9 S1B_184771090P99TC171532.94.7645099.9  S2A_726322626 Mo 223 A G 17-18 0.041 12.1 9.29 10 0.25 63.1 S2A_726322626Mo223AG17-180.04112.19.29100.2563.1  S2B_780115106 Cd Mn 300 300 A A G G 18 17 −0.003 −1.96 −9.7 −4.5 4.24 5.19 4 6 −0.09 −4.51 −26.6 −10.7 S2B_780115106Cd Mn300 300A AG G18 17−0.003 −1.96−9.7 −4.54.24 5.194 6−0.09 −4.51−26.6 −10.7   Cd 300 T C 17-18 0.001 3.2 4.50 4 0.09 28.1 Cd300TC17-180.0013.24.5040.0928.1  S2B_780665986 Mn Zn 300 300 T T C C 17 17 −2.06 −3.01 −4.8 −5.6 5.57 3.90 4 1 −4.68 −7.0 −11.5 −13.5 S2B_780665986Mn Zn300 300T TC C17 17−2.06 −3.01−4.8 −5.65.57 3.904 1−4.68 −7.0−11.5 −13.5 10 S3B_758201335 Ni 432 A G 17-18 0.004 2.7 4.11 3 0.054 33.4 10S3B_758201335Ni432AG17-180.0042.74.1130.05433.4 11 S4B_23355392 S 561 C T 17 87.9 4.3 5.25 6 203 11.6 11S4B_23355392S561CT1787.94.35.25620311.6 12 S5A_568799967 Ca 658 C G 18 −23.2 −5.9 6.28 6 −44 −13.7 12 S5A_568799967Ca658CG18−23.2−5.96.286−44−13.7 13 S5A_569526776 Ca 658 C T 18 19.8 5.0 4.78 4 38 12.2 13 S5A_569526776Ca658CT1819.85.04.7843812.2  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Cont.* Average effect for the specified year or both years. ** Number of sites × years (out of 12) where the SNP effect was significant with p < 0.05; average effect for the specified number of sites × years with significant effects. # SNP Element QTL Region Ref. SNP Alt. SNP Year GWAS Panel * Effect, µg/g % −log 10 (p-Value) > 3.5 KASIB Validation Trial ** No. of Sites Effect, µg/g % #SNPElementQTL RegionRef. SNPAlt. SNPYearGWAS Panel * Effect, µg/g %−log 10 (p-Value) > 3.5KASIB Validation Trial ** No. of Sites Effect, µg/g %  S5A_570718644 Ca 659 A G 18 −21.1 −5.3 4.81 5 −28 −9.2 S5A_570718644Ca659AG18−21.1−5.34.815−28−9.2  S5A_570788577 Ca 659 T G 18 −23.9 −6.0 4.97 5 −40 −13.1 S5A_570788577Ca659TG18−23.9−6.04.975−40−13.1  S5A_594133493 Sr 661 A T 18 −0.158 −6.5 4.86 5 −0.225 −11.2 S5A_594133493Sr661AT18−0.158−6.54.865−0.225−11.2  S5A_698528417 Sr 677 C G 17-18 0.256 10.6 5.69 4 0.475 21.1 S5A_698528417Sr677CG17-180.25610.65.6940.47521.1  S5D_43408942 Ca 749 A G 17-18 30.1 7.6 3.61 3 88 24.5 S5D_43408942Ca749AG17-1830.17.63.6138824.5  S6B_562488824 P Zn 846 846 C C T T 17 17 −308 −4.66 −5.9 −8.7 3.98 3.56 2 2 −552 −10.1 −10.7 −20.6 S6B_562488824P Zn846 846C CT T17 17−308 −4.66−5.9 −8.73.98 3.562 2−552 −10.1−10.7 −20.6  S6B_601138481 P Zn 848 848 C C T T 17 17 −308 −4.66 −6.0 −8.7 3.98 3.56 1 2 −709 −10.1 −14.4 −22.4 S6B_601138481P Zn848 848C CT T17 17−308 −4.66−6.0 −8.73.98 3.561 2−709 −10.1−14.4 −22.4  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Annotation of SNPs with effects on wheat grain elemental composition. SNP Position (Mb) Annotation Gene ID * Description References SNPPosition (Mb)AnnotationGene ID *DescriptionReferences     G-type lectin S-receptor-like  G-type lectin S-receptor-like S1B_9711623 9.711623 Intergenic region TraesCS1B03G0039600-TraesCS1B03G0040000 serine/threonine-protein kinase At2g19130, Putative [18,19] S1B_97116239.711623Intergenic regionTraesCS1B03G0039600-TraesCS1B03G0040000serine/threonine-protein kinase At2g19130, Putative[18,19]     12-oxophytodienoate reductase 4  12-oxophytodienoate reductase 4 S1B_10111796 10.111796 Upstream gene variant TraesCS1B03G0041500 Rust resistance kinase Lr10  S1B_1011179610.111796Upstream gene variantTraesCS1B03G0041500Rust resistance kinase Lr10 S1B_13242483 13.242483 Intergenic region TraesCS1B03G0051800-TraesCS1B03G0051900 Bowman-Birk type trypsin inhibitor  S1B_1324248313.242483Intergenic regionTraesCS1B03G0051800-TraesCS1B03G0051900 Bowman-Birk type trypsin inhibitor S1B_114437220 114.43722 Intergenic region TraesCS1B03G0269300-TraesCS1B03G0269500 Chitinase 10, Hydrophobic protein LTI6B  S1B_114437220114.43722Intergenic regionTraesCS1B03G0269300-TraesCS1B03G0269500Chitinase 10, Hydrophobic protein LTI6B S1B_176291121 176.291121 Intergenic region TraesCS1B03G0363900-TraesCS1B03G0364700 LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase  S1B_176291121176.291121Intergenic regionTraesCS1B03G0363900-TraesCS1B03G0364700LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase S1B_184771090 184.77109 Intergenic region TraesCS1B03G0374100-TraesCS1B03G0374900 Pre-mRNA splicing factor SR-like 1, E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase  S1B_184771090184.77109Intergenic regionTraesCS1B03G0374100-TraesCS1B03G0374900Pre-mRNA splicing factor SR-like 1, E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Distribution of reference SNPs for elemental concentration in genetic diversity panel (GDP) of four germplasm groups.   % of Reference SNP Alleles in Germplasm Groups: % of Reference SNP Alleles in Germplasm Groups: Element No. of SNPs Synthetics- Synthetics- USA KASIB ElementNo. of SNPsSynthetics-Synthetics-USAKASIB   CIMMYT Japan Cultivars Germplasm CIMMYTJapanCultivarsGermplasm Frequency of germplasm 28.5 5.1 10.2 56.2 Frequency of germplasm28.55.110.256.2 Ca 7 26.7 4.3 10.6 58.4 Ca726.74.310.658.4 Mg 8 29.4 4.0 8.3 58.2 Mg829.44.08.358.2 P 7 31.8 5.6 12.0 50.7 P731.85.612.050.7 S 1 20.7 6.3 7.2 65.8 S120.76.37.265.8 Cu 1 27.9 2.9 13.5 55.8 Cu127.92.913.555.8 Mn 5 25.4 1.1 9.4 64.1 Mn525.41.19.464.1 Cd 7 28.8 2.2 8.2 60.8 Cd728.82.28.260.8 Ni 1 24.1 0.0 3.4 72.4 Ni124.10.03.472.4 Mo 1 32.5 5.3 12.3 50.0 Mo132.55.312.350.0 Sr 3 23.2 3.3 8.1 65.4 Sr323.23.38.165.4 Mg, P 1 37.8 7.1 12.2 42.9 Mg, P137.87.112.242.9 P, Zn 2 26.9 4.8 11.2 57.0 P, Zn226.94.811.257.0 Cd, Mn 1 18.6 8.1 14.0 59.3 Cd, Mn118.68.114.059.3 Cd, Mn, Zn 1 13.0 9.1 16.9 61.0 Cd, Mn, Zn113.09.116.961.0  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Genotypes with optimal elemental concentration and their agronomic performance in 2017-2018. Entry # Genotype  Yield Protein Content 1000 Kernel Weight Optimal Concentration of the Entry #GenotypeYieldProtein Content1000 Kernel WeightOptimal Concentration of the   g/m 2 +LC % +LC g +LC Following Elements * g/m 2+LC%+LCg+LCFollowing Elements * - Pamyati Azieva, local check (LC) 399  16.5  43.5  - -Pamyati Azieva, local check (LC)39916.543.5-  Aisberg/Ae. squarrosa (511) 245 −38.7 16.8 2.3 43.4 −0.3 Ca, S, Cu, Fe, Mo Aisberg/Ae. squarrosa (511)245−38.716.82.343.4−0.3Ca, S, Cu, Fe, Mo  Ukr-Od 1530.94/Ae. squarrosa (392) 313 −21.7 17.2 4.2 42.0 −3.6 Mg, Fe, Mn, Rb, Sr Ukr-Od 1530.94/Ae. squarrosa (392)313−21.717.24.242.0−3.6Mg, Fe, Mn, Rb, Sr  Aisberg/Ae. squarrosa (369)//Demir 273 −31.7 16.3 −0.7 47.5 9.1 Mg, Cu, Zn, Cd, Co, Mo Aisberg/Ae. squarrosa (369)//Demir273−31.716.3−0.747.59.1Mg, Cu, Zn, Cd, Co, Mo  Ukr-Od 1530.94/Ae. squarrosa (392) 209 −47.7 18.2 10.7 47.6 9.4 K, P, S, Zn, Cd, Mo, Sr Ukr-Od 1530.94/Ae. squarrosa (392)209−47.718.210.747.69.4K, P, S, Zn, Cd, Mo, Sr  Langdon/KU-2075 92 −77.1 21.1 28.1 40.3 −7.6 P, Cu, Fe, Mn, Cd, Rb Langdon/KU-207592−77.121.128.140.3−7.6P, Cu, Fe, Mn, Cd, Rb  Langdon/IG 48042 141 −64.7 20.7 25.8 41.8 −4.1 Ca, Fe, Cd, Ni, Mo Langdon/IG 48042141−64.720.725.841.8−4.1Ca, Fe, Cd, Ni, Mo  Langdon/KU-2093 105 −73.8 21.5 30.5 47.0 7.8 K, Mg, S, Zn, Co, Sr Langdon/KU-2093105−73.821.530.547.07.8K, Mg, S, Zn, Co, Sr  Tom 285 −28.7 19.2 16.7 40.0 −8.1 K, S, Cd, Mo, Sr Tom285−28.719.216.740.0−8.1K, S, Cd, Mo, Sr  Freyr 354 −11.5 19.0 15.4 35.0 −19.6 P, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, Mo Freyr354−11.519.015.435.0−19.6P, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, Mo  Element-22 535 33.8 17.0 3.4 44.7 2.7 Ca, P, S, Cu, Ni Element-2253533.817.03.444.72.7Ca, P, S, Cu, Ni  Lutescens-96-12 432 8.1 16.8 2.2 44.0 1.0 Mg, Cu, Fe, Mo, Sr Lutescens-96-124328.116.82.244.01.0Mg, Cu, Fe, Mo, Sr  Lutescens-6-04-4 486 21.8 18.1 9.7 47.3 8.6 K, S, Cu, Mn, Cd Lutescens-6-04-448621.818.19.747.38.6K, S, Cu, Mn, Cd 103 Lutescens-15-12 372 −6.8 17.6 6.7 43.8 0.5 P, Cu, Co, Ni, Sr 103Lutescens-15-12372−6.817.66.743.80.5P, Cu, Co, Ni, Sr 114 OmGAU-90 466 16.7 15.7 −4.6 40.4 −7.2 Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe 114OmGAU-9046616.715.7−4.640.4−7.2Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe 116 Uralosibirskaya 515 28.9 17.6 6.6 49.5 13.6 K, Mg, S, Fe 116Uralosibirskaya51528.917.66.649.513.6K, Mg, S, Fe 119 Duet 427 6.8 16.0 −2.8 41.0 −5.8 Ca, S, Mn, Ni, Mo 119Duet4276.816.0−2.841.0−5.8Ca, S, Mn, Ni, Mo 128 GVK-2161 449 12.3 17.3 5.1 42.0 −3.6 Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn 128GVK-216144912.317.35.142.0−3.6Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn 132 Lutescens-248-01 394 −1.3 15.9 −3.3 49.8 14.2 Mn, Zn, Mo, Sr 132Lutescens-248-01394−1.315.9−3.349.814.2Mn, Zn, Mo, Sr 136 Lutescens-48-204-03 369 −7.5 16.1 −2.1 49.0 12.6 P, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, Mo 136Lutescens-48-204-03369−7.516.1−2.149.012.6P, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, Mo 143 Lutescens-1103 469 17.5 16.1 −2.2 43.6 0.0 Ca, Mg, Mn, Ni, Mo 143Lutescens-110346917.516.1−2.243.60.0Ca, Mg, Mn, Ni, Mo 156 Novosibirskaya-41 482 20.6 19.0 15.3 39.7 −8.7 P, Cu, Cd, Co, Ni, Mo 156Novosibirskaya-4148220.619.015.339.7−8.7P, Cu, Cd, Co, Ni, Mo 157 OmGAU-100 518 29.7 16.4 −0.2 43.2 −0.9 Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni, Mo, Rb 157OmGAU-10051829.716.4−0.243.2−0.9Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni, Mo, Rb 164 Silach 541 35.4 16.7 1.2 49.8 14.3 Ca, Mg, Fe, Ni, Rb 164Silach54135.416.71.249.814.3Ca, Mg, Fe, Ni, Rb  "}],"sieverID":"0572c7b0-62bd-4cc5-9a7d-b2e6a3b1bdee","abstract":"Wheat as a staple food crop is the main source of micro-and macronutrients for most people of the world and is recognized as an attractive crop for biofortification. This study presents a comprehensive investigation of genomic regions governing grain micro-and macroelements concentrations in a panel of 135 diverse wheat accessions through a genome-wide association study. The genetic diversity panel was genotyped using the genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) method and phenotyped in two environments during 2017-2018. Wide ranges of variation in nutrient element concentrations in grain were detected among the accessions. Based on 33,808 high-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 2997 marker-element associations (MEAs) with −log10(p-value) > 3.5 were identified, representing all three subgenomes of wheat for 15-grain concentration elements. The highest numbers of MEAs were identified for Mg (499), followed by S (399), P (394), Ni (381), Cd (243), Ca (229), Mn (224), Zn (212), Sr (212), Cu (111), Rb (78), Fe (63), Mo (43), K (32) and Co (19). Further, MEAs associated with multiple elements and referred to as pleiotropic SNPs were identified for Mg, P, Cd, Mn, and Zn on chromosomes 1B, 2B, and 6B. Fifty MEAs were subjected to validation using KASIB multilocational trial at six sites in two years using 39 genotypes. Gene annotation of MEAs identified putative candidate genes that potentially encode different types of proteins related to disease, metal transportation, and metabolism. The MEAs identified in the present study could be potential targets for further validation and may be used in marker-assisted breeding to improve nutrient element concentrations in wheat grain."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0523f12827da057560098c669133d7b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88422e0e-3dc3-492d-833d-6ac563cc66dc/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"LOGIA EN LOS ENSAYOS OE YUCA A NIVEL DE FINCA: •' (UNA EVALUACION INTERHED~","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introducción","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"La reaparldón de la Investigación sobre el manejo de fincas en su nueva faceta como Investigación de sistemas agrTcolas (ISA) se Inspira en dos factores: el primero de ellos tiene como base el intento por entender la disminución de la tasa de adopción de las variedades enanas de trigo y arroz y su adopción menos que total y, el segundo, la necesidad de sacar a la Revolución Verde de las 'reas de riego y moverla hacia las áreas más variables y complejas con disponibilidad de lluvias. La expresión Investigación de Sistemas AgrTcolas ha cubierto un ampl lo espectro de actividades de Inves tigación, cada una de las cuales presenta el denominador común de que el sistema agrTcola es la unidad operativa en la investigación ."},{"index":2,"size":240,"text":"La función de los ensayos a nivel de finca realizados por el Programa de Yucal del CIAT difiere considerablemente de la mayor parte de la literatura existente sobre sistemas agrícolas. Los ensayos con yuca consti tuyen una parte integral del desarrollo de tecnología y del proceso de evaluación, en tanto que la mayoria de las ISA se concentran en la sel ección y modificación de las tecnol og ía s existentes; la función prlnc lpa l de la ISA en el pasado ha sido la transferencia de tecnología. Además, los ensayos con yuca se desvían del cuerpo principa l de la ISA en otro aspecto fundamental, cual es el enfoque hacia el cambio tecnológico en un solo cultivo o sistema de cultivo pero analizando dentro de un contexto de sistemas agrícolas. La Investigación sobre el desarrollo tecnológico organizado siguiendo los patrones de la ISA requieren de una característica o 1 lmitante dominante en el s istema agdcola, como lo son los sistemas de riego o los sistemas agrícolas en los econslstemas semlá ridos. De lo contrario, la heterogeneidad de los sistemas agrTcolas obliga a que se haga una alta invers ión en áreas de proyectos de ISA descentra! izados. La integraci ón de un componente de ISA en un programa de investigac ión de un cul tivo es una alternativa de menos costo y t iene la ventaja de que el componente varletal se Integra mucho mejor a la investigación."},{"index":3,"size":258,"text":"Cuál entonces es la base para introducir un componente de ISA en un programa de investigación de cultivo 7 La razón fu~amental surge naturalmente de los objetivos y de l a organización del proceso de investigación y de la complejidad de producir variedades mejoradas para las áreas con precipitación disponible. Además de mejora r por aumentos en el rendimiento mediante la búsqueda de res istencia a enfermedades *Economista, Programa de Yuca, CIAT. y plagas, la otra dirección fundamental ha sido la de adelantar actividades de mejoramiento genético en la búsqueda de tipos de planta más eficientes (Evans, 1980;Oonald y Hambl In, 1976)*/. El riego y el uso moderado a alto de fnsumos han sustftuído tradicionalmente a la menor tolerancia al estrés, pero ésto se torna más difícil e Incierto en condiciones de disponibi l idad de 1 luvfas. La combinación de esta tendencia general en el mejoramiento genético con la tendencia hacia el desarrollo Independiente de componentes tegnológlcos de cultivo (agronómicos y varletales) y un gran elemento de incertidumbre, es Inherente al asunto sobre lo que serán los rendimientos a nivel de finca en una área objetivo heterogénea. Entonces, es lógico que, como etapa final en el proceso de selección y evaluación, las variedades y las prácticas agronómicas se combienen y evalúen meJor a nivel de finca. Además como el último criterio de evaluación es la adopción por los agrfculto: res, los factores económicos tales como las relaciones de precios Insumos/producción, 1 lmitantes de capital, etc., tienen lógicamente mejor cabida en esta etapa en el proceso de evaluación."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Sin embargo, los ensayos a nivel de finca cumplen más que una función de evaluación o val ldacfón . Los ensayos tambl~n cumplen una función de Jovestfgaclón, cual es la de refinar la identificación y la medición de factores lfmltantes del rendimiento. Dichos lfmitantes del rendimiento pueden ser ocasionados por f actores edáflcos o biológicos, factores de\\ sistema agrícola o condiciones del mercado. Este liga• miento de Información entre el nivel de la estación experimental y el nivel de finca convierte al programa de diseno y evaluación de tecnología en un proceso iterativo."}]},{"head":"11et0dol og1a","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":319,"text":"El objetivo principal de los ensayos de yuca a nivel de finca es proporcionarle información al proceso de diseño y evaluación de tecnología y de servir de verificación del sistema de prueba y evaluación. Pese a que las funciones de Investigación y va\\ ldación se traslapan en cierta medida, el desarrollo de la metodología permite hacer la distinción entre las dos . La distinción principal radica ero la definición y el flujo de tecnología que se va a probar. Los ensayos a nivel de finca, como parte del sistema de prueba y evaluación (Figura 1), trabajan con base en un flujo de variedades y prácticas culturales de la estación experimental hacia su prueba a nivel de finca. Entonces, en términos de la función de validación, la tecnología que se está probando se define principalmente según lo que esté disponible en la red Por t l po de planta ef ic 1 ente se entiende la mayor par te de 1 producto de la fotosíntesis que se destina al crecimiento de órga• nos de la planta que determinan el rendimiento económico en contraposición con otros órganos . El mejoramiento del rendimiento está basado en este cambio en la distribución de los productos de la fotosíntesis en contraposición con el mejoramiento de la eficiencia en la elaboración de productos de la fotosíntesis en sf misma (Evans, 1980). 608 de pruebas. Por otra parte, la función de investigación se relac.iorw~ básicamente con la identificación y medición de los factores determinantes y llmltantes del rendimiento. L~ tecnología se prueba como parte del proceso de identificación de factores 1 imftantes; la deff• nlclón de la tecno logía en este caso surge primero a nivel de finca o reglón . La diferencia esencial en las dos funciones se reflej a en la etapa de dlseflo de los ensayos a nivel de finca y en la cantidad de Información que entra a ese diseno (Figura 2}."},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"La inv~stigaclón a nivel de finca ha sido subvalorada, en cierto grado, en termlnos de su aporte al proceso de investigación debido a su especificidad en lo que respecta a localización. Sin embargo, cualquier Investigación experimental que mida rendimientos o diferencias en rendimiento y que trate de extrapolar sus resultados al nivel de finca debe especificar las condiciones en las cuales se puede hacer dicha extrepolac Ión. En efecto, los ensayos a nivel de fInca propor-~lonan alguna bese para hacer dicha extrapolación. Pero, aún más que esto, la Investigación a nivel de finca, reconociendo la especificidad de su local fzaclón, trata de manejar directamente el problema• en particular, la me todo log fa de los ensayos a n lvel de f 1 nca es~á di senada para manejar la variación. Los ensayos a nivel de finca trabajan dentro del marco de una distribución del rendimiento (distribución que generalmente no es normal). El medio para tratar el problem de la especificidad de la localización es comprender cuáles son los factores que determinan la distribución del rendimiento y, posteriormente, relacionar estos factores con la distribución conocida (espacial o temporal) de estos factores."},{"index":3,"size":591,"text":"Selección de las Localidades. Dado el problema de la especificidad de la local lzaclón, la pr~mera etapa de la metodología se centra en la selección de las localidades. Este proceso tiene camo base el entendimiento de la variación en el área objetivo por medio de la estratificación del área objetivo. La selección de las localidades dependerá de la Importancia de los diferentes estratos en relación con la prioridades de fnvestlgacióo. El número de localidades dependerá d~ los recursos presupuestales disponibles para los ensayos a nivel de f1nca. Las pr ioridades de investigación en el Programa de Yuca se basan en la zona edafocllmatlca,el mercado (o uso final) y, en cierta medida, el tamano de la finca. L~ selección de las localidades dependerá, entonces, de una es tra t if 1 cae Ión pr iorl ta r ia de 1 área obj et lvo y de un ordenamie,nto prioritario de las prioridades de investigación. En 1981 se inició la estratificación del área objetivo con base en factores edafocllmátlcos; se tiene planeada la estratificación•con base en factores econ6mlcos y cubriría un aná\\ lsis de conglomerados o de factores de los datos censales utll Izando variables tales como las presentadas en el Cuadro 1. Por consiguiente, dado un ordenamiento de prioridades de Investigación, las localidades se pOdrían seleccionar con base en ellas Yo además, existiría la base de datos para estrapolar los resul-t<~dos de los ensayos a nivel de finca al área objetivo más extensa . Desafortunadamente, cuando se Iniciaron los ensayos a nivel de finca aún no se habfa comenzado el análisis del área objetivo y la , selección de las localidades tuvo que hacer se sobre una base relativamente ad hoc. En el Cuadro 2 se describen las local ldades; primero fueron seleccionadas con base en carac terísti cas del mercado y segundo, con base en la zona edafocl lmátlca. Finalmente, los ensayos fueron sesgados sistemáticamente hacia agricultores en pequefta escala. Diseño de los Ensayos a Nivel de Finca . La siguiente etapa en la me todo log •a 1nc luye el proceso de estratificación de los agricultores, el desa rrollo de hipótes is sobre los principa les factores li~itantes y el diseño de los ensayos a nivel de finca , un proceso que es Interactivo con estudios tipo encuesta a nivel de fin ca y/o anál fsis de los resu ltados de los ensayos a ni ve l de finca (F igura 2). La forma como un prog rama de Investigación a nivel de finca entra pr.lmero a este proceso interactivo depende precisamente de la s necesidades del programa de Inves tigación y de si la función es principalmente val ldación o Investigación. El Cuadro 3 presenta tres estrategias alternativas y las Implicaciones para el proceso de diseño de los ensayos. Cuando la función es principalmente la val ldaclón, el di seño de los ensayos a nivel de finca se derivarán (al menos Inicialmente) de tecnologías Identificadas a nivel de estación experimental y se mantendrá en todas las local idades una cierta constancia en el diseño. Cuando la función es más de natura leza investlgativa, el diseño puede surgir directamente de una hipÓt esis investlgativa inicial sobre los factores 1 lmitantes del rendimiento a nivel regional, en cuyo caso será necesario como primer paso una encuesta de fincas o el diseño puede tratar de evaluar la importancia de factores llmitantes particulares en las distintas loca lidades, en cuyo caso el diseño tendrá elementos comunes a la medición de los facto res 1 imltantes y elementos particulares de las diferentes local idades."},{"index":4,"size":283,"text":"En su comienzo en 1977, los ensayos de yuca a nivel de finca se concibieron como pruebas de val ldaclón pero , con base en los resultados in ic iales , el dise~o de los ensayos evoluclon6 hacia una función de Inve s tigación. La hipótes is operante en el Programa de Yuca es que los rend imientos se encuentran principalmente 1 imitados por la esusa habilidad genética de rendimiento de las variedades tradicionales . S in embargo, den tro de una zona edafoclimátlca pa rti cu lar, la re laci ón en tre los rendimientos reales a nivel de finca y e l rendimi ento potenc ial de las variedades mejoradas dependerá de varios componentes del manejo, comunes a la mayoría de los sistemas de cultivo de yuca (Cua• dro 4). Estos componentes del manejo junto con la va riación en los factor es 1 imitantes edáficos y biológicos determinan la distribución del rendimiento en la zona. Además, el empleo o la restricción del uso de estos componentes del manejo están determinados por los requerimientos del s istema agrícola y de mercado. Por consiguiente, los rend im ientos no están determinados principalmente por el manejo independiente del sistema de cultivo de yuca y surge la necesidad de la investigación de sistemas agrfcolas en la evaluación de la tecnologfa para yuca, particularmente la InteracciÓn entre vari edades meJoradas y estos componentes del manejo; es decir, los ensayos a nivel de finca se cent ran en la evaluación de la estabilidad de la s variedades mejora• das en el sistema (Cock, 1981) y la habilidad del sistema agrfcola para mantener lo s mayores niveles de rendimiento de estas variedades en e l tiempo. 610"},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"El diseno o la Identificación de tratamiento en los ensayo's d~ yuca a nivel de finca se basan, por cons iguiente, en el objetivo de evaluar la Interacción de variedades mejoradas y componentes de manejo en condiciones de la variación edifica de las distintas reglones. la Identificación de los tratamientos se basa princ ipa lmente en las hipótesis sobre los principales componentes del manejo presentados en el Cuadro ~ y del uso particular de estos componentes en cada una de las zonas . Para comprender la establl ldad de los componentes varletales Y de manejo en el ámbl to de la varlac Ión edáf lea en cada zona se requiere que el número de ensayos sea de un mínimo de 15, a menos que las fincas se puedan estratificar con base en otra Información ."},{"index":6,"size":169,"text":"La experiencia ha demostrado que la varianza fuera de los tratamientos en los ensayos a nivel de finca es considerable y, con frecuencia, se funde con la varianza de los tratamientos . como el objetivo es evaluar el rendimiento potencial de nueva tecnologfa de una finca a otra en una regIón ~esto supone que, por lo menos In le talmente, la nueva tecnolog fa ldentlf lea da para una regIón será homogénea por extensión en dicha reglón ~cada finca se concibe mejor como una repeti-ción~ y se obtiene más Informac ión (el diseño es más eficiente) mediante la repetición del ensayo de una finc a a otra que dentro de la s parcelas de un agricultor. se pueden utilizar varios métodos estadfstlcos para ana lizar la fuente de variación fuera de tratamiento, Jos cuales pueden ser empleados para estratificar las fincas y evaluar de manera más sistemática la Interacción entre la variación del rendl• miento fuera de tratamiento y los factores 1 lmltantes en la productividad de la tecnología."},{"index":7,"size":193,"text":"Anál lsls de los Ensayos a Nivel de Finca . la prueba eventua l de la pertinencia de una nueva tecno logía es su adopción por parte del agricultor. Como los ensayos a nivel de finca hacen parte del sistema global de evaluación de la tecnología, la evaluación es ex dnte en su naturaleza pero el criterio de evaluación sigue siendo la adopción potencial por parte del agricultor. Por definición, la evaluación ex antt de la adopc ión debe enfocarse hacia aquellos fa cto res que influyen en la adopción por el agricultor; es decir, la evaluación debe simula r en gran medida su proceso de decisiones. los criterios de evaluación son principalmente económicos; es decir, rentabil idad relativa entre tratamientos, el ajuste de la tecnología en el sistema agrfcola (en part~cular, su compatibilidad con las limitaciones de recursos) y las consideraciones del riesgo versus las ganancias de Ingresos . Los ensayos proporcionan los coeficientes de Insumo -producción de las nuevas alternativas tecnológicas; los datos sobre precios, disponibilidad de recursos, otras actividades agrtcolas, etc., provienen de los registros de manejo de las fIncas manten idos durante el curso del allo de cultivo ."}]},{"head":"~","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"Cada finca se deba considerar como una muestra al azar o estratificada de la población de fincas que producen yuca en la region. E 1 aná lis 1 s de los resultados de los ensayos a nivel de f 1 nc:a se realiza en un proceso de tres etapas. El prfmer nivel de anillsls es la slgnlflcancla convencional de la diferencia en rendimiento entre tratamiento (ANOVA). SI los trata,.lentos no son significativos pero aún existen variaciones grandes en los rendimientos de los tratamientos, se Investiga la estratlflcac16n 4 ~~y estadfstlca de la finca. Por ejemplo, la respuesta a los fert lllzantes puede depender del tipo de suelo y del sistema de rotac16n. Si hay suficientes grados de libertad después de la estratlficacl6n, la muestra reducida vuelve a ANOVA. La primera etapa no tiene en cuenta la toma de decisiones por el agricultor. Su propósito principal es ~aluar la esta~llldad de los efectos de los tratamientos en condiciones variables de produccl6n, definir los factores que resultan en variación de rendimiento y retornar esta información para el redls&no de los ensayos o al programa de Investigación (Figura 3)."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"El segundo nivel de ;~nállsls determina si los tratamientos son más rentables que las prácticas de los agricultores. La rentabilidad relativa define la ganancia de Ingresos para el agricultor. La nueva tecnologfa que pueda resultar en un aumento en rendimiento, puede ser menos rentable que la del agricultor debido a un mayor uso de Insumas . Esta etapa del anál lsls proporciona esencialmente una medida de la vlabil ldad econ6mica de un mayor uso de Insumas. También, cuando hay diferencias en los precios de J;¡ produccl6n debido a factores de cal idad, la evaluación de la rentabll ldad puede estrechar considerablemente la superioridad de las nuevas variedades. tomo el Programa de ~uca se centra en el aumento de los ingresos• del agricultor por medio de variedades mejoradas con solamente cambios menores en el uso de Insumas, la rentabll ldad de las tecnologfas dependerá esencialmente de los rendimientos y de cualquier descuento en los precios debido a diferencias en la calidad. Esto último es particularmente importante en la deter -minac16n del potencial de la yuca para entrar a mercado s alternativos y para competir con la yuca que entra;¡ mercados tradicionales con precios más altos."},{"index":3,"size":217,"text":"Casi más Importante que el análisis de la rentabilidad es la siguiente fase: el análisis de la• factlbilid;~d de la nueva Innovación dentro de un contexto global de finca. como se lndic6 en el Cuadro 4, las prácticas de manejo 6ptlmas (y por consiguiente el rendimiento y/o la producción) se encuentran potencialmente restringidas por varias consideraciones del sistema agrtcola o del sistema de mercadeo. Sin embargo, los factores 1 lmitantes son dlffclles de moldear en modelos de programaci6n lineal de sistemas de producción de yuca. Las actividades de cultivo generalmente están 1 Imitadas en las áreas productoras de yuca y la yuca tiende a dominar en la soluci6n sin 11mites artificiales que siiiiUien los factores linltantes del mercado. ~elar la 6ptlma época de cosecha se dificulta por la naturaleza del problema en el cual están lmpl lcados múltiples anos y los factores de riesgo Inherentes en el problema. Finalmente, modelar restricciones Impuestas al despacho del producto al mercado es dlffcll desde una perspectiva de la toma de decisiones por el agricultor y, nuevamente s61o puede entrar como un elemento probabllfstlco en la func:l6n de objetivo. Sin tl'llbargo, 612 la solución a estos probiQnas proporcionará entonces una base Plll'a simular el Impacto en los ingresos y en los patrones de producción por la apertura de mercados alternativos !Y."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"El análisis de los ensayos a nivel de finca proporciona , de esta manera, la base para el rediseño de los ensayos del siguiente allo, la información de retorno para el programa de investigación y la Intervención de pollticas de planeación (tales como el desarrollo de mercados al ternatlvos) acompallando al lanzamiento de la tecnología. Los asuntos metodológicos del disello y d,el anális is de los ensayos a nive l de finca se Ilustrarán con resultados presentados en la siguiente secci6n."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Res u 1 tados 11 ust ra t lvos Los objetivos y el disello de los ensayos de yuca a niv el de finca han evo lucionado de sde su comienzo en 1977; los ensayos s e centran ahora en tres objetivos cercanamente re 1 ac iorlildos: '\\ tiempo en respuesta a conflictos entre los resultados y las hipótesis Iniciales."},{"index":6,"size":129,"text":"En su comienzo, los ensayos se di señaron para evaluar la adopc;i6n real, siendo la hipótesis que las variedades y las prácticas culturales estaban 1 istas para su extensión directa a los agricultores. El presupoesto común de que la ventaja en rend lmiento a nivel de la estación experimental o del ensayo regiona l se traducía en adopción a ni-ve~ de finca, fue rapidamente insostenible. por consigu iente, los ObJetivos de los ensayos evolucionaron sucesivamente de la evaluación de la adopción real a la va l idación de la ventaja en rendimiento a nivel de finca y, finalmente, a la evaluación s istemática de los factores que determinan el rendimiento y la adopción , . con el fin de especificar más apropiadamente los r equerimientos de tecnologfa (Cuadro 5)."},{"index":7,"size":201,"text":"La ventaja en rendimiento debido a un paquete agronómico de monomes insumos se estableció en una etapa temprana (Cuadro 6). Sin embargo la Identificación de una variedad mejorada que fuera más rentable que la variedad local y el establecimiento de la s cond iciones en las cuales se debería hacer esta evaluac ión del rendimiento (y de la rentabilidad) era más difícil. La primera serie de ensayos establecieron la importan• cla de los factores de calidad para determinar a qué mercados podrían entrar las variedades, y , por lo tanto, o su precio diferencial o su imposlbil idad de ser vend idas. Los ai'los posteriores permitieron establecer que, tanto el rendimiento como las ca racterísticas de cali dad dependían del tipo de suelo (Cuadro 7), época de siembra (Cuadro 8) ~ época de cosecha (Cuadros 8 y 9) . El nivel promedio de rendimiento y la clasificación de las va ri edades según su rendimiento con frecuencia cambiaron al evaluarlos en diferentes tratamiento~ de e~to~ tres factore s. Sin embargo, en el ensayo de 1980-81 se Identificó un hfbrido que era más rentable que la variedad local, por lo menos en una combinación pa rticular de estos factores (Cuadro 8) ."},{"index":8,"size":233,"text":"Además, el logro del máximo rendimiento estaba restringido, en la mayoría de los casos, por 1 Imitaciones Impuestas a l manejo dado por el agricu l tor por objet ivos del s istema ag rícola o del sistema de me rcadeo de nivel más alto (en e l Cuadro 10 se presentan los factores que determinan el rendimien to y las restricci ones en su manejo). ?ara evaluar la llamada brecha en el r endimiento en yuca se requiere, por lo tanto, primero identificar los factores que determinan el rendimiento, establecer en segundo lugar las r estricciones económicas al manejo de estos factores y, en tercer lugar, relacionar ésto con la pobl ación de agricultores (como se i lustra en el ejemp lo sintetizado en la Figura~). Los ensayos a nivel de finca aún se encuentran en l a primera etapa de este proceso, estableciendo cada uno de estos factores dos o tres a la vez, debido principalmente a 1 imitaciones de espacio ;y. Para establecer ~/ El t amailo actual de los ensayos oscila entre 0.25-0.50 ha una restro~ción grande en términos del espacio de estas finca~ en pequeña escala y en términos del materia l de siembra cuando se introducen nuevas variedades. 614 eventualmente la brecha en rendimiento Inherente en la Figura 4, se requerirá un ensayo factorial incompleto muy grande basado en u.na . ~s tratlficac16n adecuada de los agricultores."},{"index":9,"size":124,"text":"Los ensayos a nivel de finca en Mondomo, en el [)epartamento del Cauca, se Iniciaron de la misma manera que los ensayos de validación, probando el paquete de mínimos insumos, de fertilizantes y variedades mejoradas. La selección de variedades se basó en re su 1 tados de ensayos regionales en Santander de Qui l ichao (1070 m de altitud ver sus aproximadamente 1400 m para la localidad de los ensayos a nivel de finca). Se encontró que las variedades no se adaptaron, deb ido aparentemente al ligero diferencial de temperatura. Además, las diferenc las en el rendimiento en los tratamientos no fueron significativas, siendo la var lanza entre fincas s ign if icat ivamente mayor que la varianza entre tratamientos (Cuadros 11 y 12)."},{"index":10,"size":117,"text":"Con el fin de anal izar los efectos de los tratamientos, la varianza tenía que ser controlada, especialmente incluyendo otra información que respondiera por la ~ariaclón en rendimiento. Los anál lsls Inic iales de l sue lo indicaron niveles de fósforo muy bajos, alta saturación de aluminio y niveles de potasio bajos a moderados. Ad~ís , los agricultores en la zona trataban de controlar la disminucJ6n de la ferti-1 !dad del suelo mediante un sistema de enrastroj amiento a largo plazo. El efecto del sistena de entrastrojamiento en los rendimientos se podía observar mediante el ordenamiento de los resultados con base en un índice sim?le de enrastrojamiento (cuadro 12). La correspondencia entre los dos era muy alta."},{"index":11,"size":232,"text":"Alternativamente, se apl Jcó regresoon múltiple a Jos resultados con\\erlables adicionales para los factores edáf leos. En el Cuadro 13 se pres entan diferentes especificaciones del modelo. Todos los mode los varietales son signif icativamente diferentes (es decir, menores) que la var iedad local Algodona. El tratamiento de la semil la no dió un efecto significatio en el rendimiento. por otra parte, se encontró que los coef ic ientes en las variables edáflcas dependían en alto grado si se incluía o no el modelo de enrastrojamlento */ . S in embargo , los resultados del mode lo fueron estables cuando las variables fósforo y potas io se expresaron solamente como un término interactivo y junto con el í ndice de rotación dieron el R2 más alto. Nuevamente, la variabl e rotación fué críti ca para explicar la varianza del rendimiento y , en el mode lo eventual, determinó s i había o no una respuesta s ig n ifi ca• tiva a la fert il lzación . La estratificación de los agr icu ltores y la repetición del anál isi s de varia nza indicó una respuesta significativa a los fertil lzantes cuando el término de duración del enrastroj amlento era inadecuado (Cuadro 14). la condición multicol ineal puede ser un problema en este caso , pero la correlación simple entre el modelo de enrastrojamiento y los factores edáficos no fue alta."}]},{"head":",.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Al igua 1 que en Hed la Luna , en los ensayos de ~ndomo se encontró que los factores de calidad y el rend 1m lento var la ron con bue en los factores de manejo. como se muestra en el Cuadro 15 se encontró que el contenido de almi dón y el contenido de HCN variaron con base en el nivel de fertl l ldad del suel o. A pesar de que se Incluyeron variedades \"dul ces\" en los ensayos , 1,15 cua l es mantuvieron es ta caracterlstlca en los mayores niveles de fert i lidad, en condiciones de un enrastrojamiento corto, los niveles de HCN ascendieron por encima del nivel crítico de 100 ppm. Por consiguiente , mantener la cal ldad se tor~ más difícil entre más alto sea el estrés en el cua l se cul tive la yuca. La capacidad para manejar estos factores de calidad depende de restricciones dentro del s i s tema agrícola , tales como el perlado del enra strojam iento en relacIón con el t-Ilo de la fInca y su importa nc la en los mercados finales."},{"index":2,"size":332,"text":"Aunque e l análisis de los ensayos a nivel de finca mues tra los tipos de resu ltados que se pueden obtener de la evaluación entre la variación en tre tratamiento y entre la variación entre fincas, aún falta e l concepto de la variación entre loca lidades. Es to último sólo es factible cuando la evaluación se enfoca en una tecnología o variedad que presente una adaptación relativamente amplia. Dicho enfoque fue utilizado en la investigación de factores limitantes por el IRRI (IRR I, 1979); sin embargo, en yuca es poco fac t ible que haya mucha similitud en la Introducción de tecno logía en diferentes loca lid ades. Sin embargo, el enfoque es útil en tér minos de l o que se puede aprender de un análisis compa rat ivo. También , en esfuerzos más avanzados de desarrollo d e mode los {por ejempl o, modelos t lpo mercado -equ i llbrlo espacia l), los ensayos se utilIzaron para eva luar camb ios en la ventaja comparativa de produci r pa ra distintos mercados finales, particularmente en los que las diferencias en calidad constituían un factor. con el ánimo de hacer un anál isls compara tivo, los ensayos a nivel de finca de 1980-81 se disel\\aron para evaluar el efecto de diferentes épocas de siembra y cosecha como determinantes del rendimiento. La escogencla de las épocas de siembra y cosecha se hizo con base en los requerimientos particula res del s istema agrícola de cada localidad. Los resultados tomados conjuntamente muestran ganancias en r end imiento por el almacenamiento de la yuca en el sue lo {el aumento porcentual en la rentabll idad es aún mayor) pero que este almacenamiento implica un mayor riesgo (Cuadro 16). Los facto r es de riesgo incluyen riesgo de producción , como en ~Pndomo en donde ocurrió pudr ición radical debido a una alta precipitación fuera de lo normal, o en Media Luna en donde la calidad de las raíces tiende a dism inuir."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Hás Importante aún es el riesgo del mercado que, además del riesgo de una disminución en e l pr ecio durante el transcurso del periodo de cosecha , incluye el acceso al mer cado . Los agricu ltor es en las diferentes regiones han adoptado distintas estrateg las de mercadeo. En el Socor ro los agricu ltores se enfrenta n a un mercado fresco muy lim itado en el cua l los compradores camb ian de precios durante e l transcurso del dí3 de mercado a medida que es t iman el suminist ro que va entrando al mercado. Los agricu l tores rara veL cosechan m5s de 150-200 kg para cualquier dta de mercado. Los agriculto res en los Llanos (para el 6t 6"},{"index":4,"size":141,"text":".. --~mercado f r esco de Bogot¡) y de Mondomo (para las plan tas de almidón en pequel\\a escala ) venden sus lotes por contrato. Por cons igu 1 ente los agrlcultores.no ~stán Inter esados en rendimientos más altos y~~~ C.Orr\\pradores estan mas l~teresados en la continuidad de suministros que en los aumentos en rendimiento. En Media Luna, los agricu l tores pueden vender yuca al mercado fresco urbano en el cual existe un premio con-slderabl~ en el precio o al mercado industrial de almidón. El problema lo const otuye el acceso a l mercado fresco al cual le venden cuando quiera que ~lste una oportunidad de mercadeo . Los agricultores le venden casi ~clusivamente a l mercado fresco al comienzo del período de cosecha y al mercado de a lmidón al final , cuando se aproxima la época de siembra."},{"index":5,"size":111,"text":"Por consiguiente, la conclusión es que los rendimientos de yuca va rta n.ma rcadamente depend iendo de la época de siembra y, especialmente, de la epoca de cosecha. S In embargo , la yuca se cosecha por lo genera 1 más t~prano que lo que podría considerarse como óptimo debido a factores lomltantes de mayor nivel en el sistema agr Tcola y de mercadeo. En la me~lda en que se desarrollen mercados alternativos y unidades de p r ocesam~e~to en peque~a escala, habrá cabida a ganacias sustancia les en la efocoencla debido a mejores eslabones entre los sistemas de producción de yuca y los sistemas de procesamiento de la misma ."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"La investigación de sistemas agrtcolas unida a la generación 0 evaluación de tecnologTa se puede utilizar para varios propósitos diferentes t~les como la definición de los requerimientos del dlse~o de tecnologoa , la validación y prueba de tecnología, la identificac ión del com~nente o paquetes tecnológicos apropiados para extensión 0 la planeaclon Y evaluación del proyecto. Aunque son relati vamente distintos, hay sin embargo un traslape consi dera ble en estos objetivos y por el lo, los programas de ISA con frecuencia tienden a trat ar de hace; lo to~o. La puesta ~n marcha y el disello de un programa ISA exitoso requoere que los obJetivos sean claros. Con relación a los objetivos del di sello de tecnología o val idaclón de tecnologTa estos se a lcanzan mejor como parte de un pro9rama de investigación, el cua l , en la mayo ría de los casos, será un programa de investigación de un cult ivo."},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"Aún dad~ esta diferenciación , la d iscusión ~ los ensayos de yuca a nivel de fonca adelantados por el tiAT ha demos trado también que el dls ello de la metodologTa dependerá igualmente de la etapa particular de desar~ollo de l programa de Investigación (es decir , si el enfoque es e~encoalmente hacia las funciones de lnvestlgaclón•o si es hacia la funcoón de val ldaclón) y las caracte r Tsticas particula res del cultivo o sistemas de cultivo. Los ensayos de yuca a nivel de finca se Iniciaron en ~n programa de investigación que tenía seis a~os de edad y en un cultovo que tenía un historial de Investi gación relativamente corto. Como los aumentos en rendimiento se buscaban por medio del desar rollo varleta l con aumentos mínimos en lnsumos de apoyo , l os primeros asuntos enfren tados Inc l uyeron e l 1 lgamlento de los ensayos a nivel de finca con el sistema de prueba varletal y el desarrollo de un sistema apro-piado para medir los rendimiento que reflejara los factores llmltantes en el sistema de producción de yuca."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"Lo que este proceso permitió aclarar rápidamente fue que era Imposible en una reglón particular e,peclflcar un estimativo puntual Incondicional del rendimiento para una variedad determinada asociado con el paquete de mínimos insumas. Exist ía una distribución muy marcada del rendimiento y para entender lo que si gnificaba dicha distribución (y, por consiguiente, lo que serían los rendimientos promedios), se requerfa o que se estableciera un gran número de ensayos montados al azar en fincas o que los factores causantes de la variación del rendimiento se pudieran identificar y relacionar con datos secundarios más facilmente disponibles. En contraposición con los ensayos agronómicos más tradicionales, la metodología es taba orientada hacia el entendimiento de las variaciones considerables en los estimativos de rendimiento. Una conclusión básica, y parcialmente obvia, que surgió de estos ensayos iniciales fue que la variación del rendimiento y de la cal ldad era mucho mayor entre fincas que entre tratamientos ."},{"index":4,"size":252,"text":"Esta distribución del rendimiento era causada por variación en los factores 1 lmitantes del rendimiento tando edáflcos como bióticos y por factores limitantes del sistema agrícola y mercadeo en el manejo del cultivo de la yuca (Cuadro 4) . Los agricultores no alcanzaban un rendimiento óptimo ni desde le punto de vista físico, ni siquiera desd& &1 punto d& vi sta presupu&s tal, debido a llmltacion&s de mayor nivel en factores tales como la época de siembra, la época de cosecha, el período de enrastrojamlento y el control de malezas (por ejemplo, en los casos en que entraba en confl Jeto con la cosecha de café en Mondomo). Adema$, son dichos factores de manejo encontrapos ici6n con el uso de Insumas comprados , los que determinan principalmente e l rendimiento. la produccl6n de yuca se presta para el uso mínimo de Insumas comprados. El control de enfermedades e Insectos es, en general, o pohibitivamente costoso o Inefectivo debido al cicl o largo del cultivo de la yuca. La apllcaci6n de fertilizantes debe competir con una rota-c16n de rastrojo. Además, debido a su sistema radical Ineficiente (aminorado por la Infestación de micorrlzas) la aplicacl6n de fertilizante tiende a ser grande con e l fin de generar una respuesta en rendimiendo. Los agricultores pueden enfrentar factores limitat ivos de capital y/o tener alternativas que den un mejor retorno a la apl lcación de fertilizantes, Sin embargo, una estrategia de manejo de la fertilidad del suelo será crítica para la efectividad de las variedades mejoradas."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"La rentabilidad y, por consiguiente, la adopción potencial de las variedades mejoradas dependerá críticamente del tipo de mercado final disponible, puesto que el tipo de mercado determinará sl los requerimientos de calidad son estrictos. Los resultados de los ensayos a nivel de finca indican que será difícil (y costoso) producir variedades de alto rendimiento que tengan las características de calidad necesa r ias para competir con las variedades tradicionales en los mercados frescos del sector urbano. La s condiciones de estrés en las cuales generalmente se cultiva yuca afectan adversamente las características de CAlidad tales como los contenidos de almidón y HCH, como también afectan el rendimiento."}]},{"head":"618","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"Las variedades mejoradas tenderán a ser adoptadas más ráp idamente en aquellas áreas en donde exista una capacidad de procesamiento de la yuca; es decir, en donde las caracterfstlcas de calidad no son tan rfgldas. En la mayorfa de los casos en Am&rlca Latina, excepto en Brasil, se requer i rá para ello el desarrollo de mercad~ alternativos. Entonces, la evaluación de la adopción potencial de las variedades mejoradas y la evaluación del desarrollo potencial de mercados alternativos se convierten en problemas relacionados. Los precios utll Izados en el anál isls tendrán que provenir de anál lsls de demanda; la vlabll ldad económica de la yuca en los mercados alternativos provendrá de los resu ltados de los ensayos a nivel de finca. Entonces, los ensayos a nivel de finca evolucionarán eventualmente como una herramienta para la evaluación ex ante de proyectos Integrados de producción de yuca y desarrollo de mercados. tos ensayos tambiEn tendrán que 1 lgar los requerimientos de los nuevos marcados con un anál lsls de los cambios nece• sarios en los sistemas de producción . Los ensayos de yuca a nivel de finca proporcionan asf el eslabón clave entre el sistema de pruebas varletales y la expansión planeada de la producción y utll lzaclón de yuca. 6l9 Evaluación de tecnología en nueva zona edafocllmática, ej. Cuenca del Amazonas."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Identi ficación de Limitaciones de una localidad a otra. Dlsefto general de evaluaciónde un solo factor \\lmitante; tratamientos especlficos con base en las características del sistema de producción de la región."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Evaluación de la estabilidad de nuevas variedades dentro del sistema; evaluación comparativa de sistemas de producción."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Validación de una localidad a otra Disefto factorial completo o incompleto con tratamientos constantes Evaluación de variedades por amplia adaptabilidad; prueba •de un paquete de mfnimos insumos. Dos selecciones y una variedad local con paquetes de mínimos insumas y paquetes de mínimos insumas más fert íl i zantes."}]},{"head":"Componentes del","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Una variedad local y tres hÍbridos con seis épocas de cosecha Resultados 1. Jmportanc ia de las caracterfsticas de calidad en la adopción (contenido de almidón). 2. Retorno en rendimiento a l paquete mínimos insumas. 3 . lmpráctica la evaluación de la adopción; es necesario redíse~ar Jos ensayos. 1. Rendimiento y diferencia en respuesta a fertilizantes con base en el tipo de suelo. 2. El concepto de amplia adaptabl-1 idad no se aplicó a Hedía Luna."}]},{"head":"Contenido de almidón influenciado","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"por factores ambientales como el tipo de suelo. 4. Respuesta en rendimiento al paquete de mínimos insumas pero el fertilizante no fue rentable. 1. Alta dependencia del rendimiento y la calidad de la época de cosecha. 2. La clasificación de las variedades cambia en func ión de la época de cosecha. 3 . La selección va rietal 1 igada en forma más eficiente al ensayo regional 1980-81 Eva 1 uac Ión var ieta 1 en función de diferentes épocas de siembra y cosecha."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"variedad local e híbrida evaluadas en tres sistemas de manejo con dos fecha s de siembra cada una con dos fechas de cosecha ."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"1. Variedad híbrida más rentable que la variedad local, aún con descuentos en precios."}]},{"head":"1981-82","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Evaluar respuesta en rendimiento y a fertilizante en función de un sistema de anrastro;amiento y tipo de suelo 2. Interacción sustancial entre la respuesta a fertilizantes y el control de malezas."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"). La época de siembra y de cosecha Influye en alto grado en el rendimiento ."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"4. El híbrido responde mejor al fertilizante con buen manejo."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Variedad local e híbridas evaluadas Falta su cosecha. en seis tratamientos con fertilizantes con tres s istemas de enrastrojamiento y dos tipos de suelo.  ..      .. e: .. lfPara la siembra de marzo , parcela 2; para la siembra de sept. pa rcela 4."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"!/Para la siembra de marzo. parcela 1; para la siembra de sept. parcela) . --===ton/ ha -----------=---~------------      "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Precio estacional de la producción USos competitivos de la tierra Acceso al mercado Asignación de recursos a otros Precio estacional de la produccultlvos ción Hanejo de la fertilidad Descuentos en el prec4o de la producción Acceso al mercado !( Debido al largo ciclo de cultivo es dudoso que los fungicidas, pesticidas, etc. contituyan una opción. a .,. ' -~_..,.--~ --Cuadro S. Hedi a Luna: Evaluación de los Objetivos y el Oise~o de Jos Ensayos de Yuca a Nivel de Finca Aoo Objetivos 1977-78 Evaluar adopción real de variedades nuevas más tecnológía de mínimos insumas. 1978-79 Validar var !edades de ampl la adaptación y prácticas culturales recomendadas. 1979-80 Seleccionar híbridos y evaluar rendimiento y cal ídad en función de la época de cosecha Cuadro 5. (Continuación) M o Características del dise~o Dos selecciones y una variedad local con tres tratamientos; cada tratamiento evaluado en distinta finca. "},{"text":" .................. . . . . . ~¡;slfii!IW~-r V , . a .: s &QJQI$~~ ...... • Media Luna: Productividad y contenido de almidón de variedades locales y del CIAT con prácticas agronómicas mejoradas lf y prácticas agronómicas mejoradas más ferti 1 izan te. "},{"text":"u •---•-.... •-\"'O o~ ..,\"'' fl • ~' c: e: '-~ u o~.-x.\\.1.. •-\"'Q o ... \"''1\"111 '~' c: '-u u ::Jt-X:U.. Cuadro 9 . Media Luna: Características varletales en función de •• diferentes épocas de cosecha, 1979-80 . "},{"text":" '-\"~ r-:--'-D._D,.;._~N 111 \" "},{"text":"' •~~~;t;, Cuadro 16. Efecto de la Epoca de Siembra y fpoea de Cose<:lwo en el Rendi10 iento y Rentabilidad de la Yuca!/ e c aR:~bio -en : "},{"text":" : tnfo~ión y retorno para el red isello de la tecnología;. "},{"text":" ... L. ... , .. .. . . \"' .. '-.C: N .D U•-~ ~~= .. .. . . o ... u ... .., .. .. u .. ..... ~ . . ...,.., ... .. -.. ~~..., ... .. ~., •~•; i .., Q. Q. • -Ci' 21' 0 & e:~ u o u:lu..~~ .. .. .. .. .. <ca u a u.~ .. "},{"text":" l. Tipos de Variables Util izad~s en la Estratificación del Area Objetivo de Sistemas de Producción de Yuca. Cuadro 3. Diferenciación del Diseno de los Ensayos a Nivel de Finca con Base en el Objectivo de Investigación          l l  t . aracteríst leas     Variables  t . aracteríst leasVariables  caracterfsti c~s Edafoclimáti~as       caracterfsti c~s Edafoclimáti~as  t#racterfsticas del Sistema de Producción      t#racterfsticas del Sistema de Producción  Tam.llo de Finca Enfoque de Investigación T~al\\o Promedio de Finca % de agricultores con menos de 10 ha. Características del Disefto del Ensayo Ejemplo  Tam.llo de Finca Enfoque de InvestigaciónT~al\\o Promedio de Finca % de agricultores con menos de 10 ha. Características del Disefto del Ensayo Ejemplo  Propietarios de fincas como% de todos los agricul-tores Area de yuca por finca Area de yuca como% del área cultivada Honocultivo de yuca omo% del área total de yuca Los tratamientos siguen las caracterís-Car~cterlstlcas del cultivo de yuca Enfoque por localidad o sitio: Tenencia de fincas Evaluación de 1 imitación especTficas locales o validación dentro de una localidad ticas del sistema de producción de la reglón. Propietarios de fincas como% de todos los agricul-tores Area de yuca por finca Area de yuca como% del ��rea cultivada Honocultivo de yuca omo% del área total de yuca Los tratamientos siguen las caracterís-Car~cterlstlcas del cultivo de yuca Enfoque por localidad o sitio: Tenencia de fincas Evaluación de 1 imitación especTficas locales o validación dentro de una localidad ticas del sistema de producción de la reglón. <7'> .... o Kano de obra Fuente de potenc ia  Población económicamente activa por finca Población económicamente activa por área cultivada Población de tractores por fincá Población de tractores por área cultivada <7'> .... oKano de obra Fuente de potenc iaPoblación económicamente activa por finca Población económicamente activa por área cultivada Población de tractores por fincá Población de tractores por área cultivada  características del sistema de mer cado       características del sistema de mer cado  Precio   Precio de yuca Precio de yuca en comparación con cu ltivo c~peti PrecioPrecio de yuca Precio de yuca en comparación con cu ltivo c~peti     tivo      tivo  C0111erc la 1 izac ión  % de producción comercial izada   C0111erc la 1 izac ión% de producción comercial izada  Procesamiento  % de producción procesada   Procesamiento% de producción procesada  Costo de mercadeo  Distancia al mercado principal   Costo de mercadeoDistancia al mercado principal  Dinámica del mercado        Dinámica del mercado  Loca 1 idad Altitud Precipita-Caracterfsticas del suelo Tamal\\ o Cultivo Mercado Loca 1 idadAltitud Precipita-Caracterfsticas del sueloTamal\\ oCultivo Mercado    ción Bray ll-P      ciónBray ll-P   (msnm) (1'1!1) (ppm) (meq/ 100 g) plt de finca competitivo  (msnm)(1'1!1)(ppm)(meq/ 100 g) pltde finca competitivo        (ha)   (ha)  Costa Norte         Costa Norte  Media Luna 10 1400 ).9 0.08 6.0 5.8 Ajonjol f Urbano Media Luna101400).90.086.05.8Ajonjol f Urbano          fresco y fresco y          almidón almidón          en gran en gran          escala escala  ~         ~ u-.... Hondomo 1450 2402 1.6 0.12 4.3 15. 1 Café Almidón en peque/la u-....Hondomo145024021.60.124.315. 1CaféAlmidón en peque/la          escala escala  Santander         Santander  Palmas del Socorro 1225 2560 2.5 0.20 4.0 5.9 talla Subs 1 sten- Palmas del Socorro 122525602.50.204.05.9tallaSubs 1 sten-          el a el a  Llanos Orientales         Llanos Orientales  San Kartln . 350 2500 J. 1 0.10 4.6 60.0 Café Urbano . San Kartln .3502500J. 10.104.660.0CaféUrbano .          fresco fresco  "},{"text":")Ciu•do como t r•tifñtlrit ó 1/ • tra t~miento de ~~ to maneJO IHagrarna de Flujo para la Evaluación de Nueva Tecnología de Ensayos a Nivel de Fi nca. Secundi na         Secundi na Sin fertil izar Fert i l lzada CHC 342-170 12 . 4 11.1 16.5 14.1o JJ JO 50 65 9. 4 10 . 4 11.6 14.) 27 ~ 42 ~ Sin fertil izar Fert i l lzada CHC 342-17012 . 4 11.116.5 14.1oJJ JO50 659. 4 10 . 411.6 14.)27 ~42 ~ S in ferti l lur Fertll iud• llondoroo: 17 . 2 2).5 21.4 29 .8 24 27 32 )6 16.9 19.8 20.4 20.4 21 J 27 4 S in ferti l lur Fertll iud• llondoroo:17 . 2 2).521.4 29 .824 2732 )616.9 19.820.4 20.421 J27 4 Algodona         Algodona Sin fertilizar Fertilizada S.rranquella 11.4 22.) 9•5 2 .4 -17 -89 -27 16.9 19.5 26.9 J0 .8 59 58 80 90 Sin fertilizar Fertilizada S.rranquella11.4 22.)9•5 2 .4-17 -89-2716.9 19.526.9 J0 .859 5880 90 Sin fer tillzn Fertilluda CHC 92 S In fert i 1 izar fert 1 llzacla Estratif icación de agricultores : 15 . 4 17.7 • 9•1 18.) Socorro: Chi le selección de agricultores 9 .2 20.7 ).6 ).6 -40 17 -60 -80 -56 28 -70 5.2 12 .5 agricultores 9.1 IJ. S al azar 12.1 14 .5 )0.9 )6.2 75 8 155 ISO 41o4 18 242 288 Sin fer tillzn Fertilluda CHC 92 S In fert i 1 izar fert 1 llzacla Estratif icación de agricultores : 15 . 4 17.7 • 9•1 18.) Socorro: Chi le selección de agricultores9 .2 20.7 ).6 ).6-40 17 -60 -80-56 28 -705.2 12 .5 agricultores 9.1 IJ. S al azar 12.1 14 .5 )0.9 )6.275 8 155 ISO41o4 18 242 288 S In ferti llur Fertilizada CHC 92 Sin fert i 1 izar Fert i 1 izada HIIC 2 Sin fe rti lizar Fertilizada Ll•nos Chirosa 1 ~ Co 1 ección de da tos 1 12.9 1).4 10.6 13.4 4. 6 14.7 sobre el maneJo de l las fincas 21.5 26.) 16.2 22 . ) 17.5 15.7 Dí sel'o de ensayos a 67 96 53 66 280 7 nivel de finca .l An.lil isis de ensayos a nivel de finca )8 105 39 69 68 1' 21.5 2).) 2/ '1:1 2/ 2/ 1 co l ección de datos 1 16 .9 18.5 2/ I/ 21 y 1 l sobre el manejo d~ las fincas -21 21 Tecnología de la -28 -29 estación de in-ves t igac ión T S In ferti llur Fertilizada CHC 92 Sin fert i 1 izar Fert i 1 izada HIIC 2 Sin fe rti lizar Fertilizada Ll•nos Chirosa 1 ~ Co 1 ección de da tos 1 12.9 1).4 10.6 13.4 4. 6 14.7 sobre el maneJo de l las fincas21.5 26.) 16.2 22 . ) 17.5 15.7 Dí sel'o de ensayos a 67 96 53 66 280 7 nivel de finca .l An.lil isis de ensayos a nivel de finca)8 105 39 69 68 1'21.5 2).) 2/ '1:1 2/ 2/ 1 co l ección de datos 1 16 .9 18.5 2/ I/ 21 y 1 l sobre el manejo d~ las fincas-21 21 Tecnología de la -28 -29 estación de in-ves t igac ión T Sin fertili~ar Fertl l Izada Cupe Sin ferti l izar Fert 11 izada 11. 2 13 .lo 5.8 7.9 18 .0 14.9 7.1 10.) Ensayo en parcelas 61 11 l 22 30 grandes manejadas por el agricu 1 tor 86 18 so 80 N.l. N.l . N .l. N.l . N.l. N.l. N.l. N.l.   Sin fertili~ar Fertl l Izada Cupe Sin ferti l izar Fert 11 izada11. 2 13 .lo 5.8 7.918 .0 14.9 7.1 10.) Ensayo en parcelas 61 11 l 22 30 grandes manejadas por el agricu 1 tor86 18 so 80N.l. N.l . N .l. N.l .N.l. N.l. N.l. N.l. Figura ) .         Figura ) .  Figura 1. Pr oceso de Desarrollo de Tecno log ía de Yuca   Figura 1. Pr oceso de Desarrollo de Tecno log ía de Yuca   La Impor t a nc ia del Efecto de la Localidad A..nenta    La Impor t a nc ia del Efecto de la Localidad A..nenta   .....       .....  CIAT    Ensayos  Ensayos a CIATEnsayosEnsayos a      regi ona les  nivel de regi ona lesnivel de        finca finca Desarro llo Cruzamiento S eleccIón y  Evaluació n del Eva luación del Desarro lloCruzamientoS eleccIón yEvaluació n delEva luación del varietal y s elecci ón evaluación   rendi.,.iento  rendimient o y varietaly s elecci ónevaluaciónrendi.,.ientorendimient o y        ca l idad ca l idad        ~ Eva 1 u ación de ~ Eva 1 u ación de        l o s efectos l o s efectos        de interacción de interacción Practicas IJives ti gac ión Experimentación  Evaluación de 1' Evaluació n de PracticasIJives ti gac iónExperimentaciónEvaluación de1' Evaluació n de Cultura les bá s i ca y me- para def ini r prác-  un juego cons- componentes tec - Cultura lesbá s i ca y me-para def ini r prác-un juego cons-componentes tec -  todo logía ticas Óptimas  tante de prác- no l 6gicos dentro todo logíaticas Óptimastante de prác-no l 6gicos dentro  11 11       1111  "}],"sieverID":"92c19925-fb5b-418d-b983-b905acc165f4","abstract":""}

data/part_2/05b4a512a221ecccbc6686066c750980.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05b4a512a221ecccbc6686066c750980","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2587388a-64b5-43e8-9b02-63f80bf2d1dd/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"First generation diagnostic assay to differentiate viral and bacterial infections in pigs","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Project Title: P609 -Activity 2.3.1: Developing improved diagnostics and diagnostic platforms Description of the innovation: Indiscriminate use of antibiotics to treat infections that are of viral origin may contribute to antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. A number of host gene transcriptional studies have been conducted to identify genes that are differently expressed during bacterial and viral infections in humans. This research evaluated the potential of a selection of genes that have been considered biomarkers in humans, to differentially diagnose bacterial from viral infections in pigs. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: Yes","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Biophysical Research Stage of innovation: Stage 1: discovery/proof of concept (PC -end of research phase) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: Development of a 3-transcript host expression assay to differentiate between viral and bacterial infections in pigs. Ready for next steps in optimizing the assay. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: <Not Defined> Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • SLU -Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute Milestones: No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: • 10 -Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • SLU -Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute Evidence link: • https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/115151 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:38 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"c52f482e-9c67-4261-a2cf-6541c9c127f7","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06a952e06e54caafe67a9a6d73c0d737","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bdc2106f-c376-4f02-bbe3-0a615b5016f6/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Report of Independent Auditors","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"To the Board of Trustees WorldFish Center (also known as ICLARM)"},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"We have audited the accompanying statement of financial position of WorldFish Center as at December 31, 2003 and the related statement of activities and statement of cash flows and the notes thereto for the year then ended, as set out from pages 1 to 9, which we have stamped for purposes of identification. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Center's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"We conducted our audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing as issued by the International Federation of Accountants. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by the management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the financial statements. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"As explained in Note 2, the Center's financial statements are prepared on the basis of accounting policies and reporting practices prescribed for international agricultural research centers seeking assistance from the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (\"CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices\")."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"In our opinion, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of WorldFish Center as at December 31, 2003 and its activities and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with the CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices."},{"index":6,"size":114,"text":"Our audit was made for the purpose of forming an opinion on the financial statements taken as a whole. The supplementary schedules as shown on Exhibit I to 111 for the year ended December 31, 2003, as set out from pages 10 to 16, which we have stamped for purposes of identification, are presented for purposes of additional analysis and are not a required part of the financial statements. The information on Exhibit I to Ill has been subjected to the auditing procedures applied in the audit of the financial statements and, in our opinion, is fairly stated in all material respects when considered in relation to the financial statements taken as a whole."}]},{"head":"WORLDFISH CENTER","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"(also known as ICLARM) (An International Nonprofit Organization) On April 22,1993, an international agreement was signed by a number of countries, recognizing the Center as an international organization. The Center's focus is to promote sustainable development and use of living aquatic resources based on environmentally sound management. The Center has research sites/offices in eleven countries including the headquarters in Penang, Malaysia."}]},{"head":"A. Headauarters Agreement with the Malavsian Government and Relocation to Malavsia","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":237,"text":"On January 17, 2000, the Center signed a Headquarters Agreement with the Malaysian Government for establishing WorldFish Center (also known as ICLARM) headquarters in Batu Maung, Penang, Malaysia. The headquarters agreement granted the Center immunities and privileges that are normally granted to diplomatic and international organizations operating in Malaysia to facilitate the Center's global activities. A Headquarters Lease Agreement was also signed as a supplement to the headquarters agreement, making available to the Center a research site of 5.4 hectare at nominal annual rent for a period of 30 years with an option for renewal for another 30 years and thereafter by agreement of both parties. In the event of termination or expiration of the agreement, the land and facilities (fixed assets and fixtures) shall revert to the Malaysian Government. The Center and the Government of the Arab Republic of Egypt entered into an agreement on March 31, 1997 to establish a regional center in the Arab Republic of Egypt. The agreement was ratified by the Arab Republic of Egypt on December 8, 1997. As provided for in the agreement, the Egyptian government shall make available to the Center the utilization of the facilities and equipment currently operated by the Central Laboratory for Aquaculture Research at Abbassa, Abou Hammad-Sharkia Governorate, and at other research sites to be agreed upon within the Arab Republic of Egypt for the benefit of the international community and the people of Egypt."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The agreement shall remain in force for 25 years, and shall be renewed by mutual consent of the parties for an additional period of 25 years. In the event of termination or expiration of the agreement or its extensions, land and facilities thereupon as upgraded shall revert to the Arab Republic of Egypt."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"The properties in the regional center include among others, the tract of land of approximately 1,480 feddans (6,216,000 square meters), administration and laboratory buildings, 12 villas, two residential buildings, workshops and stores, as well as the different types of research ponds."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Note 2 -Basis of financial statements presentation and significant accountinn policies"},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"The accompanying financial statements, expressed in US dollar, are prepared on the basis of accounting policies and reporting practices prescribed for international agricultural research centers seeking assistance from the CGIAR."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"The Center's sianificant accounting Dolicies are summarized below:"},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"Cash and cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to known amount of cash with original maturities of three months or less from the date of acquisition."},{"index":8,"size":54,"text":"lnventories represent materials and supplies not directly expended at the time of their purchase. lnventories are stated at lower of cost and net realizable value, net of allowances for slow-moving and obsolescence. Cost is determined on the moving average basis. Cost includes the purchase price of the item plus freight costs and handling charges."},{"index":9,"size":65,"text":"Property and equipment are stated at historical cost less accumulated depreciation. Tangible assets with an estimated useful life beyond one year and having costs in excess of US$ 500 or its equivalent are capitalized. Depreciation of assets owned by the Center is provided from the month of capitalization and is computed on the straight-line method over estimated useful lives of the related assets as follows:"},{"index":10,"size":2,"text":"Category description"}]},{"head":"Physical facilities","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Infrastructure and leasehold"}]},{"head":"Furnishing and equipment","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Estimated useful life in years","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Buildings and improvements 50"}]},{"head":"Site improvements 25","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Office equipment 5 Office furniture 5 Computers and software"}]},{"head":"3","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Property and equipment acquired through restricted grants are assets in custody and remain the property of the respective donors until the expiration of the agreementlcontract and as such are not reflected as part of the Center's property and equipment. Such assets are monitored by the Center until such time that the donor in consultation with the Center decides on the disposition of the property and equipment."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"In compliance with the CGIAR accounting manual, the Center implements a no asset, no depreciation policy. Only property and equipment, which were acquired during the year (with the title passing to the Center) or transferred to the Center via donations with the cost or fair market value exceeding US$ 500, were capitalised and subject to depreciation. The Center's immovable assets (including buildings and site development) which will revert to the host country as per the host country agreement are not capitalized and not depreciated. In the termination or expiration of the agreement, all immovable assets will revert to the host count The cost of normal repairs and maintenance of existing property and equipment are treated as current operating expenses. Expenditures incurred for repair of an existing property and equipment which increase the estimated useful life or enhance the operating efficiency of the assets (owned by the Center) are capitalized."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Upon the disposal of an item of property and equipment, any gain or loss on disposal is charged as other gains or losses."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Revenue recognition: Grants are recognized as revenue upon the fulfillment of the donor-imposed conditions attached to them unless the donor has explicitly waived the conditions. Grants are classified according to the type of donor-imposed restrictions. Restricted grants revenue are recognised to the extent of expenses actually incurred. Excess of grants received over project related expenses or received for funding of future periods are recorded as Accounts Payable -Donors in the statement of financial position. Claims from donors for project expenses paid in advance are recorded as Accounts Receivable -Donors in the statement of financial position."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Otherrevenues are recognised in the period in which these are earned."},{"index":6,"size":68,"text":"Foreign currencies : Foreign currency-denominated transactions are converted into US dollars for reporting purposes at exchange rates prevailing at the dates of the transactions. All exchange rate differences resulting from (a) the collection of foreign currency-denominated receivables and (b) the settlement of foreign currency-denominated obligations at rates which are different from which they were originally booked are credited or charged to general operations in the Statement of Activitites."},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"Outstanding assets and liabilities denominated in currencies other than US dollar at year-end or reporting date are translated into US dollar at exchange rate prevailing on the date of the statement of financial position. Any gains or losses resulting from the restatement of accounts are credited or charged to general operations in the Statement of Activitites."},{"index":8,"size":70,"text":"Staff repatriation costs provisions have been made for repatriation costs, relocation costs and home leave travel allowances for internationally recruited staff. lndirect costs represent management functions with no direct link to the project activities and common sustenance services, which support the performance of the Center's activities on an institutional basis. The indirect cost recovery represents the overhead recovered from restricted projects based on the rates stated in the donor agreements."},{"index":9,"size":42,"text":"Net assets are classified based on the existence or absence of donor imposed restrictions. Changes in net assets arising from exchange transactions are included in the unrestricted class except income and gains on assets that are restricted by donor or by law."},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"Restricted net assets are subject to donor-imposed restrictions and their use may only be permitted upon fulfillment of certain conditions or passage of time."},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":"Unrestricted net assets are those net assets whose use is not restricted by any donor-imposed restrictions even though their use may be limited in other respects, such as by Board of Trustees designation. Unrestricted net assets may be further classified as follows:"},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"1. Unappropriateduse of assets is not designated by Board of Trustees for special purposes."},{"index":13,"size":78,"text":"2. Appropriateduse of assets has been designated by Board of Trustees for specific purposes such as reserve for acquisition and replacement of property and equipment. Cash on hand and short-term investments 8,510 9,178 8 3 1 0 9,178 Short-term investments were held in fixed-term deposits with reputable and highly rated banks. Provision for doubtful debts amounting to US$ 870 thousand was made during the year in respect of the amount due from European Union on the FishBase's project. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Note 3 - Cash and cash equivalentsCash and cash equivalents at December 31 consisted of : "},{"text":"Total expenses and losses 7,652 8,007 15,659 12,284 CHANGE IN NET ASSETS NET ASSETS  STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION   STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION STATEMENT OF ACTIVITIES (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000)    STATEMENT OF ACTIVITIES (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000)      ~ ~   For the Years Ended December 31  For the Years Ended December 31    Permanently   Permanently  Note Unrestricted Restricted 2003 2002 NoteUnrestricted Restricted20032002 REVENUES, GAINS AND OTHER SUPPORT      REVENUES, GAINS AND OTHER SUPPORT Grants Other revenues Exh. I 6,625 1,365 8,007 - 14,632 1,365 12,492 110 Grants Other revenuesExh. I6,625 1,3658,007 -14,632 1,36512,492 110 Total revenues, gains and other support 7,990 8,007 15,997 12,602 Total revenues, gains and other support7,9908,00715,99712,602 EXPENSESANDLOSSES Exh. I1     EXPENSESANDLOSSESExh. I1 Program related expenses  4,495 8,007 12,502 10,646 Program related expenses4,4958,00712,50210,646 Management and general expenses General operations  3,010 92 1 -- 3,010 92 1 2,263 123 Management and general expenses General operations3,010 92 1--3,010 92 12,263 123 Total expenses  8,426 8,007 16,433 13,032 Total expenses8,4268,00716,43313,032 Recovery of indirect costs  (774) - (774) (748) Recovery of indirect costs(774)-(774)(748)   338 - 338 31 8 338-33831 8 Beginning of the year Appropriated for acquisition of equipment  0,990 232 -- 0,990 232 7,988 692 Beginning of the year Appropriated for acquisition of equipment0,990 232--0,990 2327,988 692 End of the year  9,568  9,568 3,590 8,998 End of the year9,5689,5683,590 8,998 Employees  10 79  79 Employees107979 MEMO ITEM Operating expenses -By nature of classification     896 858 MEMO ITEM Operating expenses -By nature of classification896 858 Accruals and provisions Personnel costs  13 2 , 388  2,715 Accruals and provisions Personnel costs132 , 3882,715 Supplies and services      Supplies and services Total current liabilities Travel costs Depreciation   8,377  8,138 Total current liabilities Travel costs Depreciation8,3778,138 LONG TERM LIABILITIES Accounts payable -Employees  14 359  50 1 LONG TERM LIABILITIES Accounts payable -Employees1435950 1 TOTAL LIABILITIES   8,736  8,639 TOTAL LIABILITIES8,7368,639 UNRESTRICTED NET ASSETS      UNRESTRICTED NET ASSETS Appropriated  15 2,670  1,994 Appropriated152,6701,994 Unappropriated   6,898  7,004 Unappropriated6,8987,004 TOTAL NET ASSETS   9,568  8,998 TOTAL NET ASSETS9,5688,998      17.637 17.637  "},{"text":"3,565 2,296 5,861 5,253 3,224 5,055 8,279 5,880 676 656 1,332 1,009 187 - 187 142 7,652 8,007 15,659 12,284  WORLDFISH CENTER WORLDFISH CENTER (also known as ICLARM) (also known as ICLARM) (An International Nonprofit Organization) (An International Nonprofit Organization) (Please see accompanying notes to financial statements) (Please see accompanying notes to financial statements)  "},{"text":"STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS (US Dollar '000)  I  I For the Years Ended For the Years Ended December 31 December 31 2003 2002 20032002 CASH FLOWS FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES  CASH FLOWS FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES Change in net assets for the year  Change in net assets for the year Adjustments to reconcile change in net assets for the year to net  Adjustments to reconcile change in net assets for the year to net cash (used in) / provided by operating activities:  cash (used in) / provided by operating activities: Depreciation  Depreciation Provision for doubtful debts  Provision for doubtful debts Gain on disposal of property and equipment  Gain on disposal of property and equipment Property and equipment written off  Property and equipment written off Changes in:  Changes in: Accounts receivable  Accounts receivable Supplies inventory  Supplies inventory Other current assets  Other current assets Accounts payable  Accounts payable Funds in trust  Funds in trust Accruals and provisions  Accruals and provisions Net cash (used in) / provided by operating activities  Net cash (used in) / provided by operating activities CASH FLOWS FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES  CASH FLOWS FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES Acquisition of property and equipment  Acquisition of property and equipment Sales proceeds from disposal of property and equipment  Sales proceeds from disposal of property and equipment Net cash used in investing activities  Net cash used in investing activities  "},{"text":"NET (DECREASE) / INCREASE IN CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS Beginning of the year 570 1,010 (447) 1,578 (221) (161) (668) 1,417 9, 178 7,761 Note 1 -General I Host Country Aareements WorldFish Center (The Center) was established in 1976 by the Rockefeller Foundation and formally incorporated under the laws of the Republic of the Philippines on January 20, 1977 as a nonstock, philantrophic and nonprofit corporation. In 1992, the Center joined the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) to become one of the sixteen research centers supported by the CGIAR. CGIAR is an informal but highly successful association consisting of 63 governments, development institutions and private sector organizations supporting the 15 international agricultural research centers. WORLDFISH CENTER   WORLDFISH CENTER (also known as ICLARM)   (also known as ICLARM) (An International Nonprofit Organization)   (An International Nonprofit Organization) NOTES TO FINANCIAL STATEMENTS   NOTES TO FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31,2003 AND 2002   DECEMBER 31,2003 AND 2002 End of the year 8,510 9,178 End of the year8,5109,178 (Please see accompanying notes to financial statements)   (Please see accompanying notes to financial statements)  "},{"text":"Propertv and eauiprnent. net Property and equipment at December 31 were as follows: Note 7 -2003 2002 Note 7 -20032002  (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000) Furnishing and equipment 870 658 Furnishing and equipment870658 Accumulated depreciation   Accumulated depreciation Furnishing and equipment (476)  Furnishing and equipment(476) Net book value 394 356 Net book value394356 Note 8 -Other assets   Note 8 -Other assets Other assets at December 31 consisted of:   Other assets at December 31 consisted of:  2003 2002 20032002 Employee provident fund -Philippines (US Dollar '000) 79 79 Employee provident fund -Philippines(US Dollar '000) 7979  79  79 7979 Note 9 -Accounts pavable -donors   Note 9 -Accounts pavable -donors Accounts payable -donors amounting to US$4,128 thousand at December 31 I 2003 (2002: US$3,590 Accounts payable -donors amounting to US$4,128 thousand at December 31 I 2003 (2002: US$3,590 thousand) consisted of grants received for which conditions have not been met yet.  thousand) consisted of grants received for which conditions have not been met yet. Note 5 -Accounts receivable -others Note 10 -Accounts pavable -ernplovees   Note 5 -Accounts receivable -others Note 10 -Accounts pavable -ernplovees Accounts receivable -others at December 31 consisted of: Accounts payable -employees at December 31 consisted of:   Accounts receivable -others at December 31 consisted of: Accounts payable -employees at December 31 consisted of:  2003 2003 2002 2002 2003 20032002 2002  (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000) Advances to projects Employee provident fund payable to Nationally Recruited Staff-Philippines 809 79 1,055 79 Advances to projects Employee provident fund payable to Nationally Recruited Staff-Philippines809 791,055 79 Others 565 220 Others565220  79  79 7979 Note 11 -Accounts Pavable -others   Note 11 -Accounts Pavable -others There have been no doubtful or bad debts during the year. Note 6 -Other current assets Accounts payable -others at December 31 consisted of:   There have been no doubtful or bad debts during the year. Note 6 -Other current assets Accounts payable -others at December 31 consisted of:  2003 2002 20032002 Other current assets at December 31 consisted of: (US Dollar '000) Other current assets at December 31 consisted of:(US Dollar '000) Amounts payable to suppliers and other institutions 1,413 896 Amounts payable to suppliers and other institutions1,413896  2003 2002 20032002  (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000) Assets restricted to specific projects 3,522 2,863 Assets restricted to specific projects3,5222,863 Deposits 69  70 Deposits6970  3.591 2.933 3.5912.933  "},{"text":"Note 12 -Funds in trust Funds in trust pertain to funds provided by donors and managed by the Center, with an ultimate beneficiary other than the CGIAR centers.  (also known as ICLARM)   (also known as ICLARM) (An International Nonprofit Organization)  (An International Nonprofit Organization) SCHEDULE OF GRANTS REVENUE FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31,2003 Balance at beginning of the year (US Dollar '000) 2003 (US Dollar '000) 2002 858 735 SCHEDULE OF GRANTS REVENUE FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31,2003 Balance at beginning of the year (US Dollar '000)2003 (US Dollar '000) 2002 858 735 Transactions during the year Total Funds Accounts Advance (489) Grant 123 Transactions during the yearTotal Funds Accounts Advance(489)Grant123 Balance at end of the year DONORS Unrestricted 369 Available Receivable Payment Current Year Prior Year 858 Balance at end of the year DONORS Unrestricted369 Available Receivable Payment Current Year Prior Year 858 Belgium Note 13 -Accruals and provisions Australia 106 537   295 106 242 21 Belgium Note 13 -Accruals and provisions Australia106 537295106 24221 This account consisted of liabilities to suppliers and staff amounting to US$2,388 thousand Germany 292 292 Note 14 -Accounts pavable -emplovees European Commission 3 1,000 1,003 Egypt (300) 600 300 (2002:US$2,715 thousand). Canada China Denmark 443 437 10 437 -10 -443 21 This account consisted of liabilities to suppliers and staff amounting to US$2,388 thousand Germany 292 292 Note 14 -Accounts pavable -emplovees European Commission 3 1,000 1,003 Egypt (300) 600 300 (2002:US$2,715 thousand). Canada China Denmark 443 437 10 437 -10 -443 21 India Accounts payable -employees at December 31 consisted of: Japan 229 38  38 229 India Accounts payable -employees at December 31 consisted of: Japan 2293838 229 Netherlands Norway Philippines Repatriation costs Sweden Thailand USAID 1,572 51 3 9 495 3 (16)  12 32 673 585 -183 2003 (US Dollar '000) 987 51 3 2002 21 359 31 2 50 1 16 676 Netherlands Norway Philippines Repatriation costs Sweden Thailand USAID1,572 51 3 9 495 3 (16)12 32 673585 -1832003 (US Dollar '000) 987 51 3 2002 21 359 31 2 50 1 16 676 World Bank 1,000    1,000 1,055 World Bank1,0001,0001,055 Permanentlv Restricted Note 15 -Unrestricted net assets Sub-Total 5,323 2,365 1,063 6,625 6,046 Permanentlv Restricted Note 15 -Unrestricted net assets Sub-Total5,3232,3651,0636,6256,046 The Center's Board of Trustees appropriated from unrestricted net assets an amount of US$ 2,670 ACIAR 345 1 160 186 The Center's Board of Trustees appropriated from unrestricted net assets an amount of US$ 2,670 ACIAR 345 1 160 186 thousand in 2003 (2002 : US$ 1,994 thousand) for future capital investments and acquisitions. ADB AIMS 782 42 259 247 39 794 3 - thousand in 2003 (2002 : US$ 1,994 thousand) for future capital investments and acquisitions. ADB AIMS 782 42 259 247 39 794 3- Note 16 -Comparative figures APAARI AUSAID - (5)  5  Note 16 -Comparative figures APAARI AUSAID-(5)5 Certain comparative figures have been reclassified to conform with the current year's presentation. BMUGTZ BRAC CAS 1,121 --1,024 97 Certain comparative figures have been reclassified to conform with the current year's presentation. BMUGTZ BRAC CAS 1,121 --1,024 97 CGIAR C IAT CGIAR-TAC 505 26 -  14 187 26 332 - 3 16 CGIAR C IAT CGIAR-TAC505 26 -14187 26332 -3 16 ClDA 53   4 49 14 ClDA5344914 CRAWFORD CTA - 1  1  2 3 CRAWFORD CTA-1123 DAN IDA 80   80 DAN IDA8080 DAVID & LUCILLE PACKARD 129  29  158 106 DAVID & LUCILLE PACKARD12929158106 DFlD 2,002  163 281 1,884 1,692 DFlD2,0021632811,8841,692 DSE EC ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE 60 (1,230) 8 1,230 59 1 8 -- DSE EC ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE60 (1,230) 81,230591 8-- FA0  14  5 7 12 FA0145712 FORD FOUNDATION FRANCE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FUND GTZ HILTON FOUNDATION Balance carried forward 101 (1 33) 24 -3,925 64 487 7 2,265 80 23 2,217 21 64 354 8 3,973 --3,079 FORD FOUNDATION FRANCE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FUND GTZ HILTON FOUNDATION Balance carried forward101 (1 33) 24 -3,92564 487 7 2,26580 23 2,21721 64 354 8 3,973--3,079  "},{"text":"(also known as ICLARM) SCHEDULE OF GRANTS REVENUE FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31,2003        EXHlBIT 111 EXHlBIT 111  WORLDFISH CENTER  WORLDFISH CENTER  (also known as ICLARM)   (also known as ICLARM)  (An International Nonprofit Organization)  (An International Nonprofit Organization)  SCHEDULE OF PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT SCHEDULE OF PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT  FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31,2003 FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31,2003   (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000)    (US Dollar '000) (US Dollar '000) I. COST DONORS Total Funds Accounts Advance Balance January 1 Additions Transfers Available Receivable Payment Current Year Prior Year Balance Grant Disposal December 31 I. COSTDONORSTotal Funds Accounts Advance Balance January 1 Additions Transfers Available Receivable Payment Current Year Prior Year Balance Grant Disposal December 31 Balance brought forward A. Physical Facilities 3,925 2,265 2,217 3,973 3,079 Balance brought forward A. Physical Facilities3,9252,2652,2173,9733,079 IDRC Construction in progress 50 11 29 59 IDRC Construction in progress50112959 IFAD IFPRI Su b-total  129 - 3 52 91 3 IFAD IFPRI Su b-total129-35291 3 IST TAIWAN JAPAN 6. Infrastructure and Leasehold 16 9  2 9 - 20 IST TAIWAN JAPAN 6. Infrastructure and Leasehold16 929-20 JAPANESE MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT 15 10  JAPANESE MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT1510 MACARTHUR FOUNDATION NFR N O M N O M D NORWAY NZODA OXFAM AMERICA PROVINCES OF NEW CALEDONIA C. Furnishina and EauiDment Office equipment Office furniture Computers and software Vehicles Su b-total 31 5 24 25 273 144 23 107 35 76 349 98 658 1 41 -24 35 154 19 -232 28 8 46 18 ----8 2 - -(20) (20) 136 210 17 133 503 59 11 97 58 77 870 MACARTHUR FOUNDATION NFR N O M N O M D NORWAY NZODA OXFAM AMERICA PROVINCES OF NEW CALEDONIA C. Furnishina and EauiDment Office equipment Office furniture Computers and software Vehicles Su b-total31 5 24 25 273 144 23 107 35 76 349 98 6581 41 -24 35 154 19 -23228 8 46 18 ----8 2 --(20) (20)136 210 17 133 503 59 11 97 58 77 870 ROCK FOUNDATION ROCKEFELLER BROTHERS FUND TOTAL COST 181 5 658 -232  167 5 -(20) 870 ROCK FOUNDATION ROCKEFELLER BROTHERS FUND TOTAL COST181 5 658-232167 5-(20)870 SlDA  426 44 141 616 SlDA42644141616 UBC UNDP UNESCO UNFIP UNIVERSITY OF KlEL II. ACCUMULATED DEPRECIATION Physical facilities Infrastructure and leasehold Furnishing and equipment 11 14 5 268 30 -(302) 6 149 --(1 87) 6 6 93 10 --- 13 6 100 352 -(476) - UBC UNDP UNESCO UNFIP UNIVERSITY OF KlEL II. ACCUMULATED DEPRECIATION Physical facilities Infrastructure and leasehold Furnishing and equipment11 14 5 268 30 -(302)6 149 --(1 87)6 6 93 10 ---136 100 352 -(476) - UNIVERSITY OF NEW CASTLE UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING USAlD TOTAL ACCUMULATED DEPRECIATION (5) 36 1,608 (302) 5 74 -(1 87) 16 46 1,636 13 22 1,250 (476) UNIVERSITY OF NEW CASTLE UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING USAlD TOTAL ACCUMULATED DEPRECIATION(5) 36 1,608 (302)5 74 -(1 87)16 461,636 1322 1,250 (476) WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY WESTERN PACIFIC COMMISSION WESTERN PACIFIC REGIONAL FISHERY WORLDBANK WPRFMC Ill. NET BOOK VALUE Physical facilities Infrastructure and leasehold Furnishing and equipment 13 591 10 356 -- 19 7 76 69 17 9 133 WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY WESTERN PACIFIC COMMISSION WESTERN PACIFIC REGIONAL FISHERY WORLDBANK WPRFMC Ill. NET BOOK VALUE Physical facilities Infrastructure and leasehold Furnishing and equipment13 591 10 356 --19 7 766917 9 133 WWF INDONESIA    3  WWF INDONESIA3 OTHERS  81 27 89 58 OTHERS81278958 TOTAL NET BOOK VALUE 356 45   (7) 394 TOTAL NET BOOK VALUE35645(7)394 SU b-Total  8,329 2,743 3,065 8,007 6,446 SU b-Total8,3292,7433,0658,0076,446 Total Grants  13,652 5,108 4,128 14,632 12,492 Total Grants13,6525,1084,12814,63212,492  "}],"sieverID":"7717e3af-bd18-4ed6-8af1-6897c8dfd9a5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06e71c28dc2ffa593ababdaa95a1add7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1719/LessonsLearned.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"• Ornamental aquaculture systems that make minimal modifications to streams and depend on natural nutrient cycles provide incentives for forest dwellers to conserve rivers and streams."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Refining green aquaculture technologies goes hand in hand with grass roots organization to hone marketing skills and advocate conservation and the fair valuation of ornamental fish."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• Reduced mortality in shipments of ornamental fish to Western markets conserves fish in their ecosystems while multiplying the economic returns to local communities."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"africa's age of aquarium: farming ornamental fish in the rainforests of West africa to improve livelihoods of the poor footing. The project set several goals and objectives: improve techniques for capture and holding of fish to increase their survival; assist the local fishers to organize themselves into a cooperative whereby they could negotiate better prices from buyers; develop local management plans for rainforest rivers and sensitize local authorities regarding the monetary value of rainforest ecosystems to lobby for their protection."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"The low natural abundance of fish and the status of infrastructure suggested that relying exclusively on exploitation of wild fish would never produce revenues sufficient to sustain rural livelihoods or justify responsible management. However, aquaculture of these ornamental fishes could be both a sustainable and profitable strategy."},{"index":6,"size":68,"text":"As culture outside of the rainforest environment would prove difficult, there would be an added incentive to protect the local brood stock in the rivers by implementing appropriate river management plans. The trade would also offer alternative employment to young men and women who might otherwise be tempted to live by slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging or to migrate from rural areas to the cities in search of work."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"The project contributes in its own small way to improving the financial position of disadvantaged rural populations and towards Millennium Development Goal 7 -ensuring environmental sustainability by integrating the principles of sustainable development into policies and reversing the loss of environmental resources."},{"index":8,"size":118,"text":"The goal is to take a disparate, inefficient, resource exploitative business and convert it into a profitable, local enterprise where the return on the investment of time and money goes back to the village population. As the financial value of the natural resource -the genetic diversity of natural fish brood stock -becomes clear, an incentive is created for appropriate management of the riverine ecosystems, to maintain the unique environmental characteristics that permit these species to survive, to reduce pollution from pesticides and insecticides, and to reduce siltation caused by poor land management. The project applies a model that is based on a clear understanding of the relevant biological parameters through a progressive succession of sociological and economic interventions."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"The project is on-going. However, the Lessons Learned at this stage are important and should be used to guide the development of similar projects that follow this model."}]},{"head":"UnDERPIn THE BUsInEss WITH sOUnD sCIEnCE","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The initial research into the ecology of the riverine ecosystems has been vital in determining the optimum strategies for fish capture, culture and husbandry. The river water is weakly acidic, pH between 5 and 6, conductivity 20-30 µs/cm, temperature 20-30°C; it is low in nutrients but high in tannin. This knowledge has proven essential in the design of the aquaculture enterprises."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"EsTABLIsH PARTnERsHIPs never underestimate the power of a partnership or the rewards that come from a committed, long term involvement with a local community. These are key steps for achieving successful outcomes."}]},{"head":"LAUnCH TECHnOLOGICAL InnOvATIOns","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"• Training courses led by the fishers with guidance from OPED and scientists were successful in teaching fish handling, transport and holding techniques."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• small-scale revolving loan schemes were successful in facilitating construction of 'pond' aquaculture stations within the river as fish holding stations."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"• Working with nature to modify the local environment rather than to build new facilities was both cost-effective and improved fish survival."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"More than 200 species of valuable ornamental fish live in the rivers of the Lower Guinean rainforest. Yet wasteful exploitation and callous shipping of ornamental fish -almost entirely for the profit of foreign middlemen -has seen 85% of the fish perish before reaching overseas markets. Such squandering of natural resources is clearly unsustainable. This project developed sustainable approaches for farming ornamental fish to improve livelihoods of poor communities."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Fish that were fed a maintenance diet manufactured from locally available agricultural by-products showed improved quality and survival."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• Additional nutrient input from feeding led to increased fish biomass in the adjacent river waters outside the holding areas."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"• Discipline in recording fish catch, numbers held, and mortality was hugely beneficial in determining cause of mortality within the chain from fisher to exporter and provided sufficiently robust catch per unit effort (CPUE) data to ensure that the fishery is presently sustainable. Hence, a monitoring system was developed without the need for extra financing or government intervention."},{"index":8,"size":74,"text":"• The establishment of a center with aquaria and aeration to serve as a staging point for holding and packaging fish prior to shipment caused a quantum leap in efficiency and fish quality. Rather than travelling twice, once to place an order and then returning when the fish had been caught, the buyer could select his product and depart within the day, saving time and money. Fish survival rates rose from 20% to 90%."}]},{"head":"EsTABLIsH COOPERATIvEs","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Although the fishers of the region were initially suspicious of their competitors, patience and external assistance was rewarded with the formation of a community group that could act as an intermediary between individual fishers and external buyers, and negotiate higher fish supply prices."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"In addition to organizing sales, the group established a community development fund to channel a percentage of profits into village projects."}]},{"head":"UnDERsTAnD THE LOCAL ECOnOMIC PsyCHOLOGy","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"While the profits from new orders rose dramatically, the upwardly revised prices caused many buyers to seek supplies from other fishers although the higher quality products, improved fish survival and reduced time requirements more than justified the higher asking prices."}]},{"head":"InTEGRATE TECHnOLOGy WITH sOUnD BUsInEss PLAnnInG","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The establishment of alternative business practices requires an understanding of both market economics and local psychology. The running of the aquaria and holding facility is only economically feasible if the volume of trade is sufficient to cover all the operating costs. Initially the export market proved difficult to penetrate due to the poor reputation of exporters and insufficient knowledge of international importers. It is, therefore, necessary to develop local markets and facilitate access to the international market as integral parts of this development paradigm."}]},{"head":"OnE sUCCEss LEADs TO AnOTHER","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"As the number of people advocating clean, clear rivers for their ornamental fish increases, so do the benefits that flow downstream to all the 8 million people living in the Lower Guinean rainforest that depend upon river ecosystems for their livelihoods."}]},{"head":"DEsIGn FOR sCALE AnD REPLICATIOn","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The substantial market for unusual, decorative fish species generates opportunities for the increase in volume, number of species and number of people involved. The Central African rainforest covers 1.9 million square kilometres with a resident population of 20 million people who face the same constraints and opportunities found in Cameroon. All would benefit from sustainable river management and some could benefit from opportunities in aquaculture and the trade in aquarium fish."}]},{"head":"FUTURE REsEARCH","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Rainforest resources are put to a wide range of uses, some of which are more sustainable than others, and many represent competing interests. Building upon the lessons learnt so far, WorldFish is currently working on identifying threats to the integrity of rainforest river ecosystems and developing alternative management strategies to ensure that the resource will be available for future generations of Central Africans.  For more information, please contact Dr. Randall Brummett at [email protected]"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Printed on 100% recycled paper partnership • excellence • growth | www.worldfishcenter.org WorldFish Lessons Learned briefs are executive summaries of research projects with particular focus on lessons learned. These briefs play a role in knowledge management and sharing. This Lessons Learned is based on the project WA-0523-WBK Rainforest Fishing Communities carried out in partnership with the Organisation pour l'Environnement et le Développement Durable (OPED). This project has been funded at different stages by: WorldFish's core investors, World Bank, UK Department for International Development, The national Geographic society and also supported through fellowships from the Fulbright Foundation and the International Fund for Agricultural Research. "}],"sieverID":"67a3b1eb-d7c0-44b0-9d4a-fe1ca0082235","abstract":"We are in the Lower Guinean rainforest of Cameroon; a dark canopy of green leaves shades a moist carpet of mosses and ferns below. We steam from the tropical heat; beating rain from towering white thunder clouds trickles down our necks before it disappears into streams. The water flows slowly, bubbling over long stretches of shallow riffles interrupted by deeper pools that merge to form wider, muddy rivers that meander to the Atlantic Ocean. Insects buzz continuously.But in these streams hide attractive, marketable, freshwater fish! Due to the complex ecology of the river systems and the numerous different microhabitats, the fish species diversity here is high though fish abundance is low. Most of the rivers currently fished are overexploited and the foreign aquarium trade of these desirable little fish is dominated by a few middlemen who reap 95% of the profit and have little stake, and less interest, in sustainable management. Capture techniques are crude; husbandry practices are weak; consequential mortality from capture to delivery is high; delivery times are unreliable; and species are often inaccurately identified. To be blunt, the trade has a poor reputation, stocks run the risk of collapse and, in particular, the local populations living around the rivers reap little profit from their enterprise.A project has been carried out since mid 2002 by The WorldFish Center in partnership with a community service organization \"Organisation pour l'Environnement et le Développement Durable\" (OPED) to enable the fishers to take control of their business and to build a firm financial"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06e777804e181d0e677b96f1b4b0ef97","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b3162f2-94bd-4c4c-bb20-09728fc88674/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"improving root characterisation for genomic prediction in cassava","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"automatic image-analysis has been successfully used to study root system architecture traits 11 . In cereals, grain shape is an important target for genetic improvement, because it is usually related to quality, consumer appeal or the intended end usage 12 . For rice grain shape description, SHAPE, a program based on Elliptical Fourier Descriptor (EFDs) has been used to derive shape-related phenotypes for genome-wide association and genomic prediction 13,14 ."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Genomic selection (GS) is a method first introduced in animal breeding to select candidates for crossing in the breeding program using only genomic information. GS is particularly relevant for the improvement of polygenic traits 15 because its implementation can lead to a reduction in cost and time compared to traditional plant breeding programs 16 . Because cassava is an outcrossing species mostly propagated by stem cuttings, conventional breeding methods can take more than five years to produce superior performing clones (www.nextgencassava. org). Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are complementary to GS as they have proven effective for the identification of QTL regions associated with several traits that are critical for cassava breeding, including cassava mosaic disease resistance (CMD) 17 , cassava brown streak disease resistance (CBSD) 18 , and beta-carotene content and dry matter content 19 ."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"To date, genomic prediction accuracies for root shape and size characteristics have not been reported in cassava. In this study, size and shape related traits describing cassava roots were obtained through automated image analysis. We first estimated their heritability and conducted a genome-wide association study to explore the genetic architecture of cassava roots shape characteristics; then we compared the genomic prediction accuracy of image size and shape traits to those of root yield. Our research contributes to a better understanding of the genetic architecture of cassava root size and shape traits and explores the possibility of in-field high-throughput phenotyping that would allow breeders to use GS to select varieties for quantitative root characteristics."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Germplasm. We processed and analyzed cassava roots images taken from several field trials conducted by the International Institute for tropical agriculture (IITA) as part of their genomic selection breeding program. The cassava germplasm collections that we analyzed are known as Genetic Gain (GG) and the progeny of the first genomic selection event (C1), which are thus progeny of a subset of the GG population. The GG constitutes a large collection of important landraces, breeding lines and released improved varieties of cassava developed by IITA over the last four decades. More detail about the origins and constituency of these populations is available in several published studies (Wolfe et al., 2016;Wolfe et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":195,"text":"A summary of the trials used in the present study is presented in Table 1. The first set of trial was the GG trial which comprised 805 plots planted in the summer of 2014 in Ubiaja, Nigeria using an augmented design with two checks planted in each incomplete block. The trial comprised 758 unique clones. Each plot consisted of 10 stands in a single row with spacing of 1 m between rows and 0.8 m within rows. The second set of trials consisted of 86 C0 clones selected from the GG population and 158 C1 clones which were planted in Ubiaja in an augmented design, each plot consisted of 20 plants. It is important to note here that these clones were used as parents for the GS cycle 1 population. The third set of trials involved GS cycle 1 clones that were split into three sets and planted separately in three locations: Ibadan, Ikenne and Mokwa. Each set was planted as a clonal evaluation trial (CET) using an incomplete block design with common checks in each block. All trials had at least 10 clones in common. Plants were harvested after 12 months in all trials."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Image acquisition. The roots from four plants per plot were spread across a green board (160 cm by 120 cm)."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"It was important that the roots were not touching each other and also not touching the board edges to get an individual root value (Supplementary Fig. 1). Five circles, each 7.5 cm in diameter were painted on the left and right sides of the board. Those circles were used as a reference to transform the final result from the pixel unit to cm. Labels were placed on the board for each image allowing images to be identified and renamed for further processing. Images are freely available at ftp://ftp.cassavabase.org/manuscripts/Yonis_et_al_2019/."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"Image processing and phenotype acquisition. First, the images were coded to assign each photo to the plot from which the roots were taken. In some cases, several images were required per plotto capture all roots from all the plants. For the GG collection, after quality control we obtained 805 images of cassava roots for 738 clones of which 665 had genotypic information. For the C1 population, we had images originating from four locations and a total of 1091 root images for 997 clones. All the image processing was performed with ImageJ Java version 1.8.0_11 (64-bit). The images were copied in two folders, one for processing and measuring the roots and the second for scaling the measurements. Thus, each image was processed and analysed twice."},{"index":6,"size":121,"text":"Image processing. The first step of the image processing was to convert the RGB colour images into HSB stacks (hue, saturation and brightness images). We obtained three slices, but we only kept the first slice (the hue image). We then set a threshold from 0 to 255 for the roots and from 125 to 255 for the reference scaling circles before proceeding to run the \"threshold\" followed by the \"make binary\" commands. This threshold was determined by doing individual tests on some images. At the end of the processing, each image was binary, with our objects of interest (roots and scales) represented as white pixels and everything else as black. Most steps in the procedure were automated using customized ImageJ macros."},{"index":7,"size":113,"text":"Phenotypes acquisition and description. The \"analyze particles\" command in ImageJ counts each contiguous area of white pixels within a binary image and gives some additional basic measurements. With the aim to get shape related traits, we used the \"extended particle analyzer\" function in the BioVoxxel Toolbox plugin (http://imagej.net/BioVoxxel_Toolbox#Extended_Particle_Analyzer). This function computes useful parameters of which we chose to keep seven for downstream analysis: Area, Perimeter, Feret, Circularity, Solidity, Roundness, and the Aspect Ratio (AR). The area and the perimeter describe the size of a root. The Feret, is the longest distance between any two points along the selection boundary, also known as maximum caliper. Circularity, Solidity, Roundness and aspect ratio (AR) describe shape."},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"The shape descriptors are ratio values that ranged from 0 to 1 except AR, which is not bounded. In addition, the shape descriptors do not have a unit, while area, perimeter, and feret are parameters expressed in pixels. The mean area value of the circles was used as a reference to convert pixels to centimetres (scaling coefficient). Since the exact diameter in centimetres of each circle was known, we used this value to calculate the mean number of pixels per cm 2 for each image."},{"index":9,"size":124,"text":"Genomic analyses. We performed a two-step approach for the genomic analysis. In the first step, we used a linear mixed model to account for the variability in the field design and calculate the broad-sense heritability. The input data was: 1) the mean phenotype value for each plot (average phenotype of all imaged roots), 2) the same as (1) but adjusted to account for the potential effects of variation in cassava mosaic disease (CMD) severity among plots and 3) the standard deviation of the root shape and size measurements (across all imaged roots) per plot, also adjusted to remove the effect of CMD. We fit two different models, with CMD correction and without CMD correction, for each of the two focal populations (GG or C1)."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"For GG, the following models were fitted:"},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"clone r ange"}]},{"head":"clone r ange","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"In both models y is a vector of phenotypes, Z clone and Z range are respectively the incidence matrices of the clones and range both fit as random with their effects vector c σ ~I N ( 0, ) c 2 for clones and r σ ~I N ( 0, ) r 2 for range. Ranges were equivalent to the row or column along which plots were arrayed. X is the incidence matrix for the fixed effects. In model 1, the number of harvested plants per plot (NOHAV) and CMD were accounted for as fixed and the vector m contains the effect estimates. In model 2, we did not correct for CMD, X and n therefore only reference NOHAV."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"For C1, model ( 3) and ( 4) were fitted:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"clone l oc range :"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"clone l oc range :"},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"In model ( 3) and ( 4), we replace the range variable with the combination of the location and the range (Loc:range, i.e. range is nested in location) as the C1 population was planted in several locations unlike the GG. In all models, for all traits, y correspond to the log transformation of the original phenotypic values. Additional explanation of the models fitted for these populations can be found in Wolfe et al. (2017)."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"From these models, we extracted the clone-effect BLUP, which estimates the total genetic value (EGV) of each line and de-regressed the EGV by dividing them by their reliability to obtain the de-regressed BLUP 21 . Broad-sense heritability values were calculated using the variance components estimated using the mixed-models described above. EGV and de-regressed EGV are used in downstream analyses as described below."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"In addition, the correlation across traits was estimated using using the de-regressed BLUP values obtained after fitting the aforementioned linear mixed model."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"With the combined GG+C1 population, we calculated the phenotypic and genotypic coefficients of variation using the output values of the lmer model (3)."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"Genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation were calculated as:"},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"Where µ is the grand mean value of the trait."},{"index":11,"size":91,"text":"Genotyping data. Both populations (GG and C1) were genotyped using the genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) method 22 and the SNP calling was performed with TASSEL 5.0 GBS pipeline v2 23 . Alignment of GBS reads was to the cassava reference genome v6.1 (http://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov; ICGMC, 2015). The condition for the genotype calls was the presence of a minimum of four reads. Extracted SNPs were filtered to remove clones with>80% missing and markers with >60% missing genotype calls. Markers were also removed when they had an extreme deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (χ 2 > 20)."},{"index":12,"size":47,"text":"A combination of custom scripts and common variant call file (VCF); manipulation tools were used to accomplish the above pipeline. The missing data were imputed using Beagle v4.0 24 . For the GG and C1 populations, we had 112,082 and 179,041 markers, respectively, with MAF > 0.01."}]},{"head":"Genomic prediction.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"We estimated genomic prediction accuracy using 5-fold cross-validation repeated 25 times similar to what is described in Wolfe et al. (2017). Briefly, for each replicate of the process, the population was split into five approximately equal chunks (folds). Five genomic predictions were then made in which each fold (fifth of the population) served as the test set (no phenotypes) and were predicted by the remaining four-fifths (training set, with phenotypes). Prediction accuracy for each fold was defined as the correlation of the genome-estimated breeding values (GEBVs, which are BLUPs from the test-sets of each fold), with the de-regressed EGVs from the pre-adjustment stage of the analysis."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"For genomic prediction, we used a mixed-model with a genotype (clone) random effect with covariance proportional to the genomic relationship matrix, also called GBLUP. The genomic relationship matrix was constructed using the function A.mat in the R package rrBLUP 25,26 De-regressed BLUPs were used as the response variable and the GBLUP models were fit with the function emmreml in the R package EMMREML 27 ."}]},{"head":"GWAS analyses.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Genome-wide association mapping (GWAS) analyses were performed using a linear mixed-model analysis (MLMA) implemented in GCTA (Version 1.90.0beta) 28 . Specifically, we followed a leave-one-chromosome-out approach and tested all markers with MAF > 0.05. The leave-one-chromosome-out approach involves excluding all markers on the chromosome of the current candidate SNP from the genomic relationship matrix (GRM) used to control population structure when estimating their marker effects. Manhattan plots were generated using the R package qqman 29 . SNP markers with a − log10(P-value) which exceeded the Bonferroni threshold >6.8 were considered to be statistically significant and were further annotated into coding regions (genes) of the cassava genome."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Candidate gene identification was performed using the significant GWAS results of the standard deviation + CMD correction GWAS results. Using the phytozome 12 portal link to biomart (https://phytozome.jgi.doe.gov/ biomart/) we searched for genes located 10 kb around the top SNP hits."}]},{"head":"Multivariate GWAS analysis.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"We used a multivariate linear mixed model as implemented in GEMMA (mvLMM) 30 . We tested marker associations with multiple phenotypes that are fitted jointly in the mvLMM while controlling for population stratification. Different combinations of phenotypes were fitted in six models, the phenotypes that were fitted together were selected based on their phenotypic correlation. Model 1: Circularity, Round, Solidity; Model 2: Area, Feret, Circularity, Solidity, AR; Model 3: Area, Perimeter, Round, Solidity, AR; Model 4: Area, Perimeter, Feret, Circularity, Round, Solidity, AR; Model 5: Area, Perimeter, Feret; Model 6: Circularity, Round, Solidity, AR. P-values were corrected for multiple testing by computing a Bonferroni threshold similar to the univariate GWAS and Benjamini-Hochberg q-values with a q < 0.1 threshold."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Phenotypes distribution. Using the plugin BioVoxxel in ImageJ, we extracted quantitative measurements of the Area, Perimeter, Feret, Circularity, Solidity, Roundness, and the aspect ratio (AR) from root images collected in the field. The raw value datasets show similar ranges for root shape and size descriptors in GG and C1 populations (Supplementary Table 1). The individual root measurements with the maximum and minimum value of each trait in both populations are presented in Fig. 1."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"The frequency distribution of the mean value per plot of the GG and C1 populations is presented in Supplementary Fig. 2 and the mean values per trait within a population are presented in Supplementary Table 1. Some genotypes exhibited large differences in their mean values for Area, Perimeter and Feret. For example, the maximum mean root Area in GG population was 339 cm 2 while the mean Area of the GG population was 121.5 cm 2 . Similarly, those genotypes exhibited a maximum mean root Perimeter of 135 cm and a maximum mean Feret of 50 cm while the mean Perimeter and Feret value in the GG population were 66 cm and 26 cm, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"In the C1 dataset, the maximum mean value for the root area in the C1 dataset was 372 cm 2, while the mean area of that population was 128 cm 2 . The maximum values for Perimeter and Feret were 132 and 49 cm respectively, while the C1 population mean value for the two traits was 68 cm and 28 cm respectively."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Correlation plots. Phenotypic correlations were calculated pairwise using de-regressed BLUPs of the mean values for each population separately (Fig. 2). In the GG dataset, the highest correlation within yield traits corresponded to root number and root weight (r 2 =0.79). Similarly, root number and root weight were highly correlated in C1 population (r 2 =0.88). In both datasets, correlations between yield traits were significant and high (r 2 > 0.5) and these traits were also positively correlated with Area, Perimeter and Feret. However, a low correlation (r 2 < 0.1) was observed between yield traits and root shape descriptors such as Circularity, Roundness, Solidity and AR in both populations."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"Size-related traits derived from root images (Area, Perimeter and Feret) showed the highest positive correlation (r > 0.7) with each other. In both datasets, the highest correlation between size-related traits corresponded to Perimeter and Feret (r=0.97). Additionally, Feret and Perimeter were negatively correlated with shape-related traits (Circularity, Roundness and Solidity) and positively correlated with AR. In the GG dataset, Area showed a negative correlation with Circularity (r= −0.26), Roundness (r= −0.21), Solidity (r= −0.19), and a positive correlation with AR (r= 0.19). While in the C1 population, a low correlation was observed between Area and shape descriptors."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"Within the shape related traits, the highest correlation was found between Circularity and Roundness (GG r = 0.89, C1 r = 0.86) and Solidity (GG r = 0.87, C1 r = 0.84). AR showed a negative correlation with Circularity, Solidity and Roundness in both datasets."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic variability. The analysis of variance per location is presented in Supplementary Table 2. The level of variation in variance components and coefficients across locations indicate the existence of variability among genotypes.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Using the combined GG+C1 populations, the extent of trait variability was assessed in terms of broad-sense heritability values (H2) phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) and genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) (Table 2). Phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV %) was found to be higher than the genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV %). Moderate genotypic variance of >10% was observed for most traits, except for Perimeter and solidity. The highest GCV was observed for the yield traits root weight (29.16%) and root number (26.36%). Moderate heritability values of >0.20 were found for most traits except for shoot weight (0.12). The top three heritability values corresponded to image extracted traits: AR (0.48), roundness (0.52) and circularity (0.46)."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"In addition, broad-sense heritability values (H 2 ) for root shape and yield-related traits were calculated for each population (Table 3). In the GG population, without adjusting the phenotypes for their CMD score, H 2 of root shape related traits ranged from 0.17 (Perimeter and Circularity) to 0.46 (aspect ratio) and for yield traits, H 2 ranged from 0.29 root weight (RTWT) to 0.44 shoot weight (SHTWT). In the GG dataset, Perimeter, Circularity and Solidity exhibited the lowest heritability values at 0.17, 0.17 and 0.12, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"In the C1 population, the heritability of shape-related traits ranged from 0.36 (Perimeter) to 0.54 (Circularity) while for yield traits H 2 ranged from 0.36 (SHTWT) to 0.61 (RTWT). The heritability of most traits was higher in the C1 population than GG except for Area (0.39 to 0.38) and SHTWT (0.44 to 0.36). The inclusion of the CMD in the calculation of the variance components always reduced the heritability of all the traits in both populations by around 10%."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Genome-wide association study of root traits. Using a univariate genome-wide association approach for root image traits (root size and shape) and root yield traits we identified significant loci for all traits except for area (Fig. 3). We detected a total of 91 SNP markers exceeding the significance threshold (−log10 P ≥ 6.28). The Manhattan plots of the univariate GWAS results for yield traits are shown in Supplementary Fig. 3 and detailed information on the significant markers is summarized in Supplementary Table 3."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"We detected markers associated with Perimeter and Feret on chromosome 12, and with Solidity on chromosome 1, whereas for AR we identified significant loci on chromosome 1 and chromosome 12. Similarly, for Circularity and Roundness, we detected significant loci on chromosome 1 and chromosome 12."},{"index":6,"size":196,"text":"For most shape-related traits several other regions on chromosomes 3, 4, 8, 9, 14, 15 and 18 did not reach the significance threshold but showed a − log10 P ≥ 5 (Fig. 3). For root yield traits we detected a QTL on chromosome 12 associated to root number (RTNO) and RTWT (Supplementary Fig. 3, Supplementary Table 3). Notably, using the CMD adjusted phenotype removed the significance of the QTL on chromosome 12 but did not identify     new QTL for the image traits shape phenotypes (Supplementary Fig. 4). However, after the CMD adjustment we detected new loci associated with root number and shoot weight (Supplementary Table 4). Significant SNP markers (−log10 P ≥ 6.28) were detected for the standard deviation-derived traits of Perimeter (per-sd), Feret (feret-sd) and Aspect Ratio (AR-sd) (Fig. 4). For per-sd, a significant QTL was detected on chromosome 16, though it was not observed in the GWAS model with the mean values nor in the GWAS model with mean values with CMD adjusted phenotypes. For feret-sd, two significant QTL were identified, one on chromosome 9 and one on chromosome 6 and for AR-sd one significant QTL was found on chromosome 8 (Supplementary Table 5)."},{"index":7,"size":156,"text":"Different markers were significant in the multivariate GWAS model dependent on which phenotypes were included in the multivariate linear mixed model (mvLMM). Although the multivariate model can increase the power for detecting pleiotropic variants when using correlated traits, we identified few significant markers above the Bonferroni threshold (Supplementary Figs. 5-10). Nonetheless, when P-values were corrected for multiple testing by computing Benjamini-Hochberg q-values, four SNPs were identified as significant in the multivariate analysis. In the multivariate analysis using Area, Perimeter, Feret, Circularity, Round, Solidity and AR in the mvLMM (Model 4) we identified a significant marker at the same location on chromosome 4 (Supplementary Fig. 8). Similarly, using model 6 (Circularity, Round, Solidity, Aspect ratio) we identified one significant marker located on chromosome 4 (Supplementary Fig. 10). When Area, Perimeter and Feret were included in the mvLMM (model 5) we identified significant markers on chromosomes 6 and 9 using a q-value threshold of <0.1 (Supplementary Fig. 9)."}]},{"head":"Genomic prediction.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Using the parental (GG) and offspring generation (C1) datasets independently, we calculated the prediction accuracies of size and shape image traits and compared those to root yield traits accuracies using de-regressed BLUPs of 1) the mean phenotype value (average phenotype of 4 plants) (Fig. 5, Supplementary Table 6), 2) the mean root size and shape phenotypes adjusted to account for the potential effect of cassava mosaic disease (CMD) on these traits (Fig. 6, Supplementary Table 6) and 3) the standard deviation of the root shape and size measurements adjusted to remove the effect of CMD (Fig. 6, Supplementary Table 6)."},{"index":2,"size":253,"text":"Prediction accuracy, calculated as the correlation between the genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) and the de-regressed BLUPs of the mean phenotype value, ranged from 0.32 (SHTWT) to 0.43 (RTNO) in the GG population and from 0.12 (RTNO) to 0.46 (AR) in the C1. For yield traits, accuracies in GG were higher than in C1 but were not different between populations for the shape and size related traits. In the GG population, the shape descriptors Circularity (mean = 0.40), Roundness (mean=0.39), Solidity (mean =0.37) and AR (mean =0.38) showed slightly higher accuracies than the size descriptors Area (mean =0.33), Perimeter (mean = 0.34) and Feret (mean = 0.33). In the C1 population, size and shape image traits exhibited a higher prediction accuracy than root yield traits. Among the size descriptors, Feret showed the highest accuracy (mean=0.34) and Area the lowest (mean=0.29). Among shape descriptors, AR showed the highest predictive value (mean=0.46) and Solidity the lowest (mean=0.33) (Supplementary Table 6). When the mean root size and shape phenotypes were adjusted to account for the effect of CMD, we observed a minimal decrease in predictive accuracy (Supplementary Table 6). A lower predictive accuracy was obtained for standard deviation of size and shape traits adjusted for CMD, in both populations. In the GG population, the decrease was pronounced with a maximum reduction of up to 55% for root perimeter (0.27 mean to 0.12 CMD adjusted) while in the C1 population the largest reduction was of 73% for circularity (0.41 mean to 0.11 CMD adjusted) (Supplementary Table 6)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Root number and root weight are among the most important targets for improvement in cassava breeding programs. Although cassava root characterisation has been the subject of several studies [31][32][33] , the genetic architecture underlying cassava root shape remains unexplored. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of the image phenotyping protocol and to assess the use of genome-wide analyses for size and shape image-extracted traits."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Here, we phenotyped the GG and C1 populations from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) breeding program for root shape and size-related traits using image analysis of storage root photographs taken in the field. In both populations, the storage roots exhibited a wide range of shape variation. Roots with a large area were generally heavier and the circularity of storage roots was mostly inversely correlated to its area. Our results, suggest that rounded-shaped roots in cassava are generally smaller and hence lighter in weight. More importantly, the lowest correlation values found between shape traits (Circularity, Solidity, Roundness and aspect ratio (AR)) and yield suggest that there is no negative impact of differences in root storage shape on yield or that it is relatively minor."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"In radish, rice and wheat, imaging-based studies of root shape and size traits have demonstrated first, that these have different genetic architectures 34 and second, that shape phenotyping can aid the identification of pleiotropic QTL. In our study, using univariate genome-wide association analysis, we detected for most shape and size related traits, significant QTL regions located on chromosomes 1 and 12. The QTL region on chromosome 1 has been previously shown to be segregating for an introgressed segment from M. glaziovii 35 . Furthermore, the QTL region on chromosome 1 has been associated, in the IITA genetic gain population, with other root traits such as dry matter and total carotenoid content 19 ."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"For root weight and root number, we identified a significant QTL associated with those traits on chromosome 12. The QTL region on chromosome 12 has been previously associated, using IITA breeding populations, to cassava mosaic disease (CMD) resistance 17 . The effect of cassava mosaic disease (CMD) on root yield has been previously investigated in fully and partly infected stands of cassava [36][37][38] . Nonetheless, the identification of new QTL for root number and shoot weight, when these traits were adjusted according to the CMD score, support the notion that CMD can have an effect on root yield traits."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"Because the uniformity in size and shape of cassava roots is an important breeding goal we calculated the standard deviation of individual root measurements per clone. The use of standard deviation measurements allowed the identification of new significant QTL for Perimeter, Feret and Aspect Ratio on chromosomes 6, 9 and 16. For the new QTL regions located on chromosomes 9 and 16 we identified candidate genes related to the tocopherol and carotenoids pathways which are known regulators of plant development 39 (Supplementary Table 7). On chromosome 6, the most promising candidate is Manes.06G078700 a root meristem growth factor 1 related gene."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"Together our GWAS results, 1) suggest that root-related traits are under genetic control by at least a few large effect loci, 2) reveal the impact of disease resistance loci on yield and 3) that introgressed genome regions contain QTL related to root yield, size and shape traits."},{"index":7,"size":155,"text":"To increase the power of our study and to detect pleiotropic loci for size and shape traits 40,41 , we used a multivariate linear mixed model approach which included groups of correlated root size and root size/shape traits. Considering multiple phenotypes in the mvLMM enabled us to identify new candidate loci on chromosomes 4, 6 and 9 that were not identified in the univariate analyses. The potential of GS as a breeding tool to increase the rates of genetic gain was recently tested in three Next Generation Cassava Breeding programs 20 . The study showed promising results particularly for traits with consistent heritability values across programs and stable large-effect quantitative trait loci. Prediction accuracies for RTNO, RTWT and SHTWT were similar with those reported in previous cassava cross-validation analyses 20 . Root size and shape-related trait accuracies were lower than those reported for dry matter content (DM) and cassava mosaic virus resistance (CMD) 20 ."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"Although the heritability of yield traits was higher in the offspring (Cycle 1, C1) than the parental generation (Genetic Gain, GG), the predictive accuracy of traits extracted from root images showed intermediate to high values in both populations. However, the C1 yield traits accuracies being lower than the GG, suggests that it is due to a reduction in variance caused by the strong selection on these yield traits."},{"index":9,"size":68,"text":"Nonetheless, predictive accuracies of the mean values of root size and shape image-extracted traits were mostly higher than yield trait prediction accuracies in the C1 population. Adjusting the mean and standard deviation phenotypes for the effect of CMD reduced the predictive accuracy. However, that correction is necessary to unlink the effect of CMD from the causal loci that are responsible for the regulation size and shape root traits."},{"index":10,"size":57,"text":"The successful identification of QTLs through GWAS analysis demonstrates that image size and shape traits from image analyses can capture genetic variation. The quantitative nature of these traits and the moderate to high predictive accuracy suggest that they can be included in a selection index to breed cassava with uniform storage root shape suitable for mechanical harvest."},{"index":11,"size":36,"text":"Although these measurements were laborious in the field and not high-throughput, the analyses of the images are automated and quantitative, they avoid subjectivity in scoring and other human-errors and most importantly, they improve cassava root characterisation."},{"index":12,"size":104,"text":"This study has shown that root phenotyping using image capture and analysis is feasible and can be included as part of routine yield data collection in field plots. We used fairly simple equipment including a green board platform, a cheap digital camera (can be substituted with a smartphone) and freely-available open source software for image processing. As expected, additional labour was required to lay and remove roots from the green board, a process that increase cost and time by about 15-20%. However, these costs could be offset through genomic prediction for shape-related traits in subsequent generations using training data from the parents and relatives."},{"index":13,"size":121,"text":"The methodology described here and the results obtained in this study are promising and open up the opportunity to apply high-throughput methods in cassava. The image capture and analysis can now be performed using the OneKK (one thousand kernels) app (https://github.com/PhenoApps/OneKK), an inexpensive and user-friendly tool for automated measurement of seed size, shape, and weight using smart phones. The app is developed under the BREAD PhenoApps project and supported by the National Science Foundation. Still, further work is needed to automate all the steps of cassava root phenotyping to allow the characterization of more lines at different locations in multi-environmental trials that ultimately would allow the creation of larger training population sizes for genomic prediction of root size and shape traits."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Phenotype description obtained using the extended particle analyzer plugin in ImageJ: Individual root measurements with the maximum and the minimum value of each trait in Genetic gain (GG) population and Cycle1 (C1) population, represented to highlight the range of values for each trait. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Heatmap with Pearson correlation coefficient: Trait correlation using the de-regressed BLUP value of GG dataset (lower triangle) and C1 dataset (upper triangle). The stars depict the significance according the p-value (***P < 0.0001, **P < 0.001, *P < 0.05). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Genome-wide association results of size and shape-related traits using de-regressed BLUPs of mean values (not corrected for CMD). (A) Area. (B) Perimeter; (C). Feret; (D). Solidity; (E). Aspect ratio; (F). Circularity; (G). Roundness. Blue horizontal line indicates the Bonferroni statistical threshold. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Genome-wide association results of standard deviation-derived size and shape-related traits using de-regressed BLUPs of mean CMD-corrected values. (A). Area; (B). Perimeter; (C). Feret; (D). Solidity; (E). Aspect ratio; (F). Circularity; (G). Roundness. Blue horizontal line indicates the Bonferroni statistical threshold. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Prediction accuracy of root size and shape and yield traits. Predictive accuracies were obtained with 5 fold-cross-validation analysis using a mean plot value in the GBLUP model. (a) GG dataset and (b) C1 dataset. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. GBLUP model predictive accuracy of root size and shape traits. (a) GG population CMD adjusted phenotypes, (b) C1 population CMD adjusted phenotypes, (c) GG population standard deviation + CMD correction, (d) C1 population standard deviation + CMD correction. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary of trials used in the present study including the trial names, design, locations, number of plots and number of unique clones in each trial.     Unique  Unique Trial Design* Location Plots entries Plot size TrialDesign*LocationPlotsentriesPlot size      10 plants, 10 plants, GG.C0.UBJ CET, augmented Ubiaja 805 738 single GG.C0.UBJCET, augmentedUbiaja805738single      row row GS.C1.EC.IBA CET, augmented Ibadan 293 265 20 plants (4 ×5) GS.C1.EC.IBACET, augmentedIbadan29326520 plants (4 ×5) GS.C1.EC.IKN CET, augmented Ikenne 331 307 20 plants (4×5) GS.C1.EC.IKNCET, augmentedIkenne33130720 plants (4×5) GS.C1.EC.MOK CET, augmented Mokwa 329 278 20 plants (4×5) GS.C1.EC.MOKCET, augmentedMokwa32927820 plants (4×5) Crossing block.C0_C1.UBJ CET augmented Ubiaja 243 218  Crossing block.C0_C1.UBJCET augmentedUbiaja243218  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Broad-sense heritability values and variance components of root size,shape and yield traits for the combined Genetic gain and cycle 1 breeding populations. (RTWT: root weight; RTNO: root number; SHTWT: Shoot weight, H2 broad sense heritability, genetic variance (VAR_G), phenotypic variance (VAR_P), genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV), phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV)).  GG  C1  GGC1 Trait no correction +MCMDS no correction +MCMDS Traitno correction+MCMDSno correction+MCMDS Area 0.39 0.33 0.38 0.36 Area0.390.330.380.36 Perimeter 0.17 0.12 0.36 0.33 Perimeter0.170.120.360.33 Feret 0.33 0.17 0.40 0.35 Feret0.330.170.400.35 Circularity 0.17 0.15 0.54 0.53 Circularity0.170.150.540.53 Round 0.39 0.26 0.52 0.49 Round0.390.260.520.49 Solidity 0.12 0.12 0.48 0.48 Solidity0.120.120.480.48 Aspect Ratio 0.46 0.31 0.56 0.54 Aspect Ratio0.460.310.560.54 RTWT 0.29 0.23 0.60 0.50 RTWT0.290.230.600.50 RTNO 0.39 0.37 0.61 0.54 RTNO0.390.370.610.54 SHTWT 0.44 0.39 0.36 0.33 SHTWT0.440.390.360.33  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Broad-sense heritabilities of root shape and root yield traits for the Genetic gain and cycle 1 breeding populations. (RTWT: root weight; RTNO: root number; SHTWT: Shoot weight).  "}],"sieverID":"b6fb1cdd-d1e0-48ce-a977-86825e0a62df","abstract":"Cassava is cultivated due to its drought tolerance and high carbohydrate-containing storage roots. The lack of uniformity and irregular shape of storage roots poses constraints on harvesting and postharvest processing. Here, we phenotyped the Genetic gain and offspring (C1) populations from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) breeding program using image analysis of storage root photographs taken in the field. In the genome-wide association analysis (GWAS), we detected for most shape and size-related traits, QTL on chromosomes 1 and 12. In a previous study, we found the QTL on chromosome 12 to be associated with cassava mosaic disease (CMD) resistance. Because the root uniformity is important for breeding, we calculated the standard deviation (SD) of individual root measurements per clone. With SD measurements we identified new significant QTL for Perimeter, Feret and Aspect Ratio on chromosomes 6, 9 and 16. Predictive accuracies of root size and shape imageextracted traits were mostly higher than yield trait prediction accuracies. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of the image phenotyping protocol and assess GWAS and genomic prediction for size and shape image-extracted traits. The methodology described and the results are promising and open up the opportunity to apply high-throughput methods in cassava.Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), a tropical root crop with origins in Latin America, ranks as the 3rd most important crop in the tropics after rice and maize 1 . In Africa, more than 800 million people rely on cassava as a primary source of calories 2 . Cassava is widely cultivated due to its high drought tolerance and high carbohydrate-containing storage roots, and although most of the production is for human consumption, its use extends to animal feed and industrially processed products [2][3][4] . In addition to the edible, high-starch storage roots, cassava plants produce thin fibrous roots, which function to absorb water and nutrients from the soil 5 . The development and differentiation of fibrous roots, as well as the mechanism that triggers root storage formation in cassava, are poorly understood.Cassava storage roots are morphologically diverse, the lack of uniformity and irregular shape between and within genotypes poses significant constraints on harvesting and post-harvest processing. The irregularity of root shape results in considerable losses of valuable root yield 3 . The waste of tuber flesh and the inefficiency of hand peeling could be avoided by peeling mechanization. However, breeding for root characteristics that facilitate that process requires a thorough understanding of the genetic basis of cassava root morphology. Several studies have attempted to characterize cassava root shape to support the development of peeling mechanization 6,7 . The root characteristics that were evaluated in those studies include root diameter, weight, length and peel thickness.Routine assessment of storage root size and shape in breeding plots relies on visual scores (www.cassavabase.org/search/traits). The categorical scores for root size are 3, 5 and 7 for small, medium and large roots, respectively. A single categorical score is given to a harvested plot based on the most frequent size in that plot. The visual rating of shape is 1 (conical), 2 (conical-cylindrical), 3 (cylindrical), 4 (fusiform), 5 (Irregular), and 6 (Combination of shapes). Similar to root size, the shape scoring is based on the most common observation in a plot. These categorical scores suffer from person to person subjectivity and inability to describe the variation in size and shape within a plot. Thus, image analysis of roots offers a more objective means of obtaining unbiased quantitative data on important root traits.The development of image software tools and analyses pipelines have gained increased relevance owing to advances in high-throughput phenotyping [8][9][10] . In Maize, imaging under controlled illumination followed by"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0715accfdcddccb8bef3c8653e17f086","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c01d55fe-2d02-4707-b823-be265593b4d0/retrieve"},"pageCount":44,"title":"International Plant Genetic Resources Institute","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Annual Report 2004","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Foreword 1 IPGRI's new strategy: making the most of agricultural biodiversity 2"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Getting a grip on nutrition and diversity 6"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Learning to be more effective 8"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Date palm project at the halfway mark 10"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Support for European forests moves into a new phase 13"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"Banana plantlets help convert rags to riches 14"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"The Global Crop Diversity Trust 16"},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"Low-cost technologies for seed conservation 19"},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"A distributed approach to banana distribution 22 Building a regional network for public awareness 25"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"Making a start on conservation of crop wild relatives"}]},{"head":"Foreword","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"IPGRI is now well on the way to implementing our new strategy, in which we have set ourselves the task of making a real contribution to helping the world to meet the Millennium Development Goals through the use of agricultural biodiversity. The process began in 2003 and we owe a debt of gratitude to all of those inside and outside the centre who contributed their time and efforts. We think the strategy offers a good set of guidelines for the future."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"In some respects the new strategy codifies changes in direction that had already been taking place for some time. An example is IPGRI's work on nutrition, which has gathered pace as it becomes clearer that dietary diversity, which in turn depends on agricultural biodiversity, delivers better health through better nutrition. As a result of our early work in this area the Director General was invited to give a keynote address to the 7th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"The speech was warmly welcomed, as was a side event organized to inform delegates of a proposal that had been developed to bring together researchers and other stakeholders with an interest in agricultural biodiversity. The Conference welcomed the proposal's idea of a Global Facilitation Unit to coordinate research on agricultural biodiversity. The Conference of the Parties also asked IPGRI and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) to prepare a \"cross-cutting initiative on biodiversity for food and nutrition within the existing programme of work on agricultural biodiversity\". This is well in hand and we look forward to working with a wide range of global partners to ensure the optimal use of agricultural biodiversity."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"Another set of global interactions surrounds the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. A crucial aspect of the Treaty's implementation is the Material Transfer Agreements that will accompany transfers of genetic resources. IPGRI, on behalf of the Alliance of Future Harvest Centres, is providing technical support to the negotiations of these agreements, which are the core of the Treaty's multilateral system of access and benefit sharing. The standard Material Transfer Agreement (sMTA) applies to all the Treaty's Annex 1 crops and will be adopted by all the countries and other organizations (such as the Future Harvest Centres) that have made agreements with the Treaty's governing body. This agreement is by no means complete, but substantial progress has been made. Final adoption, we hope, will lead to a resurgence in the use of genetic resources to produce improved varieties."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"Looking to the future, IPGRI is proud to be associated with a new doctoral programme in agricultural biodiversity. The course is offered by the Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, which is based in Pisa, Italy, but the lectures and research take place in a building adjacent to IPGRI and IPGRI is cooperating closely with Sant'Anna to provide teaching and research guidance."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Students will conduct original research in plant genetic resources and functional biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems, and five scholarships have been awarded to candidates from developing countries. IPGRI's commitment to developing capacity remains as strong as ever."},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"This annual report focuses on the impact of IPGRI's activities on people, but all our activities are based on long years of extensive scientific research. Some of that research is reflected in a selection of peer-reviewed scientific papers (see p. 32), a new section in IPGRI's annual report."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"Change is never easy, but we are confident that IPGRI is maintaining and enhancing its relevance and that we can indeed make a difference to hunger and poverty. It is going to be difficult enough to meet the Millennium Development Goals. Without agricultural biodiversity, we believe it will be impossible. "}]},{"head":"Emile Frison","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"I PGRI ' s new strategy","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"For more than 30 years the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute has been concerned with the use and conservation of crop diversity. But the world within which it works has changed and continues to change, and that made it necessary to look again at strategic priorities. What should IPGRI do, and how should it operate? In the search for answers the Institute consulted widely with stakeholders and conducted several internal workshops and meetings. The outcome was a new strategy, formally adopted by the Board of Trustees in September 2004."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The core change is that IPGRI is putting people, especially poor people in developing countries, at the centre of its agenda. This is a logical extension of previous ideas, a transition from emergency conservation, through conservation and use, to use for development, which will automatically require conservation. IPGRI's overall goal is to make a real contribution to the achievement of four of the Millennium Development Goals: eradicating extreme poverty and hunger; reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; and ensuring environmental sustainability. This is predicated on the certainty that agricultural biodiversity can be much more widely deployed to improve livelihoods, an observation that lies at the core of IPGRI's new vision."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Success will therefore be assessed in part by the contribution IPGRI makes to people's well-being: greater food security, better health and nutrition, higher incomes, all achieved while protecting the environment and natural resources. In the process we will also see improved conservation of agricultural biodiversity, greater empowerment of people, more supportive policies and other benefi ts."}]},{"head":"The process","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"More than 500 stakeholders, well over half of those asked, responded to an invitation to share their priorities and concerns regarding development and their thoughts on how IPGRI could address them. There was overwhelming agreement, with poverty, food insecurity, poor health and environmental degradation all seen as obstacles to development. More than 90% of respondents felt that agricultural biodiversity could help to meet these challenges, and that it could make a 'major' contribution to food security and environmental conservation. Lack of funds was the greatest constraint to the improved conservation, management and use of genetic resources, stakeholders said. Lack of supportive policies and laws and lack of research were jointly the second most important constraints. The majority of respondents said that IPGRI can and should help to overcome those constraints, building on its strengths as a catalyst, facilitator and mediator."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Stakeholders were also asked to assess various areas of work, and their responses and the challenges they identifi ed fed into a series of staff meetings and workshops that honed and refi ned them. Out of these emerged a new strategy and a new organizational structure to implement it."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"People today and in the future enjoy greater well-being through increased incomes, sustainably improved food security and nutrition, and greater environmental health, made possible by conservation and the deployment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests."}]},{"head":"Vision","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The strategy Future activities will be organized under six objectives, and while there is inevitable crossfertilization among them, requiring close coordination, they can also be considered individually."}]},{"head":"Demonstrating the social, economic and environmental benefi ts of agricultural biodiversity.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"A foundation of this area of work will be to develop and improve methods for bringing farmers and others into the process of diagnosing problems and identifying opportunities and solutions. This will ensure that IPGRI's work is needed and useful. Broad areas that need to be addressed include the contribution of agricultural biodiversity to enhanced food security and improved nutrition and ways in which agricultural biodiversity can deliver environmental benefi ts and ecosystem services such as pollination and soil fertility. Work will continue to ensure that the needs of all actors in the chain that links farmers to consumers are met, forging links with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector and others to do so. IPGRI also recognizes that it is not a development agency. It will work with partners to ensure that the benefi ts of agricultural biodiversity are scaled up and widely applied."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"Ensuring that agricultural biodiversity is conserved, characterized and used to improve productivity. This area of work covers the ways in which people can make use of agricultural biodiversity, especially to develop more productive crops and more productive farm and forest systems. It will encompass techniques for monitoring the status of biodiversity in production systems and improved methods of on-farm conservation. Part of this will include the provision of technical advice to local, national and international players and the identifi cation and dissemination of best practices. This is one aspect of the information that must be available if people are to make better use of agricultural biodiversity. IPGRI will support documentation systems and offer improved access to information as a global service. IPGRI also has a well-defi ned role in relation to improving the productivity of bananas and plantains, coconuts and cacao and will strengthen and expand these efforts."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Generating knowledge about agricultural biodiversity through research, and making such knowledge available. Much still needs to be done to document the impact of agricultural biodiversity on a range of pressing problems and to ensure that the results of such investigations are widely available. This area of work will identify research needs and seek to infl uence the global agenda to recognize the value of agricultural biodiversity. Specifi c research topics will be sought in concert with partners, making full use of participatory and multidisciplinary approaches. The people who make use of agricultural biodiversity are themselves a source of valuable information and knowledge, and IPGRI will continue to help farmers and others to document, protect and disseminate their traditional knowledge about diversity."}]},{"head":"200Annual Report","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Developing human and institutional capacity to make effective and sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity. IPGRI's partnership approach to work ensures that every activity carries with it an element of capacity development for its partners. Capacity development is thus an integral part of almost every activity IPGRI undertakes. However it will also be an area of work in its own right, focusing in particular on opportunities to extend IPGRI's reach. Activities will include training trainers, working with NGOs and others to promote farmer-friendly approaches, supporting the inclusion of ideas about agricultural biodiversity in schools and universities and supporting the training of individual scientists within IPGRI."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"Analyzing policies and fostering an environment that supports the use of agricultural biodiversity. It is vital that restrictive policies or perverse economic incentives do not hamper efforts to deploy agricultural biodiversity. IPGRI will play a leadership role in policy matters as they relate to genetic resources and agricultural biodiversity. Against an increasingly complex international legal background, countries need the ability to develop suitable policies and assess their impact on the use of genetic resources. IPGRI will work with countries to ensure that they can formulate, assess and implement policies that support the use and conservation of agricultural biodiversity. In the international arena, IPGRI will continue to provide impartial technical advice on genetic resources to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. We will also seek to promote policies that are supportive of biodiversity with regional and global bodies, such as the World Trade Organization, whose decisions may have an impact on farm and forest systems."}]},{"head":"Raising awareness of the values of agricultural biodiversity","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"and the importance of the conservation of genetic resources. An important task for IPGRI, according to the stakeholder survey, is to make people-especially decision-makers in the developing world-aware of the importance of agricultural biodiversity. Accordingly, IPGRI will use all means at its disposal to ensure that the activities of its other fi ve areas of work are given wide exposure. In this way we hope to awaken everyone, from highly-placed politicians to the rural people they serve, to the importance of agricultural biodiversity for development and improved well-being."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The six areas of work that serve the overall mission are refl ected in IPGRI's new mission statement."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Once the strategy and activities had been decided on it became clear that the structural organization would have to change in response. By the end of 2004 the broad outline of a new structure had been agreed."}]},{"head":"The structure","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Four Programmes will carry out the bulk of project work. They will be supported by three Research and Support Units, which will also support the existing fi ve Regional Directors in their new role as the local voice of IPGRI. Regional Directors will advocate the importance of agricultural biodiversity, support local networks, assist resource mobilization and provide local expertise and advice on issues related to agricultural biodiversity. A key role of the Regional Directors is to provide guidance and advice to national decision-makers on genetic resources policy issues."}]},{"head":"IPGRI undertakes, encourages","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"and supports research and other activities on the use and conservation of agricultural biodiversity, especially genetic resources, to create more productive, resilient and sustainable harvests. Our aim is to promote the greater wellbeing of people, especially poor people in developing countries, by helping them to achieve food security, to improve their health and nutrition, to boost their incomes, and to conserve the natural resources on which they depend. IPGRI works with a global range of partners to maximize impact, to develop capacity and to ensure that all stakeholders have an effective voice."}]},{"head":"Mission","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The Diversity for Livelihoods Programme aims to conduct research on, and demonstrate the social, economic and environmental benefi ts of, agricultural biodiversity. The Programme also aims to promote the use of agricultural biodiversity to improve livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The Understanding and Managing Biodiversity Programme aims to ensure that agricultural biodiversity is conserved, characterized and used to improve productivity, and to ensure that knowledge about agricultural biodiversity is readily available to breeders, policy-makers and other stakeholders."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"The Programme on Improving Livelihoods in Commodity Based Systems coordinates IPGRI's work on three globally important commodity crops: banana, coconut and cacao. The Programme starts with the conservation and exchange of genetic resources of these crops and facilitating their improvement. It then takes a 'commodity chain' approach to researching the management and use of biodiversity from farmer's fi eld to market, promoting the greater use of crop diversity for improving livelihoods. Through this Programme, IPGRI carries out its responsibilities for the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) and the International Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT)."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"The Global Partnerships Programme coordinates and facilitates IPGRI's participation in regional networks and in international fora to promote collaboration in the realm of genetic resources and the greater use of genetic resources to improve the lives of the poor."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"The three Research and Support Units (RSUs) coordinate all of IPGRI's work in essential cross-cutting areas, namely policy, capacity development and public awareness. In addition to their coordination role, the RSUs provide technical backstopping, conduct research and carry out activities related to policy, capacity development and public awareness."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"The Policy and Law Unit makes contributions to genetic resources policy development at global, regional, national and CGIAR System-wide levels. The Project is also the administrative home for the CGIAR Central Advisory Service on Intellectual Property (CAS-IP) and provides the secretariat for the Genetic Resources Policy Committee (GRPC) of the CGIAR."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"The Capacity Development Unit aims to strengthen the human capacity of developing countries to enable them to better manage and maintain their agricultural biodiversity."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"The Public Awareness Unit focuses on increasing the awareness of the potential of agricultural biodiversity to improve human well-being and of the work that is being done by IPGRI and the CGIAR to harness this potential for the benefi t of people."},{"index":9,"size":67,"text":"The new strategy includes novel elements and approaches, but it is not a radical reformulation. It is, however, a bold change in emphasis and focus. The new structure will likewise require fl exibility and commitment. But on behalf of the poor for whom it works, the organization as a whole is dedicated to the lofty ambition of making a real contribution to meeting the Millennium Development Goals."}]},{"head":"A package of documentation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"about the strategy is available on request from [email protected] A core element of IPGRI's new strategy is to use agricultural biodiversity to deliver improved health. This is founded upon an appreciation of the links between dietary diversity and better nutrition, which in turn delivers better health. Qualitative evidence, a few small-scale studies and extrapolation from existing data have convinced IPGRI and its partners of the value of this approach. However, two key audiences-policy-makers and the rural and urban poor who could most benefi t from dietary diversity-have yet to be fully persuaded. A new multidisciplinary project, funded by Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), aims to do so by undertaking solid research and working to make people more aware of the value of dietary diversity."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Four countries are involved-Kenya, Senegal, Tanzania and Uganda-with activities most advanced in Kenya. In each, the problems are roughly the same. Food insecurity and what has been called the nutrition transition are accompanied by a simplifi ed diet; people have abandoned their traditional, diverse and nutritionally rich diet and eat simple, energy-rich foods. The result is a double burden of under-nutrition and non-communicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes and heart disease. The project, with a multitude of collaborators, is seeking ways to use diversity to tackle the double burden."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"A crucial fi rst step is to discover just how diverse diets are and the factors that infl uence the choices people make."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"In Kenya, a team will survey more than 800 families in and around Nairobi using a variety of techniques to explore what people eat and why they make the choices they do. In preparation, IPGRI and the National Museums of Kenya collaborated to trawl the markets of Nairobi for diversity. They found more than 800 traditional plant species and varieties on sale, and digital photographs of all of them have been compiled into a book that will help the household surveys to be more accurate and more complete. to the benefi ts of traditional vegetables, will be turned off if they cannot fi nd them in the shops."},{"index":5,"size":179,"text":"Increased demand refl ects the impact of the project's most advanced activities so far, four promotional events. African Traditional Food Week, held in Nairobi from 26 June to 3 July in 2004, gave Kenyans an opportunity to re-examine their diet choices in relation to their health. There were street displays, an exhibit of traditional foods with competitions for recipes, seminars and lectures and a symposium specifi cally to alert farmers to the benefi ts of traditional vegetables for better health and improved income. The week devoted one afternoon to a round table for professionals and policy-makers, graced by the presence of two members of parliament, who provided the project with valuable advice for engaging with other policy-makers. Local radio and television stations and newspapers gave the events considerable coverage, touching as they did on fundamental human concerns like health, and that took the message to an even greater audience than attended in person. The team reports receiving a fl ood of enquiries after the event, including requests for seed and for the specifi c nutrient content of certain vegetables."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"Other events included Kenyatta University Culture Week and the Nairobi International Show. Both offered an opportunity to give visiting members of the public information about food, diversity and nutrition. The interest shown by farmers at the Nairobi International Show suggests that supplies of traditional vegetables may be about to expand. Another important meeting for the project was Kenyatta Hospital's Nutrition Week, held in October 2004, which provided an opportunity to work specifi cally with health-care professionals and policy-makers, with whom it will be vital to forge strong alliances."},{"index":7,"size":91,"text":"Kenya will focus on the household survey and marketing studies during 2005. The other three countries are ramping up their activities, having gained much valuable advice from the Kenyan experience. They too will be surveying consumption patterns and working to promote traditional vegetables, with methodologies that will allow comparisons to be made among the countries and across the region. The data coming in over the life of the project will, it is hoped, help to convince all concerned that increased dietary diversity is a cure to biological and economic ills alike."}]},{"head":"Further information [email protected]","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Kenyan Minister Lenah Kilimo drops the flag to start the Walk for Health, just one of many activities to promote a more traditional, nutritious diet.","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Stevie Mann/IPGRI Patrick Maundu/IPGRI"}]},{"head":"Learni ng to be more effecti ve","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"It is a truism that those who do not understand history are condemned to repeat it, one that applies to the work of the Alliance of Future Harvest Centres as much as anything. If the successes, and failures, of past work do not inform and help to amend planned projects, then an important source of assistance is being ignored. The same applies to the CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) System as a whole; if it is to change and be relevant against tomorrow's political background as well as today's, it must make good use of past experience."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"IPGRI had already started to investigate techniques for institutional learning and change (ILAC) in its own operations and became aware that several other centres and Systemwide efforts were also interested in pursuing these approaches. The result was a grassroots ILAC Initiative, funded originally by the Rockefeller Foundation and the German development agency, GTZ. The Initiative is hosted at IPGRI and coordinated by IPGRI staff. Over the past two years it set out to explore ways for the CGIAR and its partners to improve their impact on the livelihoods of poor people, by fostering learning from successful and unsuccessful efforts and by using the results to improve ongoing and future efforts."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"The ILAC Initiative adopted four complementary strategies to further its work. It tried to develop a supportive environment among the donor community and among CGIAR governing bodies. It fostered a culture of innovation, learning and change within CGIAR centres and programmes. To do that required managers and researchers to develop the knowledge, attitudes and skills to make use of ILAC. And fi nally, the Initiative encouraged management to be supportive of ILAC."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Some donors are themselves going through a process of institutional learning and change and are eager to share their experiences with the CGIAR centres and to learn from the CGIAR's efforts. "}]},{"head":"Learning to be more effective","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"An IPGRIled effort is helping CGIAR centres and their partners to be more useful and more focused in their work"},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Building skills and changing attitudes have been addressed through a series of workshops and publications. Meetings to train people and to help them develop projects for supporting ILAC within their own centres were well attended and successful. Publications include an introduction to the concepts of ILAC, written by the ILAC team, and a series of ILAC briefs introducing specifi c ideas. All of these and other sources of information are being made available through a dedicated ILAC Web site."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"The ILAC Initiative has now come to the end of its preparatory phase and, as befi ts its subject, has been able to stand back and use the techniques it has explored to shape the next phase. For example, it has become clear that the move from principles to action in the centres requires considerably more face-to-face interaction than had been anticipated. This has implications for the time and budgets of ILAC team members, centre staff and partners, which have to be refl ected in proposals. A shift in traditional management perspectives is also needed. The current emphasis is on accountability and compliance, while to truly benefi t from ILAC, management needs to embrace and value learning and change. That calls for a greater role for humanresources management and for monitoring and evaluation processes that home in on learning."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"A proposal for a second phase is being developed. One of its key components will be an ILAC Innovation Fund, which will allow Future Harvest Centres and System-wide programmes to experiment with ILAC. This is an essential element in making the concepts of ILAC part and parcel of the way the entire CGIAR System does business. When it succeeds, the System's accumulated history will enable it to improve the effectiveness of agricultural research programmes in contributing to sustainable poverty reduction. "}]},{"head":"Further information [email protected] and see the ILAC","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ILAC donors and partners","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Date pal m proj ect","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"In three North African countries-Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia-an ambitious project is transforming the lives of oasis dwellers who depend on date palms. The three countries, however, assess their success differently. Algeria and Tunisia have made most progress in increasing their capacity to multiply and distribute date palm varieties, to expand the range of diversity being grown by farmers. They feel they have made least progress in raising public awareness of the importance of date palm diversity and sharing best practices. Morocco, by contrast, has done most on public awareness and least on multiplying and distributing date palm diversity."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Date palms stand at the centre of complex ecological, economic and social networks. This is what necessitated the project's combined approach of rigorous science and a participatory methodology that fully involves the farmers and their communities. And while this combination has made some of the project's activities expensive and diffi cult to manage, it has also resulted in far greater commitment among the participants. The ostensibly simple matter of multiplying and making varieties available, for example, has been complicated, and enhanced, by the desire to take farmers' needs into consideration."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"On the scientifi c side, there was a need to establish and equip laboratories and train technicians to make effective use of them. This has been done in all three countries. Farmers then participated in the selection of which varieties to bring into the laboratories. As a result, more than 70 farmer-selected varieties, many of them rare or extremely rare, are now stored in vitro as laboratory microplants. There were fewer than 10 before the project began. So the project has enhanced ex situ conservation. It has also, thanks to farmer participation, identifi ed about 200 new varieties at the project sites."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"The microplants will also make it possible to distribute healthy planting material of rare and soughtafter varieties. In the meantime, farmers have been clamouring for particular varieties that will not be available in that form for some while. "}]},{"head":"Date palm project at the halfway mark","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The project has worked with local supermarkets to promote date diversity."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"2004 Annual Report more than 20 varieties and the number of varieties being grown is on the increase. Almost more important than the offshoots themselves, however, is the capacity development that went into distributing them. The project helped 11 NGOs and CBOs to obtain a total of more than US$500 000 from the Global Environment Facility's (GEF) Small Grants Programme. This support enables the farmers to get the varieties they need and multiplies the impact of the project's direct work."},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"In some respects the demand for more varieties refl ects the project's successful efforts to meet its second objective, of reversing the genetic erosion caused by markets. The project and its partners have revived traditional products made from dates and date palms and explored new markets and products. An interesting role for the project has been to act as a pump-primer by creating a small market for certain products. The project buys specifi c varieties to exhibit at diversity fairs, which helps to spread the word and expand the market. Moreover the project also bought other products, such as baskets made from date palm fronds in which to show the date varieties and make them available for tasting. Promoting artisanal activities like basket-making has particularly strengthened the position of women in the oasis communities. Men control the major cash crops. Women make use of date palm byproducts and lesser varieties. Both have further benefi ted from the introduction of early and late date palm varieties, which have extended the season during which dates can bring in an income."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"Much remains to be done to reverse the impact of market concentration on genetic diversity. The project has commissioned crucial studies of regional and European markets for dates and is in preliminary discussions with partners from the private sector to place new products in new markets. In Algeria, for example, pastries based on dates, products made from date palm fronds and chopped date leaves for cattle feed are all helping to boost incomes."},{"index":5,"size":270,"text":"In Tunisia and the other countries merchants and consumers nationally are showing interest in traditional varieties, which suggests not only that the goal of reducing genetic erosion is being achieved, but also that fears about not doing enough to promote public awareness may be misplaced. Already some innovative approaches have been implemented. From the outset, the project has been working with women and NGOs to gather recipes and traditional information about the ways in which different varieties can be used in the kitchen. A book of traditional recipes based on dates will be published in 2005. In partnership with the Association de Sauvegarde de la Médina, an NGO in Tozeur, Tunisia, the project planted more than 1200 male date palms along 10 kilometres of road. In Algeria, the municipality of Ghardaia is adopting a similar approach, planting endangered date palm varieties in the town squares to boost conservation. This kind of effort has multiple impacts; it improves the urban environment and preserves genetic diversity at the same time as providing a focal point for public awareness activities. In Algeria, similar objectives have been achieved by organizing date fairs, where the public, including policy-makers and farmers, can experience the diversity of dates and date products and begin to appreciate the importance of making use of more date varieties. In all three countries farmers and policy-makers are now more aware of agricultural diversity and have indicated that, thanks to training and workshops aimed at raising their awareness, they now understand that working with more varieties is in their interest, a clear refl ection of the impact of the project's public awareness activities."},{"index":6,"size":163,"text":"This selection from the project's many achievements gives some indication of the impact it is having. The remainder of the project will continue to build on the work, harnessing the power of the participatory approach and forging new partnerships to continue to promote date palm diversity. During Phase II EUFORGEN operated through fi ve species-based networks. In Phase III the species networks have been reduced to three; one for conifers, one for broadleaves that form stands and one for broadleaves that are scattered. An entirely new thematic network is being created to serve forest management. It will bring together forest managers, scientists and policy-makers, and one of its tasks will be to develop protocols to evaluate the consequences for genetic resources of different management regimes and to identify genetically appropriate management practices. In addition a working group on information is being established to support all the EUFORGEN networks in their efforts to collate and distribute reliable information about forest genetic resources in Europe."},{"index":7,"size":207,"text":"EUFORGEN has produced several concrete outputs, including technical guidelines for genetic conservation and use of forest trees, long-term conservation strategies for forest genetic resources and public awareness materials. It has also provided a useful platform for partners to develop large cooperative projects in Europe and generally helped to strengthen national efforts. The new Phase III will build on and amplify these efforts.  I van den Bergh/IPGRI had once been renowned for its bananas, in the late 1990s it was devastated by banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) and had never recovered. BBTV is carried within the plant and spreads from plant to plant and when infected suckers are used to establish new plants. But BBTV is one of the easiest diseases to remove when plants are grown in tissue culture and the disease-free plantlets gave the project a fl ying start. Reinfection does occur and the boys do occasionally see plants with symptoms of BBTV on the Virlanie farm, but they get rid of them immediately, as they were taught, and that helps to keep the disease under control. Now their neighbours, having seen what healthy stock and good management can do, have asked whether they can buy plantlets and the training to make full use of them."}]},{"head":"Further information [email protected]","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Support for","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EUFORGEN Phase II participating countries","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Promote practical implementation of gene conservation and appropriate use of genetic resources as an integral part of sustainable forest management","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"The bananas are a good deal for Virlanie. The homes in Manila buy them from the farm in Balayan for about 25% less than they would have to pay in the market, and the children in the city appreciate this secure source of healthy and nourishing food. The Filipinos prefer Lakatan, one of the local cultivars, while foreign volunteers at Virlanie prefer FHIA-23, an introduced hybrid more like the bananas they are used to. Another new hybrid, FHIA-18, is a cooking banana and the boys are now being trained by Cavite State University to make value-added banana chips from this variety."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"The project is proving a success in two ways. There are the local farmers clamouring to use the same techniques to get back into banana production. And the Virlanie farm has now asked to trial three more new hybrids. The boys are reaping the rewards of their efforts with the additional satisfaction of having proved their sceptical neighbours wrong."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"The Global Crop Diversity Trust is a joint initiative of IPGRI, acting on behalf of the Future Harvest Centres, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). It supports an endowment that will fund in perpetuity the urgent and chronic fi nancial shortages that face the world's most important collections of crop diversity. The Trust also supports priority upgrading and capacity-building activities. In 2004 the Trust broke the US$50 million fundraising mark, adopted its fi rst business plan, launched an ambitious process to support the development of regional and crop conservation strategies and made its fi rst grants."},{"index":4,"size":247,"text":"In February, the Directors General of FAO and IPGRI conveyed to governments the Trust's constitution and the agreement to establish the organization, which enables it to operate under international law. These two crucial instruments would enter into force once they had been signed by seven states, including at least four developing countries and representing at least fi ve of the seven regions into which FAO divides the world. The agreement was opened for signature on 1 April 2004, and on that day was signed by the governments of Egypt and Cape Verde. On 21 October 2004 Sweden became the seventh state to sign the agreement, and the Trust came into being. On the programme side, the IPEE adopted a set of fi rst principles to be met for a collection holder to be eligible for funding from the Trust (see box). The principles are further elaborated by specifi c criteria, which in turn must be met for collections to be eligible for long-term funding. The criteria were also adopted by the IPEE. The principles and criteria are part of the Trust's efforts to ensure that funding decisions are as transparent and reasoned as possible. To assist this process further the Trust embarked on the development of a series of regional and crop conservation strategies. As well as fostering collaboration and greater rationalization in conservation, the strategies will identify the most important and neediest crop diversity collections that are eligible for funding and that should be given priority."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Eight regional and 10 crop conservation strategies were under development by the end of 2004. It is expected that all of the regional strategies will be completed by the end of 2005 and 36 crop strategies (covering the crops and forages included in the multilateral system of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture) will be completed in 2006."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"The Trust, in working towards the development and maintenance of effi cient and effective ex situ conservation systems, will apply four basic principles that must be met in order for a crop diversity collection to be eligible for fi nancial support:"},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"Interim eligibility principles","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The process of elaborating the regional and crop conservation strategies is revealing the urgent needs of some of the world's most important collections. The Trust can fund key upgrading and capacity-building for priority collections, to ensure that these collections function effectively before it commits to supporting them over the long term. As a result of the development of the crop and regional strategies the Trust has decided to make fi ve such grants so far. Pilot project for Malaysia and the International Rice Research Institute to develop an accession-level information resource for rice (US$23 000 over one year)"},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"The Trust operates as one element of the funding strategy of the International Treaty. In November 2004 the Trust presented a progress report to the second meeting of the FAO Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which was acting as the Interim Committee of the International Treaty. The Interim Committee unanimously welcomed the progress that the Trust had made in such a short time. Earlier in the year, the effort to establish the Trust had been welcomed by the 7th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The recognition of the Trust's relevance and importance in these two vital international bodies will, it is hoped, help to win the new organization many more friends and supporters in the coming years."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"For further information [email protected] Seeds genebanks in developing countries often have a hard time fulfi lling their mandate to conserve plant genetic resources for future use. Lack of funds, equipment malfunction and unreliable power all conspire to make it very diffi cult for genebank curators to manage their collections. Low-input methods for seed storage do exist but have not been well documented or scientifi cally assessed for their impact on seed longevity. IPGRI, with the support of the Quebec Ministry of International Relations and the System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), recently used a literature review, questionnaires and fi eld surveys to pull together information on low-cost seed-storage techniques and to see how these might be relevant to long-term conservation."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"One of the problems is that few people have studied low-cost storage because it takes place within the farmer's house or at a community level and so is hidden from view. Also, most seed is planted the following season rather than stored long-term. As a result there are very few peer-reviewed publications on the topic. However, a survey of those that do exist, and of the more extensive 'grey' literature, shows that in general farmers do not distinguish food from seed at harvest time and they usually store them together. When they are stored separately, farmers use whatever is available to store seed; containers of clay in various forms, straw, palm leaves, gourds, wood, leather, glass, plastic and metal were all recorded. Sometimes seeds are not threshed but are stored on the cob (maize), in panicles (rice and sorghum) or in their pods (beans and peanuts)."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"The biggest danger to stored seeds is insect pests and farmers use a range of techniques to mitigate the threat. Some mix local plants, their identity often a closely guarded family secret, with the seeds to protect them. Wood ash and sand are also mixed with the grain. This fi lls the spaces between the seeds, making it more diffi cult for insects to move through the seeds. Other inert materials, such as mineral dust, may help to protect the seeds by scratching the insect's body so that it dies of desiccation. Many families store their seeds in lofts above cooking fi res; smoke accumulates and drives away insect pests."}]},{"head":"Low-cost technologies for seed conservation","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"A less common technique is to store seeds in sealed containers from which the oxygen has been removed, usually by placing a small lamp with a burning wick inside the container before it is sealed. The fl ame consumes the oxygen, without which the insects die."}]},{"head":"Cold and dry seeds store better","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"It is important to dry seeds thoroughly for effective storage. While solar-powered dryers have been developed for food, these have not been tested in the context of germplasm conservation. Measuring moisture content is another problem. Drying ovens and moisture meters are expensive. A low-cost alternative is to use salt that has been sun-dried for a couple of days. The salt is mixed with the seeds in a clean, dry glass jar and shaken for a minute. If the salt sticks to the glass then the seeds probably contain more than 15% moisture and should be dried further. If the salt does not stick then the seeds are dry enough to be put into storage."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Refrigeration is diffi cult where power is expensive and erratic and equipment liable to malfunction. There are low-cost alternatives, such as passive cooling by evaporation, heat Y. Morimoto/IPGRI 21 2004 Annual Report exchange or insulation, which all deserve further exploration by genebanks. An interesting avenue to explore might be the use of solar medical refrigerators, currently employed in remote hospitals and to store vaccines for rural areas."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Organizations are aware of the diffi culties and are looking at alternative solutions. In response to a questionnaire, people in Benin, Malawi and Sudan said they were experimenting with different methods for drying seeds. Seychelles is exploring low-cost approaches to seed extraction and drying. Mali is using modifi ed-atmosphere packaging-high nitrogen to prevent insect damage and to reduce the seeds' metabolism. And Ghana plans to study buried storage in cool places such as forests and to use toasted rice to dry seeds."}]},{"head":"Farmer techniques for seed storage","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The study visited and interviewed farmers in fi ve countries of East (Ethiopia and Kenya) and West (Benin, Ghana and Mali) Africa. Most were not enthusiastic about long-term storage. They keep a stock for the next planting season, sometimes with a reserve for the season after in case of crop failure. But once it is clear that there will not be an outright crop failure they eat or sell the reserve."},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"Near the towns most farmers used methods taught to them by extension workers, such as drying seeds in the sun, mixing them with insecticides and storing them in synthetic containers at specifi c locations within the house. In rural areas traditional techniques dominate, with specifi c procedures for different crops in different places. Rural farmers are also much more likely to store seeds for relatively long periods. In Benin, for example, farmers say they still get good germination from millet and cowpea seeds after four years stored with crushed pepper and tamarind leaves in clay pots. They take the seeds out every few months to dry them again, which probably helps. Farmers in Mali and Ghana use similar traditional methods and also claim that seeds last at least four years. In Ethiopia, granaries made of mud are reputed to store seeds of teff for up to 15 years. It would be interesting to test the germination of these seeds under controlled conditions. Some farmers in Ethiopia, Ghana and Somalia use anaerobic conditions to keep their seeds longer than one season. They dig a hole in the ground, usually in the shade of a tree to keep the seeds cool, and line the hole with cow dung, which seals it. The seeds, previously dried and stored in an airtight container, are placed in the lined pit which is then covered with soil."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"The study has collected a wide range of information in what is the fi rst step towards alleviating some of the problems that beset the conservation of genetic resources in resource-poor countries. Although they may not substitute for conventional, hightechnology conservation, with some exploration and improvement these techniques could offer at least medium-term storage, reasonable enough under the circumstances. Some techniques, such as smoke treatments and anaerobic storage, deserve scientifi c scrutiny, and further work, in partnership with those who develop technologies such as solar dryers and refrigerators, could be very valuable."}]},{"head":"Further information [email protected], [email protected]","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":308,"text":"Pests and diseases are the biggest constraint to banana production in Asia and the Pacifi c, as identifi ed by the 15 members of BAPNET, the Banana Asia-Pacifi c Network. As a result, BAPNET asked the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) to mobilize the resources needed to overcome these threats, which resulted in the development and dissemination of new high-yielding and resistant varieties and strategies of integrated pest management to deal with the most important pests and diseases of banana. A key component of such strategies is to start with clean, diseasefree planting material. But this raises a further constraint: the production and maintenance of such material can be a costly and technical exercise, so how are impoverished rural farmers, who depend on bananas for a great part of their livelihoods, to get access to both the planting materials and the expertise to make use of them? A total of 23 accessions of new hybrids and local varieties were selected for stocking the NRMDCs. This began in 2001 and ended in 2004 with 17 NRMDCs stocked and operational (see table ). All are functioning well as repositories, and all except the Secretariat of the Pacifi c Community are evaluating the material. SPC has no land available itself, and relies on its own members for fi eld tests of the varieties. the public and private sectors, who deliver plantlets and the necessary training to farmer groups throughout Luzon. By late 2004 more than 77 500 plantlets of local and introduced varieties had been distributed. About 120 farmers received training at a series of six workshops. Results vary from site to site, but overall the introduced hybrids are showing higher productivity but are not as acceptable in the market. Processing into value-added foods may be a way to derive more benefi t from the hybrids."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"In August 2004 one of the partnerships, with Ilocos Sur Polytechnic State College, launched an ambitious programme called 'Bananas in Every Home'. The project gave suckers of improved varieties to 10 households in each of two communities. The idea is that the householders plant these bananas in their own backyards and when their plants develop suckers they pass these on to their neighbours, so that in the end all households enjoy the benefi ts of more productive plants."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"The Philippine experience points the way for many of the NRMDCs to improve their service to farmers. There are other opportunities too. Improved communication between the countries would help to disseminate improved varieties and information about them. Farmers generally are impressed by the results they get from disease-free plantlets, although the high cost of plantlets compared to suckers remains an obstacle. Consumer acceptance is another. Shoppers are unfamiliar with the new varieties and tend to prefer what they are used to. As a result many farmers have decided to wait and see how market demand develops before adopting the new varieties. It has been suggested that the NRMDCs could be the focus for promotional campaigns to boost demand for the more productive varieties."},{"index":4,"size":255,"text":"The centres are becoming self-sustaining and are establishing partnerships with other institutions to help support their work. The success of the NRMDCs has resulted in a follow-up programme to evaluate and promote banana germplasm, which is establishing additional experiments on farms and at the research stations. Trials were planted in Viet Nam and Taiwan in 2004 and other countries will be joining in coming years. In addition, the NRMDCs will continue to receive new sets of improved varieties for testing as these become available from partners and so will have a continuing role in promoting the effective use of banana diversity. A further benefi t is that as farmers come to see the benefi ts of using clean planting material, and come to the NRMDC and its partners for supplies, the centres are in a position to offer the additional training that farmers need to launch improved production systems. Many of the audiences IPGRI and other agricultural organizations want to reach simply do not understand the issues surrounding agricultural biodiversity. At a recent workshop, for example, participants were confused about the differences between plant genetic resources (PGR) and genetically engineered organisms. They did not know who was responsible for agricultural development or PGR conservation in their country and globally. And as for nature conservation in general, many thought it concerned only pollution and global warming. And these participants were journalists. If journalists are less than fully informed, how are they to fulfi l their role as key partners in IPGRI's efforts to raise public awareness?"}]},{"head":"Further information [email protected]","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"That was the main reason why IPGRI's regional offi ce for Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) brought more than 30 people from six countries to the workshop in the fi rst place: to establish a Public Awareness Network for Agricultural Biodiversity (PANAB)."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"The workshop took place at Ghardaia Oasis in Algeria during October 2003. Representatives from Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia gathered to share their experiences and to formulate national and regional strategies to make people aware of the importance of agricultural biodiversity. One outcome, made possible by having so many journalists with such wide experience and regional coverage present in one place at one time, was the development of a full proposal for PANAB. Donors are now being sought to fund the proposal, which tackles from a regional perspective one of the most important tasks that stakeholders identifi ed for IPGRI to undertake in its new strategy: to raise awareness of the contribution that agricultural biodiversity can make to reducing hunger and poverty."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Participants defi ned their task as to inform people about the issues that surround agricultural biodiversity and plant genetic resources. This is especially important for research-based centres such as IPGRI, which in the past have been accused of leaving their results on the shelf. Producing and distributing reports on a regular basis is one important method for making audiences aware of research results and how they can be used. Participants also highlighted the need to go further and engage with policymakers and the media to ensure that they fully understand the issues and impacts of agricultural biodiversity."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Regional meetings where participants can continue to gather and share their experiences and plans and which can bring researchers and the mass media together will be important components of PANAB. So too will be the development of new approaches to engage with a wide range of audiences.  2004. 'In situ conservation of crop wild relatives through enhanced information management and fi eld application' aims to develop rational, cost-effective approaches to conserving the diversity of the wild relatives that are so crucial to the future of plant breeding."}]},{"head":"Further information","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"In fi ve countries, and with fi ve partners (see box), IPGRI is helping to safeguard the future of crop wild relatives."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"There are four components to the project. An international information system aims to provide a portal through which people around the world can use the Internet to search for information about the identity, conservation status, distribution and potential uses of crop wild relatives. National information systems underpin the international system, and national partners are analyzing their existing information and constructing the building blocks of the international system. They will also test the effectiveness of the international system to support conservation decisions in each country. The third component is capacity development, enhancing the ability of the partner countries to come up with effective strategies for conservation and monitoring of crop wild relatives. Finally, the project aims to increase public awareness of the importance of crop wild relatives for agricultural biodiversity and sustainable livelihoods."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Two meetings brought project partners together to begin building the international information system. As with all such systems, it is absolutely crucial that data are associated with the correct plant population. Lax naming bedevils all such attempts, and the meetings agreed on rules to ensure the quality of the plant names attached to the data. They also agreed a minimum set of information categories to be included in the international and national systems and started work on a descriptor list that will enable the physical characteristics of the plants to be accurately depicted. Country representatives who attended these meetings have taken their conclusions home and started to establish their national systems."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"One of the crucial issues for the project is whether each country has the capacity to put in place policies and laws that will help to protect crop wild relatives. A fi rst step is to assess the current state of play. 2004 Annual Report that covers biodiversity as such, and little consideration of plant genetic resources or benefi t sharing. A workshop to address these concerns with Malagasy policy-makers is planned for early 2005, and similar assessments and workshops will take place in the other four countries covered by the project."},{"index":5,"size":144,"text":"One of the constraints on all efforts to use and conserve plant genetic resources is a general lack of commitment and support, and that often results from a lack of awareness of the importance of plant genetic resources for improved livelihoods and sustainable agriculture. The crop wild relatives project is committed to enhancing awareness in order to build support, and will undertake a variety of national and international efforts to promote agricultural biodiversity and the importance of wild relatives. An essential fi rst step is to assess the current level of awareness among various target audiences, which anecdotally is believed to be very low in all the countries. IPGRI has developed a model survey, which the country partners are modifying to suit their individual needs. The idea is to repeat the survey towards the end of the project to gauge changes in public awareness."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"The wild relatives of crops will continue to be important as farmers and plant breeders seek the qualities they need to deal with changes in conditions. Wild relatives have already provided resistance to several pests and diseases and the ability to withstand stresses such as drought. The global project will help to ensure that they can continue to do so."}]},{"head":"Further information [email protected]","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"In The working group was asked to consider sociocultural, economic and policy environment issues and processes that would need to be considered along with the debate on suitability (or not) of GE and GMOs."}]},{"head":"Hypotheses for working groups","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Geneti c engi neeri ng i n Afri ca and tuberculosis. But the group also acknowledged the pressure to identify what farmers really need as they themselves see it and to guide research to fulfi l those needs, and to develop criteria and indicators to ensure that any specifi c deployment of GMOs could be assessed for its appropriateness, environmental sustainability, safety and contribution to overall food security."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"The second, more sceptical, working group pointed out that there were suitable alternative pathways that made GMOs unnecessary, the more so in view of possible risks. This group worried that GE and GMOs could narrow farmers' options and that they do nothing to address farmers' fundamental problems, such as lack of access to credit and the hazards of climate change. Food sovereignty and the right to save, use and exchange seeds were additional concerns. There are, however, research options that, the group concluded, were currently under-funded because of the emphasis on genetic engineering, especially by private industry. Conventional plant breeding, biological control and integrated pest management, organic farming, conventional mixed cropping and other tools were in danger of being overlooked in the rush to apply one tool-genetic engineering-to solve all problems."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"The third working group, while ostensibly neutral on GE and GMOs, was tasked to look at the social, cultural, economic and legal environment within which GMOs might be put to use. Not surprisingly, biosafety and intellectual property rights dominated its deliberations. On both topics, countries vary widely in their capacity to deal with the issues raised; this is clearly an area in which more needs to be done, by outside agencies and by promoting the sharing of best practices among the countries in the region. More public consultation would also be valuable. The working group also identifi ed a series of other challenging constraints, among them poor infrastructure, the depletion of the workforce by HIV/AIDS, bad governance, land tenure systems and ethical and religious considerations. While not specifi c to the question of genetic engineering, these too will have to be tackled if GMOs are going to be useful in development."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Overall, the participants were pleased with the workshop outcomes and were able to unanimously endorse the overall synthesis and conclusions. It became clear that genetic engineering is neither wholly good nor wholly bad, and that a case-by-case approach, with due regard to alternative pathways and political issues, is likely to be the most fruitful option. "}]},{"head":"Further information [email protected]","index":36,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IPGRI's projects","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"All IPGRI activities are carried out within one of 15 projects managed by the Programmes and the Research and Support Units Diversity for Livelihoods Programme Project E01 Agricultural Biodiversity and Ecosystems is concerned with developing practices that use agricultural biodiversity to maintain and improve productivity, resilience and resistance in production systems; developing procedures and practices that use diversity in production systems to support ecosystem services for livelihoods; and securing the diversity of the wild-cultivated interface to support livelihoods."}]},{"head":"Project E02 Community Management of Agricultural","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Biodiversity is concerned with helping farmers and communities to manage and mobilize agricultural biodiversity by determining the social processes that contribute to the maintenance of diversity and identifying ways to strengthen these processes."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Project E03 Agricultural Biodiversity, Human Health and Welfare aims to increase knowledge and awareness about the strategic roles that biodiversity plays in human health and welfare, and to increase the use of biodiversity in food and nutritional security, income generation, control of pests and diseases, and in culture, aesthetics and recreation."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Understanding and Managing Biodiversity Programme Project E04 Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity aims to enhance the effectiveness of conservation and management of agricultural biodiversity, both at genepool and ecosystem levels; and to assess and monitor genetic diversity and genetic erosion."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Project E05 Use of Genetic Resources to Improve Livelihoods aims to increase the use of conserved germplasm through the development of tools and methodologies to identify useful traits within conserved germplasm for the benefit of farmers and breeders."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Project E06 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Forest Biodiversity focuses on developing knowledge, methods and tools for the conservation and sustainable use of forest biodiversity for use by national institutions; and on strengthening institutional and policy frameworks for forest biodiversity."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Project E07 Management, Access and Use of Genetic Resources Information aims to improve the management of, access to, and use of genetic resources information through standardizing information gathering and management, facilitating exchange of and access to information (including that generated by the CGIAR), and capacity building."},{"index":7,"size":49,"text":"Improving Livelihoods in Commodity Based Systems Programme Project E08 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Coconut and Other Commodities aims to promote the optimal conservation of the genetic diversity of coconut, cacao and other commodities, and to promote greater use of this diversity to improve the well-being of smallholder farmers."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"Project E09 Conserving, Understanding and Improving Musa Biodiversity aims to develop technologies for the effective conservation of the genetic diversity of banana and plantain (Musa), and for its characterization and sustainable use in both conventional and transformation-based crop improvement."},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"Project E10 Use of Musa Biodiversity to Improve Livelihoods targets important stakeholders in national Musa sectors to improve their access to information, methods and other resources, which will enable rural communities to use biodiversity in Musa-based systems for improved well-being."},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"Global Partnerships Programme Project E11 Regional Collaborations for Sustainable Management of Agricultural and Forest Biodiversity aims to strengthen and facilitate regional collaboration on plant genetic resources for better management of these resources."},{"index":11,"size":65,"text":"Project E12 Mobilizing International Partnerships to Use and Conserve Agricultural Biodiversity aims to increase the effectiveness of international partnerships, plans and initiatives for the conservation and use of agricultural (including forest and aquatic) biodiversity. Through the project, IPGRI carries out its responsibilities as the convening centre for the System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP) and as host of the GFAR Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species."},{"index":12,"size":32,"text":"Policy and Law Unit Project E13 Enabling Policy Environments for the Use and Conservation of Agricultural Biodiversity makes contributions to genetic resources policy development at global, regional, national and CGIAR System-wide levels."},{"index":13,"size":31,"text":"The Project is also the administrative home for the CGIAR Central Advisory Service on Intellectual Property (CAS-IP) and provides the secretariat for the Genetic Resources Policy Committee (GRPC) of the CGIAR."}]},{"head":"Capacity Development Unit","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Project E14 Strengthening Human Capacity to Manage Agricultural Biodiversity aims to strengthen the human capacity of developing countries to enable them to better manage and maintain their agricultural biodiversity."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Public Awareness Unit Project E15 Raising Awareness to Create Support for Agricultural Biodiversity focuses on increasing the awareness of the potential of agricultural biodiversity to improve human well-being, and of the work that is being done by IPGRI and the CGIAR to harness this potential for the benefit of people."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Financial report "}]},{"head":"Establishment agreement","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by December 2004, had been signed by the Governments of: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Date palms produced from material stored in vitro are loaded ready for distribution. N. Nasr/IPGRI Authorities in Degache in western Tunisia distribute the first test-tube plants grown from in vitro storage. "},{"text":" Further information [email protected] Participatory management of date palm genetic resources in the oases of the Maghreb is funded by the United Nations Development Programme/Global Environment Facility (UNDP/GEF) in line with GEF's Operational Programme for Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems and the cross-cutting issue of land degradation. It is implemented by IPGRI through local partners and governments in three countries-Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. The project combines a scientifi c design with a participatory approach to implementation. It aims to recognize and validate the expertise found within agricultural communities and to link a diverse collection of activities designed to enhance conservation of date palm biodiversity, all within a framework of sustainable development of oasis ecosystems. The project has three immediate objectives: Increase national capacity to multiply more date palm varieties for use by farmers than is currently possible Combat genetic erosion of in situ date palm varieties caused by market incentives Raise awareness of project activities and foster the exchange and replication of successful project activities and best practices of the European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN) endorsed a third phase for the programme at its meeting to review Phase II, which ran from 2000 to 2004. The meeting, held in Židlochovice, Czech Republic, in May 2004, was attended by national coordinators from 30 of the 32 country members of EUFORGEN. EUFORGEN Phase III will run from 2005 to 2009. It will continue to implement the decisions of the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE) and is being restructured to refl ect new MCPFE priorities while continuing work based on earlier decisions. The 4th Ministerial Conference, which took place in Austria in 2003, adopted a resolution to conserve and enhance forest biological diversity in Europe. EUFORGEN'sSteering Committee therefore agreed that a primary objective for Phase III of the programme should be to \"promote practical implementation of gene conservation and appropriate use of genetic resources as an integral part of sustainable forest management\". "},{"text":" staff at the Regional Offi ce for Asia and the Pacifi c of the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP) received an intriguing request: could they help a French non-governmental organization that takes care of Filipino street children? The Virlanie Foundation looks after about 300 street children, mostly at 11 homes in Manila. However, the foundation has a twelfth home in Balayan, a two-hour drive southwest of Manila, where 15 young adults are learning the basics of farming. After visiting the farm and meeting the people, INIBAP decided to supply healthy plantlets of three newly introduced banana hybrids and two local favourites. But plantlets alone are not much use. Virlanie's programme leader, Jhon Caminsi, and agronomist Eddie Ynion, along with four of the boys, were invited to one of INIBAP's hands-on training workshops. With the support of the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development and the Institute of Plant Breeding they learned how to manage and care for the plantlets and how to look after their proposed banana plantation. Two years later, after carefully putting into practice their new knowledge, the boys have not only been rewarded with healthy plants bearing large bunches but have also become the envy of the neighbourhood. Local farmers had no faith in the project. Although the area "},{"text":" plant genetic resources are of crops included in Annex 1 or referred to in Article 15.1 (b) of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and AgricultureThe plant genetic resources are accessible under the internationally agreed terms of access and benefi t sharing provided for in the multilateral system as set out in the "},{"text":" Regeneration of legume and forage crops at the N.I. Vavilov Research Institute of Plant Industry (US$210 000 over three years) Regeneration of the African and Indian Ocean International Coconut Collection (US$236 940 over fi ve years) Securing apple fi eld collections in Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan (US$118 860 over three years) Increasing and improving seed-drying capacity in southern Africa (US$56 000 over one year) "},{"text":" One answer has been to establish National Repository, Multiplication and Distribution Centres (NRMDCs), a programme that has been a fl agship enterprise for INIBAP's offi ce in Asia and the Pacifi c. The NRMDCs, the INIBAP Transit Centre (ITC) of the International Musa Germplasm Collection in Belgium and breeding programmes around the world exchange local varieties and improved hybrids. The role of the NRMDCs is to maintain accessions and distribute clean samples to local farmers, scientists and other interested parties who, in turn, give feedback on how those varieties perform. The NRMDCs have four interlocking tasks. They offer improved access to new hybrids and superior varieties through INIBAP and the ITC. They multiply material locally so that national programmes can expand their evaluation of different varieties. They also multiply material locally to distribute to farmers. And they maintain a conservation repository of disease-free foundation stocks as the basis for their multiplication work. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Getting a grip on nutrition and diversity A new project is under way to explore the links between agricultural and dietary diversity and better nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa Nutri ti on and di versi ty Mr Stephen Kimondo has built a thriving farm enterprise based on traditional leafy vegetables.  An interesting An interesting trend, one outcome of an earlier IPGRI trend, one outcome of an earlier IPGRI project on African leafy vegetables, project on African leafy vegetables, is that supermarkets are expanding is that supermarkets are expanding their fresh produce sections to include their fresh produce sections to include a greater diversity of traditional a greater diversity of traditional vegetables. Indeed supermarkets vegetables. Indeed supermarkets beyond the original target chain, having beyond the original target chain, having witnessed its success, have started to witnessed its success, have started to stock traditional vegetables, leading to stock traditional vegetables, leading to a concern that supply may not be able a concern that supply may not be able to meet demand. Other projects are to meet demand. Other projects are addressing the problem with training addressing the problem with training and extension work, but there is a real and extension work, but there is a real possibility that consumers, newly alerted possibility that consumers, newly alerted  "},{"text":"European forests moves into a new phase European forests Changes in structure and objectives will help the European Forest Genetic Resources Programme adapt to meet new challenges and responsibilities EUFORGEN Beech forests are a feature of the European landscape. IPGRI's Regional Offi ce for Europe hosts the EUFORGEN Secretariat and coordinates the Programme in technical collaboration with the Forestry Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The EUFORGEN programme is entirely funded by member countries.   "},{"text":"diversity The Trust is helping genebanks to develop a rational strategy for conserving their barley samples over the long term. That may include oddities like this variety collected in Nepal, which has two distinct seed colours on a single spike.  The Global Crop Diversity Trust 2004 Annual Report  The past The Global Crop Diversity Trust 2004 Annual ReportThe past   year saw the year saw the   Trust legally Trust legally   established as established as   an international an international   organization organization  and well on matters. The composition and well on matters. The composition  the way to of the Donor Council will be the way to of the Donor Council will be  meeting its reviewed at the end of 2005. meeting its reviewed at the end of 2005.   goal of helping goal of helping  to secure the The IPEE met three times to secure the The IPEE met three times  long-term during the year, making a long-term during the year, making a  future of crop host of signifi cant decisions. future of crop host of signifi cant decisions.  Among these was the decision Among these was the decision  that the Secretariat should that the Secretariat should  continue to operate from continue to operate from  Rome, jointly hosted by FAO Rome, jointly hosted by FAO  and IPGRI, for up to fi ve years. and IPGRI, for up to fi ve years.  This offers much-needed This offers much-needed  stability during the Trust's stability during the Trust's  critical start up years. Other critical start up years. Other  important decisions included important decisions included  the establishment of a Finance the establishment of a Finance  and Investment Committee to and Investment Committee to  oversee all fi nancial matters oversee all fi nancial matters  (including the investment (including the investment  of the endowment funds), of the endowment funds),  the adoption of an interim the adoption of an interim  statement of investment statement of investment F. Botts/FAO By the end of the year, 16 countries had signed the agreement and donors from objectives and policies and fi nancial regulations, and the development and adoption of the Trust's fi rst fi ve-year F. Botts/FAOBy the end of the year, 16 countries had signed the agreement and donors from objectives and policies and fi nancial regulations, and the development and adoption of the Trust's fi rst fi ve-year  business plan. the governments business plan.the governments   of developed and of developed and Gl obal Crop Di versi ty Trust  developing countries, foundations, private companies, farmers' organizations and individuals had pledged more than US$56 000 000 in funds. Based on a proposal put to it by an informal meeting of the Trust's donors, the Interim Panel of Eminent Experts (IPEE)-the Trust's pro tem executive board-invited all donors who had given the Trust at least US$25 000 to join a Donor Council intended to guide the operations of the Trust, particularly with regard to fi nancial Gl obal Crop Di versi ty Trustdeveloping countries, foundations, private companies, farmers' organizations and individuals had pledged more than US$56 000 000 in funds. Based on a proposal put to it by an informal meeting of the Trust's donors, the Interim Panel of Eminent Experts (IPEE)-the Trust's pro tem executive board-invited all donors who had given the Trust at least US$25 000 to join a Donor Council intended to guide the operations of the Trust, particularly with regard to fi nancial  "},{"text":"worker from National Museums of Kenya examines a seed storage basket made of twigs wrapped with grass and smeared with cow dung. Farmers in Marimanti village in eastern Kenya do not really distinguish grain stores from seed stores.  All rural All rural farmers need farmers need to store seeds to store seeds at least from at least from harvest to the harvest to the next planting next planting season. A season. A survey of their survey of their techniques techniques identifi es identifi es promising promising avenues for avenues for genebanks to genebanks to explore for explore for longer-term longer-term storage storage Low-cost technol ogy Low-cost technol ogy  "},{"text":"Annual Report Bean seed mixtures are often stored separately for planting.   "},{"text":"Gus Molina, project coordinator, meets Antonio Mojica, a farmer from Cavite in the Philippines. Mojica is one of the people who have grown improved hybrids, which yield far more heavily than local types. Dr Emily Fabregar (left) is Research Director of Lapanday Foods Corporation, one of the project's private partners in the Philippines. She and Mirza Mendoza, Tissue Culture Manager, examine plantlets produced for the NRMDC that are ready to be shipped off to nurseries in Luzon.   "},{"text":"[email protected] See also http://www.maghrebdatepalm.org/panab.html  Building a regional network for public awareness A meeting at an oasis provided Building a regional network for public awarenessA meeting at an oasis provided  an opportunity an opportunity  for media for media  professionals professionals  and scientists and scientists  to create to create  a network a network  for public for public  awareness awareness  A regi onal network for publ i c awareness A regi onal network for publ i c awareness  "},{"text":"On a visit to a date palm oasis, CWANA public awareness specialist Rami Khalil shared his vision that PANAB would \"grow up, be fruitful and accessible to everyone, like an oasis date palm\". Isehak Weled Hajo, a farmer member of IPGRI's Maghreb Date Palm Project team, offered a symbol, a young palm of a local variety-Ighess Isehak-that he had improved by selection. Participants planted the tree to mark the conception of PANAB.  A large project to support the conservation of crop wild A large project to support the conservation of crop wild relatives (see Annual Report 2003, p. 6) got under way during relatives (see Annual Report 2003, p. 6) got under way during R. Khalil/IPGRI R. Khalil/IPGRI  "},{"text":" Consultants from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) visited Madagascar and found no effective legal framework Making a start on conservation of crop wild relatives Progress has Making a start on conservation of crop wild relatives Progress has  been made in been made in  a global effort a global effort  to manage the to manage the  sustainable sustainable  use and use and  conservation conservation  of the wild of the wild  relatives of relatives of  domesticated domesticated  plant species plant species Crop wi l d rel ati ves Wild peanuts-this one is in Bolivia-have already made substantial contributions of disease resistance to cultivated varieties. Crop wi l d rel ati vesWild peanuts-this one is in Bolivia-have already made substantial contributions of disease resistance to cultivated varieties.  "},{"text":"situ conservation of crop wild relatives through enhanced information management and fi eld application is a UNEP/GEF- supported project that addresses national and global needs to improve global food security through effective conservation and use of crop wild relatives. It brings together national partners in fi ve countries: Armenia, Bolivia, Madagascar, Sri Lanka and Uzbekistan. Each country has many important and threatened taxa of crop wild relatives. Five other international conservation agencies are partners in the project-the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), the United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP- WCMC), the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the German Centre for Documentation and Information in Agriculture (ZADI). Wild black pepper in Madagascar. Genetic engineering (GE)  and the genetically modifi ed organisms (GMOs) it results in have been hailed as both Africa's saviour and its downfall. Opinions are often sharply polarized, with most debates and discussions organized by one of the two poles and devoted to defending its own position and attacking the other's. As the organizers of the regional consultation noted, \"what one hears on the subject therefore depends on which meeting one attends\". In an effort to identify common ground for research and capacity building, IPGRI and the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC) brought 82 participants from 14 countries in sub-Saharan Africa to Nairobi, Kenya, in September 2004. The participants were encouraged to see themselves not as opponents but as people trying to deal with common problems from different perspectives. The emphasis was on exploring similarities not differences and on drawing out positive messages from even the most strongly held differences. A regional A regional consultation consultation to promote to promote understanding understanding rather rather than seek than seek consensus consensus asked whether, asked whether, and how, and how, genetically genetically modifi ed modifi ed organisms organisms could be useful could be useful in agricultural in agricultural development development south of the south of the Sahara Sahara The consultation was The consultation was divided into two sections. It divided into two sections. It began with a conference, in began with a conference, in which speakers selected to which speakers selected to represent different points of represent different points of view on GMOs introduced view on GMOs introduced a variety of topics designed a variety of topics designed not only to set the scene not only to set the scene but also to bring all but also to bring all participants up to speed. participants up to speed. Then came parallel working Then came parallel working groups that considered groups that considered three different hypotheses three different hypotheses for genetic engineering for genetic engineering and GMOs (see box). The and GMOs (see box). The working groups synthesized working groups synthesized key issues, concerns and key issues, concerns and challenges and identifi ed challenges and identifi ed research and capacity research and capacity needs that would help to needs that would help to resolve the controversies resolve the controversies and lead to development. and lead to development. The fi rst group, told to The fi rst group, told to be positive about genetic be positive about genetic engineering, pointed out engineering, pointed out the potential of GMOs the potential of GMOs to increase agricultural to increase agricultural production and profi ts, production and profi ts, to reduce the use of to reduce the use of pesticides, to improve the pesticides, to improve the nutritional content of foods, nutritional content of foods, to produce vaccines and to produce vaccines and perhaps even to break perhaps even to break the diseases of poverty the diseases of poverty such as HIV/AIDS, malaria such as HIV/AIDS, malaria  "},{"text":"Examining the options for genetic engineering in Africa Working Group I: GE and GMOs are positive technologies, and can contribute effectively towards development in Africa, given the reality of constraints within the region. The working group was asked to consider the potential benefi ts and challenges of GE and GMOs for sustainable development in eastern and southern Africa. Working Group II: GE and GMOs are risky options; they are not necessarily the most cost-effective, relevant or safe pathway for future development given the reality of constraints we are faced with in this region. The working group was asked to analyze perceived risks and uncertainties in the use of GMOs, and to consider alternative pathways for development. Working Group III: Neither GE and GMOs nor any other technological innovation addressing problems at community level will work unless the necessary sociocultural and policy environment is created and taken into consideration.   "},{"text":" Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Greece, Guinea, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mauritania, Morocco, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovakia, Sudan, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda and Ukraine. Multi-donors to  Multi-donors to Conference on PGR in Conference on PGR in West & Central Africa 39 West & Central Africa39 Multi-donors to Genetic Multi-donors to Genetic Resources Policy  Resources Policy Initiative 1259 Initiative1259 Multi-donors to Global  Multi-donors to Global Crop Diversity Trust  Crop Diversity Trust Campaign 1560 Campaign1560 Multi-donors to Marketing Multi-donors to Marketing Strategies and Capacity Strategies and Capacity Strengthening to Realize Strengthening to Realize the Economic Potential of the Economic Potential of Underutilized Plant Species 17 Underutilized Plant Species 17 National Museums of Kenya 30 National Museums of Kenya 30 Netherlands 429 Netherlands429 Norway 220 Norway220 NZAID 11 NZAID11 OAS/CICAD 562 OAS/CICAD562 Peru 50 Peru50 Philippines 115 Philippines115 Pioneer 11 Pioneer11 Quebec 12 Quebec12 Rockefeller Foundation 202 Rockefeller Foundation202 SDC 630 SDC630 SIDA 117 SIDA117 TBRI 2 TBRI2 Uganda 188 Uganda188 UNDP-GEF 669 UNDP-GEF669 UNEP-GEF 1495 UNEP-GEF1495 USAID 143 USAID143 USDA 16 USDA16 VVOB 476 VVOB476 World Bank 566 World Bank566 Subtotal 18 860 Subtotal18 860 Challenge Programs Challenge Programs Austria 62 Austria62 CIAT 38 CIAT38 Challenge Program -  Challenge Program - Generation 900 Generation900 Subtotal 1000 Subtotal1000 Total -Restricted Grants 19 860 Total -Restricted Grants19 860 Total Grants  Total Grants  "}],"sieverID":"8a246be4-c724-48eb-aadd-a6072fb3de67","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"075284c0143ac8b8d74835ddf64c3d3f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/111e17a1-2475-414a-a97a-454484edcbce/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"TAILORING THE CLIMATE SECURITY OBSERVATORY TO LIVESTOCK-RELATED CONFLICTS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background and Context","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"The Climate Security Observatory"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"The CSO is a decision support tool helping policymakers and other practitioners to understand and respond to climate-related security risks."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"The CSO uses a mixed method approach to give answers to four lead questions: Where are the most vulnerable areas to climate-related insecurities and risks? Who are the groups vulnerable to climate and security risks that should be targeted? How does climate exacerbate the causes of conflict? What needs to be done to break the vicious cycle between climate and conflict?"},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"The first version of the CSO is developed under the Climate and Resilience initiative (also known as ClimBeR: Building Systemic Resilience Against Climate Variability and Extremes), which is implemented in Kenya, Senegal, Zambia, Philippines and Guatemala. Climate security is one of the four initiatives' focus areas. The main goal of this work package is to build production-system resilience through recognizing the relationships between climate, agriculture, security and peace. As such, it includes a broad range of links and drivers of the climate security nexus, without going into detail of pathways related to specific links/drivers (nutrition/food security, migration, agricultural production systems, natural resource management, migration etc.)."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"The CSO will also be linked to other OneCGIAR initiatives: The Livestock and Climate initiative (also known as LCSR, Livestock, Climate and System Resilience), to be implemented in Colombia, Guatemala, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Tunisia, and the Fragility, Conflict and Migration initiative, to be implemented in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Iraq, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Somalia, Yemen (and potentially in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Jordan, Mali, Myanmar, Nepal, Palestine, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Zimbabwe). The CSO, i.e. its general lead questions, analytical framework and used data sources need to be tailored to speak to the specific objectives of these thematic initiatives."}]},{"head":"Adapting the CSO to livestock-related conflict","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This strategic report focuses on guiding future work that includes livestock systems into the CSO. To visualize agro-pastoral conflict and understand its causes, factors and exacerbators, the general CSO questions, analysis and used data sources need to be tailored to livestock systems. The report will therefore:"},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"• Review current CSO tools and analysis and give recommendations on how to include livestock systems and pastoral conflicts Background on agro-pastoral conflict Agro-pastoral conflicts (or Farmer-Herder conflicts) have received heightened attention in recent years, particularly in East and West Africa. These conflicts are often built upon land-use tensions or competition for natural resources between sedentary farming and mobile pastoralist communities."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Transhumance (the seasonal migration of herds) plays a key role in these conflicts as land use conflicts often play out when the land use balance between transhumance and sedentary farming collapses."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The mobile nature of transhumance makes these conflicts (and their root causes) complicated to map within the \"hotspot\"-centric framework of the spatial analysis of the CSO. Herd movements are fluid by nature, changing from one season to the next based on a host of factors (pasture, water, customary access rights, market demands among others). Likewise, non-climatic factors often play the key role in the propagation of these conflicts."}]},{"head":"Current CSO analyses and needed adaptation to livestock systems","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"This chapter of the report details the CSO's current methods. At the end of each section detailing a method, a brief explanation of if/how the method can be adapted to the context of livestock and agro-pastoral conflict is given. Each section is divided by the category of questions the methods are meant to answer: How, Where, Who, and What?"},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"CSO current analysis component conflict 12 , foreign fighters 3 and land-use regimes that are several centuries old 4 ) would be inapplicable to neighboring Senegal (where agro-pastoral conflicts have rarely been violent since the early 1990s 56 ). Cross-border analysis should also be looked at, i.e. for various border regions, e.g. Senegal River Valley, Lipatako-Gourma Zone, Southern border between Burkina Faso+ Ghana, Benin a specific CSPA can be developed."}]},{"head":"HOW -Network Analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"We analyze driver relations of the Climate Security Nexus using network analysis to get a global view on the underlying structure of the climate, conflict, and socio-economic system. The variables, represented by the nodes, are categorized as climate variables, conflict variables, and socioeconomic risk variables, including indicators related to inequality, low productivity, migration, resources scarcity and malnutrition. The edges between nodes, represent the partial correlation coefficients. The most important drivers identified in this step are used for the hotspot mapping (where)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Input variables for the different climate security dimensions (i.e. climate, conflict, socioeconomic vulnerabilities) need to be adapted to represent relevant indicators for livestock systems, such as land cover, livestock population estimates, climatic data such as NDVI and rainfall, transhumance routes and seasonal concentrations, etc. (see more under Potential data sources). The input variables should be determined based on a theoretical knowledge, i.e. the CSPA and expert consultations."}]},{"head":"HOW -Econometric Analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"We use econometric models to further quantify part of the Climate Security Nexus. We focus on testing whether and how climate variability and conflict risk are indirectly correlated through highly localized food and nutrition insecurity dynamics. We apply a causal mediation model to understand the mechanisms of direct and indirect effects of climate variability on conflict risk."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"As for the network analysis, Input variables for the different climate security dimensions need to be adapted to represent relevant indicators for livestock systems. However, the tenuous link between climate and agro-pastoral conflict will make repeating the econometric analysis difficult. Furthermore, many of the data required (see more under Potential data sources) are not necessarily uniformly available."}]},{"head":"HOW -Social Learning Approaches","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The aim is to understand the everyday experiences of members of affected communities on how climate change and human insecurity impact local contexts, using a rapid assessment through a qualitative mixed-methods approach combining direct observation, participatory group sessions and semi-structured interviews. Approaches used include: Transect walk, historical timeline mapping, seasonal calendars, problem and solution trees."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Inclusion of field knowledge and participatory approaches are also important for livestock systems, especially for data that otherwise are nearly impossible to obtain. Potential approaches include participatory GIS to map livestock, see for information on examples in section \"Potential Data Sources\"."}]},{"head":"WHERE -Spatial Analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The spatial analysis consists of four stages: 1) determination of conflict clusters, 2) determination of climate clusters, 3) identification and mapping of conflict-climate interactions, and 4) identification and mapping of the most relevant socio-economic vulnerabilities. Both climate and conflict clusters are run on a regular grid of ~20km2 resolution, and are based on either agroclimatic or conflictrelated indices as input. For the hotspot mapping, the extreme percentiles (10% or 90%, depending on the variable) for the top 10 most relevant variables according to the previously performed network analysis are identified."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Adapting the Spatial Analysis component will be necessary, if somewhat complicated. Areas experiencing agro-pastoral conflicts typically have very mobile transhumant livestock. Transhumance, which is often central to the conflicts, is by nature a fluid concept and can be difficult to make spatially explicit. This is further detailed in the Way Forward section of this report. The same data can be used for an agro-pastoral context. Populations affected by both agropastoral conflicts fall across a wide variety of rural livelihoods including farmers, pastoralists, fishing communities or a mix of all."}]},{"head":"WHO","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"WHAT -Social media analysis Content analysis techniques enable the identification of trends in political agendas and actors, over time and across geographies. Through Twitter's API, publicly available social media content from national level policymakers (central government, ministries of agriculture, natural resources, and the environment, as well as national security bodies) are collected and analyzed on a weekly basis."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"To adapt the social media analysis, it is important to understand what we are trying to analyze. Possibilities would be a sentiment analysis of agro-pastoral conflicts, or the perceptions of key actors engaged in these issues.However, social media analysis will be difficult to adapt to the context of livestock and agro-pastoral conflicts. It remains to be determined how many actors involved in these conflicts are active on twitter (herding associations, ministries of livestock, police and security actors). When they are, they tend to tweet in a variety of languages that would complicate this analysis. If we take for example the case of Mali, Twitter counts a total of 56,000 active and inactive users for the whole country, which is relatively insignificant. Tweets, especially those related to ongoing conflicts, are often done in Arabic, French, Tamasheq and Bambara. Given how agro-pastoral conflicts have taken on an ethnic dimension in Mali, ethnic labels (\"Fulani\"/\"Fulbe\", \"Tuareg\", etc) would need to be included among key words to analyze. If this is done, there is a risks of the analysis being overloaded with irrelevant information, but if it omits ethnic keywords, it likewise risks missing large parts of the discourse on agro-pastoral conflicts. this analysis would need to be repeated for every country, requiring a significant investment of time and resources."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"WHAT -Policy coherence analysis Building peace and conflict responsiveness into climate policies requires a multi-sectoral, integrated strategy in which several policy domains cooperate in a coherent way toward a single, overarching goal at the same time. The method incorporates qualitative directed content analysis with an empirical scoring/ranking system."}]},{"head":"WHAT -Stakeholder workshops","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Workshops are organized to bring together experts and practitioners working across the humanitarian, development and peace sectors to discuss how relevant climate and conflict connections are manifesting across the country, identify and map key stakeholders, as well as co-develop policy and programmatic recommendations towards integrating climate security considerations in climate action strategies."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Stakeholder engagement will be crucial for livestock conflicts as well. The most crucial part is to make sure to reach out to the right audience, also see section \"Identifying audience and use-case\"."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"1 Different analysis components contribute to the four lead questions: HOW does climate worsen the root causes of conflict? WHERE are the most vulnerable areas to climate-related insecurities and risks? Who are the groups vulnerable to climate and security risks that should be targeted? What needs to be done to break the vicious cycle between climate and conflict? Datasets currently used in the CSO can be found in the Annex."}]},{"head":"The Way forward","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"As it stands, the CSO needs significant adaptations for understanding agro-pastoral conflicts and for providing decision support for policy makers and researchers."}]},{"head":"Identifying audience and use-case","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"We are in need of a strong use-case. Currently, we lack an identified user-base who can provide actionable use-cases for a livestock adaptation of the CSO. More discussions with future users will be necessary, especially those who might be working at the nexus of conflict and pastoralism. Potential discussion participants should include:"},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"-Individual academics, first and foremost with colleagues from ILRI -Regional bodies (e.g. for West Africa, CILSS, AGHRYMET) -Ministries of livestock-especially those focused on land-use -Donors and HQ-level operators -Peace-building orgs: E.g. Search for Common Ground -Conflict-focused think-tanks: Timbuktu Institute, Clingandael -Pastoralist associations: Reseau Billatal Maroobe, etc -Humanitarian actors focusing on livestock: Action Contre la Faim, Vétérinaires sans Frontières, ICRC"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"We need to understand from these users what the data gaps are and whether and how a platform such as ours can offer a useful solution for them."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"What specifically are the issues we want to address?"},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Once use-cases are identified, we can begin to look at specific questions that can be answered specifically for the livestock context:"},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"-What do we want to show? Do we want to map the growth and change of agro-pastoral conflict? -If so, how will we define these conflicts? -Will we focus on the climate-conflict link or are we going to broaden the spectrum?"},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"-Is the climate-conflict link possible to visualize? -Given the complicated, non-linear interactions between climate change and agropastoral conflict, how can this be done? -If it cannot be done, what other relationships should we look at? -How do land-use and conflict interact with each other? -How can we visualize structural factors such as tenure insecurity and social cohesion? -Which areas are experiencing a growth in agro-pastoral conflict?"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"-What (if any) other environmental factors are these areas experiencing?"}]},{"head":"Limiting the countries","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Of the 11 CSO countries, at least 4 should be excluded because of a lack of any kind of agro-pastoral conflict. Alternative to the climate-conflict hotspot model"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"If we work on the assumption that climate shocks change transhumant movements which then instigate conflict intensification, then the hotspot methodology does not work. Because the livestock (and therefore the conflict) is displaced from the climate shock, conflict events will not be occurring in the same places as the climate shocks."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Further, research tends to point to structural factors, such as tenure insecurity, discrimination and land use changes as the main factor behind agro-pastoral conflicts where climate is seen as an exacerbating factor."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"As a result, a model that insinuates a linear or correlative relationship between climate shocks and livestock-related conflict is unlikely to be successful. That said, the hotspot model might be applied to other factors. Likewise, it may be possible to show how climate change exacerbates conflict, without making it a central factor."}]},{"head":"Seasonal trends","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Transhumant movements are seasonal, whereas the current CSO analyses are calculated on an annual basis. Understanding climate shocks that affect pastoralists requires a focus on seasonal, rather than annual changes."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Identifying \"livestock conflict\" Narrowing down our definition of \"livestock conflict\" will be complicated but necessary. If the data source is an open platform, such as ACLED, we will need to decide what kind of conflict event to include in our analysis: Would the analysis be only limited to violence occurring over land use disputes (for instance, violent confrontations between herders and farmers during grazing)? Or would the analysis also include events less directly related such as:"},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"-Attacks by jihadist groups on park rangers or forestry service officers widely perceived as retaliation for their extortion of pastoralists (Burkina Faso 2022, Mali 2018) -Attacks on civilians in conflicts related to land-use conflicts (Ogossagou Massacre 2019)"},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"The distinction of these conflicts will necessarily be based on contextual understanding, so an automated approach will not be possible. More than likely, this will require manual sorting of thousands of individual conflict events. Local knowledge and significant investment in time will be necessary to select \"pastoral-related\" conflict events from public data."}]},{"head":"Potential Data Sources","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"Transhumance routes and seasonal concentrations:. Given the important role of transhumance in the ongoing discussion around agro-pastoral conflict, understanding and mapping these routes is a critical input. Unfortunately, no public dataset exists of these routes. In many countries, some GIS data on these routes exists from previous projects. Such data could be gathered and completed by participatory GIS (Fig. 1). Gathering this data would require in-country research including interviews, data gathering from ministries and focus groups. Livestock populations: FAO's Gridded Livestock of the World (already in CSO data dictionary) can provide a rough estimate of livestock density. The accuracy of this data is difficult to assess but it so far appears to be the only one of its kind. For many countries, we are unlikely to find livestock census data that would provide this kind of granularity. Incorporating these data would require an accuracy assessment, which can be performed with other satellite imagery or ground data. It should be noted that this would not be an easy exercise and would require a significant investment of time. Climatic data (broken down by season) would specifically be tailored to rangeland conditions and would likely need to include: NDVI + Net Primary Productivity/ Dry Matter Productivity. Rainfall data could be included as well but a series of rainfall indicators would be needed, including: days without rain, length of season, monthly totals, seasonal total."}]},{"head":"Livestock Infrastructure","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Data on pastoral water points, vaccination parks, veterinary posts, markets, can provide an understanding on investments in infrastructure and pastoral livelihoods (Fig. 3). Typically this data is kept by the Ministry of Livestock.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Community profiles are provided for different combinations of climate, conflict and hotspots. Used variables include: Population density, Nightlights, Estimated Net Migration Recent, Years of education male and female, Difference of years of education, Piped water, Sanitation facilities, Stunting, wasting and underweight prevalence, Relative and absolute wealth index, Food Insecurity, Livelihood type/Zone, Dependency Ratio. "},{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Example of Participatory GIS to map livestock movements in Senegal "},{"text":" Land cover/ land use changes: This will be a critical component to any kind of visualization of the causes behind agro-pastoral conflicts. Several public datasets exist, however few are accurate in African Drylands. Several datasets should be explored for their suitability including:-ESA CCI (100m and 300m resolution) 1993-2018 -Google Dynamic World (10m resolution)-2016-present -WorldCover (10m)-2020 -2021 "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Example for land use and cover mapping "},{"text":"Fig. 3 .Fig. 4 . Fig. 3. Example of pastoral infrastructure data in Burkina Faso "},{"text":"• Recommend relevant audiences, partners, approaches, research gaps, data sets and analysis • Guide the development of analysis and approaches proposed in report: Suggest ways and provide guidance on what spatial techniques to use for livestock systems and pastoral conflicts;  "},{"text":" Knowledge products (reports, briefs, policy papers) from climate security-specific research institutions are retrieved from their websites. These included: UNEP, UNDP, Clingendael Institute, SIPRI,NUPI, adelphi, Mercy Crops, Interpeace, International Crisis Group, Toda Peace Institue, The Strauss Center for International Security and Law, among others. Further sources included the National Communications to the UNFCCC, the Climate Risks Profiles developed by USAID, and the Climate Risk Country Profiles issued by The World Bank. Food insecurity (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation) ○ Facebook (wealth data) ○ FAO (Irrigation and livestock) ○ Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center Columbia university (migration data) Climate Security Pathway analysis Climate Security Pathway analysis -Web of science -Web of science -Google scholar -Google scholar -Spatial and network analysis -Spatial and network analysis ○ Climate ○ Climate ■ Rainfall: CHIRPS: Rainfall Estimates from Rain Gauge and Satellite ■ Rainfall: CHIRPS: Rainfall Estimates from Rain Gauge and Satellite Observations Observations ■ Temperature: CPC Global Daily Temperature ■ Temperature: CPC Global Daily Temperature ■ TerraClimate ■ TerraClimate ○ Conflict ○ Conflict ■ ACLED ■ ACLED ○ Socioeconomic ○ Socioeconomic ○ Google Earth Engine ○ Google Earth Engine ○ Econometric analysis ○ Econometric analysis -ACLED -ACLED -DHS (demographic and health surveys) -DHS (demographic and health surveys) -TerraClimate -TerraClimate  "}],"sieverID":"a67dc4f3-799d-43b6-a4cb-f2e7ee96f70d","abstract":"The Climate Security Observatory Adapting the CSO to livestock-related conflict Background on agro-pastoral conflict Current CSO analyses and needed adaptation to livestock systems CSO current analysis component 1"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"079a10cd204980de3ed9873a2b2d7daf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4fb4b240-df14-4eae-97d7-53c6ee0da7e7/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"A model-based exploration of farm-household livelihood and nutrition indicators to guide nutrition-sensitive agriculture interventions","keywords":["Home garden","Multi-objective optimisation","Crop diversification","Farm-household model","Human nutrition metrics"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":272,"text":"Worldwide commitment and interest in supporting nutritionsensitive agriculture (NSA) is growing across multiple sectors (Ruel et al. 2018). Programmes, research and investment policy can be defined as nutrition-sensitive if they incorporate an aim to improve the overall nutritional status by addressing the underlying causes of nutrition (Herforth and Ballard 2016). Addressing the underlying causes include improving access to safe and nutritious food, reducing health risks through responsible agricultural practices that protect natural resources and human health, improving nutrition knowledge and norms, improving income and empowering Women (Herforth and Ballard 2016). The role of agriculture in enhancing nutrition is highly recognized although the evidence of its contribution remains weak and mixed (Herforth and Ballard 2016;Turner et al. 2014;Webb and Kennedy 2014). For example, increasing on-farm production diversity is perceived as an effective approach towards improving smallholders' diet diversity and nutrition. Nonetheless, this perception was contested by Sibhatu and Qaim (2018) after analysing 45 original studies that indicated a positive but small average marginal effect of production diversity on dietary diversity. Ruel et al. (2018), on the other hand, found evidence from 44 carefully designed nutrition-sensitive studies where production diversity was promoted and subsequently led to improved access to nutritious food, which increased the quality of the diet for the most vulnerable (i.e. women and children) (Ruel et al. 2018). The mixed evidence is due to methodological limitations (e.g. sample sizes, time frame), contextual and seasonal constraints, lack of comparability of the agricultural interventions, nonhomogeneity of units of observation (e.g. households, women and children) and variability of metrics (Ruel et al. 2018;Verger et al. 2019;Herforth and Ballard 2016;Turner et al. 2014;Webb and Kennedy 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Assessing the agriculture-nutrition nexus is challenging since it is affected by complex, dynamic and scaledependent interlinkages among farms, markets, wild foods, diets, intra-household and gender dynamics (Bellon et al. 2016;Remans et al. 2015). For example, contextual factors such as competing labour uses (on-farm vs. off-farm), food availability from on-and off-farm sources (e.g. markets), environmental constraints (e.g. poor soils), and socio-economic status and gender dynamics (e.g. income; and equity) all shape household decisions around on-farm production (Ditzler et al. 2018). These factors also shape the performance of the farm, farm-household resources, crop/varietal preferences, and objectives (Ditzler et al. 2019;Groot et al. 2012). Thus, accounting for contextual factors at the farm-household level could aid in identifying constraints in the adoption of NSA interventions and support the achievement of positive nutritional outcomes (Ruel et al. 2018;Herforth and Ballard 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"In general, the most commonly listed and documented knowledge gaps that limit the guidance and planning of NSA interventions include: (1) hypothesizing ex-ante NSA intervention impact pathways; (2) anticipating the effect (positive or negative) of the interventions on nutrition and the environment; (3) identifying complementary interventions for significant and positive impacts; and (4) anticipating the trade-offs that a farm-household could face (Ruel et al. 2018;Herforth and Ballard 2016). There is also a lack of emphasis on guaranteeing access to and consumption of high-quality diets by all household members (rather than just one target group, e.g. women or children); a logical and achievable approach for NSA and important for global development (Ruel et al. 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":277,"text":"For an integrated analysis, system-based models could play a larger role in guiding and planning NSA interventions. Whole farm-household models, capture the diverse household and production system components and their complex interactions, and so properly reflect the various outcomes linked to production, income, environmental impacts, well-being, gender, health and quality of life (e.g. Jones et al. 2017;Van Ittersum et al. 1998). These models can improve the understanding, and contribute to the analysis of, the 'farm-household' defined as a family-run enterprise, the household managing it and the off-farm income-generating activities by household members (Ditzler et al. 2018(Ditzler et al. , 2019)). FarmDESIGN is a farm-household model developed to represent the farm-household and the flow of resources among the farm components (crops, soil, animals, and manure) within and outside the farm (e.g. soil nutrient losses) (Fig. 1) (Groot et al. 2012). We expanded the FarmDESIGN model to calculate various farm-household performance indicators in order to capture more accurately farm-household budget, labour and nutrition (farm-household budget and labour modules explained in detail in Ditzler et al. 2019; Fig. 1 and Table 1). The 'Human nutrition' module integrates various performance indicators that have been proposed to monitor progress towards NSA interventions (e.g. Gustafson et al. 2015;Herforth et al. 2016;Melesse et al. 2019) and to measure different aspects related to nutrition such as food consumption patterns, diet diversity, nutrient supply and nutrient adequacy. For instance, FarmDESIGN facilitates conducting farmhousehold scenario analysis through optimization routines (Ditzler et al. 2019;Groot et al. 2012). Consequently, the model has the potential to contribute valuable information to the design and guide of NSA interventions by jointly quantifying performance indicators across socio-economic, productive, environmental and nutrition farm-household domains."},{"index":5,"size":155,"text":"Our study tested the expanded FarmDESIGN farmhousehold model to provide guidance and planning on NSA interventions, and tested the performance of the incorporated metrics in the 'Human nutrition' module. We used a case study in Vietnam, where diversifying home gardens with nutritious crops selected through a participatory approach was undertaken as an NSA intervention. Our overall aim was to test the impact of a specific nutrition-sensitive intervention, which, in our study's case, is crop diversification targeted to home gardens for improving diets and livelihoods. Hence, we addressed three central questions: (1) Do 'Selected Crops' (i.e. crops identified in a participatory process) in the intervention contribute to satisfying household dietary requirements?; (2) Does the adoption of Selected Crops contribute to improving household livelihoods (i.e. does it increase leisure time for non-earning activities as well as the dispensable budget)?; and (3) Do the proposed nutrition-related metrics estimate the contribution of home-garden diversification towards satisfying household dietary requirements?"},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"2 Materials and methods"}]},{"head":"The expanded FarmDESIGN model","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"The previous version of the FarmDESIGN model was unable to capture off-farm data for the household's employment, leisure activities and food use (Ditzler et al. 2019). The model therefore could not capture the different livelihood strategies or the food availability of the farm-household. We overcame this limitation by adding the household and its members to the model as entities and placing the family enterprise (i.e. the farm) within the farm-household. This change facilitated calculating diverse farm-household performance indicators for the productive, socio-economic, environmental, and nutritional domains. Therefore, the addition of three new farmhousehold modules 'Household budget,' 'Household labour' and 'Household nutrition' widens the applicability of FarmDESIGN for modelling farming systems (Ditzler et al. 2019). Ditzler et al. (2019) detailed the changes in the 'Household budget,' and 'Household labour' modules in particular (Fig. 1)."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"Overall, the model represents the farm-household on an annual basis and integrates a Pareto-based multi-objective optimization algorithm with a bio-economical model to generate alternative farm configurations (Groot et al. 2016;2012). The alternative farm configurations are feasible farm-household configurations that deviate from the initially represented farm-household. The alternative farm configurations allocate available resources depending on the objectives optimized for, the decision variables and the constraints (see Table 1 for a detailed description of the selected objectives, decision variables, and constraints). The objectives in the optimization can be any indicator assessing farm-household performance across domains (Groot et al. 2012;Ditzler et al. 2019). Decision variables determine the manoeuvring space and indicate which aspects of the farm-household configuration,  1). OM = organic matter; GHG = greenhouse gases; Product use = allocation of crop and animal products produced on-farm or sourced off farm. Source: From Ditzler et al. ( 2019)  "}]},{"head":"Constraint","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Plant-based food groups: ± 3*regional consumption averages; Cereals and animal-based food groups: ± 0.5*regional consumption averages (NIN 2012) resource allocation and input levels can vary in the optimization (Groot et al. 2012,); whereas constraints limit the exploration space so that the model yields realistic and desirable farm configurations (Groot et al. 2012). Therefore, alternative farm configurations are useful for exploring trade-offs and synergies when optimizing farm-household objectives across selected domains."}]},{"head":"The 'human nutrition' module in FarmDESIGN","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The new 'Human nutrition' module assesses the potential contribution of a household's on-farm annual production (i.e. plants, livestock and fish) or off-farm food acquisition (e.g. purchased from the market) to meet the dietary requirements of the household. The new module calculates several metrics that capture production diversity, diet diversity and nutrient adequacy (see Fig. 2, Appendix 1 for detailed metrics description, equations, assumptions, input data and limitations)."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The 'Human nutrition' module calculates diet diversity metrics from household diet assessments, whereas production diversity is calculated using farming systems characterization (Diet -D ; Production -P ). Nutrient adequacy metrics assess the sufficiency of nutrient intake from a given diet and consumption pattern. The nutrient adequacy metric in FarmDESIGN considers dietary requirements of all household members by using dietary reference intakes, either as recommended dietary allowances or as estimated average requirements depending on data availability; whereas food composition tables are used to estimate the nutrient intakes (see Table 2). The new module also accounts for food consumption patterns, or food patterns at the food group level, and nutrient loss due to processing and cooking procedures through nutrient retention factors."},{"index":3,"size":338,"text":"Diet diversity, production diversity and nutrient adequacy metrics are divided into two groups of count-based and abundance-based metrics (Fig. 2). Count-based metrics are estimated using the presence of unique food items or species. For example, the species richness of a diet is measured as the number of species consumed in the diet from on-and off-farm sources (SR D ; e.g. Lachat et al. 2017), whereas the species richness in the production system is measured as the number of harvested crops for consumption (SR P ; e.g. Herrero et al. 2017) (Fig. 2, Appendix 1). The household dietary diversity score (HDDS) measures the number of food groups in the diet by any household member in the past 24 h (includes 12 food groups in the score) and is a proxy indicator mainly for household food security access (Kennedy et al. 2011;Verger et al. 2019). The nutritional functional diversity metric considers both the species diversity and the specific characteristics of each species, in this case the nutrient profiles (Petchey and Gaston 2007). The nutrient profiles for each species or food item (i.e. from food composition tables) were standardized by a reference adult, in this case, the dietary reference intakes for an adult male in the age group of 19-50 years. Then, the nutrient contribution of each food item was used to create a tree diagram (functional dendrogram) where each branch represents one species or food item. Therefore, the nutritional functional diversity metric is the Euclidian distance among food items in the tree diagram, where lower values indicate food items that are closer together and have similar nutrient profiles, whereas larger values suggest dissimilar food items contributing to a wider range of nutrients. The tree diagram was created using 'vegan' and 'hclust' packages in R (Oksanen et al. 2016;R Core Team 2016) and as recommended by Petchey and Gaston (2007). FarmDESIGN uses the tree diagram to calculate the nutritional functional diversity of the diet (NFD D ) and the harvested crops for consumption (NFD P ) (see Fig. 2, Appendix 1)."},{"index":4,"size":448,"text":"FarmDESIGN also incorporates other commonly used metrics for assessing food items' abundance in diets and Fig. 2 Metrics included in this modelling study calculated with the new 'Human Nutrition' module within the FarmDESIGN model (see Appendix 1 for a detailed description of each metric). The metrics capture the different components of species diversity (i.e. species richness and abundance) and their nutritional contribution. Green and blue areas indicate count-and abundance-based metrics, respectively. The metrics are calculated for on-farm production set aside for household consumption (superscript P ) and for the diet (superscript D ) by accounting for the on-and off-farm food set aside for household consumption. The nutrient adequacy metric is calculated by considering the combined nutritional demand based on the age and gender of each household member. The nutritional functional diversity considers 13 different nutrients (i) whereas the nutrient deviation and nutrient yield metrics focus on the household nutrient requirements and food contributions for likely deficient nutrients such as Vitamin A, Zn, Ca, Fe production for consumption. The Shannon-Weaver (H) or Simpson (D) diversity indexes jointly assess species richness and distribution evenness. Therefore, both indexes indicate if diets (H D , D D ) or the food production for consumption (H P , D P ) are dominated by one food item or crop species respectively (see Appendix 1 for a detailed description of these metrics). The Shannon-Weaver (H) index is also often calculated to assess the overall diversity of the production areas and not only those set aside for household consumption, for instance we also calculated this index to calculate all the crops planted in the home garden (H HG ). The farm nutritional yield for nutrient i (Y i ) is a novel metric proposed by DeFries et al. (2015). This metric estimates for each nutrient the number of reference adults whose dietary reference intakes are entirely covered per year given an area and production. We used the same reference adult as in the nutritional functional diversity metric, although, any other age group, life stage, and sex could equally be used. The Y i values, calculated for the whole farm production, are divided by the farm area to facilitate comparability across contexts (i.e. number of reference adults ha −1 ). Finally, the nutrient deviation metric (ND i ) assesses nutrient adequacy by comparing the availability of nutrient i from consumed food from on-and off-farm sources against the household dietary requirement calculated from the dietary reference intakes given a household's demography and size (Ditzler et al. 2019). Negative deviations indicate a nutritional contribution that is lower than the household dietary requirements, whereas positive deviations indicate a surplus (see Appendix 1 for a detailed description of each metric)."}]},{"head":"Study site","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The Son La province in the Northwest of Vietnam has emerged as an important agricultural region due to the intensified production of maize, rice and cassava (ILRI 2014). Despite poverty reductions and productivity increases, malnutrition continues to be a problem in the region. The percentage of children under five experiencing iron (Fe), vitamin A (Vit A), calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn) and vitamin C (VitC) deficiencies continues to be relatively high (NIN 2012), with iron and vitamin A deficiencies above national averages (national values for deficiencies of Fe = 29% and Vit A = 14%; NIN 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"The eco-region, characterized by the Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests biome type (Olson et al. 2001), experiences a monsoonal climate where 92% of the yearly rainfall is concentrated between April and October (long-term average: 1309 mm season −1 ; Hijmans et al. 2005), with limited precipitation from November to March (long-term average: 109 mm season −1 ; Hijmans et al. 2005). The monsoonal rainy period is characterized by a warm climate (long-term average: 22-26 °C; Hijmans et al. 2005), whereas temperatures around 15 °C are typical in the dry period, mainly from December to January."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The Doan Ket village, in Muong Bon commune (Mai Son district), is located in a mountainous region, 500 m above sea level, dominated by lowlands. The Doan Ket village is mainly composed of individuals from the Khinh ethnic group and was established in the 1960s as part of the resettlement from the Hoa Binh dam. The small village is relatively close to Hat Lot and Son La city, itis well connected with paved roads, and it reports extremely low population densities (1 person per 100 m in 2015; WorldPop 2013)."}]},{"head":"Participatory selection of potential crop diversification strategies","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The research took place in the context of the CGIAR Research Program -(CRP) 'Integrated Systems for the Humid Tropics', a global programme aimed at supporting the intensification of integrated agricultural systems to improve the livelihoods of poor farming families, while guaranteeing ecosystems integrity in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The Program was grounded in research for development through collaborative and participatory approaches (Hiwasaki et al. 2016). One of the interventions of the Humidtropics program in Vietnam focused on diversifying home gardens for income and nutrition security (Hiwasaki et al. 2016). In particular, homegarden diversification promoted nutritious crops with a potential for reducing nutritional gaps, while increasing the consumption of underrepresented foods in the local diet, "}]},{"head":"Dietary reference intakes (DRI)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"A set of nutrient-based reference values that indicate the average daily nutrient intake that is recommended to ensure the absence of signs of the nutrients' deficiency, as well as a reduction in the risk of chronic degenerative disease Estimated average requirements (EAR)"},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Recommended dietary allowance (RDA): EAR is the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirement of half the healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group RDA is the average daily nutrient intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all (97 to 98%) healthy individuals in a particular stage of life and gender group."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Source: IOM ( 2003) and Devaney and Barr (2002) including vitamin A-rich fruit and vegetables, dark green leafy vegetables, pulses, nuts and seeds (Van Hoi et al. 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"The selection of nutritious crops was conducted through a participatory process including stakeholders from different sectors (Van Hoi et al. 2015). The intervention focused on 15 out of the 30 nutritious crops selected (hereafter: 'Selected Crops') based on local consumer preferences and knowledge of agronomic potential (Van Hoi et al. 2015). Our modelling efforts considered ten Selected Crops with sufficient data including pulses (soybean [Glycine max (L.)  3 for the plant parts consumed)."}]},{"head":"Characterisation of the Doan Ket households and farming systems","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"We surveyed eight farms (including 34 people above the age of six, and three babies under 12 months) in Doan Ket between November 2014 and September 2015. The farming systems and the dietary patterns in the village were characterised through a comprehensive survey. We used the IMPACTLite survey, a standardized tool used worldwide that facilitates collecting household information on key farmhousehold performance and livelihoods indicators (Rufino et al. 2013). The comprehensive and data-intensive survey collects information about the household structure, fields, cropping activities (yield, inputs and labour), livestock activities (production and labour), household expenditure and household-level food consumption (Rufino et al. 2013). As part of the survey, we only used one dietary recall to assess food consumption, therefore excluding seasonality of the foods consumed. The dietary recall recorded the foods consumed from on-and off-farm sources during the week prior to the interview (7-day dietary recall) with the approximate quantity (weight-kg or volume-lt) based on the memory of the interviewee. One focus group discussion with eight participants held in September 2015 complemented survey information on four topics: land-use mapping, crops cultivation (rotation and crop yields), dietary patterns and knowledge on nutritious crops."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"We built a 'Baseline farm' in FarmDESIGN based on the eight farms surveyed in Doan Ket (Table 4). The Baseline farm includes the most common (i.e. representing ≥4 farms) household size and demographics, farm components (fish pond, home garden, grassland areas, perennial fruit plants), cultivated crop species and the average self-reported values for farm size, crop species cultivation costs, household expenses and crop yields (Tables 3 and 4). The food consumption pattern for the household in the Baseline farm was generated using the most commonly consumed food items among farmers from on-and off-farm sources. We then calculated the mean and standard errors of the self-reported quantities for the most commonly consumed food items along with their selling and purchasing prices (Table 3; see Appendix 2 for a visual representation of the farm-household)."}]},{"head":"Nutrition data","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":322,"text":"We calculated the dietary reference intakes through the revised recommended dietary allowances for the Vietnamese population (Khan and Hoan 2008). We chose the revised recommended dietary allowances, since they were estimated for the Vietnamese population, whereas the available estimated average requirements were available for humans in general. The household nutrient requirement is the sum of each household member's requirement given their age group, gender and reproductive status (i.e., pregnant, lactating). The nutrients included in the modelling study were the dietary energy for moderate work category, vitamins (A retinol activity equivalent, C, Thiamine, Riboflavin, Niacin, B6, Folate, B12) and minerals (calcium, magnesium, iron [5% bioavailability] and zinc [poor zinc absorption]). We used the 13 nutrients to calculate the functional diversity metrics (NFD P and NDF D ), and Vit A, Ca, Zn and Fe to calculate nutrient deviations (ND i ) and farm nutritional yield (Y i ) metrics. The nutrient profiles for every food item commonly consumed among farmers (Table 3) mainly originate from the Vietnamese food composition table which provides nutrient contents per 100 g edible portion of raw ingredients (SMILING D.5-a 2013). We also used the USDA and the West African food composition tables in a few cases (USDA 2007;Stadlmayr et al. 2012). We considered potential nutrient losses due to cooking methods by using the USDA average retention factors values per food group (USDA 2016). We excluded condiments from the modelling effort. Foods in the Baseline farm and modelgenerated alternative farm configurations with quantities below 5 g person −1 day −1 were excluded from the count-and abundance-based metrics. The selected cut off value is roughly double than the one used in the region to identify foodb a s e d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r C h i l d r e n ( 2 . 2 2 g children −1 day −1 ) (Ngoc Chau 2016)."}]},{"head":"Baseline farm objectives, decision variables and constraints","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"We used the multi-objective evolutionary algorithm in FarmDESIGN to explore options to improve the performance of the Baseline farm for six objectives (Tables 1, 3 and 4). The algorithm generates a set of alternative farm configurations    Crop rotations evaluated on the Baseline farm: Pak choy-orange sweet potato-mustard greens-mung bean; tomato-pumpkin-soybean; peanut-cabbage-cowpeas; taro-radish; spring onion six seasons; French bean three seasons; carrot three seasons (solutions) that are iteratively improved using Pareto-based ranking (Groot et al. 2007(Groot et al. , 2010(Groot et al. , 2012;;Groot and Rossing 2011). The objectives were to maximize the food supply (onand off-farm) necessary to satisfy the household dietary requirement, focusing on the four potentially deficient nutrients (Vit A, Ca, Fe and Zn; the nutrient deviation ND i for each nutrient is an objective), while simultaneously improving household dispensable budget and household leisure time."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Table 1 lists the objectives, decision variables, and constraints set in this modelling study. We configured FarmDESIGN optimization to yield 500 solutions after 1000 iterations to ensure stable outcomes."}]},{"head":"FarmDESIGN outputs -alternative farm configurations (solutions)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"We analysed the FarmDESIGN outputs at three levels. Firstly, we assessed the general trends of the 500-alternative farmhousehold configurations to identify trade-offs and synergies between the objectives. At this level, we looked at the food consumption patterns from on-and off-farm sources (diet) and from the Selected Crops only (intervention). Secondly, we identified the indicators (see the list in Table 1) associated to alternative farm configurations with desirable (or undesirable) livelihood or nutritional outcomes. Alternative farm configurations with desirable livelihoods were those with a household dispensable budget and leisure time equal to or larger than in the Baseline farm (hereafter L+). For instance, L+ farm configurations would potentially lead to a larger dispensable budget and leisure time for non-earning activities. Alternative farm configurations with desirable nutritional outcomes were those with positive nutrient deviations for Ca, Fe, Vit A and Zn (hereafter N+). Thus, N+ farm configurations potentially set aside enough and more nutritious on-and off-farm food to satisfy household dietary requirements. Undesirable livelihood (L-) and nutrition (N-) values indicate farm allocations yielding suboptimal configurations and resource allocations. We tested median statistical differences (at p value <0.05) among groups of alternative farm configurations (i.e. N + L+ , N-L+ , N + L-, N-L-) through the Kruskal-Wallis test and the post-hoc Dunn's analysis (dunn.test package; Dinno 2017) in R (R Core Team 2016). Both tests are appropriate for unbalanced sample sizes."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Thirdly, we selected two contrasting farms from among the 500 alternative farm configurations to compare farm configurations and production for consumption in extreme situations. The 'Surplus farm' had the maximum positive nutrient deviations for the Ca, Fe, Vit A and Zn, and had a larger household dispensable budget and leisure time than the Baseline farm. On the contrary, the 'Deficit farm' had the lowest nutrient deviations across the four optimized nutrients and a lower household dispensable budget or leisure time than the Baseline farm."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Finally, we compared production diversity and diet diversity metrics across groups of alternative farm configurations using the Kruskal-Wallis test and the post-hoc Dunn's analysis. We identified the count-and abundance-based metrics measuring diversity in the diet or on the farm with significantly higher or lower values in the N + L+ and N + L-groups of farms; farms theoretically satisfying household dietary requirements and leading to desirable nutritional outcomes."}]},{"head":"Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Characteristics of the baseline farm","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Twelve food groups and 22 species from on-and off-farm sources were consumed in quantities above 5 g person −1 day −1 by the household in the Baseline farm (Table 2)."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"The Baseline farm set aside 12% of the whole on-farm production for household consumption, representing 47% of the total (on-and off-farm sources) foods consumed. The total household food cost was USD 2597 year −1 , which is 63% of the total income."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Large crop margins (USD 4864 year −1 ) contributed to a positive household dispensable budget in the Baseline farm. French beans, maize and rice sales contributed to 84% of the crop margin (51%, 24%, and 9%, respectively) with other contributions from vegetables (spring onion, tomato, Pak choi and cabbage) and fruits (longan, mango, banana, pomelo, papaya and guava). The on-farm production allowed only 77 days free from agriculture-related activities to each one of the four households' members working on the farm across the whole year (Figs. 3 and 4)."}]},{"head":"Trade-offs and synergies among multiple objectives","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"We found a trade-off between dispensable budget and household diet, and between dispensable budget and leisure time. Hence, increasing household dispensable budget would be associated with a decline in nutrient adequacy for satisfying household dietary requirements (lower ND i for all four nutrients; Fig. 3b, c, d, and e) as well as leisure time (Fig. 3a). In particular, nutrient deviations were drastically reduced where household dispensable budgets exceeded USD 6000 year −1 , i.e. three times more than in the Baseline farm (Fig. 3b, c, d,  and e). Household leisure time was uncorrelated with the optimized nutrient deviations (Fig. 3f, g, h, and i). We found a synergetic increase in nutrient deviations with positive and significant correlations among all four nutrients. Nonetheless, the degree of increase in ND i varied among the nutrients, with increases in Vit A and Zn more easily attained than in Ca and Fe (Fig. 3j, k, l, m, n, and o). This is likely linked to the fact that food items in the local diet (including Selected Crops) more commonly contribute to the nutritional requirements for Vit A (ten food items) and Zn (six food items) than Fe (three food items) and Ca (one food item) (Table 3)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Only a few alternative farm configurations (8% of configurations, 46 farms) achieved simultaneous improvements in both nutrition and livelihoods (N + L+), farm configurations potentially representing win-win situations. An additional 7% of the configurations (31 farms) yielded desirable nutritional improvement although they reduced household dispensable budget or leisure time (N + L-). The remaining 85% of the configurations (423 farms), yielded undesirable nutritional outcomes where Ca and Fe requirements were unmet, resulting in negative ND Ca and ND Fe (Fig. 3l)."}]},{"head":"Contribution of selected crops to livelihoods and nutrition","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":376,"text":"The quantity of Selected Crops produced and set aside for consumption is a better indicator for measuring nutritional contribution than the area allocated to Selected Crops. Our modelling study suggests that the farm-household configurations where a quantity of the Selected Crops produced are set aside for home consumption (e.g. Surplus farm) allowed the household to attain its nutritional needs, whereas farmers planting larger areas with the Selected Crops (e.g. Deficit farm) and not setting aside produce for consumption (selling it instead) failed to attain their nutritional needs (Fig. 4a and d). We found that the deviations for ND VitA and ND Zn drastically increased from slightly larger than zero in the Baseline farm to a surplus of 100% to 200% in the alternative farms. This suggests a twofold or larger increase in the supply of those nutrients than what the household requires. Fe, however, would remain insufficient (20% below the household requirements) regardless of the food consumed from onand off-farm sources (Fig. 3j, k, and l) or the quantity of the Selected Crops' production set aside for consumption (Fig. 4d); and despite the current consumption of fish and seafood, and meat and poultry (Table 3, Appendix 3). If the farm-household set aside >700 g person −1 day −1 of the production of Selected Crops for consumption it could theoretically satisfy their calcium needs (positive deviations), given the modelling assumptions (Fig. 4b; Table 3). Although the Selected Crops represent five different food groups, including dark green leafy vegetables, nuts and seeds, other vegetables, pulses, vitamin A fruits, and vitamin  3), it remains uncertain if would be feasible to consume >700 g person −1 day −1 of the Selected Besides, a large quantity of Selected Crops' production for consumption (>700 g person −1 day −1 ) would lead to household dispensable budget reductions from ~USD9,000 year −1 to USD3,500 year −1 (Fig. 4e). Overall, the trade-off between nutrient deviation and household dispensable budget was less pronounced for alternative farms with household dispensable budget values like or slightly larger than the Baseline farm (Fig. 4e). The trade-off between Selected Crops production for household consumption or income generation suggests high profitability for the Selected Crops if they are not consumed by the household and are instead sold at the market."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Home-garden areas on the alternative farms occupied around 4% (Standard Error -SE = 0.03) of the whole farm area, whereas the Selected Crop areas only occupied between 10 and 40% of the home-garden area, despite their potential economic and nutritional contribution (Fig. 4b, and e). Alternative farms with Selected Crop areas occupying more than 30% of the home-garden area tended to have a larger household dispensable budget and more leisure time, because some of the Selected Crops are less labour-intensive and generate larger income than others (Fig. 4b and c)."}]},{"head":"Synergies between nutrition and livelihoods","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Farm configurations with desirable nutritional outcomes (i.e. N + L+ and N + L-) originated from increasing food consumption mainly from on-farm production rather than from off-farm sources such as the market (Fig. 5a, d and g). This was reflected in significantly larger contributions from on-farm (including larger proportion of Selected Crops production set aside for household consumption) and significantly smaller crop gross margins from selling on-farm production in N + L+ and N + L-farm configurations (Figs. 5b-d). In the latter farms, the household food cost represented around 67% of the total income, suggesting that satisfying household dietary requirements demands incurring substantial costs (Fig. 5e)."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"However, the total food costs in N + L+ and N + L-alternative farms was only 1.1 times larger than in the Baseline farm due to the increased crop gross margin, whereas the total food consumption from on-and off-farm sources was 1.7 times more in N + L+ and N + L-alternative farms compared to the Baseline farm (Fig. 5a and e). This suggests that the income generated from selling some of the production of the Selected Crops with high market value could potentially contribute to covering the cost of achieving desirable nutritional outcomes (Fig. 5b)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Although the optimization excluded environmental objectives, our results suggest that organic matter from crop residues was significantly larger in N + L+ and N + L-alternative farms, yet lower than the Baseline farm (Fig. 5i), indicating a likely negative effect on soil quality after home garden diversification with the crops selected using a participatory approach."}]},{"head":"Comparison of nutrition-related metrics","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"Alternative farm configurations significantly increased the onfarm production diversity for consumption in relation to the Baseline farm (Fig. 6). Farms with desirable nutritional outcomes (N + L+ and N + L-farms), meaning the farms that Fig. 4 Values for the seven maximized objectives across alternative farm configurations given the area allocated to planting the Selected Crops in the home garden and the quantity of Selected Crops production set aside for household consumption. Nutrient deviations for vitamin A (Vit A), zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe) (a, b), household (HH) dispensable budget (c, d) and household leisure time (e, f). Each point represents an alternative farm configuration could satisfy the household dietary requirements for at least three nutrients (Vit Ca and Zn), scored significantly larger median values for the NFD D , NFD P , H D , D D (Fig. 6b,  g, h and i). The abundance metrics, H P and D P , were not significantly different among farm groups when measuring on-farm production diversity for household consumption, although most of the N + L+ farms tended to have larger H P values (Fig. 6c and d). This suggested that in this context, the functional diversity metrics (a more recently proposed metric) tend to capture the contribution to household dietary requirements better than richness and abundance metrics when measuring on-farm production diversity."},{"index":2,"size":264,"text":"Measuring the nutrient yield for the whole production could lead to misguiding results. The Y i metric, which captures the contribution of the whole farm production (e.g. food produced for animal feed), indicated that increasing the number of reference adults with covered yearly dietary reference intakes for Y Zn reduced the number of reference adults with covered yearly dietary reference intakes for Y Ca , Y Fe and Y VitA (Fig. 6j, k, l,  and m). The large contributions on Zinc were linked to maize, which contributes >15% of the daily values for this nutrient. Yet maize production is mainly used to feed the livestock and is not consumed by household members as part of their daily diets (Table 1). Likewise, the nutrient yield results indicate that the whole farm production could satisfy the Fe dietary reference intakes for ~25 reference adults (Y Fe ) on average in N + L+ and N + L-farms although the nutrient deviation indicated (ND Fe ) household Fe requirements remained unmet (ND Fe ) (Figs. 6l and 3d). The large Y Fe values were linked to unfeasible consumption levels for Fe (e.g. 1057 g of maize in a day to satisfy Fe daily requirements). For instance, we found that using Y i on only one nutrient can also lead to misguiding conclusions, since farms with desirable nutritional outcomes (N + L+ and N + L-) included farm configurations where the trade-off among nutrients was minimized with significantly smaller median values for Ca and Fe, and significantly larger median values Zn in particular (Fig. 6j, k, and l)."}]},{"head":"surplus and deficit alternative farms: Sell it or eat it?","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The selected extreme configurations of Surplus and Deficit showed potentially contrasting pathways for home garden diversification in the Doan Ket context. The Surplus farm exemplified a farm configuration leading to a win-win situation where both nutrition and livelihoods would be improved (hence an N + L+ farm). There was an improvement in both dimensions despite the large contribution of on-farm production for household consumption and the large food cost (Fig. 5a, d, g, and e). Home garden area and crop area evenness (H HG ) were similar in both Surplus and Deficit farms. (Fig. 5f). Nonetheless, the larger crop labour required in the Deficit farm is likely linked to the larger areas planted with carrots French beans (Figs. 5h and 7)."},{"index":2,"size":281,"text":"The Deficit is the extreme example of a farm configuration maximizing income over nutritional contribution and even choosing a cheaper diet than in the Baseline farm (hence an N-L-farm) (Fig. 5a, d, and g). For example, the food cost in the Deficit farm represents 59% of the total farm-household expenditures, whereas the Baseline Farm and Surplus farm had larger values (62% and 68% respectively) (Fig. 5e). Despite the lowest food cost in the Deficit farm, it set aside a larger quantity of food for consumption from on-and offfarm sources of 1683 g person −1 day −1 compared to the Baseline farm (1393 g person −1 day −1 ), yet less than the Surplus farm (2454 g person −1 day −1 ). The Surplus farm consumed an extra food group (HDDS) and one additional species (SR D ) with more even distributions among food items (H D , D D ) and larger functional diversity (NFD D ) than in the Deficit farm (Fig. 6e, f, g, h, and i). The differences in production diversity were smaller, where the Surplus farm had the same number of species for consumption (SR P ), slightly larger functional diversity (NFD P ) and larger evenness crop production for consumption (H P , D P ) than the Deficit farm (Fig. 6a, b,  c, and d). This modelling study shows how measuring diversity only on the production side (SR P , NFD P , H P , D P ) is therefore limited and not suitable for measuring the nutritional contribution of NSA interventions. The production diversity metrics are particularly limited in the cases where farmhouseholds opt for selling their diversified production rather than consuming it."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"The larger crop gross margins in the Deficit farm originated from the sale of mostly the Selected Crops such as water spinach (dark green leafy vegetables), soybeans (pulses), cowpeas and spring onions (other vegetables) (Fig. 7). The areas under cultivation for those crops were similar in both farms. Nonetheless, the quantity of Selected Crops' production set aside for household consumption was at least four times smaller in the Deficit farm than in the Surplus farm (Fig. 7). Other sold crops had larger planted areas in the Deficit farm than in the Baseline and the Surplus farms, yet consumption remained similar or lower (i.e. Selected Crops: carrot, French of other fruits (banana and guava) from on-farm production, while it increased the consumption of other vegetables (mainly tomato) from off-farm sources. The reduced tomato area planted and the increment in the quantity of tomato purchased reflected that buying tomato was cheaper than producing it in the Doan Ket and modelling context (Fig. 7)."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"The Surplus farm increased its production for household consumption of most of the Selected Crops, except for peanuts and pumpkin, which remained aligned with the number of Selected Crops set aside in the Baseline farm (Fig. 7). The Surplus farm increased its consumption of other fruits (guava and banana) and other vegetables (mostly cowpea and spring onion), while it reduced consumption of tomato from on-farm production. Contrary to the Deficit farm, the Surplus farm increased its consumption of pork (Fig. 7)."},{"index":5,"size":140,"text":"The area planted to Papaya (vitamin A-rich fruits) expanded greatly in both Deficit and Surplus farms, occupying almost the whole fruit area in the Deficit farm (0.54 ha) albeit with quantities set aside for household consumption that were nonetheless three times smaller than in the Surplus farm (Fig. 7). Ripe papaya has the highest values for the optimized nutrients (Ca, Fe and Vit A) among the farm perennial fruit plants, hence the preference to plant such large papaya areas across all alternative farm configurations. Papaya, banana and guava cultivation areas expanded at the expense of mango, longan and pomelo areas. In both farm configurations (Deficit and Surplus) compared to the Baseline farm, tofu (a refined soybean product sourced off-farm) consumption reduced whereas soybean consumption from on-farm production increased due to soybeans larger content of the optimized nutrients and lower cost."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"The global commitment to end malnutrition through nutritionsensitive agriculture (NSA) requires the use of robust methods, models, and metrics that disentangle the complex relationship between agriculture-and nutrition (Herforth and Ballard 2016). The use of whole farm-household models enables ex-ante assessments of the potential trade-offs and challenges that NSA interventions could pose to a farm-household. Farm-household models also enabled us to estimate the potential contribution of agricultural interventions towards satisfying household dietary requirements and improving household livelihoods. In this study we showed the applicability of the new 'Household Nutrition' module included in the expanded FarmDESIGN model for estimating several metrics linked to diet and nutrition. We discuss how the exante analysis could facilitate designing NSA interventions while exploring potential intervention (i.e. home garden diversification) pathways. Lastly, we discuss how FarmDESIGN facilitates testing the robustness of the different metrics linking on-farm production and household dietary requirements in agriculture-nutrition projects."}]},{"head":"NSA interventions and potential development pathways","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"Interventions such as home-garden diversification are common in Vietnam. Starting in 1986, the Vietnamese government actively promoted these interventions under the Doi Moi policy; the Garden-Pond-Livestock system (VAC: Vuon-Ao-Chuong in Vietnamese) (Luu 2001). The VAC system contributes between 30 and 60% of the total household income (Trinh et al. 2003). In North Vietnam, home-garden production contributes on average 13% of the household total income (Trinh et al. 2003), which is in line with the 16% estimated for the Baseline farm in this modelling study. Nonetheless, food production for household consumption from the diversified farming system is insufficiently contributing to the nutrient deficiencies identified in the Baseline farm and reported in the general nutrition survey 2009-2010(NIN 2012)). Likewise, maximizing income generation over nutrition is a trend reported in the study region where home gardens are transitioning from subsistence-oriented towards more profitable and commercial oriented home gardens, reducing species diversity and limiting the contribution to household nutrition (Mohri et al. 2013). Implementing an NSA intervention in this region thus demands careful planning to maximize the likelihood of adoption, and to avoid the likely negative consequences of such interventions (e.g. reductions in organic matter from crop residues), as indicated by this modelling study."},{"index":2,"size":218,"text":"Crop diversification in the home gardens in tandem with other activities such as promoting other naturally occurring vegetables and educational and promotional interventions could increase the successful adoption of the Selected Crops for desirable nutritional outcomes and better livelihoods. The participatory selection and promotion of nutritious crops is novel in the area and responds to the expectation and interest of the community. Although, promoting other naturally occurring vegetables in the region with larger nutritional contributions (Ogle et al. 2001) could help to fill the nutritional gaps of the Selected Crops (e.g. low iron or calcium contributions). Empirical evidence in Bangladesh indicates the feasibility of tripling home garden production and vegetable consumption (Ferdous et al. 2016). In this modelling study we estimated that improving household nutrient adequacy could be reached by almost doubling on-farm contributions to household consumption, although the large consumption of the Selected Crops for nutritional outcomes (i.e. calcium -Ca) remains to be tested. For instance, increasing the consumption will require changes in both crop production and consumption behaviour and preferences to make the most of the potential of the new or underutilized Selected (e.g. pumpkin and sweet potato leaves, orange flesh sweet potato). Hence there appears to be a key role to be played by educational and promotional interventions (Berti et al. 2004;Ruel and Levin 2000)."},{"index":3,"size":220,"text":"Working with the communities on food preferences and nutrition awareness could help farmers to soften the trade-off between nutrition and income. For example, this modelling study confirms that the market opportunity of the Selected Crops (e.g. large crop gross margin) could help to cover the larger food costs linked to desirable nutritional outcomes. This is in line with Greiner (2017) who found that a food-based approach 1 is a cost-efficient strategy to improve nutritional status, particularly in areas where multiple nutrients are deficient. Nonetheless, our results also suggest that home-garden diversification could also lead to maximize income generation rather than nutritional outcomes, as is already the case in the area. Maximizing income does not necessarily result in more and nutritious food available from the market. For example, despite the diversity of food items outsourced from the market (18 food items) in the Baseline farm, the alternative farm configurations seldom reduced the on-farm production for household consumption to replace these with food from the market. On the contrary, few food items outsourced from the market were replaced by on-farm production due to larger nutrient content and lower cost in the modelling study. This suggests that only improving market access for subsistence farms as a promising livelihood and development strategy as suggested by Sibhatu and Qaim (2018) could be limited and context-dependent."}]},{"head":"Robustness of metrics for comparability across NSA interventions","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"A wide range of metrics is commonly used to assess dietary diversity and on-farm production diversity (Herforth and Ballard 2016;Sibhatu and Qaim 2018). The linkages or associations between dietary and on-farm production diversity are analysed using different metrics and at different scales (e.g. Berti 2015;Sibhatu et al. 2015). Therefore, the need for systematic assessment of the robustness and applicability of the different metrics under different contexts, scales and socioecological settings is increasingly recognized (Powell et al. 2015;Herforth and Ballard 2016). Identifying agreed-upon and robust metrics to measure nutritional outcomes at the farm-household level will allow comparability across NSA interventions and contexts."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"In this modelling exercise, we compared diverse and commonly used metrics in NSA interventions across farm configurations and food allocations for household consumption from on-and off-farm sources. We compared the metrics values against the nutrient deviation; a theoretical assessment of the contribution to household dietary requirements. We found that the usefulness of SR D was limited in the context of Doan Ket even though it was proposed as an appropriate metric for measuring food diversity in individual diets and nutritional adequacy of diets (Lachat et al. 2017). The SR D and the HDDS performed poorly given the non-significant differences between farms that could and could not satisfy the household dietary requirements for vitamin A, calcium and zinc. It is important to note that household-level metrics of diet are often associated with household food access, rather than dietary quality, and hence nutrition of individualswhich might explain the poor performance of SR D which was validated as an individual, rather than a household-level indicator. We found that other metrics such as functional diversity and Shannon's and Simpson's diversity indexes for the household diet (on-and off-farm sources) (NFD D , H D , D D ) performed better at predicting desirable nutritional outcomes in Doan Ket. All those metrics scored significantly higher median values among farm configurations with desirable nutritional outcomes (N+)."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"On the contrary, only one metric measuring on-farm production diversity for consumption, the nutritional functional diversity (NFD P ), was significantly larger in farms with desirable nutritional outcomes. Functional diversity metrics have been proposed recently to measure production diversity (e.g. Remans et al. 2011;DeClerck et al. 2014), whereas richness and abundance metrics to measure production diversity are used more commonly (See Appendix 1). Hence, the NFD P seems a promising metric that needs to be tested in a wider range of farm-household contexts. Our results also support that H tends to be more sensitive to rare species than D (Peet 1974). For instance, H could be more appropriate in cases where diets and on-farm production are dominated by \"rare\" species and food items."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"The farm nutritional yield (Y i ) metric is a novel metric able to capture the balanced production of nutrients. It does, however, require careful interpretation if the destination of the produced food is unknown or if analysed only for one nutrient. The Y i metric considers the whole farm production, which could bias the real contribution to human and household nutrition. Similarly, greater Y i values for a certain nutrient could be misleading, since we found that farm configurations with desirable nutritional outcomes had greater Y Zn values and lower Y Ca , Y Fe, and Y VitA values than farm configurations with sub-optimal nutritional outcomes."}]},{"head":"Study limitations","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"This modelling study is supported by an intense data collection aiming to capture farming systems and food consumption across eight households in Doan Ket. Data collection was part of the pilot phase of the project in order to test the effectiveof the intervention and guide it rather to inform policy recommendations. Therefore, the Baseline farm properly represents a considerable portion of farm-households in the village, yet the results from this modelling study ignore other farm-household types that are less common in the area with production systems dominated by the excluded crops (e.g. coffee or cassava; Table 1). A larger sampling effort is therefore suggested for a more comprehensive characterization of the impact of the intervention across the diverse farmhousehold types that characterise the region. Similarly, the available food consumption data for Doan Ket was particularly limited since it is based on one weekly dietary recall, which is more subjective to recall error (Kennedy et al. 2011). Nonetheless, our comparison with the regional averages indicates similar consumption levels at the food group level (See Appendix 3). The 'Human Nutrition' module is potentially overestimating consumption or nutrient intake since food waste is currently not being captured by FarmDESIGN. Another inherent limitation of the model is the yearly analysis, which underestimates issues related to seasonal food availability, food price seasonality and intra-household food distributions."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"Despite the considerable efforts in collecting accurate data, the modelling effort is potentially underestimating the species richness in on-farm production and household diets. For example, ethnobotanical studies identified 38.6 species on average per home harden in Northern Vietnam (Vlkova et al. 2011). Identifying home garden species through food or crop recalls may ignore other important crop and varietal species used for household consumption, as well as species used for other purposes such as medicine, firewood, fodder, materials for construction or crafts (Sêdami et al. 2017;Vlkova et al. 2011). Despite these limitations, here we show how the expanded FarmDESIGN model facilitates measuring the impact of interventions by easily looking at the whole system (e.g. diets), a subset of the system (e.g. Selected Crops) and at alternative farm-household configurations with contrasting strategies for predicting likely farm-household trajectories. Besides the wide range of performance indicators across farm-household domains, which facilitates measuring unexpected impacts (e.g. reduction on leisure time) and the calculation of different metrics commonly used in NSA."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"We applied a farm-household model to evaluate the effects of a nutrition-sensitive agriculture (NSA) intervention (i.e. home-garden diversification) on representative farming households from Doan Ket, Vietnam. FarmDESIGN facilitates estimating the potential contribution of an intervention towards attaining household nutritional needs. Capturing performance indicators (and their interactions) across the diverse farm-household domains helps to foresee trade-offs, synergies and unintended consequences of an intervention. For example, the potential adverse environmental effect from the reduction of organic matter and the trade-off between household nutrition and dispensable budget due to the high market value of the Selected Crops in Doan Ket. This information can contribute to designing and identifying complementary interventions that will improve the positive effect of the NSA intervention. Moreover, the easy and simultaneous calculation of several metrics estimating production diversity, diet diversity, nutrient supply, and nutrition adequacy will facilitate identifying the most robust metrics to infer an intervention's contribution to household dietary requirements across contexts. Among the metrics tested here, the most robust metrics included the count-based nutritional functional diversity (production for consumption and diet) as well as the abundance-based Shannon-Weaver and Simpson's diversity indexes (diet). Similarly, we found the farm system yield to be a novel metric that requires careful interpretation."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The global commitment to ending malnutrition through NSA requires the use of multiple transdisciplinary, holistic and system-oriented approaches. Models such as the farmhousehold model presented here facilitate and foster communication among the multiple disciplines involved in NSA by presenting a set of clearly articulated and tested metrics that can be used to measure both production and nutritional outcomes, two sides of the food system that for so long have been operating in parallel without harnessing their joint potential."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the FarmDESIGN model showing farm resource flows (i.e. cash, labour, and food) among the farm components and the household. Blue arrows represent inflows, while other arrows denote product outflows (green) or losses (red). The black and grey arrows indicate resource flows within the farm--household system. Boxes indicate modules that calculate indicators for the farm "},{"text":" Time for non-earning albeit important activities (home maintenance, household, and family chores, community/family events participation, -farm production Quantity set aside for consumption from each crop and food item (28 food items) "},{"text":" Merr.]), vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables (carrot [Daucus carota L.], papaya [Carica papaya L.], orange-fleshed sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas, Lam], pumpkin [Cucurbita pepo]), nuts and seeds (peanuts [Arachis hypogaea L.]), dark green leafy vegetables (mustard greens [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.], water spinach [Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.]), in addition to other vegetables (French beans [Phaseolus vulgaris L.], and cowpeas [Vigna minima (Roxb.) Ohwi and Ohashi]) (See Table "},{"text":"* Daily values calculated using the recommended dietary allowances for an adult Vietnamese male in the age group of 19-50 years. Nutrient profiles for each crop sourced mainly for the Vietnamese food composition table (SMILING D.5-a 2013). See section 2.4.1. for detailed informationTable 4Doan Ket farming systems characterization used to build the Baseline farm using the most common (mode) household size and demographics, farm components and cultivated crop species(number of farms reported cultivating the crop) and the average (mean) farm size, household expenses, purchased foods and off-farm labour Baseline farm Excluded from the Baseline farm No. farms Mode or mean (SE) Unit Most cultivated species (No. farms) Selected Crops (No. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Relationships (Pearson's correlation coefficient and p value) between the livelihood outcomes and nutritional outcomes. Livelihood outcomes are measured as the dispensable budget (available budget after expenditures) and, leisure time for non-earning activities. Nutritional outcomes are measured as the nutrient deviations of four likely deficient nutrients (Iron-Fe, Zinc-Zn, Vitamin A-Vit A and Calcium-Ca) where positive deviations indicate the household yearly nutrient requirements were theoretically satisfied. The black square indicates the values for the Baseline farm, whereas other dots represent the alternative farm configuration colour-coded based on the nutritional and livelihood outcomes "},{"text":"Fig. 5 Fig. 5 Range of variability across indicators and grouped alternative farm configurations with desirable (+) or undesirable (−) Nutritional (N) or Livelihood (L) outcomes. The different symbols along the right-hand vertical axis indicate significant differences among groups (Post-hoc "},{"text":"Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Range of variability across human nutrition metrics values and grouped alternative farm configurations given desirable (+) or undesirable (−) Nutritional (N) or Livelihoods (L) outcomes. Different symbols indicate significant differences among groups (Post-hoc Dunn's test significance at p value <0.05). Diet ( D ) metrics consider on-and off- "},{"text":"Fig. 7 Fig. 7 Changes between the Baseline farm (zero X-axes) and the Surplus and Deficit farms. * indicates Selected Crops. Papaya areas in the Surplus farm = 3521 m 2 and the Deficit farm = 5425 m 2 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 FarmDESIGN model domains and performance indicators in each domain classified as: objectives, decision variables, model constraints and indicators in this modelling study. HH=Household; SC=Selected Crops. Other nutrition-related metrics used as indicators, but not as objectives, are listed in  "},{"text":"Table 2 Description of the dietary reference intakes  "},{"text":"Table 3 List of consumed and produced food items described by their contributions to daily values for calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and vitamin A (Vit A), yearly food consumption pattern, crop yield, food items sale and purchasing price and maximum allowed quantity for household consumption at the food group level used in the Baseline farm (see Table4). Selected Crops for home -garden diversification are in bold. HH=Household; gs = growing season Crops for home -garden diversification are in bold. HH=Household; gs = growing season  "},{"text":"Table 3 (continued)     Modelled average values  Modelled average values Contributions to daily values* No. farmers consumed from Contributions to daily values* No. farmersconsumed from Food item  Food item Food group  Food group  "}],"sieverID":"23ef5267-9e37-4cb3-b011-396765a33aef","abstract":"Assessing progress towards healthier people, farms and landscapes through nutrition-sensitive agriculture (NSA) requires transdisciplinary methods with robust models and metrics. Farm-household models could facilitate disentangling the complex agriculture-nutrition nexus, by jointly assessing performance indicators on different farm system components such as farm productivity, farm environmental performance, household nutrition, and livelihoods. We, therefore, applied a farm-household model, FarmDESIGN, expanded to more comprehensively capture household nutrition and production diversity, diet diversity, and nutrient adequacy metrics. We estimated the potential contribution of an NSA intervention targeting the diversification of home gardens, aimed at reducing nutritional gaps and improving livelihoods in rural Vietnam. We addressed three central questions: (1) Do 'Selected Crops' (i.e. crops identified in a participatory process) in the intervention contribute to satisfying household dietary requirements?; (2) Does the adoption of Selected Crops contribute to improving household livelihoods (i.e. does it increase leisure time for non-earning activities as well as the dispensable budget)?; and (3) Do the proposed nutritionrelated metrics estimate the contribution of home-garden diversification towards satisfying household dietary requirements? Results indicate trade-offs between nutrition and dispensable budget, with limited farm-household configurations leading to jointly improved nutrition and livelihoods. FarmDESIGN facilitated testing the robustness and limitations of commonly used metrics to monitor progress towards NSA. Results indicate that most of the production diversity metrics performed poorly at predicting desirable nutritional outcomes in this modelling study. This study demonstrates that farm-household models can facilitate anticipating the effect (positive or negative) of agricultural interventions on nutrition and the environment, identifying complementary interventions for significant and positive results and helping to foresee the trade-offs that farm-households could face. Furthermore, FarmDESIGN could contribute to identifying agreed-upon and robust metrics for measuring nutritional outcomes at the farm-household level, to allow comparability between contexts and NSA interventions."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07a3c86e2cb2cc90e3dfb1db4a5b5dfb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e8c4c220-421a-4982-82a7-cd04de511e3b/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Contexto de la producción de arroz en Ecuador","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Resultados -Sistema de producción, variedades utilizadas "}]},{"head":"Productos futuros","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Estudios estratégicos en adopción (organizaciones) e impacto (alianzas publico privadas)"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Caracterización de ADN de variedades mejoradas utilizadas en Loja (Tesis conjunta con INIAP, Laboratorio CIAT)"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Integración de los datos recopilados en el observatorio del arroz (https://www.riceobservatory.org/en)"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• PhD Tesis por presentarse a la Universidad la Molina. Economía del sector arrocero en Ecuador (eficiencia, precios, emisiones y sostenibilidad)"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Caracterización ADN -Uso de semillas en Loja "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"•• Cultivo prioritario para la seguridad alimentaria • El estado define un precio mínimo para productores y el mercado el de consumo • Balanza comercial positiva Exportación: 29,000 ton (2019) Importación: 229 ton (2019) I-Contrabando: 145,000 ton (2016) Presentación y publicación de la \"Caracterización del sector arrocero en Ecuador 2014-2019\" "},{"text":"-Sistema de producción, variedades utilizadas  Miles de hectáreas Resultados 350 mil ha., (2014) 18% Otros Uso histórico de variedades de arroz SFL09 28% 12% Feron • El promedio de variedades utilizadas ha ido • La sustitución de reduciendo 9% SFL09 edad de las 254 mil ha., (2019) 9% Otros Miles de hectáreas Resultados 350 mil ha., (2014) 18% Otros Uso histórico de variedades de arroz SFL09 28%12% Feron• El promedio de variedades utilizadas ha ido • La sustitución de reduciendo 9% SFL09 edad de las 254 mil ha., (2019) 9% Otros      INIAP14 variedades esta INIAP14variedades esta      4% orientada a los 4%orientada a los      INIAP11 5% intereses INIAP11 5%intereses       industriales SFL011 industrialesSFL011     SFL11  61% SFL1161% INIAP14 -   7%  INIAP14-7% 36% 2014  2017  2019 36%201420172019  SFL 09 SFL 11 INIAP 11 INIAP11 12% INIAP 14 Feron Otras SFL 09SFL 11INIAP 11 INIAP11 12%INIAP 14FeronOtras  "},{"text":"Sistema de producción, fertilización  Resultados -Rendimientos de entrevistas Resultados -Rendimientos de entrevistas    Costos de fertilización durante diferentes periodos Costos de fertilización durante diferentes periodos 25%    • Utilizando los datos de los 25%• Utilizando los datos de los 15% 20% 25% 0% 5% 10% 20% 15% Rendimiento reportado t/ha (2019) -15 a 0 6 a 10 Cantidad de nitrógeno aplicada durante diferentes periodos mismos agricultores entre el 16 a 20 26 a 30 35 a 40 46 a 50 56 a 60 66 a 70 76 a 80 90 a 95 2014 y 2019, el 52% obtuvo • Alrededor de un 20% de los rendimientos inferiores agricultores obtuvo 20% más que el año base rendimientos superiores en 15% 20% 25% 0% 5% 10% 20% 15% Rendimiento reportado t/ha (2019)-15 a 06 a 10Cantidad de nitrógeno aplicada durante diferentes periodos mismos agricultores entre el 16 a 20 26 a 30 35 a 40 46 a 50 56 a 60 66 a 70 76 a 80 90 a 95 2014 y 2019, el 52% obtuvo • Alrededor de un 20% de los rendimientos inferiores agricultores obtuvo 20% más que el año base rendimientos superiores en 10%      10% 5%      5% 0%      0%  -15 a 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 a 10 16 a 20 26 a 30 35 a 40 2014 46 a 50 2019 56 a 60 66 a 70 76 a 80 90 a 95 -15 a 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 6 a 10 16 a 20 26 a 30 35 a 40 201446 a 50 201956 a 6066 a 7076 a 8090 a 95  "},{"text":"Rendimiento reportado t/ha (2014)   "}],"sieverID":"54c2a505-9e18-4947-b66d-403776a15604","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0848aaa3877df2b00ee2a6d1e41eecf0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0848aaa3877df2b00ee2a6d1e41eecf0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c6666e2-6afc-43d7-a1ab-054e544bf036/retrieve"},"pageCount":108,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"iii To be Africa's leading research partner in finding solutions to hunger and poverty."}]},{"head":"Our Vision","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Photo by A farmer in Uganda making his way home after a hard day's work in the field. Photo by JT Oliver, IITA."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1"}]},{"head":"Possibilities, potentials, and positive changes","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"At the final interview of the selection process for the position of Director General of IITA, one of the members of the interview panel asked me, \"So, what is your vision for IITA?\""},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The question -short, pointed, and straight as an arrow -is probably the most important that can be asked of any candidate vying to be the head of the largest agricultural researchfor-development organization in sub-Saharan Africa. My response, outlined in my presentation \"Realizing the Possibilities\" during that interview and summarized below, presents strategies for operationalizing my vision for the institute in the next 10 years. Deeply committed to IITA's vision of \"being Africa's leading research partner in finding solutions to hunger and poverty,\" I intend, as Director General, to organize and strengthen our research and research partnerships, building on our achievements and enhancing our scientific and administrative capacity to help resource-poor farmers boost production, improve food security, and increase incomes."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"By 2020, we will be operating through decentralized and well-integrated research programs working on major challenges in Africa's food and agricultural sector specifically on crops and natural resources linked to human wellbeing. We will also be carrying out our mission through programs aligned to and part of the larger CGIAR Consortium Research Programs (CRP), and fostering innovative partnerships and catalyzing relationships between and among international agricultural research centers (IARCs), national, regional and pan-African entities, the private sector, and farmer organizations."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"We will also build on scientific advances and better understanding of the socioeconomic environment to enable farmers to triple yields, enhance crops' nutritional value, and promote greater commercialization of the food crops that we work on. We will achieve this by optimizing the use of natural and related resources while preserving the environment for future generations. To do this, we will have to double the human and financial resources currently available to us."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"Well-defined strategic interventions -some related to the four strategic System Level Outcomes of the new CGIAR of reducing rural poverty, increasing food security, correcting undernutrition, and promoting more sustainable management of natural resources -will serve as our guiding light toward achieving our goals."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"In the short-term, I will quickly work on the following priorities: revamp the natural resource management research area and establish the biotech platform for West Africa; decentralize the R4D program area along the Impact Zones, with the CRP on the Humid Tropics as the operating and integrating arm; bring in strong and resourcewinning Impact Zone research directors and the next generation of process-based and development and impact-oriented scientists; finalize the alliance with icipe and CIAT-TSBF to establish a CGIARbased African center; strengthen relationships with other IARCs and CGIAR centers; and engage the private sector, where possible, for farm input supply and within the value chains of cocoa, cassava, and soybean."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"I will engage the Board's unique talents, skills, and abilities to continually assess our strategies, devise smart solutions to adapt to new challenges and opportunities, and ensure that we maintain exemplary performance on all the strategic interventions. And all these, I will carry out with transparency as a leadership imperative."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"As Director General, I pledge to exert all efforts to position IITA as the primary driver of \"bringing new agriculture for a wealthier Africa,\" and it will be my great honor and pleasure if you will join me in this challenging but worthwhile and wonderful journey."}]},{"head":"Nteranya Sanginga Director General","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Research Highlights","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agriculture and Health","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Micronutrient deficiency, particularly of vitamin A, zinc, and iron, is a major public health problem affecting mostly women and children. Foodborne diseases, mycotoxins, plant toxins, and poor management practices in intensified agriculture are responsible for associated diseases and can impose barriers to trade."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"We address these major challenges by finding ways to provide a higher diversity and density of micronutrients in human diets, reduce food toxins, increase the knowledge on nutrition patterns and distribution of food and nutrients within social systems particularly with respect to human nutrition across social strata and gender, and overcome labor force bottlenecks in farms and households affected by HIV/ AIDS or malaria through appropriate technologies."}]},{"head":"Yellow-fleshed, vitamin A-fortified cassava root developed by IITA. Biofortification of staple food crops is the most viable option to address the problem of malnutrition among millions of Africans. Photo by JT Oliver, IITA","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Tackling killer aflatoxins in African crops","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Contamination by aflatoxins of food crops is a global issue that is undermining public health and development efforts. In humans, aflatoxins increases disease susceptibility by suppressing the immune system, stunts children's growth, and causes cancer and death from acute poisoning through liver cirrhosis/necrosis. Aflatoxins also severely impact livestock through contaminated feed, causing death, slower growth, reduced feed conversion, and lower yields."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Aflatoxins are also non-tariff barriers to global trade since food crops that are contaminated above the limits set by importing countries are banned or rejected. Around 25 percent of the world's food crops are affected, with more than 5 billion people in developing countries, particularly in Asia and Africa situated between 40 o N and 40 o S, most at risk of chronic aflatoxin exposure."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Aflatoxins are produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus when these infect both staple and export crops. However, not all strains of the fungus are bad and produce the toxins. There are also benign ones -non-toxic or 'atoxigenic'that, when used in a biocontrol technology and introduced at a particular stage of the crop, could outcompete and reduce the population of the toxic ones, thereby drastically reducing contamination."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"We have been working on the biocontrol of aflatoxins for several years, successfully developing and deploying the biocontrol product aflasafe TM with the support of the Agriculture Research Service of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA-ARS). In the last two years, we consolidated efforts on biocontrol of aflatoxins with partners in Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Senegal, and Kenya. We also initiated a new biocontrol program in Zambia and secured funding for expansion of biocontrol activities in Mali, Ghana, and Tanzania for 2012 and beyond."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"This year, we launched two projects in Nigeria, Kenya and Zambia that sought to provide farmers with a natural, safe, and cost-effective solution to aflatoxin contamination in maize and peanut."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"In Kenya, we identified four competitive atoxigenic strains isolated from Kenyan maize to constitute a biocontrol product called aflasafe-KE1 TM . We are currently gathering efficacy data in areas where the technology will be deployed in Kenya."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"In Zambia, the project will also develop a countryspecific biocontrol product, but initial focus is on mapping the incidence of aflatoxin in maize and groundnut. In Nigeria, where the biocontrol technology is most advanced, we are exploring opportunities for commercialization of aflasafe TM ."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"In Senegal, we coordinated the evaluation of a biocontrol product -aflasafe-SN1 -in 2010 and 2011, which involved 80 groundnut farmers. Fields treated with aflasafe-SN1 showed 90% reduction in aflatoxins compared to those that were left untreated."},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"In Burkina Faso, we screened more than 3,500 A. flavus isolates, and selected eight native atoxigenic strains that were evaluated in 30 maize and groundnut farms. From these eight, we will identify the four most effective strains to constitute aflasafe-BF1."},{"index":10,"size":49,"text":"The projects will emphasize the development of a viable business plan for the production, adoption, and distribution of the biocontrol products to ensure sustainability of efforts. Raising public awareness about aflatoxins and biocontrol and building the human capacity and support facilities of national partners will equally be given priority."},{"index":11,"size":99,"text":"The aflatoxin control project in Kenya and Nigeria is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, USDA, and the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF). We are working with the Ministries of Agriculture in Kenya and Nigeria, USDA-ARS, AATF, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Doreo Partners, the National  Field testing of aflasafe™ in Nigeria over the past four years has produced extremely positive results: aflatoxin contamination of maize and groundnut was consistently reduced by 80-90%, in some cases even as high as 99%. In 2011, we deployed nearly 14 tons of aflasafe TM in some 450 maize and groundnut farms."},{"index":12,"size":71,"text":"Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, IITA Plant Pathologist, is optimistic that Kenya and Senegal will have their own versions of aflasafe TM within two years, Burkina Our work on aflatoxin control and on establishing the partnership resulted in another grant titled \"Expansion of biological control to manage aflatoxin in maize and groundnut using regionally-adapted beneficial fungi in Eastern and West Africa\" from the Meridian Institute which manages a multi-donor fund on behalf of PACA."},{"index":13,"size":25,"text":"The grant will be used to develop countryspecific aflasafe TM for Ghana, Mali, and Tanzania, and regional biocontrol products for West, East, and Southern Africa."},{"index":14,"size":50,"text":"The project will also design and construct a lowcost manufacturing facility in Nigeria to optimize and adapt the manufacturing process to a developing country context, as well as develop and test viable commercialization models of aflasafeTM in Nigeria. We will collaborate with USDA-ARS, Doreo Partners, and AATF in this effort. "}]},{"head":"Seeing yellow: tackling malnutrition with vitamin A cassava","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"In November, the Nigerian government officially released three new vitamin A-enriched 'yellow' cassava varieties that we developed with our partners that could deliver substantial quantities of the important nutrient in the diets of more than 70 million people."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The yellow color (cassava is generally white) of the newly released varieties is imparted by their high breeding efforts improve cassava's nutritional quality. The research was supported by funding from HarvestPlus and in partnership with Nigeria's National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (known by its Spanish acronym CIAT)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"The vitamin A cassava varieties, officially named by the National Variety Release Committee of Nigeria as UMUCASS 36, UMUCASS 37, and UMUCASS 38, are recognized as IITA genotypes' IITA-TMS I011368, IITA-TMS I011412, and IITA-TMS I011371."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is widely prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa. In Nigeria, VAD afflicts about 20 percent of pregnant women and 30 percent of children five years old and below. VAD can lower immunity and impair vision, and lead to blindness and even death. Yellow cassava provides a costeffective medium to deliver vitamin A to VADvulnerable individuals and communities in Nigeria where the average person consumes about 600 grams of cassava in various forms daily."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"Vitamin A is an anti-oxidant. Medical research has shown that regular vitamin A intake slows the progression of cataracts, promotes and maintains healthy vision, prevents muscular degeneration, boosts the immune system, regenerates healthy skin cells, and protects against an array of illnesses such as cancer, heart disease, asthma, depression, infertility, Parkinson's disease, psoriasis, arthritis, and high blood pressure."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"The new varieties are envisioned to mostly benefit children and women, which could provide up to 25 percent of their daily vitamin A requirement."},{"index":7,"size":158,"text":"Aside from being nutritious, the yellow varieties have also been proven to give high yields and offer good resistance to major diseases and pests. Farmers who evaluated them also said that the varieties are well suited for producing gari and other food products -they even swear that the yellow cassava tastes better than their white counterparts, too! Farmers across the country, and even in other cassava producing countries in West Africa, are already clamoring for planting materials of these new varieties. HarvestPlus is working with IITA and local partners to multiply stem cuttings to satisfy the demand. By 2013, researchers say that there will be enough certified stems of the vitamin A cassava varieties to cover 25,000 households initially. breakthrough, we are already working on developing improved versions of these varieties that can provide up to 50 percent of the required daily vitamin A allowance. These further improved yellow cassava varieties should be ready in a few years."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"Other collaborators in the development of the new vitamin A cassava include the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa) and various government and agricultural research and extension agencies in Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Working a MIRACLE in Southern Africa","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"In sub-Saharan Africa, approximately 22.4 million people are living with HIV/AIDS. In rural areas where over 80 percent of the population depend on agriculture livelihoods, the disease presents a major challenge because it leads to reduced farm As an approach, the project uses transfer of agricultural and postharvest innovations as a means of mitigating the impact of HIV/AIDS on affected smallholder farmers. Specifically, it promotes the production, value addition, and utilization at both small-and medium-scale commercial levels of nutrient-dense crop varieties that are also highyielding, and resistant to drought, pests, and diseases. These crops include soybean, cowpea, quality protein maize, cassava, and sweetpotato, among others."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The project also encourages the production, marketing, and consumption of indigenous, yet nutritious, vegetables such as amaranths, pumpkin leaves, sweet potato leaves, cassava leaves, and other local and nutrient-packed vegetables. MIRACLE also pushes for the production of small livestock, focusing on feed formulation using dual or multipurpose legumes and cereals, improved animal housing, and better disease control particularly of chickens."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Beneficiary households are being trained to sustainably produce their own nutritious foods and to use these to generate additional incomes, and develop and promote value added products and processes from various nutrient-dense crops."}]},{"head":"Soybean demonstration plot in Nkhata Bay MIRACLE site in Malawi.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Photo by T Gondwe, IITA."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"To ensure sustainability of its interventions, MIRACLE will advocate for appropriate national policies to link agriculture with nutrition and improve the general health status of PLWHA and their families in the project countries."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Aside from improving the socioeconomic and health conditions of HIV/AIDS-affected farming households, MIRACLE will also help ease the stigma associated with the disease."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"More than half a century after the first case of HIV was diagnosed in the Congo in 1959, PLWHA still suffer discrimination especially in developing countries where education on the disease is almost non-existent. The UNAIDS in 2009 listed the HIV prevalence rate among adult population (15-49 years old) -the most labor-productive age group -in MIRACLE's target countries as 26.1 percent in Swaziland (the highest in southern Africa), 15.2 percent in Zambia, 12.5 percent in Mozambique, and 11.9 percent in Malawi. "}]},{"head":"Agrobiodiversity","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Knowledge on the living and taxonomic collections of other (non-crop) organisms help researchers find sustainable ways to manage pests and diseases and improve soil fertility of ecosystems to enhance human welfare. We are involved in the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity of fungi, plant associated microorganisms, insects, mites and parasitic nematodes for biological pest control and in the development of environment-friendly technologies to protect the natural habitat and conserve on-farm biodiversity."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The goal of our Agrobiodiversity Program is sustainable improvement in agricultural growth, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, through increased use of efficiently conserved collections of important plant and non-plant biological resources."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"One of our genebank staff sorting cowpea seeds for storage. Photo by JT Oliver, IITA."}]},{"head":"Safeguarding Africa's precious crop biodiversity","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"As vanguard of Africa's crop biodiversity, we work to help stem the loss of the continent's plant genetic resources and optimize their potential by developing new and more effective ways to conserve and use them in crop improvement research."}]},{"head":"Acquisition and distribution of crop genetic resources","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Our Genetic Resources Center (GRC) holds more than 28,000 accessions of key food crops in sub-Saharan Africa and continuously work to expand our germplasm collection. We have also supported crop improvement and conservation activities of partners and other agricultural research organizations in various countries by providing them with the needed crop germplasm."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"This year, the GRC acquired 289 accessions of various pea, soybean, sword bean, and yam); South Africa (bambara groundnut); India (bambara groundnut, cowpea, and soybean); Japan (cassava and yam); Fiji (cowpea); Senegal (cowpea); Zambia (cowpea); and the UK (wild Vigna)."}]},{"head":"Safety duplication of seed crop collections in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"We hold the distinct honor of being the first international agricultural research center to send seeds to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault -also called the \"Doomsday Vault\" -located on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen. Our initial consignment sent in January 2008 comprised of 7,000 unique seed samples of crops from 36 African nations."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Between then and 2010, we have sent more than 12,000 accessions of African food crops to the seed vault, representing over 55 percent of our conserved seed germplasm."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"In 2011, we sent an additional 2,017 germplasm accessions for safety duplication to the Svalbard Vault. This shipment comprises of 27 accessions of African yam bean, 317 of bambara groundnut, 1,577 of cowpea, and 96 of maize. "}]},{"head":"Cryopreservation of yam and cassava","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"During the year, researchers conducted experiments at the Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD) in France and at IITA-Ibadan in Nigeria to compare two cryopreservation approaches developed for yam: encapsulation/dehydration by IRD and droplet/ vitrification by IITA. Results showed that the droplet/ vitrification approach was more suitable for yam cryopreservation. As the approach has also shown high efficiency for cassava, the approach will be used for the long-term preservation of the international collections of the two crops."}]},{"head":"Long-term conservation of yam and cassava collections","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Currently, the GRC maintains all accessions of yam and cassava in field bank conditions with a partial backup in vitro. Eventually, we plan to introduce and maintain these yam and cassava accessions under in vitro slow growth conditions. Materials that qualify for cryopreservation -or conservation through deepfreeze -will be placed in cryobanks. Once an accession proves stable in in vitro slow growth and is successfully duplicated in the cryobank, its field duplicate will be removed. For accessions that are stable in vitro but recalcitrant to cryopreservation, in vitro samples will be maintained at two different locations and the field duplicate will be eliminated."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"We envision that with this approach, we will progressively reduce yam and cassava field banking activities in IITA-Ibadan; however, residual field activity will remain for in vitro recalcitrant accessions and field regeneration of the in vitro-stored samples (with true-to-type checking every five years)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"It is proposed the in vitro slow growth and field activity in Ibadan be maintained, while the in vitro duplication and cryoprocessing/cryobanking activity be moved to our East Africa Hub in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"The transfer of the safety duplication activity to Tanzania will improve our standard on risk management of collections. It will also provide critical mass to the plant tissue culture activity planned for the Hub for eventual mass propagation and diffusion of clean germplasm in East and Southern Africa."}]},{"head":"Keeping track of what we have is an important function for the long-term conservation of our collection.","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Photo by JT Oliver, IITA."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"In the case of cassava, we will maintain botanical seeds of the core accessions in the long-term seed bank of the GRC with safety back-ups in genebanks in Saskatoon, Canada and Svalbard, Norway."}]},{"head":"IITA Microbial Bioresource Collection","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"This year, researchers at our Germplasm Health Unit characterized and established a unique reference culture collection made up of bacteria, fungi, and viruses intercepted in germplasm, and of reference isolates of pathogens of sub-Saharan food and horticultural crops. The collection will serve as an important resource for research, verification of diversity, and development of diagnostic tools."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"The collection, which was initiated in early this year, contains 68 fungal strains, 6 bacterial strains, and 8 virus species originated or intercepted in Nigeria that have been morphologically and biologically characterized."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"This will be augmented by regularly adding new isolates and strains, including pathogens and beneficial agents. We are currently genetically characterizing (through DNA Barcoding) these isolates -based on rDNA, histone, beta-tublin, elongation factor or CO1 genes -to help eliminate redundant ones."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"DNA isolated from these cultures is put in the DNA bank to also serve as reference standards in diagnostics."}]},{"head":"CIALCA Conference 2011: putting humid tropics research in the global limelight","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"In October, over 200 farm researchers, development experts, and other stakeholders gathered in the Rwandan capital of Kigali for a landmark conference that took stock of agricultural development efforts in Central Africa's breadbasket and chart a path towards food security for the region."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The international conference is the first-ever that examined the challenges and opportunities for intensifying farm production of the humid tropics regions in sub-Saharan Africa. It was organized by the Consortium for Improving Agriculture-based Livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA), which we co-implement with Bioversity International and the Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (TSBF-CIAT). people per square kilometer in Rwanda and Burundi."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Although these are high-potential areas for farm production due to good rainfall and temperatures that allow cropping most of the year, persistent civil conflicts, lack of infrastructure, political instability and poverty have left small farmers struggling to eke out a living. Food security is a major problem, with some areas reporting 30 to 40 percent of families going hungry."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Since 2006, CIALCA has been working with public and private sector partners to make improvements to farm production, market access, and child nutrition in the Great Lakes region."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Experts at the conference warned that countries in the Great Lakes region could face increased conflict and greater instability in coming decades unless there is widespread use of better farm approaches and innovations that could grow more food with less land."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"\"Previous conflicts have been indirectly driven by the ability of the land to support food needs of Central Africa's high population densities,\" said IITA Director General Nteranya Sanginga."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"\"In the future, the big question will be whether the land and the soils that underpin farm yields can support booming populations under new constraints like rapid climate change and other environmental factors,\" Sanginga told the conference, adding that food prices could continue to rise in the absence of sustainable intensification of food production."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"\"If we do not do anything now, we will be going back to the situation of war -a war not because of ethnicity but war for food, war for space,\" added Sanginga."},{"index":9,"size":57,"text":"Indeed, the effects of climate change in the already resource-strained countries in the region are a major concern. For example, some of our recent studies have shown that the ability of farmers to grow coffee and banana -two of the region's largest cash cropsare severely affected by rising temperatures, making them more susceptible to pests and diseases."}]},{"head":"Members of a women's group","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"in Rwanda working on a communal maize-soybean farm. Photo by JT Oliver, IITA."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Hans Herren, president of the Millennium Institute and World Food Prize Laureate, said in a key note address that many farmers could not embrace new sustainable approaches to farm production as they could not access them. Besides, Herren added, some approaches were harmful to the environment."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Participants shared examples of sustainable farm approaches that could increase yields and alleviate land pressure in the region. Burundi. The adoption of higher-yielding climbing beans is said to play a big role in improving soils. \"Hopefully, it is these kinds of innovations that can help to steer the region towards a brighter future,\" said Jos Kalders of Belgium's Directorate General for Development Cooperation (DGDC) which funds CIALCA."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"And while significant progress has been made in the region, scientists also drew attention to the severe yield gap of sub-Saharan Africa's agricultural productivity. Staple crops such as maize, millet, beans, sweet potatoes, and cassava are being produced at 60 percent to 90 percent below their potential."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"Participants at the conference reached consensus that agricultural research and development efforts should focus on sustainable intensification, which combines the most effective and sustainable approaches to improving farm yields. \"Aside from just producing food, it is also imperative that we help farmers connect to markets. Farmers will produce more if they are assured of markets,\" Kalibata emphasized."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"\"I also ask you not to keep your science on the shelves. Bring them to the fields and respond to the needs of farmers in real time. You have the power to improve the lives of African farmers, use it!\" she concluded."}]},{"head":"Banana and Plantain Systems","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Grown by smallholder farmers, bananas and plantains are major staple food and leading cash crop in the tropics and sub-tropics. Bananas are similar in management to root and tuber crops, with clonal propagation and perishable, bulky harvested products. In the East African highlands, they are the top source of dietary calories, stabilize hillside soils against erosion, and are a main source of cash income for farmers."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"We undertake research to increase the knowledge on ecosystems, social systems, and commodity chains related to banana and plantain production, improve the sustainability and profitability of banana and plantain systems, and improve the quality of bananaand plantain-based food products in Africa. "}]},{"head":"Maize to the rescue of African banana against an unseen enemy","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Our banana and plantain researchers have found an unlikely ally in maize in the fight against nematodesmicroscopic worms that damage the roots of plants, slowing their growth, making them prone to toppling, and producing smaller fruits."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"In sub-Saharan Africa, smallholder growers lose 40 percent or more of their yields due to the tiny worms. Losses are so severe because bananas are grown on the same land which lets the worms build up a high density unlike the crop rotations methods practiced in Europe and the US."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"In experiments, our researchers infused maize cystatin gene and a synthetic nematode-repelling protein into the plantain, cv. Gonja manjaya. The cystatin introduced from maize kernel prevents nematodes from digesting proteins, literally \"starving\" them to death and greatly reducing their population. The nematode-repelling protein, on the other hand, makes the plantain's roots secrete a synthetic peptide that disables the nematodes' ability to find it."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Results of our tests showed that the maize cystatin and peptide, alone or combined, can provide plantain with resistance to simultaneous infections by multiple nematode species, as what actually happens in the field. In the study, our scientists infused plantain with either one or both of the genes for single or dual nematode defense."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Feeding on the roots, nematodes restrict the flow of nutrients into the plants and stunt their growth. Farmers easily lose 40 percent or more of their crop because of nematode infestation, especially in areas frequented by storms and high winds. This is because nematodes damage and weaken the roots -the plant's anchor -causing the whole plant to completely topple over. Plants heavily laden with harvest-ready bunches are especially affected."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Our scientists worked with counterparts from the University of Leeds on the transgenic research in Uganda. The results of the study have been published in the latest edition of the journal Molecular Plant Pathology (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1111/j.1364-3703.2012.00792.x/abstract)."},{"index":7,"size":57,"text":"The research team assessed 245 independent transgenic lines (plantlets) for resistance to nematodes. From these, they identified the strongest 11 (those that showed more than 67 percent nematode resistance). These lines will be further evaluated in confined field trials in Uganda in collaboration with the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) after approval by the National Biosafety Authority."},{"index":8,"size":45,"text":"Leena Tripathi, IITA Biotechnologist and one of the lead scientists, said that the research is a breakthrough in managing nematodes, which many farmers are usually not aware of because they do their damage underground and are too small to be seen by the naked eye."},{"index":9,"size":55,"text":"The team assures that maize cystatin is safe to use. It naturally occurs in the crop's kernel and has been in the diets of humans for as long as maize has been consumed. The safety of cystatin-based transgenic work has also been well-established in rice for years. A similar protein is present in human saliva."},{"index":10,"size":51,"text":"Safety studies of the synthetic peptide also showed that it is destroyed by the high temperatures required for cooking plantain and by the digestive fluids in the intestine. In addition, the protein is not listed as being a potential allergen in Allergenonline and Allmatch, reference tools used by WHO and FAO."},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":"While the safety of the genetic interventions has been proven in the laboratory and in many studies, we will still carry out further safety analyses during the field trials to ensure that they pose absolutely no danger to humans or the environment."},{"index":12,"size":19,"text":"Nematoderesistant banana and plantain will help farmers to realize the crop's full economic potential. Photo by JT Oliver, IITA."}]},{"head":"On the horizon: fully wilt disease-resistant banana","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Good news for banana and plantain farmers across Africa: we have successfully developed and tested banana and plantain that are totally resistant to the deadly Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW)."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"BXW causes crop production losses of more than US$500 million every year and puts at risk the food security and livelihoods of millions of mostly resource-poor smallholder farmers and their families. All banana varieties in Africa are vulnerable to the disease."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Leena Tripathi, lead scientist of our banana transformation research, says that 12 transgenic lines infused with wilt-resistance genes from green pepper had been shown to be 100 percent resistant to BXW under confined field trials in Uganda. it also takes about 15 years to produce an improved variety."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Given the rapid spread and devastation of BXW across the continent, genetic transformation through the use of modern biotechnology tools offers an effective, fast, safe, and viable way to develop resistant varieties."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"However, she noted that more work needs to be done before open field trials could be conducted as Uganda does not currently have related laws that would allow such testing, but she is optimistic that the country would soon overcome this hurdle and, if all goes well, the world may see its first transgenic banana by 2017."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"The wilt-resistance genes -plant ferredoxinlike amphipathic protein (pflp) and hypersensitive response-assisting protein (hrap) -were obtained under an agreement from Academia Sinica in Taiwan."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"Aside from full resistance to BXW, the transformed lines also showed flowering and yield (bunch weight and fruit size) characteristics comparable to local non-transgenic varieties."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"Partners in this research include the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) of Uganda and the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF)."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"We are also working with the University of Leeds' Africa College in developing transgenic plantain that is resistant to nematodes (see preceding article \"Maize to the rescue of African banana against an invisible enemy\")."},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"The plants have shown promising results in screenhouse trials and the best lines will soon be planted in confined field trials also in Uganda."},{"index":11,"size":23,"text":"Tripathi added that the institute will also look at stacking the anti-wilt genes with anti-nematode genes in the same plant for multiple resistance. "}]},{"head":"Cereals and Legumes Systems","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Cereals and legumes such as maize, soybean, and cowpea are important food, feed, and cash crops mainly grown by smallscale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"However, the productivity of these cereal and legume crops is currently low due to pests and diseases, poor soil fertility, poor access to improved seeds and postharvest technologies, inadequate research and extension capacity, underdeveloped markets, and policy and institutional constraints."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Through our Cereal and Legume Systems Program, we aim to generate research products and services that increase the productivity and commercialization of cereal and legume systems while preserving the natural resource base."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Women making their way to the market with their cowpea produce."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"Photo by S Muranaka, IITA."}]},{"head":"Pushing back against the violet vampire","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Together with our partners in Nigeria and Kenya, we have begun a major push against parasitic weed that have spread across much of sub-Saharan Africa, wreaking havoc of up to US$ 1.2 billion in damage every year to the maize and cowpea crops of tens of millions of smallholder farmers."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Through a project, we are introducing proven technologies for fighting Striga -also called \"witchweed\" -and Alectra. Also known as the \"violet vampire\" because of the bright purple flower it produces, Striga attaches itself to the roots of crops such as maize and cowpea, sucking out nutrients, reducing yields, and destroying entire harvests."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Witchweed primarily affects smallholder farmers who can't afford costly herbicides for fighting the parasitic plant. supported by a US$ 6.75 million grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to IITA. Its goal is to help 200,000 maize farmers and 50,000 cowpea farmers in areas with high rates of Striga infestation in Kenya and Nigeria. By project's end in 2014, we estimate that over 250,000 individual farmers will see up to 50% higher maize yields and double their current cowpea yields."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"The four-year project will focus on improving and expanding access to methods of Striga control, while supporting research to identify the most effective means of controlling the parasitic weed under varying conditions. It will evaluate and implement four approaches: using Striga-resistant crop varieties; using a \"push-pull\" technology that involves intercropping with specific forage legumes that inhibit the germination of Striga; using herbicidecoated seeds; and deploying biocontrol of Striga. After a two-year evaluation period, the project will scale up the most effective approaches."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"Each of the approaches to control Striga holds promise, especially when two or more options are employed at the same time. For example, in West Africa, we have tested the combined use of Strigaresistant maize varieties in rotation with legumes that cause witchweed seeds to germinate but fail to latch on to the host. This approach increased crop productivity by an average of 88 percent. We will partner in this initiative with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF), International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), and BASF Crop Protection."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"We expect that the integrated witchweed control interventions will generate an estimated US$8.6 million worth of additional grain (maize and legumes) annually at the project locations-resulting in increased incomes, better nutrition, and reduced poverty, as well as employment opportunities from grain production to food markets."}]},{"head":"New maize and soybean varieties hold promise for African farmers","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Smallholder farmers in Malawi and Nigeria are celebrating the release of new soybean and maize varieties that are offering hope of better incomes and livelihoods."}]},{"head":"New soybean in Malawi","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The Malawi Agricultural Technology Clearing Committee (ATCC) in January 2011 officially approved the release of the improved variety dubbed TGx1740-2F. We developed the variety through our Tropical Legumes II project."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In on-station and on-farm trials, TGx1740-2F outperformed local varieties grown in the country, giving a mean grain yield of 2,464 kg/ha. Pre-release production data showed that the new variety exceeded the yields of the varieties Nasoko and the widely grown promiscuous variety Magoye, which were used as checks, by 10% and 32%, respectively, during the two-year multilocation station trials."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"TGx1740-2F performed equally well during on-farm participatory variety selection trials in four districts of central Malawi. In the 2009/10 season, it outperformed all the new types of soybean varieties under testing, giving 2,248 kg of grains per hectare. Again, it also surpassed yields by Nasoko and Magoye by 15% and 38%, respectively."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"This new variety matures early, has more pods per plant up to the top of the plant, performs well under poor and erratic rainfall, and has better lodging resistance."}]},{"head":"A Malawi soybean farmer tending to her young crop.","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Photo by JT Oliver, IITA."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The release of TGx1740-2F is considered a milestone for IITA as this is the first time that a promiscuous soybean variety -one that is able to nodulate effectively with diverse indigenous Rhizobia in the soil -developed by the institute has been released in Malawi."}]},{"head":"Quality protein and drought-tolerant maize varieties in Nigeria","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Maize production in Nigeria got a much needed boost as the national government approved the release of five new maize varieties. In addition to having high nutritive content and tolerance to drought, the new varieties also offer good resistance to diseases and pests such as parasitic weeds and maize streak, mature early, and give high yields."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Drying maize. The newly released varieties offer new hope for farmers and processors in Nigeria. Photo by JT Oliver, IITA."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"In December 2011, the Nigeria Variety Release Committee officially approved the release of SAMMAZ 32, SAMMAZ 33, SAMMAZ 34, SAMMAZ 35, and SAMMAZ 37. The first four varieties are extra early-maturing varieties, while SAMMAZ 37 is an intermediate-maturing quality protein maize (QPM) variety. The varieties were developed by the Institute for Agricultural Research at Samaru in collaboration with our breeders. They are products of conventional breeding that incorporated high-lysine gene into adapted populations of selected lines."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"SAMMAZ 32, SAMMAZ 33, SAMMAZ 34, and SAMMAZ 35 have good levels of resistance to Striga hermonthica and maize streak virus, high tryptophan content, mature in 80 to 85 days, and have yield potentials of 3.5 to 4.5 tons per hectare."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"SAMMAZ 37, on the other hand, is a yellow endosperm variety that matures in 115 days, has good resistance to the maize streak virus, high tryptophan content, and a potential yield of 5.9 tons per hectare."}]},{"head":"Drought-tolerant maize critical to food production in West Africa -Study","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"A research study has proven what most people have always known but are not saying out loud: access to improved seeds by smallholder farmers is a vital prerequisite to significantly increase maize production in West Africa in light of climate change and floundering yields of traditional varieties."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The study was conducted by researchers working on the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa Project (DTMA) implemented by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (known by its Spanish acronym CIMMYT) and IITA."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Tahirou Abdoulaye, IITA Impact Socioeconomist and lead researcher of the study team, notes that improved maize varieties tolerant of drought are helping farmers in addressing production risks and called for joint efforts to facilitate their wider dissemination across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The DTMA Project is helping farmers in cushioning the negative effect of drought by developing and disseminating maize with significantly improved drought tolerance."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The study also highlighted the importance of seed companies in the dissemination of quality seeds. It found that although the number of seed companies in West Africa has more than doubled since 2007from about 10 established companies to more than 22 currently in the four DTMA participating West African countries of Nigeria, Benin, Mali, and Ghana -their combined production is still below demand."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"For instance, the total production of improved maize seeds in those countries stands at about less than 15,000 metric tons while more than 80,000 metric tons are required for Nigeria alone."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Based on the findings of the study, Abdoulaye is urging governments in the region to tackle the challenge of poor irrigation to pave the way for yearround production of improved seeds to accelerate availability and meet demand."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"While he commended member countries for adopting fairly liberal seed laws, Abdoulaye advised that the Economic Community of West African States must step up efforts that would see the full implementation of the harmonized regional seed law."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"\"This will help countries that are lagging behind, as improved drought-tolerant maize varieties will move freely across the region,\" he says. \"It is equally important for governments in the region to help seed companies gain access to working capital,\" Abdoulaye added."},{"index":9,"size":81,"text":"Consumed by more than 650 million people in SSA, maize productivity in recent years has been severely threatened by frequent droughts and irregular rainfall. In 2011 alone, more than 12.5 million people suffered the effects of drought -the worst in 60 years -and resulting famines in the Horn of Africa. In West and Central Africa, more than 35 percent of the area under maize is affected by drought as nearly the entire crop is grown without irrigation, relying solely on precipitation."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"A woman farmer gathering some of her droughttolerant maize harvest. Photo by J Atehnkeng, IITA."}]},{"head":"Horticulture and Tree Systems","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Fruits, vegetables, and tree crops present an ideal opportunity for poor African farmers to derive additional income through crop diversification, which results in better use of available land, water and labor resources. However, the potential of these crops cannot be realized fully because African farmers face a wide range of constraints."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Through our Horticulture and Tree Systems Program, we aim to to improve the productivity of fruits, vegetable, and tree crops by diversifying the existing staple cropping systems to give resourcepoor farmers an opportunity to generate more income from exports and value addition. These crops also provide food and nutritional security for producers and consumers."}]},{"head":"The legacy of the Sustainable Tree Crops Program","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"This year, our Sustainable Tree Crops Program (STCP) came to an official close after two phases and almost 10 years of helping cocoa farmers in West and Central Africa."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"We established STCP in November 2002 in response to the growing challenges in the tree crops sector, particularly of cocoa, cashew, and coffee, in the region. The program was supported by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the World Cocoa Foundation (WCF) and its global chocolate industry members."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"STCP was a public-private partnership and an innovation platform that enhanced productivity through innovations, increased marketing efficiency, diversified farmer income, and strengthened the institutional and policy environment."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"STCP began as a three-year pilot program covering Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, and Nigeria. Following the successful completion of the pilot phase, we launched STCP Phase 2 in 2007 at the recommendation of an external review committee and expanding its scope to include marketing, production, and institutional innovations. Liberia was brought on board replacing Guinea."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Since its inception, STCP has worked to bring cocoa back into the global development spotlight."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"The following summarizes the highlights of the program's achievements during its second phase from 2007 to 2011."}]},{"head":"Building capacities, enriching lives","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"By the end of its Phase 2 run, STCP has trained more than 100,000 farmers, extension workers, and facilitators in the five participating countries in integrated crop and pest management and quality (ICPM/Q), planting, replanting and diversification (PRD), and occupational health and safety (OHS). STCP carried out training through its innovative Farmer Field Schools (FFS)/ Farmer Learning Groups (FLG) and Video Viewing Clubs (VVC)."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Training in selected communities were handled by facilitators identified from the same community and working with STCP participatory extension specialists (PES) and cocoa subject matter specialists."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"To significantly multiply its capacity building impact, STCP introduced an innovation called farmer-to-farmer diffusion, in which farmers directly trained by STCP were required to train two other farmers on topics that they learned. This arrangement was formalized in knowledge-sharing agreement signed by each direct trainee prior to training."}]},{"head":"A woman community facilitator leads discussions in the cocoa extension manual during a VVC session. Photo by Ambrose","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Dziwornu, IITA-STCP."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"STCP supported each direct and indirect trainee with training and extension materials. The highly illustrated manuals were used during and after the training to reinforce learning and adoption of skills among the farmerparticipants."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"To follow up on its training activities, STCP held field days for primary and secondary knowledge recipients of FFS, during which PES conducted short refresher courses on various cocoa-production topics."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"STCP tracked data about its training activities through a monitoring and evaluation (M&E) database. Related information can be easily retrieved from the database for impact analysis."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Aside from cocoa farmers, STCP also trained staff of industry partners and government agricultural extension agencies, and provided technical support and backstopping for their own training activities."}]},{"head":"Innovating for development","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"During its run, STCP initiated innovative approaches and platforms in West and Central Africa aimed at making cocoa extension more effective and responsive to the needs of farmers in the subregion."}]},{"head":"An FFS session in progress with a farmer doing a presentation","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Photo by Ambrose Dziwornu, IITA-STCP."}]},{"head":"Farmer-to-Farmer Diffusion","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"In West and Central Africa where cocoa farmers outnumber available extension resources, STCP introduced farmer-to-farmer diffusion to bridge the extension gap. In this approach, farmers directly trained by STCP were required to train two other farmers on cocoa production in return for the training they received."}]},{"head":"Video Viewing Clubs","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"To address the perceived male dominance of the cocoa sectors in the participating countries, STCP established VVCs geared specifically to deliver extension and training on cocoa production to women farmers. Although originally conceptualized to cater to women, and largely because of the approach's effectiveness, male farmers were eventually allowed to join VVCs, but priority has always been given to women. evaluation of the VVC also showed that farmers who participated in the approach were likely to increase their yields by as much as 40 percent."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Each enrolled farmer attended an average of 20 VVC sessions to complete training, with video viewing interspersed with practical field exercises to enforce learning. For the VVCs, STCP developed 11 technical videos on cocoa ICPM/Q. These videos are accessible from the Web."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"In 2008, the VVC approach was conferred the CGIAR Science Awards for Outstanding Communications, citing STCP \"for training farmers in West African countries use digital video as a way to share knowledge of sustainable cocoa production.\""}]},{"head":"Plant Material Brokerage System","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Through this approach, STCP assisted its trained farmers in procuring hybrid cocoa pods and seedlings for establishing nurseries or for direct planting on their fields, and in obtaining tree seeds/ seedlings that were integrated into old and new farms."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"During its second phase, STCP distributed about 15.53 million cocoa seedlings and more than 600,000 cocoa pods. In addition to cocoa planting materials, STCP also distributed cassava stems to cocoa farmers which were grown and used as temporary shade for cocoa stands and as food crop."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The program also established two Cocoa Production System Planting Material Resource Centers in Ghana. Conceived under the Cocoa Sector Support Program (CSSP) Phase II -a bilateral project of STCP-the centers served as the first of its kind one-stop source points for cocoa planting materials and other crops used in cocoa production systems. The centers also offer extension and training services for cocoa farmers through technical videos."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Research at the core, research for the common good STCP's research studies and findings are treated as global public goods and therefore could be freely accessed, used, and shared with stakeholders and partners. These findings and results have been presented in numerous international conferences and seminars by IITA and STCP staff and could be accessed from the IITA (www.iita.org) and STCP (http://liferay.iita.org/web/stcp/home) Web sites. Throughout its second phase, STCP produced and disseminated 13 journal articles, 13 working papers, 25 training manuals, 2 policy briefs, 1 impact brief, and a number of newsletters, technical articles, and press releases. The program also conducted about 20 scientific studies and impact assessments."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"Hand-in-hand with partners for impact STCP Phase 2 simultaneously operated with existing bilateral projects of partners within its operational countries. These included, among others, the Cocoa Livelihoods Program (CLP) sponsored by the World Cocoa Foundation (WCF); CSSP funded by the European Union; and the Mars Partnership for African Cocoa Communities of Tomorrow (iMPACT) funded by Mars Chocolate, Inc. Working with these partners and complementing existing similar projects significantly boosted STCP's own impact."}]},{"head":"The international development broker","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In 2011, STCP, working with the Ghana Cocoa Board, facilitated the development and finalization of an agreement between the governments of Ghana and the Republic of Liberia to jointly develop, promote, and implement research activities to improve their respective agricultural sectors. The agreement was officially sealed with the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding by high-level officials of the two countries during the early part of the year."}]},{"head":"Helping smallholder farmers in Africa adapt to an evolving agricultural landscape","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"This year, we continued with initiatives that help smallholder farmers and other stakeholders cope to an ever-changing agricultural landscape by providing science-based knowledge, assessing the environment, and documenting impact to support scaling-up of effective interventions."}]},{"head":"Managing and disseminating information on African crops","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"In 2011, we made significant progress toward setting up the online AgriSTAT database of the African food crops that we work on. With the database's user interface now completed, specific datasets can be queried and retrieved in standard MS Excel format. We are now focusing on uploading and editing timeseries and cross-sectional data on crop production, harvested area, and yield per hectare; prices of crops and crop products; modern or improved varieties of our core research crops; rainfall data; and various development indicators."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"We also developed and disseminated a tworeport series on cowpeas and yams entitled \"World Cowpea Economy: Facts, Trends, and Outlook\" and \"World Yam Economy: Facts, Trends, and Outlook\", as well as another document focusing on legumes titled \"Tropical Legumes in Africa and South Asia: Trends, Outlook, and Opportunities\". The reports paint a regional and global picture of the economics of cowpea, yam, and legumes and provide up-todate information for stakeholders engaged in the production, processing, and marketing of the crops to help them make informed investment decisions."}]},{"head":"Assessing the agricultural landscape","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"We conducted rapid value chain assessment surveys in the eight countries participating in the \"Putting Nitrogen Fixation to Work for Smallholder Farmers in Africa\" project that we are implementing. These include the Democratic Republic of the Congo (South Kivu), Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Zimbabwe. The surveys evaluated local, national, and global forces that are driving changes in grain legume systems such as common beans, cowpeas, groundnuts, and soybeans in these countries. The aim is to identify opportunities and constraints for grain legumebased economic growth, so that research areas can be prioritized and resources allocated to areas that will give the most return on investment."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"A project participant helping gather groundnut samples for yield analysis. Photo by J Atehnkeng, IITA."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Evidence\"; production of the \"IITA Social Science Research Agenda for the Next Decade\"; and the completion of the PhD thesis by Djana Mignouna on the adoption and impact of IR-Maize in western Kenya."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"We also completed a survey of the adoption and socioeconomic impact of cassava integrated pest management technologies in Cameroon involving 320 respondents from the four regions of the country. Results of this survey are being compared with similar surveys conducted in Central and Northern Benin. Initial analysis of the comparative data showed remarkable gender-based differentiation of cultivation and transformation strategies by country and region. Additionally, respondents in all the countries surveyed identified the lack of a formal network for the distribution of pest-resistant varieties as a common problem. We conducted a similar study on CIALCA technologies in Rwanda, Burundi, and Eastern DRC, the results of which are still being compiled and analyzed."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"A farmer spraying pesticide on his vegetable crop. We conducted surveys in Benin and Cameroon to determine the socioeconomic impact of IPM on smallholder growers. Photo by Arnstein Staverloekk."}]},{"head":"Former President Obasanjo named IITA Goodwill Ambassador","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Former President Olusegun Obasanjo has accepted IITA's offer to be the institute's 'Goodwill Ambassador,' in an effort to strengthen the fight against hunger and poverty in Africa. Director General Nteranya Sanginga announced Obasanjo's acceptance of the role in November."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"As Goodwill Ambassador, Obasanjo will help the institute in advocating for policies that would advance agricultural research and bring to reality the long-awaited African Green Revolution. He will extend and amplify the institute's vision and mission and help focus the world's attention on our R4D work in sub-Saharan Africa and, to some extent, other countries in the humid tropics. Obasanjo's role as Goodwill Ambassador is envisioned to boost our thrusts to improve the plight of some 20 million resource-poor smallholder farmers and assist in reviving 25 million hectares of degraded agricultural lands in the next 10 years."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Born in March 1937, Obasanjo was the first Nigerian President to hand over to a democratically elected president -first as a military head of state in 1979, and second in 2007 as a civilian president. Under his watch, the country's growth rate doubled, its foreign reserves rose from US$2 billion to US$43 billion, and the nation became debt-free. In 2005, the international community gave the Nigerian government its first passing mark for its anticorruption efforts."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"In the agricultural sector, Obasanjo initiated the Presidential Initiatives on some of Nigeria's major commodities including cassava, maize, rice, and cocoa. His 10 percent cassava policy that mandated flour millers to include cassava flour in wheat boosted cassava production by 10 million tons between 2002 and 2008."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"As a result, Nigeria became the world's number one producer of cassava, while maize became a major cash and economic crop. Maize, rice, and cocoa yields in Nigeria also recorded substantial increases during Obasanjo's tenure."}]},{"head":"Yam farmers need not be poor: US$12 million landmark initiative to boost yam productivity in West Africa","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"In one of the most ambitious efforts ever undertaken on behalf of a smallholder crop like yam, IITA and a host of partners have embarked on a groundbreaking initiative to dramatically boost yam productivity and double the incomes of more than three million farmers in West Africa."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"The five-year \"Yam Improvement for Income and Food Security in West Africa\" (YIIFSWA) project, which is supported by a US$12 million grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, is being led by IITA in collaboration with the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) of Nigeria, the Crops Research Institute (CRI) of Ghana, the UK's Natural Yams provide the most important source of dietary calories in Nigeria and Ghana. And for many people in the region, they rank above meat as the main source of protein. Despite its food and economic potentials, the fate of yams hangs in the balance as a variety of factors have depressed yields to a mere 14 percent of potential harvests. But with additional investments, there is tremendous potential to rapidly boost yam production and the income derived from the crop."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"YIIFSWA will initially focus on 200,000 smallholder farm families in Ghana and Nigeria-90 percent of whom cultivate less than two hectares."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"A key priority is to ensure that affordable pest-and disease-free seed yams are available to farmers, along with storage and handling technologies that can reduce post-harvest loss. Yam breeders will develop and widely disseminate new, higher-yielding, disease-resistant varieties. The private sector partners will provide certified seed and help link smallholder farmers, particularly those in remote areas, With a potential rate of return of 78 percent, each dollar invested in yam research generates US$52 worth of additional food for the poor, relative to US$124 for all households. Additionally, creating an abundance of a locally produced nutritious staple like yams can provide insurance against crises sparked by a sudden, sharp rise in global food prices."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"A key goal of the YIIFSWA project is to improve not just yield and outputs in the field but also to enhance market access for smallholder farmers. Although smallholder farmers cultivate the majority of yams in the region, our findings show that those benefiting from the domestic, regional and global market for yams are mainly medium to large-scale producers. A combination of higher yields in the fields, reduced production costs through improved seed tuber supply, and better market access for smallholder growers will not only improve incomes for farmers, but also increase the affordability and consumption of yams in both rural and urban areas."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"Work by the UK's Department for International Development (DFID) -a long-time partner to IITA's yam research -has shown that there is a significant potential for YIIFSWA to attract private sector investment in the production of certified yam seed that are clean, healthy, available and much more affordable."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"For example, in different parts of Nigeria, anywhere from 66 to 97 percent of households desire to eat yams on a weekly basis. Yet the domestic price of yams is well above the reach of many such consumers, whose low income make them only able to afford to buy slices rather than whole tubers. In addition, there are lucrative export opportunities to meet the demand of West Africans living abroad. In 2011 alone, Nigeria exported some US$27.7 million worth of yams to the USA."}]},{"head":"Yams stored and marked ready for processing.","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Photo by H Kikuno, IITA."}]},{"head":"IITA cassava bread influences Nigeria cassava utilization policy","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"His Excellency President Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria has hinted that the country may soon have a new policy on bread content, following our successful development of bread that contains 40 percent cassava flour."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Jonathan emphasized that achieving 40 percent cassava flour content in bread was indeed a major breakthrough. According to the Nigerian president, using 40 percent cassava flour to replace wheat flour in bread will save the country more than US$ 2 billion per year in wheat import payments, which could otherwise go towards improving the livelihoods of millions of Nigerian cassava farmers and their families."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The president directed his ministers to come up with policies to encourage the increased use of cassava flour in the production of bread in the country after presenting the IITA-developed cassava Jonathan told the Ministers of Economy, National Planning, Trade and Investment, and Agriculture, and his Chief Economic Adviser to put their heads together and submit to him policies that the Nigerian government could implement to encourage those who use cassava flour for their manufacturing processes."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"\"For us as a nation to move forward, we need to tame our taste for exotic products. Some of the things we bring from outside are not even as good as what we have right here in our country,\" the president emphasized as he lauded the product."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Jonathan said that after he sampled the IITAdeveloped bread, he told himself that it will be the only bread that he would eat from now on."},{"index":6,"size":91,"text":"The president explained that efforts to incorporate cassava flour in bread was initiated by the administration of former President Olusegun Obasanjo, who decreed that bakers put in at least 10 percent cassava flour in the breads they make, largely because of the rising cost of wheat in the international market. Akinwumi Adesina, Nigeria's Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development said that the IITA-developed cassava bread \"will create a lot of jobs, spur markets for our farmers, stabilize prices, and give us pride in the fact that we eat what we produce\"."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"He added that the IITA initiative fits perfectly within the government's Agriculture Transformation Agenda aimed at developing the agricultural sector and increasing its share to the country's GDP."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"The minister also noted that although Nigeria was the world's top producer of cassava roots, producing 34 million tons annually, the country accounted for zero percent in terms of added value which is unfortunate given the vast potential of the root crop."}]},{"head":"Mounds of cassava flour","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"for sale in a rural market. An expanded national policy on the use of cassava flour in bread will further spur the development of the cassava sector. Photo by O Adebayo, IITA."}]},{"head":"Integrated Pest Management (CGIAR Systemwide Program)","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The CGIAR Systemwide Program on Integrated Pest Management (SP-IPM) is a global partnership program that aims to: (1) tackle those areas where research promises to provide solutions to pressing problems in sustainable agricultural development but where impact has so far been limited, usually due to fragmentation of efforts or inadequate links between researchers and farmers; (2) address new challenges posed by the fast growing demand for safe and affordable food under difficult circumstances caused by climate change and variability; (3) draw together the IPM efforts of the international agricultural research centers and their partners and to focus these efforts more clearly on the needs of resource-poor farmers in the developing world; and (4) comparatively analyze different institutional experiences that will result in common lessons, methods, tools and services to guide collective action."}]},{"head":"SP-IPM: heeding the call for global plant health management","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This year, the SP-IPM program that we coordinate participated in high profile events that raised awareness on the importance of integrated pest management, as well as successfully lobbied for new projects that will help smallholder growers in sub-Saharan Africa battle pests and diseases that hinder production."}]},{"head":"SP-IPM at the XVII International Plant Protection Congress","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Every four years, the International Association for Plant Protection Sciences (IAPPS) organizes the International Plant Protection Congress (IPPC), an event in which SP-IPM showcases its achievements in collaborative crop health management research undertaken by its member centers. In 2011, the XVII IPPC was held in cooperation with the American Phytopathological Society (APS) in Honolulu, Hawaii from 6 to 10 August. The SP-IPM Coordinator actively participated in the preparations for the event as a member of the organizing committee at the request of IAPPS. economic development, and trade opportunities. The presentations are available from the SP-IPM Web site at www.spipm.cgiar.org."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"The highly successful and well-attended SP-IPM special session was also one of the few symposia during the congress that had a clear focus on plant protection issues in developing countries. The symposium was moderated by Richard Sikora, Chair of SP-IPM."}]},{"head":"IPM Workshop for the Feed-the-Future Initiative","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"At the same event, SP-IPM, together with the IAPPS Secretariat and the IPM Collaborative Research Support Program on IPM (IPM-CRSP), organized a workshop on \"IPM for the Feed-the-Future Initiative\" that reviewed the plant protection activities of different international agencies as well as chart the way forward in this area."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"The workshop produced a nine-point agenda to enhance the impact of the Feed-the-Future (FTF) initiative, which are also are applicable in similar agricultural programs funded by international donor agencies worldwide. These recommendations can be downloaded from the SP-IPM Web site."}]},{"head":"SP-IPM staff meeting","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"During the congress, the SP-IPM Secretariat held a program meeting to take advantage of the attendance of SP-IPM staff at the event and in lieu of a Steering Committee meeting for the year. Participants extensively reviewed the achievements of the program for the past three years starting when the Chairman and Coordinator joined the Secretariat. SP-IPM staff also discussed about the future of the group in light of the new CGIAR Consortium Research Programs (CRPs) and the close of some system-wide initiatives."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"The group agreed that a structure is needed for inter-disciplinary networking, maintaining the identity of the IPM research area within the CRPs, and to lobby for further investment in IPM-related research. Proposals have been forwarded on how this organization might look like to the Chair and Coordinator for their consideration."}]},{"head":"New projects: implementing the SP-IPM research framework","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"This year has been another successful one for SP-IPM in terms of research proposals submitted to donors. SP-IPM proposals are developed by multiple member centers but submitted by only one on behalf of the others to encourage and enhance collaboration. These proposals complement on-going research of the individual member centers."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"In 2011, we initiated two new projects funded by the German Government through the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) (see box below). Each project will run for three years."}]},{"head":"New projects on the ground in 2011","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Enhancing horticultural productivity, incomes and livelihoods through integrated management of aphid pests on vegetables in sub-Saharan Africa This project will develop and implement ecologicaland biological-based pest management options to reduce losses due to aphid infestations on okra, cabbage, and kale in sub-Saharan Africa, and build the capacities of NARS partners and farmers in the use of non-chemical alternatives to synthetic pesticides."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Overview: The melon/cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii is the main aphid that infests okra; while the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae, and the turnip aphid, Lipaphis pseudobrassicae, are the predominant aphids of cabbage and kale, with the former being dominant in mid-altitudes while the latter is found largely in lowaltitudes. Based on available knowledge, collectively these aphids can cause large losses in the yield and quality of their respective host crops through direct damage and transmission of viral diseases."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"To combat these pests, growers apply large amounts of synthetic pesticides with little consideration for crop contamination, human and environmental effects, and the other negative consequences such as the disruption of naturally occurring biological control agents."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"The project determines the level and dynamics of aphid infestations and the diversity and prevalence of aphid-transmitted viruses and their damage on the targeted crops as well as the diversity and impact of predators, parasites and pathogens."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Appropriate user-friendly identification and monitoring tools are being developed and windows of opportunities for intervention are being identified. Detailed evaluation of promising natural enemies will be carried out and possibly new natural enemies or new strains introduced to complement existing ones."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"Conservation biocontrol and biopesticides and natural products as alternatives to chemical pesticides will be tested and promoted. Aphid-tolerant/resistant varieties will also be identified and promoted."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"Training and awareness building are being carried out to enhance appreciation of non-chemical alternatives and the adoption of recommended practices among NARS and farmers. Educational materials are being developed and used for training."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"Participating countries: Kenya and Cameroon Funding: BMZ (€1.2M) Implementing SP-IPM members: IITA, AVRDC, icipe"}]},{"head":"Combating fruit flies and mango seed weevil through community-based implementation of a sustainable IPM program for mango in sub-Saharan Africa","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Locally grown fruits such as mangoes are well recognized as an important source of income and foreign exchange in Africa. Over 80 percent of fruits and vegetable production is carried out by smallholders for both urban domestic and export markets of which the EU is the major export destination and the USA is an emerging market. Several factors, however, constrain fruit production such as tephritid fruit flies (e.g. Bactrocera invadens and Ceratitis cosyra) and mango seed weevil (MSW) (Sternochetus mangiferae) that damage fruits and cause 40 to 80 percent yield loss depending on the locality, variety, and season."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Pest infestations not only reduce revenues and profits from local and export markets, but they also cause increasingly high production costs for smallholder growers and traders."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"The project will implement IPM programs for the management of fruit flies and MSW that are based on protein baits, male annihilation technique (MAT), fungus-based biopesticides, biological control (e.g., parasitoids and weaver ants), \"soft\" pesticides, and orchard sanitation."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"These methods have been proven to be effective in managing the target pests and minimizing the use of pesticides that leave unwanted residues, thereby facilitating compliance with standards required for export markets. In addition to these pre-harvest measures, hot water-based postharvest treatments for fruit flies will be developed and promoted to facilitate quarantine certification often demanded by export markets."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"The project builds on the completed first phase of a mango IPM project funded by BMZ, which generated relevant knowledge base and the management methods for fruit flies and MSW mentioned above that are now ready for implementation."},{"index":6,"size":143,"text":"Participating countries: Kenya and Tanzania Funding: BMZ (€1.2M) Implementing SP-IPM members: icipe, IITA Also in 2011, BMZ approved four new projects that will start in early 2012. These are: \"Local Focus: safe and effective pest and crop management strategies to strengthen the vegetable value chain in the humid tropics\", which we will lead and implement in collaboration with AVRDC and other partners; \"Beating Begomoviruses: Better livelihoods for farmers in tropical Asia with begomovirus-resistant tomato, hot pepper and mungbean, and integrated disease management\", which will complement the latter project and will be implemented by AVRDC in India, Vietnam, and Thailand; \"Implementation of integrated thrips and tospovirus management strategies in smallholder vegetable cropping systems of Eastern Africa\", which will be conducted by icipe with AVRDC; and \"Cost effective, farmer-and environment-friendly biocontrol of aflatoxin in chili peppers (Capsicum spp.)\", that we will carry out in Nigeria."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Chili pepper for sale.One of SP-IPM's new projects will tackle aflatoxin in this \"hot\" vegetable. Photo by JT Oliver, IITA. "}]},{"head":"Financial Information","index":58,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Funding overview","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Funding for 2011 was US$47.427 million, of which 98.8% came from CGIAR investors and 1.2% from other sources. Expenditure was US$46.71million (net of indirect costs recovery of US$4.478 million), of which 85.2% was used for program expenses and 14.8% for management and general expenses."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The governments and agencies that provided the largest share of our funding in 2010 and 2011 are shown in Figure 1, while IITA`s 2010 and 2011 expenditures by program and CGIAR system priorities are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. Performance indicators, as prescribed by the CGIAR, are reflected in Figure 4.   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"ii Photo by Arnstein Staverløkk, Bioforsk. "},{"text":" The project in Senegal is funded by AATF and works with Direction de la Protection des Végétaux, Université Gaston Berger, St. Louis, and the USDA-ARS. The Burkina Faso project is funded by the Austrian Development Agency and involves the Institut de l'Environnement et de Recherches Agricoles, Vienna University of Technology, and USDA-ARS. "},{"text":" Banana and plantain is the fourth most important staple in sub-SaharanAfrica. Photo by JT Oliver, IITA. "},{"text":" of the role of IITA Ambassador. Photo by C Ono Raphael, IITA. "},{"text":" the minister's visit to IITA-Ibadan to see the production of the cassava bread. Photo by O Adebayo, IITA. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Funding: Top 10 donors, 2010 and 2011 "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Expenditure by CGIAR System Priority: 2010 and 2011 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" The best 6-8 ensure that they  ensure that they are not harmful to  are not harmful to humans or animals  humans or animals in any way.  in any way. Local  Local commercial  commercial varieties are  varieties are extremely difficult  extremely difficult to improve through  to improve through conventional  conventional breeding because  breeding because they do not  they do not produce seeds and  produce seeds and are sterile, while  are sterile, while BXW-resistant Banana BXW-resistantBanana transgenic bunches transgenicbunches banana plants showing banana plantsshowing in the confined advanced and in the confinedadvanced and field trials in mid-stages of field trials inmid-stages of Uganda. Photo infection by Uganda. Photoinfection by by L Tripathi, IITA. BXW. Photo by P van Asten, lines will be further tested IITA. by L Tripathi, IITA.BXW. Photo by P van Asten, lines will be further tested IITA.  in multi- in multi-  location trials location trials  across the across the  country. country.  We are also We are also  conducting conducting  environmental environmental  and food and food  safety studies safety studies  such as such as  digestibility digestibility  analyses to analyses to  "}],"sieverID":"ab5692ec-588b-43ba-9b9a-d41f7035f995","abstract":"Cover photo: Women farmers of Jalino community in Borno State, Nigeria during a participatory appraisal exercise. Through our R4D initiatives and with partners, we promote the active participation of women in planning and decision making in agriculture especially in the rural areas."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08a4f936c95b0e9a447ff65dcec2bda8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/25a09177-9454-4092-9937-608c9595a039/retrieve"},"pageCount":38,"title":"Exploring the regulatory space for improving availability, access and quality of vegetatively propagated crop seed: potato in Kenya J A N U A R Y 2 0 2 1","keywords":["seed potato","regulatory frameworks","integrated seed health","policy trade-offs","plural seed systems","political economy"],"chapters":[{"head":"List of Tables","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Production of certified seed potato in Kenya, 2017   Exploring the regulatory space for improving availability, access and quality of vegetatively propagated crop seed: potato in Kenya"}]},{"head":"List of Figures","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Through a range of policy, regulation, and investment strategies, the Government of Kenya has sought to expand production volumes and the value of potato (Solanum tuberosum) in the country over the past decade and in its most recent national development plan of 2018 (Government of the Republic of Kenya, 2018, Muthoni et al., 2014). In 2017, the area of ware potato harvested was 192,342 ha, with a yield of 7.9 t/ha (Food and Agricultural"},{"index":2,"size":223,"text":"Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2019). While there is high variability in yields, there is potential of up to 40 t/ha (Context Network, 2016). Thus a key objective of the Government is to increase potato productivity and profitability, with a target of increasing area under production and yields by 20% for all root and tuber crops (Republic of Kenya, 2019) Most stakeholders recognise that the production and distribution of quality seed plays a critical role in this (Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries Kenya, 2016). However, the trade in certified potato seed in Kenya is extremely small: just 6,714 tons of seed produced on 403 hectares in 2017 were certified-a figure representing less than a quarter of the estimated demand for certified seed potato (National Potato Council of Kenya, 2018). And when measured as a share of all seed potato being planted by farmers in Kenya irrespective of quality, the volume of certified seed represents less than 2% (Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service, 2019). Together, these figures suggest that there is an acute shortage of quality seed for farmers throughout the country. While not uncommon for many vegetatively propagated crops in Kenya and other developing countries, these shortages are nonetheless cause for concern considering the Government's prioritization for the crop and the rising demand for ware potato for table consumption and processing"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"purposes."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Yet simple supply and demand figures belie the complexity of the market for seed potato, especially when discussing quality seed. Context and individual circumstances also influence perceptions and the use of quality seed (Almekinders et al., 2019). The term \"quality seed\" is defined here as planting material that meets specific thresholds set for disease, pest and physiological parameters for different seed classes. The correlation between a specific threshold (in relation to a seed class) and yield depends on genetic, agronomic, social and economic factors."},{"index":5,"size":257,"text":"This paper investigates Kenya's seed quality assurance systems in view of the ongoing policy and regulatory changes that are being designed to expand the country's seed potato sector. The paper analyses a range of policy and institutional innovations emerging in the sector, including the drivers of these innovations, the potential winners and losers, and the implications for alternatives courses of action. At the heart of this paper is the question of whether there is an appropriate model of seed potato quality assurance-or possibly several models-that can increase availability and access to quality seed for small-scale, resource-poor farmers, while simultaneously minimizing risk of spreading of diseases. With more than 96 percent of seed flows accounted for by ware potato producers using own-saved seed or trading through informal channels in Kenya, formal quality assurance systems seem almost irrelevant. But quality seed is critically important to production and yield growth: potato, like many other vegetatively propagated crops, is highly susceptible to seed-and soil-borne diseases that significantly reduce yields. Smallholders who rely on own-saved seed or seed acquired from neighbours or other informal sources tend to experience significant yield and quality decline over time as these diseases accumulate in their planting materials, a process known as degeneration. There are different strategies for managing this process of degeneration, including on-farm seed management, the use of resistant varieties, and the use of certified seed (Thomas-Sharma et al., 2016). The certified seed replacement paradigm has been successful in Europe and the United States of America, but less so in low and middle income countries."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"Commercial sources of quality seed potato are rarely an option for smallholder farmers: low seed multiplication rates, bulkiness, and perishability make seed potato production, transportation, storage, and marketing a risky investment for many prospective entrepreneurs. Added on to this are the costs of regulatory compliance:"},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"meeting stringent thresholds for pest and disease presence in seed potato can often require entire lots being destroyed and land being quarantined for several years before it can be used again for seed production. In short, certified seed potato production is a challenging business."},{"index":8,"size":106,"text":"Moreover, because seed quality is often unobservable through visual inspection by the farmer, there are high transactions costs in the exchange of seed potato. For example, seed sellers may incur costs in building a credible reputation in the market, while farmers may incur costs in searching for a credible seller or verifying the seller's reputation. And where farmers expect that the returns to quality seed are low relative to the investment required, the demand for quality seed can be quite low. These various costs and risks have motivated many governments in lower income countries to invest directly in both the production and regulation of seed potato."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"This has been the case in Kenya, although the market-and participation of private sector actors in that marketis now evolving rapidly."},{"index":10,"size":84,"text":"The paper investigates these issues through the collection and analysis of qualitative data and information from a wide range of potato sector stakeholders in Kenya. A total of 40 semi-structured interviews involving 72 individuals were conducted in 2017, with interviewees drawn from a wide range of affiliations across the public, private, and civil society sectors. These interviews were augmented by the collection and analysis of legislative documents, regulatory handbooks, technical manuals, project reports, research papers, and other documents relating to Kenya's potato seed sector."},{"index":11,"size":44,"text":"Findings indicate the following. First, Kenya's seed potato market is a set of closely interdependent actors spanning both formal and informal sectors engaged in varietal improvement, early generation seed production, seed storage, distribution, marketing, and use. These actors have different, and sometimes, conflicting interests."},{"index":12,"size":61,"text":"This implies that it is not possible to strictly delineate informal and formal seed systems, or to strictly define quality seed as only that seed that has been inspected and certified. Seed systems and seed quality are more analogous to a continuum than to discrete, identifiable units. This has strong implications for the design and implementation of public policy and regulation."},{"index":13,"size":90,"text":"Second, the Kenya Seed Act does not recognise quality declared seed (QDS) as a seed class or category, thus while Kenya's technical and procedural requirements for certified seed production can be met by larger seed companies, small-scale seed producers struggle to meet many of the requirements. Consequently, many seed producers who started producing certified seed have dropped out of the market, leaving the production of certified seed to large private and parastatal companies. This reduces the supply of certified seed significantly and may limit potential growth in markets for seed."},{"index":14,"size":105,"text":"Third, while local (county) governments, research centres, and non-governmental organizations are investing in the promotion of \"clean seed\" production (i.e., quality seed that is produced from a known source of certified seed, but not formally inspected) by training rural entrepreneurs and farmer organizations, a strict interpretation of the seed law infers that the sale of clean seed is illegal. Consequently, some stakeholderswith concern about short-term food security -have raised concerns that the regulatory system is policing, rather than facilitating, efforts to increase availability and access to quality seed, and thus excluding vulnerable social groups from opportunities in the seed potato market and undermining food security."},{"index":15,"size":60,"text":"Fourth, and running counter to the previous point, many other stakeholders believe that the long-run risks posed by disease can only be addressed within the framework of a formal quality assurance system. The cases of Bacterial Wilt (BW) and Potato Cyst Nematode (PCN) management, presented later in the paper, illustrate this perspective and characterize the complexity of the underlying trade-offs."},{"index":16,"size":16,"text":"The paper contends that in Kenya's potato sector, stakeholder alliances have two contrasting points of view."},{"index":17,"size":141,"text":"The first is framed around short-term national food security objectives and argues that increased volumes of quality seed are needed to contribute to improved smallholder livelihoods but relegates potato pest and disease management and quality assurance systems to a lower-order priority. The second narrative is framed around an underlying concern about the legitimacy and credibility of the state, arguing that compliance with public policy and regulation requires that all seed potato produced and exchanged in Kenya should be certified in order to prevent the spread of disease and emphasises long-term national food security interests. The stakeholder alliances behind these divergent viewpoints play out at multiple levels-international, national, and local-and are shaped by underlying power relationships and dynamics. The competition and contention between these alliances-as well as divergences within these alliances-continue to shape the evolution of Kenya's seed policy, regulations, and guidelines."},{"index":18,"size":315,"text":"As these viewpoints continue to be debated, there remain serious questions about the appropriateness of the current regulatory framework for seed potato. To date, Kenya's formal seed potato certification system has had a very limited impact on the availability of quality seed for smallholders. More importantly, there is little to suggest that the scheme will contain and prevent the further spread of pests and diseases such as PCN and BW among seed and ware potato producers. The paper analyses the examples of institutional innovations which are occurring, who benefits from these, and the alternative policy options that might expand these benefits. The paper concludes with recommendations for re-shaping the policy and regulatory space to recognize different quality assurance systems, seed production systems, and ware production systems. This requires efforts to harness latent stakeholders-county governments, in particular-to innovate around the design of practical and inclusive quality assurance systems for seed potato in Kenya. what types of public policies, regulations or regulatory reforms are required to provide effective quality assurance to increase access, availability, and quality of VPC planting material? 1 From a conceptual standpoint, there are several ways to analyse the stakeholder interactions, policy and regulatory space that influence the design and implementation of quality assurance systems for seed potato. The neoclassical economics viewpoint treats quality seed as an input to production that is superior to lower-quality, own-saved \"farm seed\" or seed exchanged among neighbours, but that also degenerates over time as diseases accumulate and negatively affect yields (Fuglie et al., 2006). Seed users therefore choose between purchasing quality seed versus own saved or seed exchanged among neighbours to maximize the present value of net returns-namely, profits. In this formulation, the price of seed is a function of its quality which can only be observed through its performance, after it is grown and harvested, that is quality seed is a credence good undetectable through visual inspection."}]},{"head":"CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The seed user is thus expected to purchase quality seed up to the point at which the present value of costs of using quality seed equals the present value of the benefits stream, where the discount rate reflects the rate of depreciation of seed quality overtime. Moreover, this model suggests that, in the aggregate, as more and more farmers use quality seed, they experience increased profits at a declining rate, i.e., margins fall. This model provides a framework with which to analyse the economic outcomes of alternative seed sources with quality differences."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"At a very basic level, the neoclassical model provides useful guidance for thinking about seed systems but tends to overlook alternative institutional arrangements which emerge in the absence of competitive markets and perfect information. These issues are better addressed by the theory of induced \"institutional innovation\" or the response of social and economic institutions to relative factor scarcities (Ruttan and Hayami, 1998, North, 1990, Akerlof, 1997). For vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs), the theory suggests that seed users facing production constraints due to the high cost of quality seed in the market may organize, lobby, and petition organizations and actors to undertake reforms aimed at resolving this constraint. The costs at issue here arise from both high transaction, storage, and transportation costs, which increase the price of seed and undermine seed market coordination. The former emanates from, among others, the cost of finding and authenticating quality seed, and necessitates the provision of a quality signal, for example, a quality assurance certificate or the personal endorsement of a seed provider. In the absence of such quality signals, seed users resort to relational transactions in which repeated transactions eventually lead to trust and the reputation that each actor, especially the seller, seeks to protect."},{"index":3,"size":239,"text":"However, the precise designs of such signalling mechanisms may be influenced by the way actors view the problem. The previously mentioned models do not consider how actors use different language to identify and define a problem and construct a shared understanding of the problem (Head and Alford, 2013) (Schneider and Ingram, 1993). Nor do they identify or account for the role played by advocacy coalitions and networks in advancing policy solutions, state functions, or institutional architectures that support of the solutions that they propose (Sabatier, 1988). The application of these concepts to seed systems is specifically illustrated by Kloppenberg (2010), Scoones andThompson (2011), andBeko et al. (2016)  (Scoones and Thompson, 2011, Kloppenburg, 2010, Beko et al., 2016), who collectively argue that policy change processes in seed systems cannot be considered strictly in technical (or technocratic) terms. Rather, they focus on the power dynamics and political economy factors that play out among seed system actors and that lead to the formation of seed system paradigms that benefit or favour one group over another. Such paradigms may relate directly to policies that shape the level of state vs. private governance of the system, or the degree of regulation and the entities mandated to regulate. Thus, we explore how configurations of actors coalesce and shift around contrasting but sometimes overlapping interests and highlight how recognising these diverse narratives can contribute to broader discussions on options and alternative pathways for seed quality assurance."},{"index":4,"size":185,"text":"To fit the concepts of framing, narratives, and advocacy coalitions into sphere of policy change, we draw on a framework developed by Resnick et al.,(2018) to identify drivers of the policy change process, and to analyse how ideas, interests and institutions interact, and recognize potential entry points into the policy change process (Resnick et al., 2018). This framework is potentially important given how narratives in seed sector development that gain traction among policymakers tend to the extremes, for example, the existential threat posed by seed counterfeiting and the predatory behaviour of seed traders; or the threat posed by low crop yields and crop failures to national stability, law, and order; or the threat of multinational companies dominating smallholder markets. The problem perception may shift as economic and social conditions change, for example debates on globalisation may strategically pit foreign and domestic companies against each other, industry against government, or farmers against consumers. How the target groups of \"ware potato farmers\" and \"seed potato producers\" are socially constructed by national and devolved decision makers and interested stakeholders will also influence the rationale that legitimises policy choices."}]},{"head":"BACKGROUND TO KENYA'S SEED POTATO SYSTEMS","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ware and seed potato value chain characteristics","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"In Kenya, potato is the second most important major food staple after maize (Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries Kenya, 2016, Muthoni andNyamongo, 2009). Potato is traditionally grown in the high-altitude highland areas. About 2-3 million tons of potatoes worth KSH 40-50 billion (approximately USD 40-50 million) are produced each year (Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries Kenya, 2016) with 90 percent of potato farmers growing the crop for both own-consumption and income generation purposes (Muthoni et al., 2013) and an estimated 2.5 million employed in its value chain (Laibuni and Omiti, 2014). Demand for ware potato, particularly from Kenya's food processing industry, remains unmet, and Kenya imports frozen French fries (Ministry of Agriculture Livestock Fisheries and Irrigation Kenya, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"The national development discourse emphasizes agriculture and food security, as demonstrated by the Agriculture Sector Transformation and Growth Strategy 2018-2030, (Boulanger et al., 2018) and the 2017"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Presidential Initiative on the \"Big Four Pillars of Development\" (Government of Kenya, 2017) which highlights food security as a national priority. Potato figures prominently in \"Big Four\" initiatives aiming to bring additional land into potato production through public-private partnerships, contract farming, seed potato production, potato processing factories, and cold storage facilities (Government of Kenya, 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":157,"text":"The potato industry is characterized by a few large-scale ware-and seed-producing farms and many small-scale farmers (estimated at approximately 800,000 in 2015) located across 16 counties (Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries Kenya, 2016). Potato is traded in unstructured marketing systems where value addition is minimal at the producer level. While most of the potato produced in Kenya is consumed as boiled or mashed, the demand for processed potato products such as French fries and crisps is increasing (Tesfaye, 2010). These various end-uses require specific varietal traits. Public sector breeding in Kenya has prioritised efforts towards increased yield and to tackle either disease problems or environmental stresses, especially drought. Some traits such as earliness, dormancy (allowing for direct planting in the subsequent season) degeneration levels and ease of cooking have had less attention. However, the demand for seed is increasingly influenced by the varietal traits required for fresh or processed potato products, rather than seed health attributes."},{"index":5,"size":177,"text":"Yet despite potato's importance to Kenya, growth in both production and yield have been constrained by a lack of and poor quality seed. Most smallholder farmers use seed from their own sources or from neighbours to grow potato on small land units averaging 0.4-0.6 ha. Seed from neighbours can be purchased with cash, bartered (i.e., exchanged with another commodity), or acquired for free. Ware potato growers also use local open markets as sources of seed potato. By law, it is illegal to sell seed that has not been certified. However, limited enforcement capacity means that trade in uncertified potato \"seed\" is still active in local markets in potato growing areas. The typical practice is to select small-sized tubers (which are not preferred by consumers due their difficult and time-consuming peeling process) and sell these as seed. Often traders may purchase small quantities of certified or clean seed potato from different sources, but then mix this with small ware tubers to increase the volume. While it is possible to visually observe some seed health attributes e.g. disease symptoms;"},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"but the absence of latent infections and some symptomless viruses can only be assured through laboratory testing. Thus, it is difficult to have confidence in the quality and source of seed sold in local markets. This seed is often of unknown health and may harbour seed-borne diseases that reduce yields (Kaguongo et al., 2008)."},{"index":7,"size":229,"text":"Key among these diseases are bacteria wilt (BW), late blight and, more recently detected, potato cyst nematode (PCN). While there are efficient and effective fungicides for late blight, BW can remain in the soil for many years without a host, while PCN continuously builds up in the soil over an even longer period, and for both the management options are very restricted. It is estimated that more than 70 percent of seed planted by farmers in Kenya is infected with BW, (Muthoni et al., 2013) and 80 percent of farms producing certified seed have tested positive for PCN (Haukeland et al., 2017). And even where disease-free seeds are planted, contaminated soils can reduce yields. While any non-resistant variety can carry and transmit BW, the example of Shangi variety below (Box 1) illustrates how the implementation of regulatory processes can impact on the informal seed sector, and subsequently jeopardise the national plant health system. When Shangi was originally submitted for official release, it was rejected as it did not achieve acceptable disease thresholds. However, as a probable \"escape\" from trials, it was favoured by farmers, in part due to its short dormancy period. Its popularity contributed to its rapid spread by farmer to farmer dissemination. However, as it was not a released, registered variety it was not eligible for clean up, multiplication, certification and distribution as pre-basic or basic seed."},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"Thus, as there was no flush through of clean materials, farmers continued to re-cycle it, and being susceptible to BW, probably contributed to the spread of this disease."}]},{"head":"Box 1: the case of Shangi -a farmer selection, but not officially released","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Bacterial wilt (BW) caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is among the quarantined pests in potato production (CABI/ EPPO, 2004). Symptoms of the disease include wilting, stunting, yellowing of the foliage and bacterial ooze collecting on the tuber eyes or on the end of the stolon, causing soil to adhere to the secretions (Priou et al., 1999)."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"In Kenya, the losses range between 50 to 100% (Ateka et al., 2001, Muthoni et al., 2014), with over 60% of farmers'"},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"fields infected with the disease (Parker et al., 2017, Were et al., 2013). Infected potato tubers are considered the major source of inoculum and contributes to the extensive spread and distribution of the pathogen both locally and internationally (Abdurahman et al., 2017, Kaguongo et al., 2014). Infected plant residues, contaminated water for irrigation or surface runoff and the use of contaminated farm tools can also spread bacterial wilt from one farm to the next (Priou et al., 1999). Latently infected tubers, which show no visible symptoms, pose a serious threat of spreading the disease to new areas. Since there is no known approved chemical for controlling bacterial wilt, management strategies aim to reduce the incidence and spread of the diseases through use of clean seed and good agricultural practices. Host-plant resistance has eluded many breeders despite some varieties showing potential to yield even in the presence of the pathogen (Parker et al., 2017). Strategies such as, integrating onion (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum) and black mustard (Brassica nigra) into crop rotation pattern or as pre-crop have been shown"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"to significantly reduced disease incidence compared to other non-host crops, such as cereals and legumes."},{"index":5,"size":215,"text":"However, effective crop rotations are not practical because farms are too small (Kaguongo et al., 2008) and the pathogen has wide host range which reduces options for rotational crops. Given the difficulty in its management and ease of spread, bacterial wilt has been a quarantined potato disease with zero-tolerance for field inspection and laboratory testing for latent infection. Use of certified or clean seed has been advocated for managing the disease however, limited availability and access to such seed are major constraints for farmers (Kwambai et al., 2011, Muthoni et al., 2012). Moreover, the certification process is limited to officially released varieties, which can lead to spread of diseases through the movement of 'informal varieties' for instance, variety Shangi in Kenya (Kaguongo et al., 2014) where there was no flush through of clean seed and farmers were left to save and re-use seed. The variety is widely spread and distributed among the potato farming communities with over 70% of farmers growing it (Kaguongo et al., 2014).This example shows how regulation processes can block farmers' access to quality seed of varieties they prefer, if they are not officially released and registered and hence not eligible for certification process. This meant that farmers relied on purchasing from local ware market or neighbours and using it as seed."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"The variety was finally officially registered in 2016 but certified seed of the variety only available in 2017. The uncontrolled distribution of this variety might have contributed to the wide spread of bacterial wilt among the potato farms in Kenya and the neighbouring countries."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"The problems of lack of, and poor quality seed are reflected in the yield gap between Kenya and other countries."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"Potato yields in Kenya typically range between 8-10 tons/ha as compared to an average of 40 tons/ha in developed countries (Gildemacher et al., 2011, Muthoni et al., 2013, Okello et al., 2017). Recent reports suggest that still less than 2% percent of the total seed planted in Kenya is certified seed (Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service, 2015, Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service, 2019), with the remainder either recycled or purchased from local markets."},{"index":9,"size":161,"text":"The problem of inadequate supplies of quality seed has led to a range of efforts to increase both production and distribution of seed potato, and to improve the regulatory framework. The former includes the adoption of new techniques of early generation seed production (e.g., aeroponics 2 and rooted apical cuttings 3 ) that increase multiplication rates in minituber production (pre-basic seed) and reduce production time the i.e. the number of field generations by about 1-3 for producing certified seed. Government and research organisations with donor support have promoted \"clean seed\" production by farmer groups or individuals, using certified seed as a source of starter material and training in seed quality maintenance practices such as positive and negative selection, and the management of major diseases such as BW. This has helped to focus attention on underlying issues such as increasing seed replacement rates, accelerating varietal turnover rates, regulating seed market actors and exchanges, and monitoring new and emergent pest and disease threats."},{"index":10,"size":195,"text":"Partly due to these efforts, the ware potato area harvested has been increasing steadily from about 135,000 ha in 2008 to 217,315 ha in 2018 (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2019). In 2017, the National Potato Council of Kenya (NPCK) estimated that there were seven registered seed potato merchants in Kenya, which together with a limited number of out grower schemes, produced 6,714 tons of seed potato out of an estimated 30,000 ton requirement for certified seed potato 4 . Table 1 presents the seven registered seed merchants and estimated production data. However, caution should be noted as this demand estimate is notional, since demand is shaped by other factors such as price of the seed, price of close substitutes; price of complementary inputs like fertilizer, agrochemicals, and labour; and costs of shifting land use to more profitable crops (Spielman and Kennedy, 2016). There are other few small out growers usually serving the larger ones. The dominant players are the Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC), a parastatal, and the private seed companies, Kisima Farms Ltd. and Charvi Ltd. which accounted for more than 75 percent of certified seed potato production in 2017."},{"index":11,"size":101,"text":"Institutional reforms have included licensing private seed inspectors, training potato farmer organizations and small entrepreneurs to produce, store, and market seed potato. Yet many of these technical and institutional changes have emerged unevenly, with results in still largely confined to the scale of small pilot projects. And, as is discussed throughout this paper, many of these changes are unlikely to succeed at any greater scale without resolution of the arguments that underlie the quality assurance system for seed potato. Thus, the current dualistic (i.e., formal and informal) system of seed potato production and marketing is likely to continue into foreseeable future."},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"2"},{"index":13,"size":49,"text":"The \"3G\" system uses mini-tubers produced under aeroponics to reduce the multiplication time, lower the production cost of starter seed and decrease the build-up of diseases leading to degeneration; so that the number of field generations required to bulk seed can be reduced from five or seven to three."},{"index":14,"size":248,"text":"3 An apical cutting is a rooted transplant produced from tissue culture plants. There are normally two stages in rooted apical cuttings systems: production of cuttings in a lab and screenhouse, followed by sale to seed multipliers or potato farmers who plant the rooted cuttings to produce seed tubers.   Kenya, 1972) with its subsidiary Regulations, Amendments and Revisions. The Seeds and Plant Varieties (Seeds) Regulations, were first passed in 1991, and state that a person shall not offer seed for sale seed of species set out in the Second Schedule 5 , unless the seed has been certified or it has met minimum standards prescribed for the class and species. The National Seed Policy was finalised in 2010 and provided an overarching framework for all seed legislation in the country. The purpose of the seed policy was to support the development, promotion and regulation of a modern, competitive seed industry; and to guide the harmonisation of the regulations that govern seed with regional and international conventions. Subsequently, Prior studies (Munyi and De Jonge, 2015) have pointed out several weaknesses in the current legislative framework. The key weakness is that the framework does not recognize farmer-based seed systems or the integration of formal and informal systems. Munyi and Jonge observed that in the preparation of the 2010 National Seed Policy, the interests of private seed companies especially multinationals, represented by the Seed Trade Association of Kenya (STAK), predominated as evidenced by an almost entire focus on the formal sector;"}]},{"head":"Kenya seed legislation and implications for vegetative propagated crops","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"with only one paragraph mentioning the informal seed sector, which \"ironically acknowledges its importance in that it provides 80% of the national seed requirement' (Munyi and De Jonge, 2015). Munyi and De Jonge also commented that the plant breeders' rights as incorporated under the 2012 Amendment to the Seeds and Plant"},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Varieties Act prohibits farmers from exchanging or selling farm-saved seed of protected varieties. This is a requirement for all UPOV member countries. As most planting material is accessed through these channels, this provision locks out many farmers from accessing quality seed. The legal requirement that only registered varieties can undergo the certification process restricts the sale of farmers' preferred, but non-registered varieties. However, as noted earlier in the case of Shangi which became so popular due to short dormancy, leading to its release, although it had been earlier rejected by the varietal release committee as it did not meet disease thresholds. • Relevant and simpler seed export and import requirements"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• Seed certification standards for potato"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Release of land races, farmer-bred or selected varieties allowed, e.g. Shangi"},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"• Varieties released in two countries of the regional economic blocks of which Kenya is a member of are exempt from performance trials and DUS if country has harmonised variety release regulations and procedures with the regional economic body and shares data. Under UPOV varieties already released in a member country do not need to undergo additional DUS tests"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• Seed certification standards included for sweetpotato"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Reduction of number of certified seed classes from C1-C4 (2012) to C1-2 (2016)"}]},{"head":"EMPIRICAL METHODS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"The data and information analysed in this paper were collected from key informant interviews (KII), focus group discussions (FGD), and document analysis conducted between June 2017 and December 2018. Identification of participants for the key informant interviews and focus group discussions was guided by the multi-stakeholder framework for intervening in roots, tubers, and bananas seed systems (Bentley et al., 2018, Andrade-Piedra et al., 2016). Participants were interviewed using semi-structured interview guides that were developed for each category of actor as part of a larger project on seed systems and markets for vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs) The interview guides covered topics that ranged from basic stakeholder details to quality assurance standards and practices, to viewpoints on the effectiveness of current policies and regulations. Where just one or two respondents were present, discussions were conducted as KIIs, and where a larger number of respondents were present, they were conducted at FGDs. The difference pertains primarily to how the discussion is managed and how information is presented, discussed, validated, refuted, and revised by participants and the interviewer, with a larger group (FGDs) often allowing for more iterative processes and a single respondent (KIIs) allowing for greater depth in the inquiry. KIIs and FGDs lasted between 1.5 and 2 hours. While almost all interviews were held in English, several interviews were also conducted in other languages."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"These interviews were augmented by the collection and analysis of legislative documents, regulatory handbooks, technical manuals, project reports, research papers, and other documents relating to Kenya's potato seed sector. Field notes were compiled and, using a grounded theory approach (Silverman, 2010) (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) reviewed through different theoretical lenses to identify and analyse emerging issues and questions. Disciplinary perspectives may clash e.g. internal tensions around disease spread vs. seed availability. Kenya's national research system and its parastatal seed production units straddle the large companies and small-scale seed providers in the market. They are charged with serving both the smallholder and commercial farming sectors. KALRO-Tigoni, for example, hosts the national potato breeding programme, produces mini-tubers from pathogen-tested plantlets, and serves as a registered seed merchant. ADC-Molo and other parastatals similarly multiply and sell seed on their own farms under their seed merchant licenses, but do not operate out grower schemes for the same quality-control reasons noted for the large companies."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"FAO Support for normative policies for seed trade; plant health Development of QDS approach for seed of grain crops and vegetatively propagated seed, however in-country support dependent on national seed legislation."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"For on-going projects imports certified seed potato from Netherlands and purchases from Kisima farms. Support for PCN risk assessment and management strategy."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder forum (NPCK)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Represents potato ware and seed value chain stakeholders from public and private sectors. Advocates for place of small-scale seed producers in overall system."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"NPCK trying to address disjointed, asymmetric information, lack of coordination -along value chain; and between counties and national government; and counties and research. Advocates for QDS with a disease testing component, and for zoning disease free areas Policy stakeholders Balancing needs of smallholder and commercial farming interests Managing influence of international stakeholders and development partners."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"CGIAR Support for breeding/selection. Validation of seed production models with private sector and NGOs. Pest and disease diagnostics and management strategies."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Different disciplinary perspectives on issues"}]},{"head":"Divergent perspectives","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The debate on the need for effective regulatory reform of the Kenyan seed sector, especially for VPCs, has been characterized by overt and covert resistance from or on behalf of the \"would be\" losers. One viewpoint argues for the need to increase the availability of quality seed through \"clean seed\" approaches to meet national food security objectives. However, this is countered with the argument that only certified seed can meet the quality requirements required to avoid the risk of spread of disease."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"The interests and perspectives from different stakeholders on these two narratives are elaborated further below. Smallholder ware producers use different sources of seed: recycled from their own crop, obtained from neighbours, local markets, trained multipliers producing \"clean seed\", and seed companies or agro-dealers selling certified seed. They may use multiple sources in one season, juggling a series of trade-offs related to price, ease of access, and perceived quality. For example, the local price charged for \"clean seed\" may be the same as that of certified seed. But there may be higher transaction costs (e.g. transport costs) to purchase the latter. Generally, ware producers interviewed for this study expressed mistrust in the local seed system, whether sourcing from market traders or neighbours. Yet they also have concerns about certified seed. As one male ware producer explained:"},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"\"what has passed as certified hasn't met that expectation, in some instances, even before planting it is not right -so why did I even go and buy certified seed, when I could get from the market\"."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Smallholder ware producers consider certified seed as too expensive to purchase and maintain, so those that do purchase certified seed do so only in small quantities and then re-multiply and/or mix them with small ware tubers purchased from local markets. The concern of respondents from research and the regulatory organisations is that this practice does little in terms of managing soil-borne diseases. One County Department of Agriculture official explained: \"the size of farms means that farmers plant on bacterial wilt infected fields, so even if they plant clean seed it has no value for them\"."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"The many actors producing and or selling seed potato include small-scale individual and group seed producers; medium-scale private seed companies; parastatal seed production units; agro-dealers; and retail market sellers."},{"index":6,"size":152,"text":"These seed producers may be closely connected in the seed production chain but serve different segments of the market and may offer rival products, e.g., certified vs. \"clean seed\" produced with starter seed from a known source vs. seed of unknown source and quality. Given the complex yet integrated nature of this seed system and the broad demand for quality seed in any form, a range of other actors play a complementary role to these seed providers. They include extension staff with the county departments of agriculture who source starter seed and provide technical support to \"clean seed\" producers while also referring customers to them. Meanwhile, nongovernmental organizations, charitable foundations, and their projects provide similar types of support. This is often with the longer-term aim of transitioning small-scale seed producers into certified seed production, based on a model where farmers manage their land collectively to ensure proper crop rotations and isolation distances."},{"index":7,"size":93,"text":"As a result of these efforts, many small-scale farmers and farmer organizations have started down the path toward certified seed potato production, relying on basic seed sourced from KALRO Tigoni, ADC-Molo, or private seed companies (primarily Kisima Farms Ltd.). But many have experienced technical (i.e. meeting rotation and isolation standards) challenges in meeting KEPHIS standards, together with cost of production for certified seed production and cost of inspections and have either left certified seed potato production, or shifted to the production of \"clean seed\", which, in Kenya, is not a legal seed class."},{"index":8,"size":144,"text":"However, this does not necessarily suggest that KEPHIS's role has been singularly focused on assessing and rejecting seed potato produced by small-scale farmers. Several smallholder seed producers interviewed for this study recognized the constructive role played by KEPHIS even in the informal sector. In the words of a female seed potato producer in Nakuru county, \"[KEPHIS] can see and identify problems, [that] I cannot\". Still, the technical requirements combined with the fixed costs of KEPHIS inspections render certified seed production a prohibitively costly investment for many seed producers operating at a small scale. The addition of variable input costs in the absence of sufficient credit availability makes seed potato production still more challenging. As one key informant, a village-based advisor in Meru noted, \"these seeds come with many input and crop management requirements if one is to get a good yield-fertiliser, weeding, strict rotation\"."},{"index":9,"size":32,"text":"For larger seed companies, the situation is different. Changes in the policy and regulatory framework have led to an increasing number of foreign-owned or multinational companies entering the market for seed potato."},{"index":10,"size":132,"text":"Some companies are operating their own tissue culture laboratories and screenhouse facilities for seed potato production, often built and accredited for other crops such as flowers. Some are investing in new seed production technologies (e.g., aeroponics and rooted stem cuttings) with start-up capital from a charitable foundation and the International Potato Center (CIP). None of the companies visited operate contract or outgrower schemes because production under such schemes can often be challenging for quality control and assurance in the case of seed potato. Rather, they depend on their own internal quality assurance systems alongside KEPHIS inspections. Some respondents involved in the importation of Dutch seed potato varieties felt unfairly implicated in the spread of disease and argued for more clarity around seed potato imports and improvements in sampling and diagnostic testing procedures."},{"index":11,"size":151,"text":"But there remains a strong call from many of those interviewed for this study-including farmers who themselves use seed potato-for the Government to focus more seriously on local seed producers and sellers to address quality concerns. Solutions suggested by several respondents include a more active role for KEPHIS in monitoring and regulating the quality of the entire potato seed system through (i) active prevention of fake 7 seed in the market, and; (ii) the introduction of traceability systems for seed potato seed through labelling and other means. This underlines the need to determine an appropriate level of regulation in relation to the costs involved. Moreover, this does not necessarily suggest that market surveillance, seed certification, and labelling will replace the trust that farmers place in the reputation of seed sellers or their repeated experience with a seed seller. Rather, these strategies should be viewed as complements to trust and experience-based relationships."},{"index":12,"size":72,"text":"Figure 1 illustrates these interactions between the \"formal\" and \"informal\" seed sectors with different and sometimes overlapping alliances coalescing around the two major narratives: food security or disease risk mitigation. Different stakeholders have varying levels of influence on the processes which guide policy and regulations (arrow thickness reflects the strength of influence). The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF) is responsible for policy guidelines and approving amendments and regulations. The figure"},{"index":13,"size":63,"text":"shows the strong interactions between the MoALF and KEPHIS. However, the MoALF also has oversight for policy implementation with the devolved county departments where food security objectives have high priority, leading to emphasis and support to increase availability of seed to smallholder farmers. The County Departments of Agriculture (CDAs) provide extension services to ware producers and link them to sources of \"clean seed\"."},{"index":14,"size":146,"text":"KEPHIS as the regulatory body emphasises disease risk mitigation objectives and certifies the seed which flows from the formal seed sector EGS producer to the few large scale private seed companies. Some certified seed enters the \"informal\" seed system, to be further multiplied as \"clean seed\". KALRO as main provider for breeder and pre-basic seed, and to a lesser extent the CGIAR (providing technical support) straddle both scales of seed production. Limited capacity to meet demand has led to importation of seed mini-tubers (for further multiplication) of varieties suitable for the processing industry. There are different donor interests supporting both registered seed companies and smallholder seed producers. The main interactions by ware producers are with small holder seed producers, large-scale seed companies, and the CDAs. Small holder seed producers have limited direct influence on policy processes. However, with devolution -the counties support and represent their interests."},{"index":15,"size":15,"text":"Figure 1: Who sits at the table: stakeholder interactions in seed potato arena in Kenya"},{"index":16,"size":138,"text":"The stakeholders that advocate for reforms to recognise \"clean seed\" production, see the benefits to their constituency-smallholder seed producers and farmers-and argue that the market and industry can selfregulate effectively. However, the regulatory body argues that the industry and nation state stand to lose as debilitating diseases spread through the distribution and marketing of infected seed, and lack of appropriate management of soil borne diseases. The former group is focused on short-term food security whereas the latter is considering a longer-term outlook. The case of PCN in Box 2 highlights these trade-offs. Moreover, once PCN is endemic in any particular area, then zero tolerance in seed potato destined for that area is irrelevant and self-defeating. This emphasises the importance of breeding for host resistance as part of an integrated seed health strategy which would benefit all seed producers."}]},{"head":"Devolution of state authority","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Given this persistent discord, one might see the need for greater coordination and communication aimed at solving the underlying problems. Ideally, the National Potato Council of Kenya (NPCK) plays a role in addressing these tensions through coordination and communication. NPCK is a public-private partnership working on the entire value chain, providing a forum for information sharing, networking and articulation of issues on the entire potato value. It has worked to influence policy that supports seed potato production, e.g. prescribing maximum weight of 50 kg for single package unit of ware potato. However, by its nature it is balancing the needs of different interest groups within its membership, in relation to external interest groups. Likewise, one might expect the Seed Trade Association of Kenya (STAK) to play a role in addressing these tensions. However, STAK's priority focus is on the seed of cereal crops and key informants interviewed for this study generally suggested that STAK has not been a significant actor in conversations around seed potato production, marketing, policy, or regulation."}]},{"head":"Box 2: Potato cyst nematode: complex trade-offs for disease mitigation and food security objectives","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"One of the main pests threatening potato productivity is the potato cyst nematode (PCN) of the Globodera spp. genus; 1 With two of the most important species of PCN recently discovered in Kenya (Mwangi J.M. et al., 2015, International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology, 2017, Mburu et al., 2018).These are pests have regional and international impact on potato trade, as they are subject to strict quarantine regulations in more than 100 countries and high economic impact on potato production (EPPO 2013). In the UK, PCN causes yield losses ~$US70 million or 9% of national potato production (Nicol et al., 2011). The PCN produces cysts which can persist in the soil for more than 20 years, even in the absence of an appropriate host and withstanding extreme cold temperatures (-15˚C) and/or prolonged dissection (Scurrah et al., 2005). Several species of Solanaceae crops that are regularly used in the crop rotation systems in Kenya (e.g. tomato, eggplant and African nightshade) act as alternate host of PCN. The cultivation of host crops in addition to the traditional maintenance of volunteer potato plants by farmers between planting seasons (GIZ 2014) perpetuates PCN in the soil, increases the nematode populations in the field and makes it virtually impossible to eradicate."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"A national survey conducted in 2016 found that 80% of farms producing certified potato seed (including private and public ones) were positive for Globodera rostochiensis (Haukeland et al., 2017). In the Seed Potato certification guidelines (KEPHIS 2016) there is zero tolerance for Globodera rostochiensis for all seed classes: i.e. breeder minitubers, pre-basic, basic and certified seeds. Thus, a stringent application of the Kenyan law for seed certified production would leave 80% of certified seed farms out of the business. The implementation of management/ eradication programs for small holders would require a colossal financial, human and technical effort by KEPHIs (KEPHIS 2018). Considering the food-security context of Kenya,"},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"where potato is the second most important crop grown by small holder farmers. The implementation of a zero-tolerance policy would also require the identification and certification of new seed potato production areas free of PCN, ideally situated in agroecological zones where potato has not been traditionally gown. This could potentially help to address the problem from a seed quality perspective but would have a limited impact on preventing further spread of PCN among ware potato growers who are responsible for the majority of seed potato flows. As observed in other countries, eradication of PCN in Kenya will not occur; but mechanisms should be put in place as soon as possible to minimize the impact of this devastating pest. A trade-off between PCN containment and mitigation systems and food security objectives Kenya, will have to be achieved within the available technical and financial resources, current research gaps, and legislation."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Source: Cortada Gonzalez, L."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"The transition to the new Constitution in 2010 provided an opportunity for improved coordination by shifting the role of policy implementation to county governments while retaining policy formulation at the national level."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"This devolution of power provides counties with the mandate and resources to develop their respective comparative advantages in the agricultural sector-including seed potato production and marketing in counties such as Meru and Nyandarua-while also securing technical support and guidance from MoALF, KALRO, KEPHIS and other governmental agencies at the national level."},{"index":7,"size":216,"text":"However, respondents in the survey noted as yet there is very little alignment within MoALF and among the agencies within its purview on an appropriate approach to ensuring the provision of quality planting materials for potato and other VPCs. The National Potato Strategy has failed to deliver on over-arching guidance. For example, it recognized that KALRO is unable to produce enough pre-basic seed, and thus proposed shifting that mandate to ADC, even though this change contravened the existing seed regulations. Naturally, KALRO refused to support this change, but support went ahead to ADC for the provision of additional screenhouse production capacity. Moreover, while the MoALF has supported smallholder seed potato production at county level, with KEPHIS conducting the training, the seed is not certified, and it is the county department of agriculture which provides the buyer of this \"clean seed\" the assurance of quality. The national potato strategy has never been fully resourced; and subsequently with the change in national ministry responsibilities vis a vis county department of agriculture a National Root and Tuber strategy was developed. This takes a different approach, promoting the involvement of large scale, progressive farmers to meet the seed production target so that all farmers plant certified seed, and which envisages \"wiping out the informal seed potato sector\" within 15-20 years."},{"index":8,"size":230,"text":"Thus, contention is not limited to the development of competing narratives around what an \"optimal\" seed system is for potato in Kenya. There is also debate around where real government authority lies. The county governments have greater powers under the devolved constitution, meaning that they have considerable authority-and possibly commensurate resources-to address local food security issues through mechanisms such as the supply of seed to farmers and coordination of seed system stakeholders to increase seed production at the county level. Meanwhile, KEPHIS maintains its regulatory mandate and role of ensuring that only certified seed is produced and distributed throughout the country. This sets up the potential for both coordination or conflict between county governments and KEPHIS. As noted earlier, the decentralization of KEPHIS activities and county-level training provided by KEPHIS to county governments and seed producers suggests strong collaboration. At the same time, however, the very policies and regulations that KEPHIS is mandated to enforce militate against county government activities (including partnership-based projects with NGOs) to produce and distribute \"clean seed\". While pragmatism may be the operative strategy currently being used under devolution, the inherent tensions between national and county mandates may limit the scope for long-term coordination and the development of Kenya's seed potato system. This has implications for the role of the Council of Governors in harmonising bye laws for the movement of seed potato across county boundaries."}]},{"head":"Equity and inclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Differences are also manifested in discussions about the scale required to be a successful seed (and ware) potato producer. We observe that the \"clean seed\" approach is a point of disagreement for some of the large-scale seed producers, who argue that \"clean seed\" production opens opportunities for moral hazard. Their primary concern is that the absence of formal quality assurance systems incentivizes profit-maximizing seed producers with short-term outlooks to take risks-producing and distributing sub-standard seed-without consequence."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Their concerns are bolstered by technical arguments that highlight the difficulty in meeting phytosanitary standards on small farms where isolation distances and disease containment cannot be effectively managed."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"NGO and CDA stakeholders and some within the MoALF at national level voiced their concerns that this situation raises the question of how strict certification approaches may exclude certain groups, and privilege others to the benefits of income generation opportunities from seed potato production. Smallholders, in particular women with limited land holdings, find it more difficult to practise rotation and physical distancing (i.e., isolation) from other (ware) potato crops. Moreover, the imported Dutch varieties of seed potato are more expensive to buy as royalties are paid and these varieties require more inputs and intensive management practices."},{"index":4,"size":175,"text":"The private seed companies with larger land holdings or capacity to rent land meet isolation and rotation requirements and achieve economies of scale that reduce the unit cost of production. These companies also have access to a wider range of potato varieties from the Netherlands, Scotland, and CIP, in addition to the varieties developed and released in Kenya. Yet even with these resources and support, many companies require four to five years to break even on seed potato production and to achieve economies of scale, which is an unrealistic scenario for smallholder seed producers. As such, most of the seed companies prefer to sell certified seed potato in the standard units (50kg) and to customers requiring large volumes (i.e. several tons) of seed potato. This means that they tend to market their products toward large scale ware farmers, NGO projects, MoALF, and KALRO. When they do sell to farmers, it is usually to farmer groups and small-scale multipliers who then divide the bags among themselves for onward multiplication for \"clean seed\" or ware potato production."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"These companies also provide extension and advisory services to farmers-training and field days-to raise awareness and encourage farmers to use quality seed."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"Several of these companies are also innovating in seed potato production (including hybrid potatoes and the use of true botanical seed 8 ) to reduce costs, increase multiplication rates, or otherwise create more commercially viable operations. Often these technologies will require adaptations in cultivation technologies, distribution systems and regulatory frameworks. They may also require investment in specialized technical knowledge and skills, as well as proper facilities, which may be beyond the reach of smallholder seed producers."},{"index":7,"size":140,"text":"However, by increasing availability of quality seed at lower cost, technologies such as rooted apical cuttings have the potential to benefit smallholder ware producers (Parker, 2019). Once planted in the field, an apical cutting produces 10-25+ seed tubers, compared to 5-10 seed tubers per mini-tuber (at costs of USD 0.10 and USD 0.15-0.30, respectively). Given the high productivity of rooted apical cuttings, it is economical for multipliers to sell quality seed after two seasons of field multiplication, and after three seasons, it is highly profitable. This is compared to commercial seed produced from minitubers, which is usually sold after three to four seasons of multiplication. It takes a multiplier who starts with minitubers a minimum of 9 months to produce a commercial crop of seed tubers, whereas those who start with rooted apical cuttings produce a crop within 3-4 months."},{"index":8,"size":95,"text":"Using cuttings as starter material for seed production reduces the time it takes to produce commercial seed by one year compared to minitubers, boosting the profitability of seed multiplication and the supply of quality seed available for farmers (Parker, 2020). Moreover, this form of seed allows differentiation with ware potato, thus being able to send a clear signal to the buyer. This technology is now recognized under Kenya's seed regulations as the same as tissue culture (G0 seed) so that an increased number of generations can be multiplied before commercialisation which, in turn, increases profitability."},{"index":9,"size":158,"text":"Ultimately, these findings suggest areas of both overlapping and divergent interests around the appropriate scale for seed production and marketing. The diversity of seed producers in Kenya's potato market is not without its challenges for equity considerations in policy and regulation. Frequent concerns cited by respondents to this study revolved around the insufficient quantities of mini-tubers and pre-basic seed available to commercial producers in the market. This points to underinvestment in KALRO's capacity to provide high-quality early generation materials, as well as underinvestment by the private sector in the production of commercial materials but could also point to lack of effective demand for seed. Further, several respondents recognize the underlying discord between the de jure--regulations that only permit market exchanges of certified seed-and the de facto-the widespread trade in uncertified seed. This plays out in terms of who grows which varieties for seed and ware production, and how seed quality is assured through both internal and external mechanisms."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"One consequence of these tensions is a persistent deficit of quality seed for small-scale farmers."}]},{"head":"Regulatory policing vs. regulatory guidance","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Left unresolved, this situation may have few short-term consequences. But as private investment in Kenya's seed market increases, pressure on the policy and regulatory framework to address this discord will likely increase. This opens the door to a deeper discussion of KEPHIS, the regulator of Kenya's entire seed system."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"KEPHIS's responsibilities range from the local-ensuring that seed traded in the market is compliant with the statutory provisions governing seed production and marketing-to the international-ensuring compliance with UPOV on plant variety protection and with Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA) on the harmonization of seed trade. Most importantly, KEPHIS is mandated to ensure that all seed merchants formally register their business interests in seed production, and that seed that meets the certification standards according to class which, in the case of potato, is limited to pre-basic, basic, certified 1 and certified 2."},{"index":3,"size":339,"text":"While there is consensus that KEPHIS has been effective in ensuring compliance with certification standards, there has also been long-standing criticism of the organization for presiding over an industry that is unable to meet the demand for quality seed, especially of VPCs including potato. The low volume of certified VPC seed is attributed to the stringency of KEPHIS's seed certification requirements, much of which was designed for cereal crops where production can be more readily centralised and where inter-seasonal storage is less of an issue than it is with VPCs. As a result, the language often refers to \"seed lots\" and \"germination tests\" that are appropriate to maize and other cereals but less so to potato and other VPCs (Kaguongo et al., 2014). Similarly, references to the number of allowable generations from breeder to certified seed that can be multiplied tends to reference standard practices for maize hybrids (where a small number of generations between breeder and certified seed is desirable). But this is wholly inapplicable to potato with low multiplication rates so that any restriction in the number of generations allowed within a seed class reduces the economic viability of seed production. As a result, KEPHIS has faced pressure to relax its requirements on seed potato production and marketing and to allow increased private (especially farmer) participation in seed production. But while the 2016 revision in the seed regulations introduced some changes to domesticate and operationalise international conventions to which Kenya is a party, and which is to the benefit of private large seed companies, potential small-scale seed producers still face significant hurdles. For small-scale seed producers, these hurdles are set forth in the requirements for registration as seed merchants, which include: (i) having enough land to meet the specifications on isolation and separation distances; (ii) paying for registration and inspection, and (iii) meeting the costs of pathogen testing. KEPHIS has also been criticized for the delays in getting inspections conducted in time, mainly due to shortage of staff and vehicles to transport the inspectors to the field."},{"index":4,"size":246,"text":"Several actor coalitions have pressured KEPHIS to effect regulatory reforms in its operations, responsibilities, and mandates. In the most part, the call for reforms have been vocalized publicly. Examples include suggestions designed to benefit small-scale farmers engaged the seed production: more affordable KEPHIS charges and high standards; farm inputs subsidies and financial support; and allowing \"clean seed\" as a seed class in the market or a QDS type approach, so long as there is traceability back to a certified seed generation. There have also been more discrete actions taken by actor coalitions to signal discontent with the status of seed potato market in Kenya. For instance, departments of agriculture at both the state and county levels continue to actively promote the production and sale of uncertified \"clean seed\", in violation of the regulatory framework. Meanwhile, KALRO, NGOs, CIP, charitable foundations, and donor-funded projects train and support farmers in the production and marketing of \"clean under village seed enterprise schemes, and train farmers in the onfarm maintenance of seed quality, which improves the quality of recycled seed. And foreign companies and donor-funded project continue to exert their influence on the seed potato industry sector in ways designed to open the door not only to greater foreign investment, but also to the importation and licensing of planting material from abroad. Large seed companies supported by donor governments argue that additional generations of certified seed should be allowed in the seed standards. At present C1 and C2 are allowed."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"Allowing C3 through C7 to be sold as certified seed with some level of quality assurance, would reduce the price of certified seed and would bridge the gap in supply and demand rather than the promotion of \"clean seed\"."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"Both KEPHIS and private companies have stated that alternative seed classes are not a viable solution because they are subject to non-compliance and abuse that ultimately leads to the spread of pathogens 9 . Many of these same companies also believe that small-scale seed potato production is simply not a viable option for Kenya:"},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"neither quality nor scale economies are feasible in these production systems. The result: allegations and counterallegations around the origins and causes of potato diseases in Kenya and very little progress is resolving the policy and regulatory discord that persists in the country."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"The continuous pressure from multiple actor coalitions has led to several changes in the policy and regulatory framework governing seed potato production and marketing in Kenya. Some of these changes have been small"},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"and piecemeal while some have the potential to bring about lasting improvements. For example, in 2012 accredited third-party seed inspectors trained by KEPHIS were permissible, meaning that inspections need not depend solely on the availability of a KEPHIS inspector. However, the roll out has been limited and taken time."},{"index":10,"size":61,"text":"Relatedly, accredited private laboratories for pathogen testing are now permissible. Scratch cards have been incorporated into the labelling/packaging for the seed of high value crops to aid traceability. Further, small-scale seed producers can now be registered as outgrowers under a seed merchant's licence. Finally, KEPHIS has undergone a considerable degree of decentralisation, thereby bringing its services closer to farms and farmers."},{"index":11,"size":193,"text":"At the heart of Kenya's policy and regulatory challenge in the seed potato market is the role of regulation and the regulator. Should regulators assume a policing function following strict interpretation of the law, or should the regulator take on a more guiding role. County governments, research centres, and NGOs have invested considerable resources in training smallholders to produce \"clean seed\"; however, a strict interpretation of the seed law infers that selling seed which has not been inspected and certified is illegal. Thus, some stakeholders are concerned that the regulatory system is policing rather than facilitating efforts to increase availability and access to seed, and this leads to exclusion of certain groups from opportunities in the potato seed market. But the flow of seed potato from multiple sources leads to continued and potentially increasing contamination of soils that affect both seed and ware production and productivity. Yet there seem to be few efforts to strike a reasonable balance between the needs of smallholder seed (and ware) producers, on the one hand, and the overall health of the potato production system-including its soils-on the other hand. The risks of a lose-lose situation are non-trivial."}]},{"head":"Trade, development, and commerce","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"Contestations are also observed in competing investment strategies in seed potato production systems. Kenya hosts an active coalition of private-sector interests that advance business models which rely on the importation of proprietary potato varieties and seed potato suitable for industrial processing-varieties that represent a potentially lucrative growth industry for Kenya but are currently key to a relatively small niche. However, these imported varieties and seed are more susceptible to diseases and require high inputs and more intensive management. In short, the niche they are designed for is not particularly relevant to most potato farmers in Kenya-those small-scale farmers whose credit and market participation constraints limit the relevance of processing varieties to their production systems. Nor are such varieties relevant to the taste preferences in the fresh ware market. This is not to suggest that these two seed and production systems are antithetical: they can readily operate side-by-side in Kenya. But the growth of the more industrial model requires a policy and regulatory regime that actively manages seed quality, ensures phytosanitary compliance in imported materials, and protects plant breeders' rights. These requirements may be either irrelevant or inappropriate to the smallholder model. But the policy and regulatory regime neither acknowledges nor distinguishes between these two models. This leaves Kenya's seed potato market open for continued competition between coalitions with equally compelling but very distinct narratives."}]},{"head":"Future policy options","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Our findings and analysis demonstrate that there is persistent pressure for change in Kenya's seed potato system as coalitions of actors vie for space to protect their interests and values. These coalitions have formed around several but sometimes overlapping narratives: ensuring short term household food security versus ensuring plant and soil health which contribute to long term national food security; devolution of state authority versus consistency in national regulatory mandates; market growth versus equity and inclusion; and development of industrial production models versus advancement of smallholder production systems. These coalitions pit different branches and levels of government against one another, place development actors in opposition to state regulators, and squeeze farmers from both sides. Critical and long standing concerns around disease and pest management underly these debates. That said, there are several constructive options that could assist Kenya move forward as a whole. We discuss several of these options below."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The first option-is to introduce explicit recognition in the legal and regulatory framework of the dual production models and systems that exist in Kenya, along with recognition that the systems are interlinked and may, in due course, become explicitly integrated in both purpose and form. The current situation-recognition of a formal seed potato system that serves only a small share of the market alongside general disregard for the informal system-is untenable given their relative importance to the overall seed potato system and the long-term prospects for integration."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"This relates directly to a second option: creating separate regulations for seed potato systems based on the production system and relative risks in those systems. This may entail agreement on realistic seed standards under the existing \"standard\" seed class, as well as a greater reliance on self-regulation and truthfully labelled seed based on trust: in other countries (e.g. India) this may work, with a higher percentage of farmers buying seed, and a strong legal system to redress complaints. Some organisations are supporting this approach through encouraging seed producers to cluster, to be able to meet isolation distance and rotation practice requirements."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"This requires investment in building production and business capacity of medium scale seed producers, registered as seed growers, sourcing pathogen tested starter seed every year, linked to markets and the regulator through an ICT platform. This approach would need to be complemented by zoning of uncontaminated land or only allowing land where rotation practice had been strictly adhered to. However, for Kenya, the current land tenure system, and landholding size may not be amenable to this approach; and, experience of cooperative farming approaches has a mixed history in Kenya."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"This highlights a third option -the need for policies and investments to provide more space and support for integrated seed health strategies to respond to specific disease and crop contexts. An integrated seed health strategy seeks an optimal combination of the use of and appropriate inflow of certified seed (including refocusing formal seed potato certification to the early generation levels of pre-basic and basic seed), with increased investment in farmer seed management and good agricultural practices, and in accelerated breeding efforts for host resistance; the latter being the only realistic approach for managing BW and PCN 10 ."},{"index":6,"size":111,"text":"Finally, recognising that these options involve multiple actors with divergent perspectives-it is crucial to identify or negotiate towards common interest spaces through inclusive stakeholder consultations. This is already being actively pursued by the Government of Kenya through consultations with value chain actors on the design of regulatory guidelines for VPC seed systems, and through consultations on the development of action plans for potato value chain development. Systematic, structured, and documented stakeholder consultations are essential to identifying areas of common interest where competing coalitions can compromise and coordinate, and to identifying areas where such compromises or coordination cannot be readily achievedwhich together create a sense of shared ownership and responsibility among stakeholders."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"This paper assessed the implications of the current seed regulatory framework for seed potato in Kenya. Based on the experiences of different stakeholders of the implementation of seed regulations and standards, it examined the options for quality assurance system for VPCs in Kenya to improve availability, and access to quality seed for ware producers. Efforts to pilot alternative quality seed production models -are challenged from scaling -because the current regulatory framework creates trade-offs in terms of meeting the demand for quality seed and managing the risk of spread of plant diseases and pests. This creates tensions between central agencies and the devolved county governments. The latter have the objective to improve food security through supporting farmer group seed production models, where seed is predominantly shared among members. The former adheres to the national seed regulatory framework. This puts in jeopardy the national plant health system where there are biological interactions at farm, county, regional and national levels."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"In the context of market and coordination failures, due to high transaction costs, stakeholder interactions around the regulatory process are manifested as different contested spaces. The findings point to examples of how different interest groups (operating at international, regional, national and local levels) and underlying power relations have induced recent amendments to the seed legislation (e.g. liberalization of seed laws, private inspectors). However, there remains mis-trust among the different actors around the supply and quality of seed."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"This has led to questions about the appropriateness of the current regulatory framework for seed potato, where seed certification schemes would have limited impact on containing and preventing further spread of pests and diseases such as PCN and BW among ware potato producers with more than 96% of seed flows. Co-ordination in the sub-sector is hampered by uneven power relations, leading to short-term winners and losers in the ongoing reform process."},{"index":4,"size":184,"text":"Empirical findings highlight the critical need for national regulatory frameworks to acknowledge the role of plural seed systems and approach quality assurance (through appropriate institutional and technological changes) in a holistic and comprehensive manner to improve the overall plant health system. This approach has been advocated in other country contexts (Sperling et al., 2014, Almekinders et al., 2019, Louwaars and de Boef, 2012). However, current seed regulatory frameworks in countries such as Kenya are not supportive of such integration (Munyi and De Jonge, 2015). For VPCs such as potato where most seed moves through the informal system it is imperative to re-shape the regulatory space to recognize that the different seed systems (and related ware production systems) are linked and interdependent and that trade-offs are required so that both can be accommodated within the national development discourse. This would require harnessing latent stakeholders (e.g. Counties) to interact with specialists over different options to achieve policy objectives learning over time who could induce institutional innovation to put in place a plant health system and determine an optimal quality assurance system for seed potato in Kenya."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"7 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................................................... 28 "},{"text":" ..................................................................................................... 9 Table 2: Major seed legislation in Kenya and implications for seed of vegetatively propagated crops................................... 11 Table 3: Overview of type of interviews conducted for study ................................................................................................. 13 Table 4: Stakeholder interests, type of seed production model and implications ................................................................... 15 "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Who sits at the table: stakeholder interactions in seed potato arena in Kenya ....................................................... 19 "},{"text":" in 2012 an Amendment to the 1972 Act allowed private persons to undertake specified seed certification activities on behalf of the regulator for seed classes below basic seed, and incorporated provisions of the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) 1991 convention. There were further Revisions to the 1991 Regulations in 2012 and 2016. These included clauses with implications for the seed of vegetatively propagated crops. The 2012 Revision incorporated seed certification standards for potato and the Revision in 2016 included a reduction in the number of certified seed classes from C1 -C4 (2012) to C1-C2 and allowed the release of land races and farmer-selected varieties e.g. Shangi. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" This study sought to explore the following research questions: What types of public policies, regulations or regulatory reforms are in place and what is the experience of different types of stakeholders in how these are implemented to provide access and availability of quality VPC planting material, specifically seed potato; and  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Production of certified seed potato inKenya, 2017  Registered seed producers/ merchants Seed production area Estimated production Registered seed producers/ merchantsSeed production areaEstimated production  (ha) (tons) (ha)(tons) Agricultural Development Corporation 100 1,600 Agricultural Development Corporation1001,600 Agrico EA Ltd. 50 800 Agrico EA Ltd.50800 Kisima Farm Ltd. 153 2,448 Kisima Farm Ltd.1532,448 Charvi Ltd. 64 1,024 Charvi Ltd.641,024 Suera Ltd. 5 80 Suera Ltd.580 KALRO Seed Unit 18 288 KALRO Seed Unit18288 Sungus Enterprises 8 128 Sungus Enterprises8128 Apical cuttings (70,000 cuttings) - 266 Apical cuttings (70,000 cuttings)-266 Others (outgrowers) 5 80 Others (outgrowers)580 Total seed production area/tons 403 6,714 Total seed production area/tons4036,714 Estimated area covered by available seed (2 3,357 ha  Estimated area covered by available seed (23,357 ha ton/ha seed rate)   ton/ha seed rate) Deficit in tons (28,468 − 6,714)  21,754 tons Deficit in tons (28,468 − 6,714)21,754 tons  "},{"text":"Table 2   "},{"text":"Table 2 : Major seed legislation in Kenya and implications for seed of vegetatively propagated crops Source: (Republic of Kenya, 2016a, Republic of Kenya, 1972, Republic of Kenya, 2012b, Republic of Kenya, 2012a, Republic of Kenya, 2016b) Source: (Republic of Kenya, 2016a, Republic of Kenya, 1972, Republic of Kenya, 2012b, Republic of Kenya, 2012a, Republic of Kenya, 2016b) and authors and authors  "},{"text":" 6 .(International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) et al., 2019).Table 3 provides an overview: a total of 40 semi-structured interviews involving 72 individuals were conducted in June and July 2017 in Nairobi and in two major potato-producing regions of the country: Meru County and Molo area in Nakuru County. Stakeholders at the national level were interviewed in Nairobi. Interviewees were drawn from government agencies, regulatory bodies, industry associations, research centres, development partners, non-governmental organizations, private companies, farmers' organizations, and farm communities.  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Overview of type of interviews conducted for study N o . of N o . of  "},{"text":"Table 4 summarises the key stakeholders, interests and implications. This shows that within each stakeholder type, there are different scales of operation, with implications for institutional linkages, and seed availability, access and quality for different seed market The findings from interviews conducted for this study highlight topics that are hotly disputed among interest groups with different world views. This has created a series of interlinked \"contested\" spaces where social, political and institutional factors interact with the technical issues. Stakeholder Interests, roles & type of seed production model Implications StakeholderInterests, roles & type of seed production modelImplications KALRO Tigoni -national Variety testing/breeding to ensure varieties available for release;  KALRO Tigoni -nationalVariety testing/breeding to ensure varieties available for release; potato programme and Development and dissemination of suitable technologies; Provision  potato programme andDevelopment and dissemination of suitable technologies; Provision Agricultural Development of basic seed potato. Research on pest and disease management;  Agricultural Developmentof basic seed potato. Research on pest and disease management; Corporation (ADC) Maintenance and supply of breeder's seed; Disseminate research  Corporation (ADC)Maintenance and supply of breeder's seed; Disseminate research  findings to the MoALF and other stakeholders; Capacity building on  findings to the MoALF and other stakeholders; Capacity building on  seed production and marketing.  seed production and marketing.  "}],"sieverID":"6c77bc26-119c-49f5-ad7b-e98f046a3f1c","abstract":"The CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) is a partnership collaboration led by the International Potato Center implemented jointly with the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and the Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), that includes a growing number of research and development partners. RTB brings together research on its mandate crops: bananas and plantains, cassava, potato, sweetpotato, yams, and minor roots and tubers, to improve nutrition and food security and foster greater gender equity especially among some of the world's poorest and most vulnerable populations."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"093000257a3d51ab5fe78aa51b1a7e77","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/86a1b966-5af7-4502-b5a4-6b823a10275c/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Closing the gender gap in climate-smart agriculture A brief review of recent approaches relevant to CSA programs","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"\"Climate-smart agriculture\" (CSA) has become a central concept shaping action and bringing together constituencies at the global level on agriculture and climate change. In essence, climate-smart agriculture pays explicit attention to how interventions in agriculture and food systems affect each of three key outcomes: food security, adaptation and mitigation (FAO 2013). The climate-smart agriculture movement is not prescriptive about how best to achieve these outcomes, nor how to manage the inevitable trade-offsthe idea is that locally appropriate priorities and solutions will be generated. A key question arises as to the winners and losers from these processes, in terms of gender as well as other social dimensions, and whether climate-smart agriculture help transform agriculture and rural development in ways that achieve major gains for gender equity."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"A narrow view of climate-smart agriculture confines possible actions to on-farm technical practices, such as soil and water management, use of new varieties, or integration of trees into cropland and pastures. But leading proponents of climate-smart agriculture lay out a wider fourfold agenda for action: building policy-relevant evidence, strengthening national and local institutions, fostering coherence between climate and agricultural policies, and stable dedicated financing (Lipper et al. 2014). These four areas provide a useful framework for analyzing how the concept and the practice of climatesmart agriculture currently address gender gaps. Since climate-smart agriculture is a new field, key sources in the literature tend to be project documents and reports rather than peer-reviewed journal papers."}]},{"head":"Building policy-relevant evidence","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Evidence to support cost-effective context-based policy decisions remains weak for the specific objectives of climate-smart agriculture. Two areas stand out in which evidence is needed: on climate impacts and associated responses at multiple scales under conditions of uncertainty, and on adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices and institutions in different agro-ecological and socio-economic contexts (Lipper et al. 2014). It is the second of these areasadoptionthat carries a strong gender dimension."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The global research community sees the gender dimensions of adoption as a priority area for science on climate-smart agriculture (Steenwerth et al. 2014). This emphasis on gender-differentiated adoption is reflected, for example, in the theory of change of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which seeks to undertake research that can inform, catalyze and target adaptation and mitigation solutions to women and other vulnerable groups (Kristjanson 2013). Recent policy-relevant findings on adoption of climate-smart agriculture have focused on how gender matters, rather than simply demonstrating that it makes a difference. For example, research shows that women have less access than men to information on climate-smart agricultural options (Jost et al. 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Yet as the threats of climate change to food security accelerate, there is growing evidence and amplified calls for a transformative climate-smart agriculture that delivers a globally sustainable and equitable future food system, rather than incremental implementation of improved techniques and institutions (Neufeldt et al. 2013). This vision would necessitate a policy-relevant research agenda beyond adoption by farmers of climate-smart practices and services. In this transformative version of climate-smart agriculture, the importance of gender is increased in two ways."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"First, a transformed food system involves wholesale shifts in diets and nutrition, food trade and access, agricultural production areas, and cultures of consumption and waste. Women's empowerment plays a key role in household nutritional outcomes, for example in Nepal (Malapit et al. 2013). Decisions made within households drive not only nutrition but also the entire upstream food system, through signals of demand dependent on patterns of consumption and waste in the household (Garnett 2011). Additionally, the food industry, whether formal or informal, is a dominant sector for women's employment and participation in many countries (Allen and Sachs 2007;Floro and Swain 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":156,"text":"Second, a transformative approach to climate-smart agriculture requires greater attention to gender relations, rather than using information on gender differences simply as a means to maximize rates of adoption of climate-smart technologies. Is the policy goal to maximize women's access to information and technologies within existing power relations (e.g. to use information channels other than radio and mobile phones to reach women who don't have access)? Or is the policy goal to tackle distribution of assets and decision-making where these asymmetries are the underlying cause of women's vulnerability to climate change? The second question provides for a much wider agenda that addresses the political economy of vulnerability and capacity. This extends policy-relevant research on climate-smart agriculture to gender issues around migration in the longterm or short-term (Camlin et al. 2013), off-farm employment (Alston and Whittenbury 2013) or outside claims on land and resources (Cameron 2012), all in the context of prevailing market conditions and government policies."}]},{"head":"Strengthening national and local institutions","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"The scale of climate change necessitates social and institutional over and above individual responses; the importance of institutions from global to local is well known (Adger et al. 2005;Agrawal 2009). Proponents of climate-smart agriculture place emphasis on enhancing local institutions, to increase agency among those with the strongest local knowledge who may be marginalized from formal policy processes (Kristjanson et al. 2013). Institutions relevant to climate-smart agriculture range widely, including: collective action such as equitable and socially inclusive systems for land and water management, multi-stakeholder processes for local and national planning, comprehensive risk-management and crisis-response mechanisms, social protection programs, and access to inputs and markets that underpin farmers' capacities to adopt new practices (Lipper et al. 2014). Notably, these institutions go beyond provision of climatespecific capacities (e.g. access to heat-tolerant crop varieties) to a much broader base of generic capacities, such as social protection. Empirical evidence from Brazil, Mexico and USA suggests we need both; investing in either specific or generic capacities alone does not lead to desired outcomes for men and women's resilience to climate change (Eakin et al. 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"If institutions are at the heart of climate-smart agriculture, is there sufficient attention to how institutions deliver decision-making powers and benefit-sharing differentially to men and to women? While research has not yet been undertaken for climate-smart agriculture per se (i.e. agriculture that explicitly combines food security, adaptation and mitigation objectives), a review across multiple sectors finds evidence that women's political participation and leadership can improve access to public goods and services, create more gender-egalitarian policies, and progressively shift social norms (Domingo et al 2015)."}]},{"head":"Fostering coherence between climate and agricultural policies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Coherence between climate and agricultural policies has grown tremendously in recent years. At the global level, agriculture is in the 2015 and 2016 agendas of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific and Technical Advice of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and is unlikely to be excluded from a post-2015 multi-lateral agreement on climate change. At the national level, agriculture is included in about 80% of plans on mitigation and adaptation (Action Aid 2011, Wilkes et al. 2013). Climate considerations are also being incorporated into mainstream agricultural planning and policy-making; a recent example is Nigeria's National Agricultural Resilience Framework (Government of Nigeria 2014). But performance on gender is variable. For example, only a third of National Adaptation Programs of Action in sub-Saharan Africa include gender in any way, such as in diagnostics, planned actions, or monitoring and evaluation (Holvoet and Inberg 2013). In Uganda, gender is treated as an addendum to coordinated climate and agriculture policy, without budget allocation or defined mechanisms for implementation (Acosta et al. 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"More recently, since early 2015, African countries supported by the New Partnership for Africa's Development Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (NEPAD-CAADP) are embarking on design of country-specific climate-smart agriculture programs. The frameworks for these programs provide an insight into the inclusion of gender in climateagriculture policies: in the standard format, Result Area 7 (of 10 Result Areas in total) is \"Opportunities for women and youth in CSA and agribusiness.\" This framing is encouraging in its explicit inclusion of women, plus its understanding of both women and youth as positive agents of entrepreneurship and social change, rather than as victims of climate change. On the other hand, it runs counter to arguments for mainstreaming of gender and risks that the only opportunities for women and youth, who make up 75% or more of populations in the relevant countries, will be in this single Result Area."}]},{"head":"Stable dedicated financing","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"For a variety of reasons, agriculture, particularly smallholder agriculture, has to date received a small share of climate finance despite contributing about a quarter of global emissions and requiring substantial investment in adaptation to maintain food security. On the other hand, inclusion of gender issues in the major global funds is improving. There is now an extensive nonacademic literature on gender dimensions of global and national climate finance, particularly improving access for poor women (e.g. Schalatek and Nakhooda 2012, Arend and Lowman 2013, Adams et al. 2014). These studies call for gender performance criteria, earmarking of funds to projects that enhance gender equity, inclusion of women at all levels of governance, simplification of processes and capacity strengthening to improve women's access to funds, and pilot projects to demonstrate success. Partly in response to these types of studies, climate funds are increasingly mainstreaming gender issues. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) released a gender strategy in 2012 that requires all applicants to have their own gender strategy that meets minimum requirements, while the newer Green Climate Fund (GCF) has drafted a preliminary gender policy that will provide gender-responsive governance, results management, resource allocation, capacity building, knowledge generation and communications."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"A key source of funding for climate-smart agriculture among smallholder farmers is IFAD's Adaptation in Smallholder Agriculture Program. The grants under this program are aligned with IFAD's gender strategy and are expected to deliver positive outcomes for women's economic empowerment, decision-making voice and workloads. The project designs feature gender analyses and consultations with both women and men in the target areas to identify priorities for investment. Projects then specify targets for gender equity. Some targets are process-oriented; for example in Nigeria 40% of places in enterprise training are reserved for women. Other targets focus on outcomes, such as a biofuel intervention in Mali that targets that 90% of women will report a reduction in workload as a result of involvement in the project (Chakrabati undated)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"As a new concept, climate-smart agriculture presents the danger that policy-makers and researchers \"re-invent the wheel\" rather than grounding practice firmly on decades of experience in agricultural development and progress on gender equity. Emerging CSA policies and plans lack the attention to gender that would enable the transformative change that supporters of CSA claim to seek. Yet there is substantial evidence and guidance available on what works to achieve gender-equitable outcomes at scale. Most fundamentally, CSA has a much greater chance of success if we confront the politics of resource access and participation from the start, rather than treat CSA as a predominantly technical challenge."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"925a492a-ae0c-4552-b792-6728fdc056c6","abstract":"Policy-relevant evidence on gender and CSA must go beyond adoption of technologies to consider the politics of resource access and decision-making. Institutions that bring about gender-equitable CSA will emphasize women's participation, leadership and capacity building. Emerging CSA policies are weak on gender inclusion. The experience of climate funds offers considerable guidance for better practice on gender within CSA programs."}

data/part_2/096de1f459b0cc578c8cd1f7975631ed.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"096de1f459b0cc578c8cd1f7975631ed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4adfe3d9-c400-4aea-a4ba-0a8a186f69ac/retrieve"},"pageCount":47,"title":"Which climate services do farmers and pastoralists need in Malawi? Working Paper No. 112 CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)","keywords":["Climate Services","Baseline Survey","Monitoring & Evaluation","Malawi","Africa","Gender Equity"],"chapters":[{"head":"Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Agriculture plays a critical role in the livelihood of smallholder farmers in Malawi as in many developing countries. Farmers rely on rainfed agriculture for their daily subsistence and for income generation. Increased climate variability in Malawi poses great challenges to farming activities and leaves farmers very vulnerable to the impact of weather and climate fluctuations. Thus, improving climate information and advisory services is recognized as a strategy that could help farmers to deal with the weather and climate uncertainty and thereby improve their decision making on crop management. Climate information provides useful knowledge that contributes to the adoption of new technologies, improved inputs and new cultivation practices (Msangi et al. 2006). Resultantly, there would be reduced risk and vulnerability to changing climate and enhanced crop productivity and food security. Hence, access to timely, accurate, reliable climate information and agricultural advice presents opportunities for reducing vulnerability and becoming more resilient to climate change."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"To respond to this major challenge of increased climate variability, the international community established the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) to promote operational climate services at the national and regional levels. This intergovernmental partnership is supported by the United Nations and other international organizations, and coordinated by WMO. The Adaptation Program in Africa, which targets Tanzania and Malawi, is the first multi-agency initiative to be implemented under GFCS. It is a 3-year project, funded by the Government of Norway, that aims to strengthen capacity both to  (farmers, pastoralists). A first step in this process was an implementation of a baseline survey that collected detailed information on the current situation of climate services accessed and used by farmers and pastoralists. This information provides benchmark indicators against which progress and performance of the project will be measured."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"This report presents a synthesis of the findings of the key benchmark indicators regarding the access, use and availability of climate information services in Malawi. Tanzania is covered in a separate report. The results shed light on what kinds of information farmers and pastoralists need, and in what formats. This baseline information will be used to compare against data after the implementation of the program activities by partners in order to evaluate the impact of climate services on the livelihood of the rural communities targeted."}]},{"head":"Survey Instruments","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The survey instruments developed for the baseline include both a structured individual household questionnaire and a key informant interview guide. Both instruments were derived from pilot CCAFS baseline tools to measure the value of climate services for farmers, to which GFCS partners contributed questions and specific input to adapt the survey to the country context and needs of the GFCS project. The protocol instruments have been tested and validated in several CCAFS research sites in West Africa (Kaffrine in Senegal), East Africa (Nyando in Kenya) and South Asia (India) (Tall et al., 2014). These efforts have resulted in an effective context driven tool kit to evaluate climate services across countries."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"The toolkit encompasses a pre-assessment survey to understand background contextual issues related to the usefulness of climate information services and guidelines for monitoring and evaluation of climate service projects. The baseline survey instruments have been adapted and implemented in Tanzania and Malawi for the purpose of this baseline exercise. The data collected from the survey instruments are used to develop a set of indicators on access, needs and use of climate services that will be monitored during the project implementation in order to assess changes in the beneficiaries' livelihoods as a result of the project."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"The individual household questionnaire focuses on 6 sets of indicators: household assets and risk to agricultural productivity, the general sources of information on agriculture, the specific sources of information on climate, the use of climate information and the perceived impacts, gendered access to climate information and finally, impact of climate service use on crop/livestock production and food security. The key informant interview guide was more concise since it aims to complement the information generated from the individual households' interviews. Indicators from this guide include community risks, sources of information on climate and agriculture, communication of climate information, gender and access to climate information."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Prior to the administration of the survey instruments in the target districts, the tools were tested in a pilot village, Kagombe, in Mpingu Extension Planning Area (EPA) west of the district of Lilongwe. The goal of this pre-testing was to check the relevance of the questions to the context of the survey, ensure a very good understanding of the survey tools and key concepts by the enumerator team."}]},{"head":"Site Selection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"A stratified random sampling design including village experiments (to receive the program) and controls (to serve as comparison) was used for the individual household data collection process. Key informants interviews involved a purposive sampling design. The stratified sampling design involved a three-stage selection process. First, districts were selected in the same sites where the GFCS project partners, mainly the Malawi National Red Cross Societies, and the World Food Programme (WFP), operate and plan interventions and climate service delivery between 2014 and 2016. For Malawi, we found that the Malawi Red Cross is planning to work in Lilongwe and Nsanje districts, while WFP will be working in Zomba."},{"index":2,"size":391,"text":"Following the choice of districts, villages were then selected randomly from the list of villages where these partners plan to implement the GFCS project activities. Finally, in each village, households were randomly selected from a list provided by village leaders, together with local development workers of partner organisations. In addition to the selection of villages where partners have planned their activities, control villages where no GFCS activities are expected to take place between 2014-16 were also selected to serve as a comparison group. The control groups were selected from villages with similar vulnerability status, agro-ecology, socio-economic setting as the target experimental villages, but outside the range of influence of project activities to avoid information leakages. Selection of experimental and control villages will allow us to use a randomized control trial (RCT) approach when evaluating the project's effectiveness and impact for local farmers and pastoralists at the end of the project. In Malawi, 20 villages have been surveyed ( 12experiments and 8 controls) and 320 households interviewed with 76% male headed. Populations sampled in each district have been weighted according to their total population figures. In Malawi, the larger number of villages selected in Zomba is partly because this district has a larger population 583,167 (census report 2008) (compared to Nsanje -194,924 in 2008). In addition, the GFCS project activities in Zomba are planned to focus on rural areas with large numbers of farm households, as the survey instrument was designed with a main focus on agriculture and farm households. In Lilongwe, the target populations for the activities planned by Red Cross are populations at the outskirt of the city, where the majority of the households derive their livelihood from trading and wage labour. In these areas, Red Cross activities will focus on climate extremes and their effect on sanitation issues. This latter issue was not the focus of the questionnaires and therefore will reduce the relevance of the survey tools for this area. But, it was insightful to compare households' ability to cope with climate variability and access to climate information from these two perspectives, urban and rural areas. In addition to the individual households, 46 key informants were also interviewed based on a semi-structured interview guide, in order to triangulate information obtained at the household levels but also to obtain general background information, constraints encountered in agriculture and risk management. "}]},{"head":"Survey implementation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"To implement the survey, ICRAF entered a partnership with ICRAF's offices in Malawi, WFP, Red Cross and district officers. ICRAF's offices in these countries have extensive experience conducting farm household surveys. They recruited experienced enumerators, and assisted in the training and the supervision of the enumerator team during the field survey."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"The training of the enumerators took place at ICRAF's office in Lilongwe in September 2014."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"The training covered explanation of the purpose of the study, in-depth review of the baseline survey tools, pre-testing of the questionnaires and de-briefing sessions to improve the tools and sharpen the ability of the enumerators to administer the questions."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"The implementation of the survey took place from September to October 2014. The survey team comprised 8 to 10 enumerators, and two supervisors including the ICRAF field technician and the agricultural economists from ICRAF's offices."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Administrative protocols for entering districts were facilitated by the partners WFP and Red"},{"index":6,"size":145,"text":"Cross. Then, upon arrival in these districts, the field team completed the formalities by meeting with the district officers of partner organisations to explain the purpose of the survey, discussed selection of control villages (sites where no GFCS activities will be carried out over the course of the project) and ask to be introduced to local leaders in communities where the survey will take place, and to government agricultural extension officer responsible for the area in which the survey took place. After obtaining permission to interview households from the Group Village Headman and the Village Headman, the enumerators proceeded to conduct the household survey. The survey team also sought help of a local person in each village to guide the enumerators to the households in the village, ensure that only households falling within the selected villages were interviewed and help with translation issues if needed."}]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agro-ecological Zones and Climate in the Districts Surveyed","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Mtandire community is a peri-urban settlement located on the outskirt of the city of Lilongwe."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"The area falls under T/A Chigoneka. However, these open storm drains get clogged with litter thereby causing flooding and contamination of drinking. Nevertheless, it was reported that there is already a process  "}]},{"head":"Primary Livelihood Activity","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"The largest proportion of households interviewed was engaged in farming as a primary livelihood activity with 45% in Lilongwe, 56% in Zomba and 68% in Nsanje (Table 2). Agropastoralism is the second most practiced activity in all districts surveyed, with the largest proportion of households (41%) reported in Zomba. As in most places in southern and central Malawi, land is a limiting factor and households generally do not raise large stock such as cattle. Households that are engaged in livestock production raise small stock such as goats and chickens. Lilongwe had the highest proportion of respondents whose primary livelihood activity was not farming or pastoralism (33%) compared to 3% and 4% for Zomba and Nsanje respectively. These households in Lilongwe derive their main livelihoods from trading and wage labour activities. Literacy levels in the study areas were generally high with more than 56% of the sample having primary or higher education. Literacy levels appear higher in Lilongwe also, with more than 26% of household heads having secondary or higher education compared to 15% in Zomba and 19% in Nsanje. "}]},{"head":"Household's Agricultural Production","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Crop production is the main agricultural activity in the districts surveyed. The households interviewed practice livestock only marginally, so, this section focuses on results for crop production. Results in Figure 3 show that the major crops grown by the respondents are maize, groundnuts, sorghum, cotton, rice, pigeon peas and sweet potato. Maize is the leading crop grown by the respondents in all the surveyed districts. In Lilongwe, maize represents 64% of all crops planted in 2013 while in Nsanje and Zomba this share is about 35%. Farmers interviewed are small-scale farmers with an average of 1 acre of crop planted and two third of the production consumed at home. "}]},{"head":"Key informant types","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Table 4 presents the types of key informants interviewed in Malawi. In Lilongwe, respondents were mainly expert farmers engaged also in business activities (29%). This is understandable as many households in the surveyed villages in Lilongwe make their living from trading as they are located in a peri-urban area. In Zomba, their principal occupation was agricultural extension officer (41%) and in Nsanje they were chiefly involved in area development (31%). "}]},{"head":"Asset ownership","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Figure 1 provides a description of the communication assets owned by households headed by both men and women. These assets shape households' access to climate and agricultural information and their ability to act on that information. Results showed the three communication assets, radio, television and cell phones, are commonly owned by the respondents. Across districts, a significantly higher proportion of men own these assets compared to women, except in Lilongwe where television is owned by a larger proportion of female respondents (40%) relatively to the male respondents (30%). Also, the largest proportion of households that own radio, television and cell phone is reported in Lilongwe."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Radio and cell phone are the most popular communication assets reported by households. In Lilongwe, 89% of the male respondents own cell phone while in Nsanje and Zomba, lower percentage respectively 43% and 46% of the respondents own this asset. Radio is owned by 63% of the male households interviewed in Lilongwe. In Nsanje and Zomba, fewer households, on average 51% and 33% of male and female household heads claimed to own radio.  "}]},{"head":"Land ownership","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Most households surveyed in the districts reported to own their farm land as indicated in table 5. The largest percentages of households owning land were reported in Zomba (68%) and Nsanje (74%). The most common condition of ownership and access to farmland cited by the respondents was customary rights. Grazing is generally done on communal land and access is by customary rights as well.  "}]},{"head":"Key Risks to Agricultural Productivity","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"Climate stress namely erratic rainfall, flood, drought, pest and diseases and agricultural disturbances including lack of inputs, soil erosion are the main threats that jeopardize agricultural activity (Fig. 3). Key informants confirmed these top five threats (Fig. 4). In Lilongwe and Zomba, lack of inputs and erratic rainfall are the two most frequently cited threats to agricultural productivity as reported by at least 75% of the respondents. In Nsanje, flood is also of major concern to the farm households. This latter threat has been reported by 59% of the respondents in Nsanje, almost as much as the threat of erratic rainfall. The report of lack of inputs consistently among the top agricultural threats across the three districts highlights considering the interaction of climate and other agricultural stressors in assisting households to better adapt to climate change.     Figure 6 shows the impacts of the climate shocks reported by households. The most immediate reported outcome after a climate shock regardless of the type of shock was decline in crop yield, which threatens households' food security. Increased food shortage loss of assets and income were also reported. Households adopted various strategies to respond to climate shocks (Fig. 7). Most often, households claimed to be powerless when they face a climate shock, even in Lilongwe where households were found to be relatively wealthier than respondents in the other districts."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Households were particularly powerless when confronted to pest, diseases and hailstorms shocks. When they were able to respond to the climate shocks, the most common coping strategies reported were off-farm employment particularly casual labour \"ganyu labour\", participation in food for work, sales of livestock. In Lilongwe, the wealthier households sometimes borrowed money from the bank to cope with the adverse effect of the shock."}]},{"head":"Food Security Status in the Districts Surveyed","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The previous sections have stressed out that decline in crop yield and the resulting food insecurity was the most frequently cited impact of the agricultural including climatic stresses."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"This section shed light on the current level of food security in the households surveyed. This status will be tracked over the course of the project to measure the impact of greater access to climate information on households' food security. "}]},{"head":"Percentage of Households","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Food Shortage"}]},{"head":"Decline In Consumption","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Death of Livestock","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Decline In Crop Yield"}]},{"head":"Loss of Income","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Loss of Assets","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The most common definition used for food security is \"secure access to sufficient food for a healthy life\" (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992). This definition captures the notions of food supply, access, vulnerability and sustainability. It can also be applied at a global, regional, national and local, household level. At the local level, household food insecurity occurs when there is some uncertainty about food access, insufficiency in the amount and kind of food necessary for meeting dietary requirements, or the need to use socially unacceptable ways to acquire food. So, the analysis of households' food security will require understanding the household supply, consumption and ability to cope with insufficient level food."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"7. Strategies adopted to respond to Climate Shocks in the last 5 years."}]},{"head":"Household food supply","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Results in Figure 8 show that more than 55% of the interviewed households reported that in the past year they were not able to produce enough staple food for the entire year to meet their consumption needs. A larger proportion of respondents indicated deficit in food supply in Zomba (63%) and Nsanje (81%) compared to Lilongwe (58%). Moreover, about 60% of the households reported that their food supply from their own farm has been decreasing year to year (Fig. 9). The main reasons cited for the change in food supply were changes in rainfall, Households that did not have enough food for the entire year coped by becoming buyers of food (80%) and purchased food by using cash from non-agricultural sources (Fig. 10). In the villages surveyed, households' production of maize lasts for 6-8 months. For the Corporation, ADMARC). Other coping strategies used to a lesser extent include selling assets (4%), and getting food aid or food from relatives (3%). "}]},{"head":"Household food consumption","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Maize is the main staple food eaten almost every day by the households interviewed. All households interviewed in the district consume ntsima (a thick porridge made from maize flour) as their staple, which is eaten with relish of boiled vegetables or meat. The second most common food consumed reported by households is vegetable (Table 7) as expected. In Nsanje, some households grow rice for sale and some is consumed at the household. Other food items consumed by households include cassava, sweat potato and beans. Animal protein (meat, milk, eggs) is eaten less frequently and purchased by the households."}]},{"head":"Food security index","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Food security is estimated in this study using a set of questions to capture the short-term food sufficiency at the household level, following the approach developed by Maxwell (1995)."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Reliance on a range of short term coping mechanisms to deal with food insufficiency and the frequency (\"every day,\" \"never,\" \"one to two times a week,\" or \"3 to 5 times a week\") of using a given coping strategy in the past 7 days is measured as indicator of food security at "}]},{"head":"Other","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Obtain food aid purchase food using cash from non--agricultural resources Get food from relatives Sell assets the household level. A scale of 1 to 4 was developed for the frequency of each individual coping strategies: 4=\"never\" 3=\"one or fewer times a week\" 2=\"3 to 5 times a week\", 1=\"every day.\" So, the higher the number on the scale and the less often a strategy has to be used, the higher the level of food security.  8 and Figure 11 show comparable levels of food security across districts. The most common and least drastic coping strategies adopted by the respondents to deal with food insecurity were to reduce the number of meals taken in a day and to rely on less preferred food. These strategies were more popular in the districts of Nsanje and Zomba. Households in Lilongwe were relatively better off compared to Nsanje and Zomba, as expected. "}]},{"head":"Results in Table","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate Information Households Currently Receive","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sources of information","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"The sources of information households have been using over the course of the last 3 years to inform their agricultural decisions (Fig. 12) can be used to monitor changes in the kind of information households will be using over the course of the project and whether the relative importance of these information has changed overtime. The expected sources included climate forecast, extension agents, indigenous knowledge, observations, personal experience, traditional cropping calendar and advice from agricultural experts. Results showed a similar pattern across districts. For most farmers, decisions on when to start land preparation are based on traditional cropping calendar, as reported by about 70% of the respondents. Farmers use the month of the year to know when to start land preparation. Majority of farmers do their land preparation from the month of August to October. Traditional cropping calendar is also largely used to determine ploughing time by on average 80% of the households interviewed. This is generally done from October to November. Decisions to allocate land rely for more than 70% on personal experience. Farmers make their decisions based on land availability, "}]},{"head":"Percent of Households Type of Agricultural Information","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Indeginous Knowledge Outside Expert Advice Personal Experience","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Traditional Crop Calendar Across districts, approximately 67% of households reported that fertilizer application time was influenced by personal observation such as of the height of the crops. They also rely to some extent on traditional cropping calendar by applying fertilizer immediately after planting time. Harvest time determined based also on personal observation (on average 57%) on when crops became dry and mature or using the traditional cropping calendar, with an average of 41%, between March and June. It is worth noting that a only very small proportion of households (< 1%) scientific climate information to inform their planting decisions."}]},{"head":"Information for livestock decision-making","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Fewer households responded to the question on sources of information for large livestock and small livestock decision-making, since these activities are barely practiced by farm households in the surveyed districts. Households in Lilongwe largely did not respond to questions on large livestock since a very few number of respondents own these types of livestock, but focused on small livestock, mostly goats and chicken. Household decisions about which livestock breeds to keep and when to sell were influenced primarily by personal experience (Fig. 13). Decisions on where to graze cattle were influenced by observation or indigenous knowledge. The season of the year and a preference for grazing areas that were away from the field crops were the main determinants. Decisions on when to vaccinate and when to move livestock depended on advice from extension agents and observation or personal experience."}]},{"head":"Use and impact","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"The three most common types of climate information received by households interviewed are forecasts of extreme events, forecasts of the onset of rainfall, and daily weather forecasts (Fig. 14). The same types of information are received by both men and women but to a lesser extent by women. A proportion of 80 of male household heads in Lilongwe and Zomba reported receiving information on forecast of extreme events while 71% of women in Lilongwe and 54% in Zomba acknowledged receiving this type of information. In Nsanje this percentage is estimated at 80% for both men and women. Forecast of the onset of the rain is reported by around 70% of the interviewees in all districts. Daily weather forecast is the third most received climate information. An average of 50% of the respondents receives this information in Zomba and Nsanje and 64% in Lilongwe. Households less frequently receive seasonal monthly forecasts, and forecasts of pests and disease. Less than 40% of the respondents reported receiving this information."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Figure 13. Sources of households' information for decision-making on small livestock. "}]},{"head":"Percent of households","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Forecast of an extreme event Forecast of the start of the rains Seasonal Forecast for the next 2--3 months Weather forecast for Today and subsequent 2--3 days"},{"index":2,"size":269,"text":"Regardless of the type of information, radio is by far the major source through which climate information is channelled to households, as reported by about 80% of the respondents (Fig. 15). Extension agents are the second largest channel of climate information for households, followed by friends, relatives and neighbours. In the districts surveyed, the extension staffs from government and NGOs provide information of onset of rains, and risk of floods. In Lilongwe, television is also a significant source of climate information particularly for the daily weather forecast, the seasonal forecast and the forecast on the onset of rainfall. Key informants recognized the same sources of climate information, with television being most important. Both results from the household key informant surveys (Fig. 16) show that information was mostly received on a seasonal basis except for the daily weather forecasts, which were received daily. The most frequently reported lead times on climate information were months ahead of the forecasted event, and weeks ahead (Fig. 17). For the daily weather forecast, the lead-time selected was few hours ahead of the event.   Households were asked whether the climate information received was paired with agricultural advice and whether they were able to use the advice. Results (Table 9) show almost equal proportions of men and women who declared receiving the information with advice. In Lilongwe, than 50% of the respondents revealed that most climate information was delivered with advice. However in Nsanje and Zomba, a larger proportion of households, more than 50% reported that climate information was paired with advice except seasonal forecast in Nsanje and daily weather forecast in both Nsanje and Zomba. "}]},{"head":"Percentage of Households","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Type of Climate Information Months Weeks Days A Few Hours","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":277,"text":"The largest perceived impact of receiving climate and weather information regardless of the type of information was improved yield (Fig. 19). Other non-negligible related impacts were less crop damage, and soil health improvement. Dissemination of information on pest and diseases led to reduction in pest damage as expected in all districts. According to the households interviewed, the trend in the supply of climate did change last year (2013) compared to the year before (2012). Indeed, 50 to 60% of the households interviewed in all districts declared that the supply of climate information has stayed the same (Fig. 20). Further, an overwhelming majority (>90%) did not attend any training on climate information (Fig. 21). As for key informants' awareness of any climate training in their community in the past year, about 80% in Lilongwe and Zomba said that the same proportion of households in Nsanje gave an affirmative answer. 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Among the few respondents who attended the training, about 70% of households reported modifying activities after training. The highest proportion was 33% in Nsanje, followed by 21% in Zomba with the fewest modifications being done in Lilongwe district -9%. Some households reported not modifying their activities since they had inadequate land on which to try out the ideas, lack of time during which to try out the ideas, the ideas were just newly learnt, and no specific reason for others. The most common ways in which agricultural activites were modified in Lilongwe was the planting of soil protection plants, while in Nsanje and Zomba changes include compost and manure application and zero tillage, new farming practices (Fig. 22). "}]},{"head":"Types of Climate Information that Farmers Want","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":343,"text":"This section reports results disaggregated by gender on farmers' preferences of climate information, the lead times, format and messengers for channelling the information. Figure 23 presents climate information that households wished to receive ranked from the 1 st most cited through to the 5 th one. In all districts, seasonal rainfall outlook, onset of rains, extreme weather events, end of the rain season and number of days of rainfall are the five most important climate information farmers would like to receive. However, the relative importance of these types of information for men and women diverges slightly. In all districts, forecast on onset of rainfall is reported as the first most important climate information women would like to receive. In Lilongwe, 86% of female household heads interviewed would like to receive this information while in Nsanje and Zomba these proportions are 72% and 76%, respectively. For male household heads in Nsanje and Zomba, forecast on onset of rainfall is the first most important climate information they would like to receive, as reported by about 80% of the respondents in these districts. But in Lilongwe, seasonal rainfall outlook is the first most important climate information 67% of men wished to receive. In this latter district, forecast on onset of rainfall is the second most frequently reported climate information, men and women prefer. In Zomba and Nsanje, probability of extreme events is the second climate information most preferred by both men and women. These aforementioned districts lie in the Shire River Basin and are very prone to climate extreme particularly flood. So, forecast on extreme events is perceived as essential to both agricultural activities and people's lives and will be critical for the adoption of preventive measures against the climate disasters. The interviews with key informants have also revealed that forecast on extreme events is of utmost importance to better manage climate related risks in their community. Farmers' preference of the climate information lead-time is illustrated in Figure 24. Men and women reported the same preferences for the lead time, with a similar pattern across districts."},{"index":2,"size":193,"text":"An average of 60% of both female and male respondents across districts would like to receive the climate information at the beginning of the agricultural season. The second most preferred lead-time is \"as soon as the forecasters know about the event\" as reported by on average 22% of respondents. A proportion of 14% of the interviewees selected \"a month before the forecast event\" as their third preferred lead-time to receive the climate information. Results from key informants are in line with these preferences.  Figure 25 shows the format through which households and key informants would like to receive the information. Male and female respondents revealed the same desired format for the provision of climate information. Visits from extension agents have been cited as their first preferred format to receive climate information, particularly in Nsanje and Zomba. Half of the respondents have chosen \"visits from extension agents\" in these latter districts while in Lilongwe around 30% have chosen this format. The second most frequently cited format is radio message as reported by an average of 20% of respondents. Lilongwe exhibits the highest percentage (26%) of interviewees who have selected radio as their second choice."}]},{"head":"0%","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"SMS in cell phone is the third choice across districts. The same pattern is also observed in key informants. The use of SMS cell phone to deliver climate information is already experienced in Nsanje district. The meteorology department communicates climate information using cell phone calls and SMS to community leaders and NGOs. NGOs send SMS to all community members who have registered for their services. This system tends to be used mostly for warning households on the risk of flood.  The preferred messengers most cited by the farm households are consistent with the preferred format (Fig. 26). So, local extension agents and radio presenters are by order of importance the most preferred messengers for men and women interviewed as reported by on average 41% and 18% of respondents, respectively. Other significant messengers include central and local weather stations as well as NGOs workers. In Lilongwe and Nsanje, the percentage of women (10%) who would like to receive climate information through NGOs is twice higher than that of men (5%). In Lilongwe and Nsanje, many households do not have access to government extension workers and have to rely on NGOs for the supply of agricultural services."}]},{"head":"Ways Key Informants Want Climate Communication Improved","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Key informants have suggested a number of ways to improve climate information communication in their community (Fig. 27). These ways include regular visits from extension workers, translation of posters and handbooks, use of mass media such as radio, community meetings, localized climate information, and practical demonstrations. In Nsanje  "}]},{"head":"Discussion and Conclusion","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The findings on climate information in Malawi showed that households have access to climate information with sometimes very basic agricultural advice but most of the households interviewed do not use these forecasts for their agricultural decision making. Indigenous knowledge and personal experience are rather the main sources of information that trigger farmers' agricultural decision making. These results raised the issue of reliability and relevance of climate information for the farm households surveyed. Scientific climate information is not used by the sampled farm households because they perceived this information as less reliable and not locally relevant to inform their cropping activities."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Farmers need to be advised on improved cropping systems and agricultural technologies to minimize crop failure. Indeed, they have indicated that in addition to information on climate, they would like to receive additional information on crop management and improved technologies. Also, ensuring effective supply and availability of farm inputs (fertilizer, seeds)"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"at the market will contribute to enhance farmers' ability to act on the information received."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Women have access to climate information but to a lesser extent than men. The reason may Communities surveyed in Lilongwe were located at the edge of urban areas, in suburban villages. They derive their livelihood mainly from wage-labour activities. In Zomba and Nsanje, farm households involved predominantly in agriculture were interviewed. Analysis of the data shows that households interviewed have access to some extent to scientific climate information and use their own indigenous knowledge for their livelihood decision making."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"This information is basically forecast on onset of rainfall, extreme events and daily weather predictions. This information is often not coupled with agricultural advice. Radio is the main channel of climate information communication, followed by NGOs extension workers. No wonder these two sources are also the preferred formats for diffusion of information cited by the respondents. The most common climate information that farmers wish to receive are forecast on onset of rainfall, frequency of extreme events, distribution of rainfall over the agricultural season, and end of the rainy season."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":"Several key insights can be derived from this analysis and inform the design of climate services activities in the districts targeted. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 8 Survey Instruments ................................................................................................................. 9 Site Selection ........................................................................................................................ 10 Survey implementation ......................................................................................................... 11 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 12 Agro-ecological Zones and Climate in the Districts Surveyed ............................................ 12 Primary Livelihood Activity ................................................................................................ 15 Key Risks to Agricultural Productivity ................................................................................ 20 Food Security Status in the Districts Surveyed .................................................................... 23 Climate Information Households Currently Receive ........................................................... 28 Types of Climate Information that Farmers Want ............................................................... 37 Ways Key Informants Want Climate Communication Improved ........................................ 40 Discussion and Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 42 References ................................................................................................................................. 44 "},{"text":" develop and use climate services and combines cutting-edge science with traditional knowledge. The Adaptation Program in Africa is a joint effort of WMO, CCAFS, the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research -Oslo (CICERO); the Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI); the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) through the Tanzanian and Malawian Red Cross; the World Food Programme (WFP); and the World Health Organization (WHO). CCAFS-led activities include the implementation of research-based Monitoring and Evaluation regarding the access, use and needs of climate services by end users "},{"text":" Photo 1: Housing units in Chigoneka village, T/A Chigoneka, Lilongwe district. Photo credit: Godfrey Kundhlande. "},{"text":"Photo 4 : Photo 4: House washed away during flood, February 2014 T/A Mlolo, Nsanje district Photo credit: Augustine Tonde. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Households' communication asset ownership by district. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Percentage Distributions of Households by the Progress out of Poverty Index Score card. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Top 5 risks that jeopardize livelihood activity according to households. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Top 5 risks that jeopardize livelihood activity according to Key Informants. "},{"text":" Focusing on climate shocks, results in Figure5show that the most commonly experienced climate shocks in the last 5 years were erratic rainfall in Lilongwe and Zomba and flood in Nsanje. Flood is the most common hazard in Nsanje as expected as the central part of this district is located in the shire river basin so very exposed to flood events. The largest proportions of the top climate shocks reported by respondents were experienced in the years 2013 and 2012. About 30% of households interviewed reported these shocks in 2013 and between 15 and 25% cited these shocks in 2012. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Climate Shocks that have the last 5 years. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Impact of climate shocks in the last 5 years. "},{"text":" own stocks have run out, households purchase their maize requirements from either private sellers or the state agency (Agricultural Development and Marketing "},{"text":"Figure 10 . Figure 10. Strategies Households adopted to cover the gap in food supply. "},{"text":"Figure 15 . Figure 15. Sources of Climate Information. "},{"text":"Figure 16 . Figure 16. Frequencies of climate information received by households. "},{"text":"Figure 17 . Figure 17. Lead-time on climate Information. "},{"text":"Figure 19 . Figure 19. Perceived impacts of climate information currently received by farmers. "},{"text":"Figure 20 .Figure 21 . Figure 20. Household Received More or Less Agricultural Information in the past year. "},{"text":" Figure 22. Ways in which households modified activities after attendance of training on climate information. "},{"text":"Figure 23 . Figure 23. Five main types of Climate Information farmers would like to receive. "},{"text":"Figure 24 . Figure 24. Preferred Lead Time for Climate Information recommended by households and key Informants. "},{"text":"Figure 25 . Figure 25. Preferred format for climate information that key informants recommend. "},{"text":"Figure 27 . Figure 27. Ways key informants would like to see climate information communication improved in their community. "},{"text":" lie in the fact that they own less communication asset, particularly radio and may be often too busy with the household chores. In addition a limited number of women are able to use the advice bundled with the climate information because of their lower control of productive resources and training.Both men and women have reported that forecast on onset of rainfall, seasonal outlook, probability of extreme weather events, end of the rainy season and number of days of rainfall, are the five most important climate information they desire to inform their agricultural decision making. Onset of rainfall and forecast on extreme weather events were the most preferred climate information in Nsanje and Lilongwe. Knowing the onset of rainfall allows farmers to plan ahead, to identify the right timing for planting, what and where to plant which are very critical for a successful harvest and food security. Zomba and Nsanje are located in the shire river basin and farmers are very vulnerable to extreme climate events, mainly flood.So, no wonder that forecast of extreme events is on top of the most preferred climate information. Farmers would like to receive climate information at the beginning of the cropping season and well ahead of the forecasting event, preferably as soon as forecasters know about the event or months ahead. This is because they make most of their agricultural decisions before the cropping season and early knowledge of the climate information will enable them to effectively use this information in the cropping season. Preferred format and messengers are radio and extension workers. Radio represents the main source of scientific climate information for farm households particularly in Lilongwe characterized by wealthier households with more communication assets. However, government extension agents were reported as an essential source of climate and agricultural information for farm households in Nsanje and Zomba. NGOs were also frequently acknowledged as sources of information in Nsanje and Lilongwe where government extension workers are not always available to provide services to farmers. So, in addition to radio, extension workers can represent effective means to communicate climate information.The baseline data collection in 2014 in Malawi took place in Lilongwe, Zomba and Nsanje. "},{"text":" First, diffusion of climate information to households should rely preferably on radio and extension workers both from government and NGOs. Second, training of key informants, particularly extension workers in understanding climate forecast concepts and integrating them in agricultural activities is essential for effective dissemination of climate information services. Third, supply of the markets with farm inputs will enable farmers to better act on the climate information received. Fourth, climate service products delivered to farmers should include forecast on onset of rainfall, frequency of extreme events, distribution of rainfall over the agricultural season, and end of the rainy season. Fifth, traditional indicators should be valued and integrated to the conventional climate forecasts to promote farmers' use of scientific climate information in conjunction with their own indigenous knowledge. Finally, dialogue between national meteorology services, extension agents and farmers will represent effective platform for relevant and useful climate services for end-users. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary of sampling sites and respondents in Malawi. Districts Number of villages Number of households Number of key informants  Lilongwe 5 80 12 Lilongwe58012 Nsanje 5 80 12 Nsanje58012 Zomba 10 160 22 Zomba1016022 Total 20 320 46 Total2032046  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Socio-demographic characteristics of individual households, CCAFS baseline survey Malawi. Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje Level of Education (percentage of households)  None None  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Major Crops grown and areas cultivated in 2012-2013 in the districts surveyed during the Agricultural Season 2012-2013.   Lilongwe Nsanje  Zomba  LilongweNsanjeZomba  Share Area Share Area Share Area ShareAreaShareAreaShareArea Crop (%) (acres) (%) (acres) (%) (acres) Crop(%)(acres)(%)(acres)(%)(acres) Cotton 0% 0.00 10% 0.90 19% 1.00 Cotton0%0.0010%0.9019%1.00 Groundnuts 23% 0.80 2% 0.70 6% 1.40 Groundnuts23%0.802%0.706%1.40 Maize 75% 1.60 40% 1.30 46% 1.40 Maize75%1.6040%1.3046%1.40 Sorghum 1% 1.00 21% 1.00 8% 1.40 Sorghum1%1.0021%1.008%1.40 Pigeon Peas 0% 0.00 1% 2.00 17% 1.70 Pigeon Peas0%0.001%2.0017%1.70 Rice 0% 0.00 16% 1.10 3% 1.30 Rice0%0.0016%1.103%1.30 Sweet potato 1% 1.00 9% 0.39 2% 0.41 Sweet potato1%1.009%0.392%0.41  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Socio-Demographic characteristics of key informants. Respondent Role in Community/Organization (%) Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje  Agricultural Ext Development Officer 7 41 13 Agricultural Ext Development Officer74113 Area Development Committee Member 0 18 31 Area Development Committee Member01831 Expert farmers 29 12 0 Expert farmers29120 Chief/Village Head 14 12 0 Chief/Village Head14120 Climate Change Advisor 21 6 0 Climate Change Advisor2160 Club Director/Chair 0 0 19 Club Director/Chair0019 Other 29 12 38 Other291238  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Percentage of households with ownership and access to land in the districts surveyed.    Farm land   Grazing land  Farm landGrazing land  Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje LilongweZombaNsanjeLilongweZombaNsanje Land ownership 56 68 74 1 2 1 Land ownership566874121 Land Access 95 100 96 5 14 15 Land Access951009651415 Land access & ownership 52 68 70 1 2 1 Land access & ownership526870121  "},{"text":"of Households <<Poorest ------Richest>> Progess out of Poverty Index Distinct variations are observed across districts. Households in both Nsanje and Zomba owned more farming land compared to households in Lilongwe. Households in Nsanje and Zomba were also more likely to access land by customary right compared to those in Lilongwe, which means that households in Lilongwe were more likely to report land ownership by title deed or by lease.Access to markets influences household's ability to sell or purchase crop, livestock commodities and farm inputs. Results in table 6 below show that households in the survey were quite closer to the markets, on average about 1 km away from every market and the Market access Lilongwe Market accessLilongwe  Nsanje Nsanje  Zomba Zomba  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Average distance in kilometers to nearest market  Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje Total LilongweZombaNsanjeTotal  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Household food consumption pattern in the surveyed districts, average number of days.   "},{"text":"Table 8 . Food Security index of households interviewed in the surveyed districts.  Short term coping strategies Lilongwe Nsanje Zomba Short term coping strategiesLilongweNsanjeZomba 1. Rely on less preferred food 3.6 3.1 3.6 1. Rely on less preferred food3.63.13.6 2. Borrow food or rely on help from relatives 3.8 3.6 3.8 2. Borrow food or rely on help from relatives3.83.63.8 3. Limit portion size at meals 3.8 3.8 3.9 3. Limit portion size at meals3.83.83.9 4. Restrict consumption 4.0 3.6 3.8 4. Restrict consumption4.03.63.8 5. Reduce number of meals 3.8 3.2 3.3 5. Reduce number of meals3.83.23.3  "},{"text":"Frequency of food shortage coping Strategies undertaken by households.   "},{"text":"Sources of household information to inform their agricultural decisions. Sive times a week one or fewer times never soil type, crop rotation system. On average 83% of households reported that decisions on what crops to plant are influenced largely by personal experience. Respondents acknowledged to be influenced by the availability of seeds, crop performance and yield of the previous  Reduce number of meals    Reduce number of meals 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Rely on less preferred food Borrow food or rely on help from relatives Limit portion size at meals Restrict consumption Reduce number of meals Rely on less preferred food Borrow food or rely on help from relatives Limit portion size at meals Restrict consumption Reduce number of meals Rely on less preferred food Borrow food or rely on help from relatives Limit portion size at meals Restrict consumption Percent of households varieties. Planting time is driven by traditional cropping calendar (70%) and observation of Lilongwe Nsanje Zomba the environment (about 20%). Households who rely on traditional cropping calendar plant often on November and December. Observation of the environment includes observation of the first rains, sufficient quantity of rainfall and soil wetness. Weeding time was influenced by observations as reported by 30% to 60% of the respondents. Farmers look for the appearance of weeds or rains. Fertilizer Time Harvest Time everyday two to season. They have a preference for hybrid varieties, early maturing and drought resistant Ploughing Time Planting Time Weeding Time Nsanje 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Rely on less preferred food Borrow food or rely on help from relatives Limit portion size at meals Restrict consumption Reduce number of meals Rely on less preferred food Borrow food or rely on help from relatives Limit portion size at meals Restrict consumption Reduce number of meals Rely on less preferred food Borrow food or rely on help from relatives Limit portion size at meals Restrict consumption Percent of households varieties. Planting time is driven by traditional cropping calendar (70%) and observation of Lilongwe Nsanje Zomba the environment (about 20%). Households who rely on traditional cropping calendar plant often on November and December. Observation of the environment includes observation of the first rains, sufficient quantity of rainfall and soil wetness. Weeding time was influenced by observations as reported by 30% to 60% of the respondents. Farmers look for the appearance of weeds or rains. Fertilizer Time Harvest Time everyday two to season. They have a preference for hybrid varieties, early maturing and drought resistant Ploughing Time Planting Time Weeding Time Nsanje  Land Allocation     Land Allocation  Crop to Plant     Crop to Plant  Land Preparation     Land Preparation  Harvest Time     Harvest Time  Fertilizer Time     Fertilizer Time Zomba Ploughing Time Planting Time Weeding Time     ZombaPloughing Time Planting Time Weeding Time  Land Allocation     Land Allocation  Crop to Plant     Crop to Plant  Land Preparation     Land Preparation  Harvest Time     Harvest Time  Fertilizer Time     Fertilizer Time Lilongwe Land Allocation Ploughing Time Planting Time Weeding Time     LilongweLand Allocation Ploughing Time Planting Time Weeding Time  Crop to Plant     Crop to Plant  Land Preparation     Land Preparation  0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0%20%40%60%80%100%  "},{"text":"Figure 14. Climate information received by the respondents in the districts surveyed.   Which to Keep    Which to Keep Nsanje When to Move When to Sell Where to Graze    NsanjeWhen to Move When to Sell Where to Graze When to Vaccinate    When to Vaccinate  Which to Keep    Which to Keep Zomba When to Move When to Sell Where to Graze    ZombaWhen to Move When to Sell Where to Graze When to Vaccinate    When to Vaccinate Lilongwe When to Move When to Sell Where to Graze Which to Keep    LilongweWhen to Move When to Sell Where to Graze Which to Keep When to Vaccinate    When to Vaccinate   0% 20%  40% 60% 80% 100% 0%20%40%60%80%100%      Percent of Households Percent of Households  Advice from extension agent   Experience from other farmers Advice from extension agentExperience from other farmers  Observation    Personal experience ObservationPersonal experience 100%      100% 90% 81%  79% 80% 83% 90%81%79%80%83% 80% 74% 71% 76%  76% 70% 80%74%71%76%76%70% 50% 60% 70% 49% 66% 57% 57% 47% 59% 53% 44% 52% 54% 40% 48% 59% 61% 50% 60% 70%49% 66%57% 57%47% 59% 53%44% 52%54% 40% 48% 59% 61% 30% 40% 24% 29% 29%   28% 26% 28% 26% 30% 40%24%29% 29%28%26% 28% 26% 20%      20% 10%      10% 0%      0%  Male Female Male  Female Male Female MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale  Lilongwe Nsanje Zomba LilongweNsanjeZomba  "},{"text":"of Households Type of Climate Information   Seasonal Forecast     Seasonal Forecast Nsanje Forecast of an Extreme Event Forecast of Onset of Rains Parasite/Disease Forecast     NsanjeForecast of an Extreme Event Forecast of Onset of Rains Parasite/Disease Forecast  2-3 Day Rainfall Forecast     2-3 Day Rainfall Forecast  Seasonal Forecast     Seasonal Forecast Zomba Forecast of an Extreme Event Forecast of Onset of Rains Parasite/Disease Forecast     ZombaForecast of an Extreme Event Forecast of Onset of Rains Parasite/Disease Forecast  2-3 Day Rainfall Forecast     2-3 Day Rainfall Forecast  Seasonal Forecast     Seasonal Forecast Lilongwe Forecast of an Extreme Event Forecast of Onset of Rains Parasite/Disease Forecast     LilongweForecast of an Extreme Event Forecast of Onset of Rains Parasite/Disease Forecast  2-3 Day Rainfall Forecast     2-3 Day Rainfall Forecast  0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0%20%40%60%80%100%  Percent Radio Television   Percent Radio Television  Extension/Veterinary Officer  NGO ProjectOfficer  Extension/Veterinary OfficerNGO ProjectOfficer  Friends/Relatives or Neighbours  Meterological Officer  Friends/Relatives or NeighboursMeterological Officer  Teacher(Local Schools)  Traditional/Indigenous Knowledge Teacher(Local Schools)Traditional/Indigenous Knowledge  Local Group/Gatherings/Meetings  Religious Faith  Local Group/Gatherings/MeetingsReligious Faith  Cell Phone     Cell Phone  "},{"text":"Preferred messengers for climate information that key informants recommend. informants, the meteorology department and government extension services should have more effective linkages. Government extension workers are sometimes limited in providing farmers with the most up-to-date climate information. They thought this could be improved through better coordination and linkages between these arms of government. Further, they have declared that community meetings can be very effective ways to disseminate information because in the villages surveyed there is usually a big turn up for community meetings, especially called by village chiefs. 100% 100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Percentage of households Percentage of households Figure 26. For key informants in the surveyed sites in Nsanje, frequent visits from extension agents Male Female Male Female Male Female Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje Other Village elder Village communicator Advertisment Newspaper Word of mouth Visit from NGO Extension agents visits Tv programme Radio message Voice message in cellphone Sms in cellphone Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje Other Village leader Radio presenter Friend and relatives NGOs workers Expert farmers Traditional leaders Traditional forecaster Local weather station Local extension agents Male Female Male Female Male Female Central weather station 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Percentage of households Percentage of households Figure 26. For key informants in the surveyed sites in Nsanje, frequent visits from extension agents Male Female Male Female Male Female Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje Other Village elder Village communicator Advertisment Newspaper Word of mouth Visit from NGO Extension agents visits Tv programme Radio message Voice message in cellphone Sms in cellphone Lilongwe Zomba Nsanje Other Village leader Radio presenter Friend and relatives NGOs workers Expert farmers Traditional leaders Traditional forecaster Local weather station Local extension agents Male Female Male Female Male Female Central weather station (26%) and number of training (15%) of extension agents and staffs from the weather station (26%) and number of training (15%) of extension agents and staffs from the weather station should be increased. At the time of the survey, the local climate information centre had two should be increased. At the time of the survey, the local climate information centre had two members on its staff, and it was indicated that only one had some relevant training. They members on its staff, and it was indicated that only one had some relevant training. They believe also that it is essential to establish community radios and to improve local climate believe also that it is essential to establish community radios and to improve local climate information by employing more trained staff. The respondents felt that the language information by employing more trained staff. The respondents felt that the language and Zomba, key informants have more often suggested increased visits (29%) and training of employed in the formulation of climate information made it difficult to understand the and Zomba, key informants have more often suggested increased visits (29%) and training of employed in the formulation of climate information made it difficult to understand the extension workers (17%) will be very effective in improving climate information messages being conveyed. So, 22% of key informants suggested that posters and handbooks extension workers (17%) will be very effective in improving climate information messages being conveyed. So, 22% of key informants suggested that posters and handbooks communication. They have also identified practical demonstration (14%) and media (11%) as should be translated in local language. communication. They have also identified practical demonstration (14%) and media (11%) as should be translated in local language. strategies to improve communication. Other ways include localized climate information strategies to improve communication. Other ways include localized climate information through local weather stations, use of media and community meetings. According to key through local weather stations, use of media and community meetings. According to key  "}],"sieverID":"3c1303ff-6e5f-46e1-9d0d-2dddf4a29ca8","abstract":"This report presents final findings from the baseline data collection exercise conducted for the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) Adaptation Programme in Africa. The GFCS programme seeks to improve climate services for agriculture, food security, heath and disaster risk reduction in Tanzania and Malawi. Under the auspices of this GFCS project, the CGIAR research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is responsible to support baseline data collection and monitoring and evaluation to evaluate climate services for farmers and pastoralists in both countries. The purpose of this report is to inform national partners on farmers' current needs and access to climate information services.Households interviewed in Malawi are mostly crop farmers, and have access to conventional climate information. However, they rely more on indigenous knowledge, personal experience and traditional cropping calendar than on climate information for their farm decision-making.Respondents would like to receive more advice about improved cropping practices, and better communication of climate information through village meetings and in their local languages.The climate information farmers would like to receive includes forecasts of extreme events, onset of the rains, seasonal rainfall, daily weather, and pest and diseases. These forecasts should be timely. Seasonal forecasts should be available preferably months before the start of the season to allow farmers to integrate them in their farm management decisions. The preferred communication channels were visits from extension agents, radio messages and SMS in cell phones. Farmers trust information from government extension agents, radio presenters and NGOs. Women particularly trust NGO workers."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0986e90302816fbdb038db8771037618","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/93cb8f19-98cc-45f9-aa43-1b6ede590110/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Smart phone-based herd health management tool","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Partners","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• University of Strathclyde in the UK • Amhara, Oromia and Somali regional and woreda livestock offices • Regional HEARD components in 3 regions "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• MoA | Private service providers Outcomes • A first version of the application is developed and tested • The tool will allow herd (or villages) monitoring and scoring based on baseline and endline data • Facilitate to give feedback to farmers/pastoralists and training The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock thanks all donors & organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. cgiar.org/funders This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. June 2020 Herd health management application tool (credit: Gennaro Imperatore). Context • Herd health : holistic (health care, management, capacity development) with set target & recording • To date, missing from most animal health packages in most developing countries • challenge to adopt approach: human capacity and diligence: inaccurate paper-based recording & disease diagnosis; irrational use of medicine (AMR) • Need for suitable tool to support herd health management over time Our innovative approach • Smart phone-based tool (in collaboration with University of Strathclyde in the UK) • Functionality of the application o Disease diagnosis support for AH service providers o Recommendations for appropriate treatment o Recording functionality for production and health parameters o Offline data entry (an important feature) o Upload data to ILRI server o Contribute to AMU surveillance system Future steps • Routinely use tool in HEARD project sites • Impacts and lessons documented • Promote use of herd health tool by availing it to the extension • The innovation is expected to influence policy on animal health extension systems in developing countries [email protected] LIVESTOCK HEALTH | HEARD project Solomon Gizaw, Crawford Revie*, Gennaro Imperatore*, Dagim Berhanu, Barbara Wieland "}],"sieverID":"34cb12da-c989-4653-8597-94d9c4d2b1ed","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09ea44f17d814797723c6f4587b51014","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/992e5b3c-e15f-4ddf-9822-50ba56ce2450/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"Este documento fue elaborado por la Comisión Técnica de Hortalizas","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Acerca de este documento","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Nos aliamos y actuamos para ser competitivos","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"\" \""},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"El proyecto \"Alianza para la Creación de Oportunidades de Desarrollo Rural a través de Relaciones Agroempresariales\" (ACORDAR por sus siglas en inglés) tuvo como objetivo contribuir a incrementar los ingresos, asegurar empleo permanente y fortalecer las capacidades comerciales de 7000 familias pobres del área rural de Nicaragua en 50 municipios, en alianza con los gobiernos municipales y el sector privado."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"ACORDAR fue financiado por la Agencia de Desarrollo Internacional del Gobierno de los Estados Unidos (USAID, por sus siglas en inglés) y ejecutado por un consorcio principal liderado por Catholic Relief Services (CRS); formaron parte socios como Lutheran World Relief (LWR), TechnoServe (TNS), Aldea Global, Latin American Financial Services (Lafise), el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) y otros socios locales en la zona de implementación."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Dado el gran impacto de ACORDAR desde su inicio en el 2007, este proyecto que inicialmente había sido planeado para tres años de ejecución, fue extendido hasta el 2012 con el fin de ampliar los resultados y favorecer a un mayor número de familias y organizaciones productoras."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"En el caso de la cadena de Hortalizas, ACORDAR atendió a 1467 beneficiarios, el 14% del total de los productores hortícolas a nivel nacional. Los miembros del consorcio, trabajaron con asociaciones cooperativas y productores individuales con el fin de incrementar la competitividad del sector hortalizas en el Norte de Nicaragua, específicamente en los departamentos de Jinotega, Matagalpa, Estelí, Madriz y Nueva Segovia. Para lograr los resultados esperados y facilitar la intervención en las cadenas de valor, se conformaron comisiones técnicas integradas por personal experto de las organizaciones del consorcio y de sus socios locales."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"La comisión técnica de hortalizas estuvo conformada por TechnoServe, la Asociación Caritas Diocesana Estelí, la Asociación de Desarrollo Social de Nicaragua (Asdenic) y la Central de Cooperativas de Servicios Múltiples de Exportación e Importación del Norte (Cecoopsemein), actores relevantes que intervinieron en la cadena durante la ejecución de ACORDAR."},{"index":7,"size":105,"text":"El trabajo de esta comisión fue el de implementar, mediante la metodología transferida por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), procesos de construcción de la cadena de valor a través de mapeos de los actores y flujos de participación, e identificar el camino lógico para la intervención y los objetivos con los que se construiría la estrategia de competitividad de la cadena. Así mismo, se sentaron las bases para la gestión y organización de la Comisión de Gobrenabilidad de Hortalizas con el apoyo de la Asociación de Productores y Exportadores de Nicaragua (APEN) y los grupos de productores hortícolas más representativos a nivel nacional."},{"index":8,"size":49,"text":"En el presente documento, se sistematiza la experiencia generada por los aportes del proyecto ACORDAR en el fortalecimiento de la Cadena de Valor de Hortalizas mediante la creación de alianzas, la adopción de tecnologías y el acceso a los mercados que tuvo lugar durante las dos fases del proyecto."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"con los intermediarios, la cual incidía en la dinámica de los precios de sus productos."},{"index":10,"size":23,"text":"Así mismo, las condiciones adversas de la infraestructura de acceso (caminos), eran provocadas por la poca relación existente entre productores y gobiernos municipales."},{"index":11,"size":88,"text":"Por otra parte, la producción tradicional dejaba ingresos insuficientes a las familias porque limitaba los niveles productivos, así, se obtenían hortalizas de mala calidad, se daba una comercialización deficiente y se obtenía poca rentabilidad de la cosecha; hay que tener en cuenta que este tipo de producción generalmente se caracteriza por la escasa implementación de tecnologías, la reducida diversificación productiva, el uso inadecuado del suelo y las aguas, el bajo nivel de inocuidad de los productos y el mínimo acceso a relaciones con otros actores de la cadena."},{"index":12,"size":37,"text":"Como consecuencia de lo anterior, al realizar un análisis de las actividades productivas se podía observar un deficiente manejo agronómico de los cultivos hortícolas, el cual estaba basado en la utilización tradicional de medidas de protección vegetal"}]},{"head":"El punto de partida","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Para el abordaje de la situación inicial de esta experiencia se partió del analisis generado por los actores sobre el fenómeno de la baja competitividad de la cadena de valor de hortalizas. A continuación se enumeran siete causas directas de esta problemática:"},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"1. Ausencia de alianzas entre actores de los eslabones de la cadena, lo que impedía trabajar de manera conjunta en su fortalecimiento. 2. Uso de métodos de producción tradicional. 3. Desconocimiento del mercado. 4. Baja competitividad productiva. 5. Bajo nivel de desarrollo de las organizaciones de base. 6. Deficiente manejo agronómico de los cultivos hortícolas. 7. Ausencia de implementación de tecnologías."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"La ausencia de alianzas provocaba el incremento de los costos de producción porque los agricultores estaban desvinculados de los proveedores de servicios, no había acceso a crédito porque tampoco había relación con las organizaciones prestadoras de servicios financieros y, como si fuera poco, los agricultores tenían una relación desventajosa Los agricultores tenían escaso acceso a la información sobre precios y estándares de comercialización que los prepararan para competir en el mercado."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"También había un manejo inadecuado de medidas de protección de los cultivos y una baja agregación de valor a los productos para comercialización, ya que solamente se realizaba la selección de hortalizas de acuerdo a los estándares tradicionales de mercado, no se contaba con herramientas que permitieran mejorar la calidad e inocuidad de los productos."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"El desconocimiento del mercado era otra gran causa del problema porque los agricultores tenían escaso acceso a la información sobre precios y estándares de comercialización que los prepararan para competir en el mercado. Como consecuencia, el mercado era dominado por los intermediarios, los productores sólo vendían a precios bajos y a mercados locales, no influían en la dinámica de oferta y demanda, y por consiguiente no obtenían precios justos. Además, como los agricultores desconocían la dinámica del mercado, no planificaban sus siembras de acuerdo a la demanda y esto, tarde o temprano, desbalanceaba los precios."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"Por su parte, el bajo nivel de desarrollo de las organizaciones de base podía verificarse en el hecho de que los grupos de productores contaran con órganos directivos incompletos y disfuncionales; además, hacían falta como quemas, uso de sistemas de riego rudimentarios, uso excesivo e inadecuado de insumos para control de malezas, plagas insectiles y enfermedades."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"Estas actividades generaban dos grandes impactos: por un lado incrementaban el uso de insumos de alto costo y causaban un efecto directo sobre la rentabilidad, y por el otro, ocasionaban significativas marcas ambientales que se reflejaban en la contaminación de los suelos y aguas, la tala innecesaria de bosques y tacotales, la depredación de la fauna benéfica, la creación de desequilibrios ecológicos en la relación plagas -biocontroladores, entre otros."},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"De otro lado, la falta de Implementación de tecnologías era evidente en la producción. Bajo este esquema se observaba que se echaban a perder los cultivos y se reducían las áreas de siembra debido a la alta vulnerabilidad de la producción ante los efectos de la sequía o los excesos de lluvia, había poca diversificación productiva en los ciclos de producción y alta incidencia de daños causados por plagas y enfermedades (como el mal del talluelo en almácigos, la presencia excesiva de plagas secundarias, la resistencia de plagas al control químico, y las pérdidas pre y pos cosecha por efecto de organismos patógenos y saprófitos)."},{"index":9,"size":133,"text":"Como consecuencia, el consorcio se encontró con que en la cadena solamente existían seis actores como posibles beneficiarios: la Cooperativa Agropecuaria de Servicios Tomatoya-Chagüite Grande (Coopastochag); la Cooperativa Agropecuaria de Servicios de Hortalizas (Cooprahor); la Cooperativa de Servicios Múltiples Padre Odorico de Andrea (Coosempoda); Productores y Comercializadores de Totogalpa S.A. (Procontsa), la Central de Cooperativas de Servicios Múltiples de Exportación e Importación del Norte (Cecoopsemein) y productores individuales; además de una organización comercial para ser vinculada (Amanco) y tres instituciones dispuestas a establecerse como organizaciones de desarrollo (TechnoServe, CARITAS y PFID-Michigan State University, ésta última, en proceso de terminar sus intervenciones en el territorio). estrategias de desarrollo empresarial, no existía un liderazgo legitimado por los socios y se incumplían las normas y leyes vigentes, situación que impedía la evolución integral de las organizaciones."},{"index":10,"size":50,"text":"Finalmente, la baja participación de las mujeres en la cadena de valor de hortalizas era evidente. Su involucramiento era mínimo incluso en el único eslabón del que algunas formaban parte: el de producción, en el cual aportaban su mano de obra de manera temporal y tenían roles tradicionales como productoras."},{"index":11,"size":49,"text":"Por todas las razones mencionadas anteriormente, cuando ACORDAR inició su fase de implementación, el eslabón receptor de mayor apoyo fue el de producción porque quienes trabajaban con las comunidades, lo hacían desde el enfoque de las cadenas productivas y no desde el de las cadenas de valor 1 ."},{"index":12,"size":34,"text":"El eslabón receptor de mayor apoyo fue el de producción porque quienes trabajaban con las comunidades, lo hacían desde el enfoque de las cadenas productivas y no desde el de las cadenas de valor."},{"index":13,"size":52,"text":"asesores técnicos, quienes dieron a conocer el trabajo que se realizaría y sus bondades. Con esto, se crearon las condiciones para la adopción y difusión de nuevas tecnologías, se hicieron demostraciones prácticas de cada una de ellas, se iniciaron giras de intercambio de experiencias y se llevaron a cabo procesos de capacitación."},{"index":14,"size":118,"text":"El proyecto ACORDAR también contribuyó a la construcción y progreso de la infraestructura productiva con la edificación de mejoras de los centros de acopio de Tomatoya (Jinotega), Sébaco, Miraflor (Estelí), Mozonte, El Mojón (Jinotega) y una bodega de papa ubicada en la comunidad de Boniche (Yalí).. Mediante las inversiones directas del proyecto (que fueron financiadas por USAID, los socios implementadores y los grupos de productores; y que corresponden a un total de US$ 2.480.754), también se adquirieron cuartos fríos, edificios, camiones de distribución, cajillas, entre otros equipos que permitieron a los agricultores acopiar y comercializar mejor la producción de hortalizas, de tal manera que pudieran mejorar sus volúmenes de ventas y la calidad de sus productos. Estos se"}]},{"head":"La puesta en marcha","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Con la Inauguración del Proyecto ACORDAR en septiembre del año 2007, el consorcio dio inicio a un proceso de intervención que en un primer momento benefició a 1037 productores hortícolas y a sus familias."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Entre las primeras intervenciones del proyecto, se realizó el levantamiento de la línea de base, la cual ayudó a delimitar las zonas de ejecución y la conformación de los grupos beneficiarios. Los resultados de estos estudios permitieron conocer la cantidad real de familias a beneficiar, su potencial productivo en términos de áreas, rubros, condiciones agroecológicas y la capacidad instalada y necesaria para agregar valor a la producción."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Al principio los productores se encontraban resistentes al cambio, eran renuentes a la intervención debido a las experiencias negativas que habían vivido con otras iniciativas; esto generó dificultades y atrasó la implementación del proyecto. Para lograr un cambio de actitud por parte de los agricultores, fue necesaria la intervención directa de convirtieron en los primeros pasos para brindar valor agregado basado en la selección y lavado de productos hortícolas para los rubros de papa, tomate, lechuga, repollo, coliflor, chiltoma, zanahoria, remolacha, apio, berenjena y chile."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Otro tipo de intervención que se destacó por su importancia, fue la introducción y adopción de tecnologías de Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas (BPA) que le apuntaban a la mejora del proceso de poscosecha, al de comercialización (cantidad y calidad de productos), a la agregación de valor, a la introducción de tecnologías, y a la incidencia con respecto al componente de agua (introducción de miniacueductos y sistemas de riego)."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Entre los productores también se promovieron alternativas tecnológicas como los sistemas de riego por goteo, microtúneles, invernaderos y obras de conservación de suelos y aguas para reducir la vulnerabilidad ambiental de los productos ante factores climáticos adversos, incrementar rendimientos y obtener mayores ingresos. Como consecuencia de lo anterior, las ventas totales logradas durante los cinco años del proyecto, se contabilizaron en US$42.338.583, de los cuales el 61,6% representaba ingresos netos."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"Una vez iniciada la segunda fase del proyecto en el 2010, se dio continuidad al proceso de intervención y se incrementaron los beneficiarios a 1467 productores hortícolas y, de manera indirecta, también a sus familias."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"Para este entonces, también se realizaron actividades como la creación de alianzas con proveedores de servicios financieros y no financieros, vendedores de insumos y compradores; se llevó a cabo el proceso de certificación de fincas con el Ministerio Agropecuario Forestal (Magfor) y otros esfuerzos que se encaminaron a la graduación de empresas cooperativas."},{"index":8,"size":76,"text":"Como resultados, los beneficiarios accedieron a insumos de buena calidad, a asistencia técnica, obtuvieron mayor acceso a créditos de distintas modalidades y se abrieron nuevos mercados alternativos (supermercados y proveedores especializados); además, formaron parte del proceso de desarrollo empresarial de sus grupos informales de productores, los cuales dieron un paso importante para convertirse en empresas con responsabilidad social y ambiental. Esto permitió que los grupos atendidos por ACORDAR se diferenciaran de sus pares en el territorio."}]},{"head":"Las ventas totales logradas durante los cinco años del proyecto,","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"se contabilizaron en US$42.338.583 de los cuales el 61,6% representaban ingresos netos."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Es importante destacar que la creación de la Comisión de Gobernabilidad de la Cadena de Hortalizas permitió una mayor vinculación e influencia de los actores de la cadena, por eso estos últimos empezaron a aprovechar oportunidades de incidencia, de mejora de las condiciones para la negociación en el mercado y de las coincidencias (de precios, de estándares de mercado, de necesidades de producto y de localización de proveedores y demandantes de los productos) que proporcionaban una relación ganar-ganar entre todos los actores de los eslabones de la cadena."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"Durante la intervención también se llevó a cabo el proceso de certificación de fincas BPA, la difusión de tecnologías y la consolidación de alianzas. Aunque el proceso de certificación no se concluyó durante la ejecución del proyecto ACORDAR, se espera que este proceso termine para que los agricultores sean autorizados para comercializar en cualquier mercado selectivo y tengan un efecto positivo en la reproducción de su modelo. Por su parte, la difusión de tecnología sí fue implementada a cabalidad en el proyecto y fue de suma importancia para ampliar la cobertura del mismo con respecto a sus metas originales de rendimientos productivos, rentabilidad y de consolidación de las alianzas para hacer sostenibles los esfuerzos del proyecto."}]},{"head":"Actividades y estrategias clave que facilitaron la intervención del proyecto ACORDAR","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Establecimiento de alianzas estratégicas","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Se realizaron alianzas con intermediarios locales, nacionales y mercados selectos como Wal-Mart, Supermercados La Colonia y APEN (gremial). Con esta estrategia se mejoró la negociación de precios y estándares de calidad, se dio cierto nivel de aseguramiento y sostenibilidad al mercado de los productos y se creó la Comisión de Gobernabilidad de la Cadena de Hortalizas para favorecer los vínculos entre los actores y mejorar su incidencia en las políticas, actividades y proyectos que se manejan en torno al sector a nivel nacional."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Cabe aclarar que estas relaciones fueron el primer paso para acercar a los intermediarios, y a los grupos y productores de la cadena."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Intermediarios como Wal-Mart y Supermercados La Colonia, establecieron con los agricultores acuerdos comerciales formales que se han mantenido vigentes hasta la fecha. Con esta estrategia se obtuvo mayor acceso al mercado, mejoramiento de la calidad del producto y agregación de valor."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"También se ejecutaron planes de siembra (escalonamiento) y se recibieron mayores ingresos."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Además, se crearon y fortalecieron relaciones con proveedores de tecnología como Amanco, Tecnoriegos, Sagsa -Disagro, Los proveedores de financiamiento también fueron parte importante de esta red de relaciones. Con ellos se hizo una negociación diferenciada de créditos para la producción. Las alianzas con el Fondo Desarrollo Local (FDL), Latin American Financial Services (Lafise), la Fundación Para el Desarrollo de Nueva Segovia (Fundenuse) y la Caja Rural Nacional (Caruna), brindaron un mayor acceso a financiamiento productivo, negociación de menores tasas de interés, plazos y articulación de fianzas solidarias."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Sin embargo, grandes resultados arrojados por el proyecto se dieron gracias a las alianzas que se hicieron con los gobiernos municipales para facilitar la incidencia de los productores en las alcaldías. En este contexto, se realizaron alianzas con los Gobiernos de los municipios de Pueblo Nuevo, Condega, Totogalpa, Quilalí, Jícaro, 2. Empresa proveedora de insumos condormada por Dupont y Westrading."}]},{"head":"Grandes resultados arrojados por el proyecto","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"se dieron gracias a las alianzas que se hicieron con los gobiernos municipales para facilitar la incidencia de los productores en las alcaldías."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Jinotega, Sébaco, Darío, Yalí, San Rafael del Norte y Estelí."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Lo anterior, logró involucrar a los productores y grupos para darles mayor incidencia en las gestiones para el mejoramiento de la infraestructura productiva. Los Gobiernos anteriormente mencionados, participaron en actividades del proyecto y en el desarrollo de mejoras de infraestructura productiva y social (caminos, miniacueductos, centros de acopio y procesamiento), además, apoyaron procesos de capacitación para crear conciencia sobre el uso racional del agua."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"También otras instituciones estatales se involucraron con las actividades del proyecto ya que se realizaron gestiones ante el Magfor y el INTA para certificar las fincas, cultivos y centros de acopio y procesamiento para la comercialización. Esto influyó en la diferenciación de la producción, en la manufactura de los productos, y en su mejoramiento de calidad e inocuidad."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Finalmente, es importante aclarar que el mejoramiento de relaciones con diferentes tipos de actores y el intercambio de información que se dio a través de las alianzas, permitió que se consolidaran vínculos con FDL, LAFISE, Fundenuse y Caruna, Tecnoriegos, Ramac, Agritrade, entre otras organizaciones que proporcionaron disponibilidad inmediata y adecuada de créditos para la producción, adquisición de insumos y tecnología, entre otros beneficios para los actores de la cadena."}]},{"head":"Mejoramiento de prácticas agrícolas e implementación de tecnologías","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Durante la ejecución del proyecto hubo grandes esfuerzos encaminados a la implementación de obras de conservación de suelos y cultivos con coberturas e invernaderos. La estrategia partió de la capacitación práctica a los productores en el trazado y construcción de obras de conservación de suelos (barreras vivas, muertas, acequias de ladera, diques, cercas vivas, cortinas rompevientos, entre otras), y la aplicación de técnicas de plasticultura, túneles y tela Agribon."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Estas actividades permitieron proteger los suelos contra los efectos de la erosión hídrica, disminuir las pérdidas por anegamiento, utilizar las áreas útiles de ladera, ampliar las áreas de siembra, aprovechar el recurso agua, e incrementar los rendimientos productivos."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Otro aspecto importante para mejorar la condición de los suelos, estuvo relacionado con la selección y promoción de pesticidas permitidos (Persuap 3 ) e implementación del Manejo Integrado de Plagas (MIP) y el Manejo Integrado de Cultivo (MIC). En este caso, las fichas técnicas para seguimiento agronómico de campo, permitieron efectuar las recomendaciones de productos para el control de plagas y enfermedades con base en la Persuap. Como resultado de lo anterior, se logró la reducción de los índices de exposición a la contaminación ambiental y familiar."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"Además, se partió de la oportunidad de aprovechar las condiciones agroecológicas aptas para la diversificación e incremento de áreas de producción, para aumentar los espacios de siembra e introducir más cultivos que estuvieran acordes a la demanda del mercado. De esta manera, se dio un incremento de la oferta de productos con la que se logró ingresar a nuevos mercados selectivos y convencionales, e Implementar nuevas tecnologías acordes con las condiciones agroecológicas de cada zona."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Es importante aclarar que muchos de estos esfuerzos estuvieron motivados por procesos de certificación en Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas (BPA) y Buenas Prácticas de Manufactura (BPM). Para alcanzar tal fin, también se realizaron Escuelas de Campo, parcelas de validación, giras de intercambio de experiencias (nacionales e internacionales), capacitaciones y demostraciones prácticas. Con esto, los productores se apropiaron de nuevas tecnologías y técnicas que les permitieron incrementar los índices de producción, aumentar la calidad e inocuidad de los productos y mejorar sus ingresos."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"3. Evaluación de Plaguicidas y Plan de Acción para su Uso más Seguro (Persuap, por sus siglas en inglés)."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"Se partió de la oportunidad de aprovechar las condiciones agroecológicas aptas para la diversificación e incremento de áreas de producción. • Mayores exigencias en los estándares de calidad por parte de los actores del mercado. Esto motivó a los productores a generar cambios de actitud con respecto a la calidad de sus productos, puesto que suponían que al mejorar sus cultivos también obtendrían mejores precios."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"• Renuencia de los intermediarios para vincularse a la cadena. Ellos no querían ceder espacios por temor a perder parte de sus ingresos, su hegemonía en el mercado les permitía abusar de su poder en la compra y venta de los productos."},{"index":9,"size":107,"text":"la importancia de este aspecto motivó la gestión de otro tipo de iniciativas como la organización de la Comisión de Gobernabilidad de la Cadena de Valor de Hortalizas. Esta se conformó con diferentes actores de la cadena de valor y con el fin de mejorar su incidencia y participación en actividades que generaran mayor competitividad integral a la cadena. Para ello, se realizaron procesos de capacitación, concertación, diálogo, y se elaboró un plan de competitividad que ayudara a identificar las necesidades de mejora del sector. Con esta comisión se buscó incidir en la unión de los actores en actividades sinérgicas que permitieran mayor influencia a nivel nacional."},{"index":10,"size":54,"text":"No obstante, es importante aclarar que no todos los resultados y hallazgos de ACORDAR respondieron enteramente a las actividades del proyecto, pues como se mencionó antes, existieron una serie de factores en el entorno que de una u otra manera influyeron. En el caso específico de la cadena de valor de hortalizas estos fueron:"},{"index":11,"size":4,"text":"1. Factores de mercado"},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"• Existía la oportunidad de abastecer el mercado nacional, que actualmente estaba siendo suplido con productos hortícolas importados."},{"index":13,"size":17,"text":"Existía la oportunidad de abastecer el mercado nacional, que actualmente estaba siendo suplido con productos hortícolas importados."}]},{"head":"Factores medioambientales","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"• Las condiciones agroecológicas adecuadas para la producción de hortalizas incidieron en el incremento de las áreas de producción y el escalonamiento de siembras. Este potencial fue aprovechado de una mejor manera debido al uso de tecnologías y de los planes de siembra que optimizaron los recursos agua y suelo."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"• Debido al exceso de lluvias en época de cosecha, hubo pérdidas parciales y totales de la producción de hortalizas, las cuales afectaron el desempeño del proyecto. Este efecto también se hizo extensivo a los otros eslabones de la cadena donde los acopiadores y procesadores se vieron obligados a incumplir con sus contratos, mientras que los compradores tuvieron que importar los productos en déficit."}]},{"head":"Factores económicos","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"• Durante la intervención se dio una mayor disponibilidad de crédito para los productores, con lo cual podrían incrementar sus áreas de siembra y dar valor agregado a su producción. Esto fue posible bajo la creación de alianzas Esta situación dificultó la vinculación de actores a la cadena y limitó la obtención de mejores resultados en ventas."}]},{"head":"Factores tecnológicos","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"• La presencia de proveedores de tecnología influyó en la canalización de sistemas de riego por goteo, microtúneles, invernaderos, fertilización soluble, biocontroladores, insumos efectivos y de bajo impacto ambiental que permitieron incrementar los índices de producción y mejorar los procesos de valor agregado."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Además, por la disponibilidad de sistemas de riego, también se redujo la vulnerabilidad con respecto a la ausencia de lluvia."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"• Baja disponibilidad de controladores biológicos para sustituir a los pesticidas tradicionales; debido a la ausencia de proveedores, esto limitaba la adopción de nuevas tecnologías alternativas de manejo fitosanitario de las hortalizas. También representó una gran limitación porque los controladores biológicos son una alternativa más viable y barata para el control de plagas y enfermedades porque sus características no afectan el medio ambiente y la inocuidad de los alimentos."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"estratégicas a manera de modalidades como la fianza solidaria, avales de las organizaciones y la canalización de créditos con fondos rotatorios 6 a través de las cooperativas."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Sin embargo, en la actualidad los productores se han visto afectados por el surgimiento del Movimiento \"No Pago\", ya que este redujo drásticamente el acceso al crédito, principalmente porque esta situación, además de provocar cambios significativos en las políticas de crédito de las instituciones financieras, se generó en la zona norte de Nicaragua, donde estaban concentrados los mayores esfuerzos del proyecto."}]},{"head":"Factores de Gobierno local","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"• Aunque algunas municipalidades se resistieron, en general se dio una apertura de estos organismos para permitir la incidencia de los actores de la cadena."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Las necesidades de los productores fueron escuchadas y esto facilitó la gestión y ejecución de obras que contribuyeron a la mejora de infraestructura productiva en las comunidades, principalmente construcción y arreglo de caminos, mini acueductos, pilas receptoras, entre otros."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• Complicaciones de las instituciones gubernamentales para apoyar procesos en todos los eslabones de la cadena."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Las normativas establecidas por estos organismos estatales no facilitaban la agilidad en los procesos de certificación de fincas con BPA en el eslabón de producción, y de procesos de BPM en el eslabón poscosecha."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"6. Un fondo rotatorio (llamado también 'fondo revolvente' por una traducción no castiza del concepto en inglés 'revolving fund'), es un fondo o una cuenta con ingresos que sigue estando disponible para financiar sus operaciones continuas sin ningún tipo de limitación por ejercicio fiscal.."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"Aunque ya finalizó la intervención del proyecto ACORDAR, los actores de la cadena continúan vinculados a casas comerciales y proveedores de tecnologías que en el caso de la alianza han sido 17 empresas: Formunica, Agrológico, Duwest, Ramac, Abrasa, Agritrade, Sagsa-Disagro, Agro-Éxito, Agroquímicos \"La Siembra\", Agro Mayo, Bejo de Nicaragua, Agroalfa, Biotor-Labs, Agroservicio \"Esquipulas\", Amanco, Tecnoriegos y Agrocom. Así, gracias a las alianzas, las entidades continúan facilitando el acceso a crédito alternativo para 960 productores que representan el 70% de los beneficiarios del proyecto en la cadena de hortalizas."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"Así mismo, muchos agricultores aún reciben asistencia técnica para la implementación de nuevas tecnologías y promueven las compras en bloque para disminuir los costos de producción al menos en tres cooperativas (Coopastochag, Cooprahor y Coosempros). Como resultado, se ha incrementado el potencial productivo de los productores, productoras y sus organizaciones."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"También prevalecen los vínculos con proveedores de servicios financieros, actualmente se tiene acceso a crédito Gracias a las alianzas, las entidades continúan el acceso a crédito alternativo para el 70% de los beneficiarios del Proyecto ACORDAR en la cadena de hortalizas."}]},{"head":"Los Resultados","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"con tres casas financieras como Lafise-Bancentro, FDL y Banpro. En cuanto a las alianzas con organismos no-gubernamentales y universidades, se cuenta con actores como Caritas, Proyect Concern International (PCI), Universidad Católica Agopecuaria del Trópico Seco (Ucatse) y Funica, que permitieron el acceso a créditos alternativos y transferencia de tecnologías."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Las alianzas establecidas con actores de los mercados selectos, han permitido mantener los contactos de ventas con empresas como Industrias Cárnicas Integradas de Nicaragua S.A. (ICI), la cual pertenece a la cadena centroamericana Wal-Mart y supermercados La Colonia. Estas relaciones facilitan la permanencia de un sinnúmero de productores en el mercado selectivo a través de la siembra escalonada de diferentes cultivos como tomate, chile Nataly, pepino, lechuga, repollo, remolacha, brócoli, zanahoria, coliflor, chiltoma de relleno, pipián, apio, papa, chiltoma de cocina, entre otros."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Además de los clientes para los anteriores productos, también existe contacto directo con compradores en los mercados de la capital del país, vínculos que fueron establecidos por algunos productores de repollo, tomate y papa."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Actualmente la producción tradicional ha cambiado, del 90% de los productores y productoras que implementaron nuevas tecnologías con la intervención de ACORDAR, aproximadamente el 80% las adoptó realmente y aún las usa."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Dentro de las principales tecnologías se encuentran: el sistema de riego (goteo y micro-aspersión), el fertirriego, el plástico mulch, los invernaderos para producción de plántulas, la tela antivirus, las zanjas de fertilidad, los reservorios para cosechas de agua, las pilas para riego, la introducción de nuevas semillas de hortalizas, los plásticos ultravioleta para semilleros, los análisis de suelos y de agua, entre otras."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Además, tras el cierre del proyecto los productores y productoras han empezado a aumentar sus áreas de producción con sistemas de riego instalados por ellos mismos y han llevado este sistema a áreas productivas que antes regaban por inundación, han adoptado algunas buenas prácticas agrícolas y han empezado a utilizar centros de acopio para dar valor agregado a sus productos."}]},{"head":"Del 90% de los productores y productoras que implementaron nuevas tecnologías con la intervención de ACORDAR, aproximadamente el 80% las adoptó realmente y aún las usa.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Por otra parte, como el proyecto ACORDAR ayudó a disminuir el desconocimiento del mercado, ahora existe mayor conocimiento de la demanda en los mercados formales tradicionales y selectivos (Wal-Mart, Supermercados La Colonia); esto ha permitido que los grupos de productores logren establecer planes de siembra de acuerdo a la demanda, en alianza con otros actores de la cadena, de esta forma, garantizan un mercado sostenible a mejores precios."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"La Comisión de Gobernabilidad de Hortalizas, que tiene gran representatividad de los actores beneficiarios de ACORDAR, por haberse creado con el apoyo de APEN en el contexto del proyecto, mantiene representatividad e incidencia a nivel nacional y permite a los productores y a sus organizaciones hacer parte de la toma de decisiones para incidir en la definición de políticas, regulaciones y normativas necesarias para el desarrollo del sector. Los actores que conforman esta comisión en la actualidad son: el Ministerio de Fomento, Industria y Comercio (Mific), el Magfor, APEN, Aldea Global, la Comisión Nacional de la Papa (Conapapa), entre otros."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"El conocimiento obtenido por los grupos de productores y productoras de las cooperativas de base a través de talleres, capacitaciones, intercambios de experiencias, días de campo y ruedas de negocios, permitieron el acercamiento con los mercados selectivos. Incluso aún se mantiene el intercambio interno de información entre los actores en los eslabones de producción y mercadeo, por eso, los productores y productoras hoy tienen más conocimiento de los precios y la demanda."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Por otra parte, la baja competitividad productiva fue uno de los factores que se logró mitigar y que actualmente contribuye a la sostenibilidad debido a que se ofrecen productos de mayor calidad en los diferentes mercados, también se ha mantenido un incremento de los rendimientos mayor al 35,4% porque siempre se reducen los riegos de perdida y los volúmenes de productos que deben ser obtenidos mediante importación en los mercados nacionales."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"En cuanto a las prácticas productivas, es más eficiente el manejo agronómico de los cultivos hortícolas. Gracias al establecimiento de obras para BPA en fincas de productores y productoras, se ha logrado mantener el mejoramiento de la calidad e inocuidad de los productos. Además, con la adopción de estas prácticas y con la aplicación de las Se ha mantenido un incremento de los rendimientos mayor al 35.4%."}]},{"head":"Hoy productores y productoras tienen más conocimiento de los precios y la demanda.","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Hoy las organizaciones cuentan con planes estratégicos, planes de negocios y de desarrollo que les permiten abrirse espacio ante nuevas oportunidades."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"nacional para la comercialización de hortalizas, que ha permitido que la producción actual no sufra las fluctuaciones de precios del mercado internacional que desmotivaban a los productores y productoras. El mercado sostenible ayuda a que las familias en todos los eslabones de la cadena reciban beneficios por la oportunidad sistemática y constante de producir y comercializar."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Asociado a esto, el incremento de exigencias en los estándares de calidad por parte de los actores del mercado, ha concientizado a los productores y acopiadores de la lógica de que, a mayor calidad ofertada, mayor oportunidad de vender a precios más competitivos. Este se ha convertido en un estímulo para producir y acopiar con calidad."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"recomendaciones del documento Persuap y su lista de plaguicidas autorizados por la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los Estados Unidos (EPA, por sus siglas en inglés), los productos que se entregan a los clientes siguen siendo fortalecidos, generan calidad y confianza para el comprador y rentabilidad para el agricultor o agricultora."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"En lo que respecta al desarrollo organizativo y empresarial, luego de que en la intervención se realizara un autodiagnóstico institucional con la metodología de la Alianza de Aprendizaje (AdA), se conocieron las debilidades de las organizaciones y se facilitó la toma de decisiones."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"Hoy las organizaciones cuentan con planes estratégicos, planes de negocios y de desarrollo que les permiten abrirse espacio ante nuevas oportunidades. Hay liderazgo en cada uno de los grupos apoyados (Coopastochag y cooprahor) y los órganos de dirección asumen sus obligaciones; adicionalmente, los productores y productoras han tomado mayores compromisos con sus empresas para la búsqueda de nuevas oportunidades."},{"index":7,"size":107,"text":"Además de ello, se dieron algunos aspectos en el entorno que facilitaron el desarrollo de la experencia, tal es el caso del mercado En el caso de las municipalidades, éstas siguen permitiendo la incidencia de los actores de la cadena. Esto facilita la gestión y ejecución de obras de infraestructura productiva en las comunidades donde se concentraron los esfuerzos del proyecto ACORDAR. Sin embargo, las instituciones gubernamentales ahora también apoyan acciones en todos los eslabones de la cadena, especialmente en lo referido a los procesos de certificación de fincas con BPA en el eslabón de producción y a los procesos de BPM en el eslabón de poscosecha."},{"index":8,"size":77,"text":"Adicionalmente, ahora existe mayor disposición de los intermediarios para vincularse a la cadena debido a que existe una mayor oferta de productos, tanto en el mercado nacional convencional como en el selectivo; también algunos grupos de productores procesan y venden directamente sus productos. Como consecuencia, los intermediarios han cedido mayores espacios en el mercado, su hegemonía es compartida con los productores y acopiadores porque el poder en la compra y venta de los productos se ha diversificado."},{"index":9,"size":65,"text":"Ya para esta etapa, se ha empezado a dar un incremento en la disponibilidad de Además, se generaron expresiones de gobernabilidad de la cadena y se construyó la Comisión Nacional de la Cadena de Valor de Hortalizas, lo cual ha permitido que los actores cuenten con organizaciones capaces de apoyar la gestión y los acuerdos que le apunten al desarrollo del sector a nivel nacional."},{"index":10,"size":68,"text":"A través de este organismo se han logrado estandarizar los pesos y medidas de algunos productos, con recursos como la Norma Técnica Obligatoria Nicaragüense (NTON) de papa y la estandarización de la caja de tomate. También se logró que el Gobierno central regulara el flujo de hortalizas importadas, lo cual consolidó el mercado nacional para productores y productoras locales quienes obtuvieron mayores oportunidades de sostenibilidad productiva y financiera."},{"index":11,"size":30,"text":"De otro lado, las condiciones óptimas del clima y los recursos en los territorios de intervención del proyecto ACORDAR continúan proporcionando un escenario idóneo para la producción sostenible de hortalizas."},{"index":12,"size":21,"text":"Se logró que el Gobierno regulara el flujo de hortalizas importadas, esto consolidó el mercado nacional para productores y productoras locales."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"Los compradores no pagan por productos diferenciados, no se prima la producción ambientalmente amigable."},{"index":14,"size":82,"text":"controladores biológicos para sustituir a los pesticidas tradicionales. Sin embargo, uno de los fenómenos que aún causa preocupación es la amenaza por el exceso de lluvias en época de cosecha; todavía es imposible controlar sus efectos sobre la producción, así que los agricultores siguen perdiendo sus inversiones y, aunque algunas acciones han permitido reducir la vulnerabilidad ambiental mediante la implementación de cultivos bajo cobertura, microtúneles, invernaderos, entre otros, aún no se han podido mitigar por completo las consecuencias de estos factores climáticos."},{"index":15,"size":43,"text":"También el movimiento \"No pago\" sigue dejando sus efectos sobre los productores y productoras que no pueden acceder al crédito. La confiabilidad crediticia de los productores ha disminuido, por eso, se han complicado los trámites y el acceso al crédito de distinto tipo."},{"index":16,"size":90,"text":"Finalmente, aun con todos los esfuerzos que realizó ACORDAR y que actualmente están en manos de los productores, todavía no existen políticas de incentivos para la producción. Se están realizando algunos trabajos encaminados a la implementación de prácticas MIP, MIC, BPA y BPM, y otros a los procesos de certificación que han incidido en la calidad, pero estos de ninguna manera están siendo estimulados por los compradores, quienes no pagan por productos diferenciados porque la cultura de consumo nacional no prima a los productos cuya obtención implica prácticas ambientalmente amigables."}]},{"head":"Las enseñanzas del proceso","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"• Fue importante establecer alianzas estratégicas con diferentes tipos de intermediarios y actores en los mercados selectos, ya que la que la vinculación con ellos favorece el flujo de información, la sinergia entre los actores en el mercado, y extender los beneficiós (económicos, sociales, estructurales, materiales, y de espacios) de las alianzas."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• Deben promoverse las BPA y BPM ya que estas inciden en el mejoramiento cuantitativo y cualitativo de la producción."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• La realización de alianzas estratégicas con proveedores de tecnologías para la producción, acopio y procesamiento de productos, contribuyen a incrementar los rendimientos productivos, la calidad de los productos y la protección del medio ambiente."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• El establecimiento de alianzas estratégicas con proveedores de financiamiento y la negociación diferenciada de créditos para la producción, permite un acceso crediticio más fácil, rápido y ventajoso para los productores."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"• El aprovechamiento de condiciones agroecológicas para la diversificación y el incremento de áreas de producción, es clave para la competitividad productiva (mayor producción, ingresos, calidad y mercados) y el uso adecuado y racional de los recursos naturales."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"• El desarrollo de alianzas con gobiernos municipales produce una mayor influencia de los actores en las alcaldías. Para próximos procesos se debe definir una estrategia más integradora que"},{"index":7,"size":56,"text":"• La selección y promoción de pesticidas permitidos (Persuap) y la implementación de MIP y MIC, representan menos impacto ambiental, menores costos de producción y mayores ingresos. No obstante, en el futuro se debe simplificar la metodología para la publicación y difusión del menú de opciones de los productos registrados en el documento Persuap, por cultivo."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"Este cambio facilitaría la comprensión, utilización y difusión de las recomendaciones y exigencias del documento para mejorar la transferencia de conocimiento hasta las personas que conforman el eslabón productivo."},{"index":9,"size":52,"text":"• Un resultado relevante fue la creación de la Comisión de Gobernabilidad de la Cadena de Hortalizas. En próximos procesos se deberán organizar desde el principio las comisiones de gobernabilidad para facilitar el acercamiento de todos los actores de la cadena y fortalecer estas relaciones a medida que se desarrolle el proyecto."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"ayude a establecer espacios de incidencia de los actores de la cadena en los gobiernos municipales."},{"index":11,"size":45,"text":"• Facilitar las relaciones y el intercambio de información con las instituciones de apoyo financieras y no financieras, permite establecer coordinaciones para lograr mayor efectividad en las estrategias de desarrollo productivo y comercial para todos los actores de la cadena (financiamiento, tecnologías, insumos, materiales, etc.)."},{"index":12,"size":39,"text":"• El involucramiento de instituciones del estado (Magfor, INTA, Minsa, Marena, Mific, entre otras), es determinante por el rol facilitador del estado para la implementación de distintas actividades del proyecto (investigación, registros de variedades, permisos, autorizaciones, certificaciones, entre otros)."},{"index":13,"size":29,"text":"• La implementación de obras de conservación de suelos, cultivos con coberturas e invernaderos, ayuda a reducir la vulnerabilidad ambiental (erosión hídrica, perdida de fertilidad, lixiviación, exceso de humedad)."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"• Con el ánimo de hacer perdurar las relaciones positivas entre los actores, se debe continuar el ejercicio de compartir nuevos contactos y gestiones que faciliten el acceso a los servicios financieros y no financieros bajo condiciones idóneas para los todos los miembros de la cadena."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"• Es necesario facilitar las relaciones y el intercambio interinstitucional dentro de un nuevo consorcio que ayude a mejorar la vinculación y los procesos de desarrollo rural en los territorios. Al terminar el proyecto, debe existir un consorcio natural que implique mayor sostenibilidad; en otras palabras, las organizaciones deben mantener vínculos que las favorezcan una vez terminado el proyecto."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"• Generar estructuras de base territorial en las iniciativas de desarrollo rural, que ayuden a conservar los vínculos entre los productores, sus organizaciones y demás actores dentro de la cadena para facilitar la búsqueda sistemática y constante de alternativas para la sostenibilidad."}]},{"head":"Al terminar el proyecto, debe existir un consorcio natural;","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"en otras palabras, las organizaciones deben mantener vínculos que las favorezcan una vez terminado el proyecto."}]},{"head":"Historias de cambio","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Evidencias vivas","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Enseño a otros productores las tecnologías que aprendí porque me dieron resultado y ahora me siento muy bien con respecto a mi economía \" \" \"Gota a gota he mejorado mi producción y la calidad del tomate\", afirma don Lucio Arsenio Acuña González, quien ha dedicado una parte de su vida a la producción de ese cultivo. Habitante de la comunidad Palo Verde, ubicada en el municipio Pueblo Nuevo, del departamento de Estelí, Nicaragua, este hombre comparte con tranquilidad los recuerdos de una época que está seguro permanecerán así… como recuerdos."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Al mismo tiempo que ve las imágenes atravesando su mente, don Lucio relata aquellos momentos en los que tenía menos tierra, cuando sembraba 0,5 manzanas de tomate variedad Peto 98, o cuando utilizaba riego por gravedad, el cual dañaba el suelo porque arrastraba la tierra, y gastaba más agua. Sus palabras también dan cuenta de las plántulas que producía en semilleros tradicionales de mala calidad, del uso de bueyes o azadón para fertilizar, y de los bajos rendimientos de su producción que le significaban mínimas ganancias."}]},{"head":"Historia contada por Lucio Arsenio Acuña","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Asociación de Desarrollo Social de Nicaragua (Asdenic)"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"De pronto, su narración cambia de tono y algunas expresiones de agrado salen a flote cuando don Lucio menciona que fue en el año 2009, a través de una invitación que le hizo Asdenic 7 , que pudo ingresar al proyecto ACORDAR."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Sin duda alguna sus recuerdos se llenan de color cuando este productor de tomate repasa con sus palabras todos los beneficios que ha recibido a lo largo de este tiempo en el proyecto: un pozo, una bodega, sistemas de riego, plántulas de hortalizas, árboles frutales para reforestar, agua potable a través de miniacueductos, capacitaciones… beneficios que hoy se ven representados en un monto de US$ 2.435."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Pero esto no es todo. Como si se tratara de una tormenta de recuerdos imposible de detener, don Lucio relata que gracias a la asistencia técnica brindada por Asdenic, cambió la variedad de tomate Peto 98 por Shanty; ahora implementa riego por goteo, hace uso de fertilizantes hidrosolubles que llegan al suelo a través de este mismo sistema de riego, utiliza plántulas que compra en el invernadero proporcionado por el proyecto, y ha aumentado las áreas de siembra y sus rendimientos productivos, lo que le ha permitido obtener mejores ganancias."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"\"Hasta el día de hoy continúo trabajando con las tecnologías que conocí por medio del proyecto, y no pienso cambiarlas porque me han dado muy buenos resultados; es más, quisiera conocer más tecnologías como estas que me ayudan a aumentar la producción\", expresa don Lucio. \"Mi recomendación a otros pequeños productores es que usen estas tecnologías porque los llevarán a tener éxitos en sus cultivos; si siguen trabajando tradicionalmente, acabarán con sus pedacitos de tierra\", remata el productor."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"Hoy solo le basta a don Lucio Arsenio Acuña González mirar hacia atrás para comparar las 600 cajas en 0,5 manzanas que obtenía hace unos años, con las casi 4000 cajas en 2,11 manzanas que siembra en la actualidad, lo que le ha significado US$ 97.929 de ingresos netos anuales a través de la venta de su producción en el mercado local."}]},{"head":"Asociación de Desarrollo Social de Nicaragua","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Los recuerdos se detienen y el pasado queda tranquilo. Ahora sus palabras se enfocan en su presente, en lo que él considera fue el cambio más significativo de su experiencia: \"ahora enseño a otros productores las tecnologías que aprendí porque me siento muy bien con respecto a mi economía. Con el uso de las tecnologías reducimos la mano de obra para el riego, aumentamos los rendimientos y las ganancias, mejoramos las condiciones de vida de la familia, compré ganado y un vehículo para trabajar. Actualmente, trabajo con otros socios y no tengo necesidad de solicitar crédito; además, doy empleos permanentes a seis trabajadores de mi comunidad. Me siento muy bien con mi situación económica\"."}]},{"head":"Edición literaria Ernesto Gutiérrez Arenas","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Aunque tiene nombre de actor de cine, la vida de este hombre está lejos de la ficción. Douglas Flores no ha encarnado otros personajes salvo el suyo propio, en una historia en la que no cuenta con dobles de riesgo, escenarios controlados ni libretos predefinidos. Sin embargo, no deja de ser una historia, y como toda historia, tiene un comienzo y un escenario."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Habitante de la comunidad Las Delicias, del municipio Ciudad Darío, departamento Matagalpa, Nicaragua, este hombre vive con su esposa y sus dos hijos; y como cualquier otro pequeño productor sin experiencia y sin alguna clase de asistencia técnica, pero con ganas de superarse y de salir adelante, Douglas hacía las cosas por instinto."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Aplicaba plaguicidas sin equipo de protección, el riego que utilizaba era por gravedad, usaba semilla no tolerante a virus, el almácigo lo hacía en la tierra y en ocasiones no obtenía cosecha por afectaciones de plagas, como la mosca blanca. Además, vendía sus Dejé de trabajar como mozo y ahora mi familia vive mejor \" \" Historia contada por Douglas Flores Cooperativa Agropecuaria de Servicios de Hortalizas de Responsabilidad Limitada (Cooprahor R.L.) productos al mercado informal, a precios bajos, y por eso sus ingresos no eran suficientes para ofrecerle a su familia la calidad de vida que anhelaba."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"Ya la historia está planteada y cuenta con un personaje principal movido por el bienestar de su familia a quien, día a día, las deudas la tenían más acosada. Esta era la razón por la que Douglas Flores trabajaba al día en una finca ganadera. Pero a pesar del esfuerzo y el sudor, el dinero no le alcanzaba ni para comprarle una muda de ropa a su esposa y a sus hijos; incluso, en ocasiones, los ingresos no eran suficientes ni para comprar la comida. Otra opción explorada por este pequeño productor fue la de la agricultura en áreas pequeñas (0,25 manzanas) sembrando lo que es más fácil: pipián y pepino, pero los vendía sin hacer selección de productos."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Para este momento Douglas y su familia necesitaban con urgencia un giro en el desarrollo de esta historia. Fue así cuando en el año 2009 don Douglas se asoció a la cooperativa Cooprahor 8 , y en ese mismo año se integró al Proyecto ACORDAR, hechos que sin duda alguna marcaron un importante punto de giro en la situación de Flores y su familia."},{"index":6,"size":187,"text":"Así comenzó una nueva forma de trabajo; Douglas dejó de ser mozo y se dedicó a lo propio, razón por la cual se asoció con otro productor para aumentar las áreas de siembra. \"En estos 3 años que tengo de estar organizado en la cooperativa Cooprahor, y con la ayuda del proyecto ACORDAR, se han generado grandes cambios: ese mismo año fui beneficiado por inversiones encaminadas a las buenas prácticas agrícolas, inversiones que comprendían el área de mezcla, letrina, bodega y un área de empaque valorada en US$435\", afirma un Douglas más confiado por la experiencia adquirida y por el apoyo recibido. Después de estas palabras, solo queda repasar los hechos que impulsaron el desarrollo de esta historia. Hechos como 8. Cooperativa Agropecuaria de Servicios de Hortalizas de Responsabilidad Limitada, Cooprahor R.L la oportunidad de conocer tecnologías como sistemas de riego, plásticos mulch, semillas certificadas y túneles; o como la asistencia técnica recibida, clave para dejar de usar productos químicos de etiqueta roja, aprender sobre la metodología de escuelas de campo y empezar a comercializar con el mercado formal, como es el caso del supermercado La Colonia."},{"index":7,"size":95,"text":"Como en toda buena historia, el camino que han tenido que recorrer este pequeño productor y su familia ha venido de menos a más, del comercio informal al formal, de sembrar pequeñas áreas de tierra (0,25 manzanas) a 2,5 manzanas de hortalizas que logró cultivar de forma individual, aumentando la calidad del producto. Además, Douglas Flores comenzó a acopiar tomate, chiltoma y pepino para darles valor agregado en el centro de acopio de la comunidad de Carreta Quebrada, Sébaco, sin importar los 31 kilómetros que se interponían entre su comunidad y este centro de acopio."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"Sin embargo, esos 31 kilómetros de travesía no ocuparían mucho lugar en esta historia, pues gracias al apoyo del proyecto ACORDAR, don Douglas empezó a realizar el proceso de acopio y valor agregado en su propia comunidad, Las Delicias. Ahora cuenta con un centro de acopio valorado en US$ 3.383 y un túnel para la producción de plántulas de hortalizas que representó una inversión de US$ 700."},{"index":9,"size":126,"text":"Con un inicio desalentador y un punto de giro que lo cambió todo, ahora esta historia aguarda por un final. Por ahora se seguirá leyendo que don Douglas ha obtenido ingresos netos promedio de US$ 8.306 anuales; y ha logrado que un 76,8% de sus ventas sean al supermercado La Colonia y el 23,2% restante al mercado local de Sébaco. Y se seguirá escuchando en palabras del propio Douglas Flores que \"el cambio más significativo de mi vida, a través del proyecto ACORDAR, es que dejé de trabajar como mozo y ahora mi familia vive mejor. Mis ingresos mejoraron, hice mi casa con una cocina, compré muebles y un solar junto a mi casa; la alimentación de mi familia ha mejorado y mis chavalos están estudiando\"."}]},{"head":"Edición literaria Ernesto Gutiérrez Arenas","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"La publicación de este trabajo del Proyecto ACORDAR es posible gracias al generoso apoyo del Pueblo de los Estados Unidos, a través de la Agencia de los Estados Unidos para el Desarrollo Internacional (USAID). Su contenido es responsabilidad del Proyecto ACORDAR y no refleja necesariamente las opiniones de USAID o del Gobierno de Estados Unidos."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Agritrade de Nicaragua S.A, Rappaccioli McGregor S.A. (Ramac), Seminis, Bejo Zaden B.V. (Bejo), Duwest 2 , el Programa de Manejo Integrado de Plagas para América Central (Promipac), la Fundación para el Desarrollo Tecnológico Agropecuario y forestal de Nicaragua (Funica) y el Instituto Nicaragüense de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), a través de las cuales los productores obtuvieron un mayor acceso a tecnologías, lo cual influyó en el mejoramiento productivo. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Específicamente en el eslabón de producción de la cadena de hortalizas, hubo una participación del 91% de hombres y el 9% de mujeres. Fortalecimiento organizativo y representatividad    procedimientos, cumplimiento de leyes procedimientos, cumplimiento de leyes   vigentes, políticas internas, planificación vigentes, políticas internas, planificación   estratégica, metodologías de control, entre estratégica, metodologías de control, entre  Parte fundamental del proceso para otros. Parte fundamental del proceso paraotros. la alcanzar los objetivos propuestos, fue implementación de estrategias de desarrollo empresarial con grupos y productores individuales. Para lograrlo, se realizó la aplicación de la metodología de la Alianza de Aprendizaje (AdA) 4 de Nicaragua para el autodiagnóstico de las De otro lado, en la búsqueda de representatividad, se facilitó la participación de las mujeres en las actividades productivas para diversificar su rol en la cadena de valor de hortalizas. Estas mujeres accedieron al mercado, comercializaron 133.309 quintales de distintas hortalizas y obtuvieron ventas estimadas en US$1.806.209, las cuales han significado 146 empleos permanentes 5 . laalcanzar los objetivos propuestos, fue implementación de estrategias de desarrollo empresarial con grupos y productores individuales. Para lograrlo, se realizó la aplicación de la metodología de la Alianza de Aprendizaje (AdA) 4 de Nicaragua para el autodiagnóstico de lasDe otro lado, en la búsqueda de representatividad, se facilitó la participación de las mujeres en las actividades productivas para diversificar su rol en la cadena de valor de hortalizas. Estas mujeres accedieron al mercado, comercializaron 133.309 quintales de distintas hortalizas y obtuvieron ventas estimadas en US$1.806.209, las cuales han significado 146 empleos permanentes 5 .  organizaciones de productores, lo cual permitió identificar debilidades organizacionales en cuanto a estructuras, métodos, Específicamente en el eslabón de producción de la cadena de hortalizas, hubo una participación del 91% de hombres y el 9% de mujeres. Incluso en Sébaco y organizaciones de productores, lo cual permitió identificar debilidades organizacionales en cuanto a estructuras, métodos,Específicamente en el eslabón de producción de la cadena de hortalizas, hubo una participación del 91% de hombres y el 9% de mujeres. Incluso en Sébaco y 4. La Alianza de Aprendizaje (AdA) [http://www. alianzasdeaprendizaje.org/la-alianza-hoy] es un Jinotega, existen dos grupos de mujeres dedicados a la producción y venta de 4. La Alianza de Aprendizaje (AdA) [http://www. alianzasdeaprendizaje.org/la-alianza-hoy] es unJinotega, existen dos grupos de mujeres dedicados a la producción y venta de  consorcio conformado por organizaciones que trabajan Lombrihumus para ser usado como sustrato consorcio conformado por organizaciones que trabajanLombrihumus para ser usado como sustrato  por el desarrollo rural inclusivo y sostenible en la región centroamericana, promoviendo procesos de aprendizaje compartidos entre diversos actores. Su Ciclo en la producción de plántulas. Como dato adicional, cabe resaltar que de las inversiones por el desarrollo rural inclusivo y sostenible en la región centroamericana, promoviendo procesos de aprendizaje compartidos entre diversos actores. Su Cicloen la producción de plántulas. Como dato adicional, cabe resaltar que de las inversiones  de aprendizaje 2008-2010 integró a 17 organizaciones promovidas por el proyecto en general, los de aprendizaje 2008-2010 integró a 17 organizacionespromovidas por el proyecto en general, los  (de dentro y fuera de ACORDAR) que trabajaron aportes de las mujeres representaron el (de dentro y fuera de ACORDAR) que trabajaronaportes de las mujeres representaron el  para fortalecer sus capacidades socio-organizativas y empresariales y partieron de un diagnóstico 18.74%. para fortalecer sus capacidades socio-organizativas y empresariales y partieron de un diagnóstico18.74%.  autoevaluativo empresarial, que les permitió identificar  autoevaluativo empresarial, que les permitió identificar  necesidades y/o debilidades, para luego elaborar un plan Finalmente, se debe destacar que los necesidades y/o debilidades, para luego elaborar un planFinalmente, se debe destacar que los  estratégico participativo. esfuerzos organizativos no sólo dieron estratégico participativo.esfuerzos organizativos no sólo dieron   resultados particulares para las empresas, resultados particulares para las empresas,   sino que por el contrario, la conciencia de sino que por el contrario, la conciencia de  "}],"sieverID":"4b337f1f-8cd8-4d3d-a218-3f5d8735f6d0","abstract":"Rural a través de Relaciones Agroempresariales\" (ACORDAR, por sus siglas en inglés)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bb838e715e44418162e2e0fd4338731","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/85db4ea0-307a-45dc-b235-d3640bac5661/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Stoian, Dietmar [F24] Optimizing synergies between livelihoods development and forest conservation: Evidence from Community Forest Enterprise Development in Peten, Guatemala","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b4cd8ba1-2e64-4506-91f3-63198b1172d5","abstract":"In the Multiple Use Zone (MUZ) of the Maya Biosphere Reserve (MBR) in Peten, Guatemala 25-year concessions have been granted to local communities since the late 1990s. We studied the socio-economic benefits of community forestry to substantiate the communities' claim for concession renewal which they see threatened by powerful groups interested in oil exploration and tourism development in the MUZ, and the advance of cattle and cash crop production in adjacent areas. We assessed livelihood benefits among households (n=90) and business viability at the level of community forest enterprises (CFE) in 3 out of a total of 12 community concessions selected along a gradient from less to more advanced in terms of enterprise development. Focusing on human, social, natural, physical and financial capital, we determined asset building at household and enterprise level by comparing our 2013/14 data with baseline data obtained in 2009. We revisited 30 households selected at random in each of the concessions, organized focus group discussions with CFE representatives, and interviewed key informants. Our results show that CFE development has allowed households in the two more advanced concessions to move out of poverty by increasing daily forest-based income to $22.2 and $12.7 per capita (poverty line: $10.0 and $7.8, respectively). In the least advanced concession, households were able to move out of extreme poverty (daily forest-based income of $7.7 per capita, against the extreme poverty line of $6.7), but further value adding is needed to move above the poverty line ($10.7). Our findings, combined with the demonstrated conservation effects of the community concessions, make a strong case for their renewal in pursuit of the twin goal of forest conservation and livelihoods development. They also provide insights on the design of viable models of community stewardship of tropical forests elsewhere in Latin America and beyond."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c2e26b978a471eb42148904bda790a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/031b45a9-b669-4d2a-aab3-6acf99e226c5/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":" Professor Sir John Beddington, Chair, United Kingdom","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"On a planet with sufficient food for all, a billion people go hungry 2 . Another billion over-consume, increasing risks from chronic diseases 3 . The food system faces additional pressure as the global population grows, to around 9 billion by 2050 4 , and as diets shift towards higher consumption of calories, fats and animal products. Food insecurity afflicts communities throughout the world wherever poverty prevents assured access to food supplies. As well as causing widespread human suffering, food insecurity contributes to degradation and depletion of natural resources, migration to urban areas and across borders, and political and economic instability."},{"index":2,"size":235,"text":"Inefficiencies in food supply chains have a negative impact on the environment, lower productivity and waste food. Current farming practices, including land clearing and inefficient use of fertilizers and organic residues, make agriculture a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions on the planet. From the farm gate to consumers, refrigeration and other supply chain activities are an additional major source of greenhouse gas emissions. As global demand for food, fodder and bioenergy crops grows, many agricultural systems are depleting soil fertility, biodiversity and water resources. In many regions there are large gaps between potential and actual crop yields. Every year, an estimated 12 million hectares of agricultural land, which could potentially produce 20 million tonnes of grain, are lost to land degradation, adding to the billions of hectares that are already degraded 5 . It is estimated that a third of food produced for human 3 Achieving food security in the face of climate change Business as usual in our globally interconnected food system will not bring us food security and environmental sustainability. Several converging threats -from climate change, population growth and unsustainable use of resources -are steadily intensifying pressure on humanity and world governments to transform the way food is produced, distributed and consumed 1 . consumption is lost or wasted across the global food system 6 . It is clear that our collective choices related to agriculture and food systems must be revisited."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Our climate is changing and, given the levels of greenhouse gases already in our atmosphere, will continue to do so. Extreme weather events, such as high temperatures, droughts and floods, are already more frequent and severe, 1 This summary for policy makers is complemented by a detailed report of findings and recommendations, and background documents. Global food prices have risen dramatically in the last few years and are forecast to rise further and become more volatile."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"In 2007/8, food price rises shocked many policymakers from the belief that stable or declining food prices and assured supplies could be taken for granted. Before the price spike, poverty meant that 800 million people were hungry. Following the price spike, this number increased to a little over 1 billion people 7 (a rise that significantly set back progress towards the UN Millennium Development Goal to halve the proportion of people suffering hunger between 1990 and 2015 8 ). It is estimated that an additional 44 million people have since fallen into extreme poverty due to the rise in food prices since June 2010 9 . These events have drawn increased attention to the fact that a significant proportion of humanity remains chronically undernourished, even during periods of relatively normal prices and low volatility."},{"index":5,"size":204,"text":"Summary for policy makers from the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change 6 Gustavsson et al. 2011.   7 FAO. 2009.   8   HMG. 2010. 9 World Bank. 2011b. and have dire social, economic and ecological consequences. Ever-higher average global temperatures are likely without dramatic changes in greenhouse gas emissions across a wide range of human activities. In the coming decades, global climate change will have an adverse overall effect on agricultural production and will bring us toward, and perhaps over, critical thresholds in many regions. Areas currently suffering from food insecurity are expected to experience disproportionately negative effects. To reduce the effect of climate change on food supplies, livelihoods and economies, we must greatly increase adaptive capacity in agriculture -both to long-term climatic trends and to increasing variability -as an urgent priority. People living on less than USD 1.25 per day (2005) 13 People living in dryland areas (2007) 14 People dependent on degrading land 15 Losses due to climatological events (extreme temperature, drought, forest fire) (2010) 16 Area of agricultural land (2009) 17 Area of croplands, pasture and grazing lands devoted to raising animals 18 Annual growth in world agricultural production (1997-2007)  19 Food produced for human consumption lost or wasted annually 20 "}]},{"head":"billion tonnes","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"The Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change has reviewed the scientific evidence to identify a pathway to achieving food security in the context of climate change. Food systems must shift to better meet human needs and, in the long term, balance with planetary resources. This will demand major interventions, at local to global scales, to transform current patterns of food production, distribution and consumption. Investment, innovation, and deliberate effort to empower the world's most vulnerable populations will be required to construct a global food system that adapts to climate change and ensures food security while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions and sustaining our natural resource base. Greatly expanded investments in sustainable agriculture, including improving supporting infrastructure and restoring degraded ecosystems, are an essential component of long-term economic development. The sooner they are made, the greater the benefits will be."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Over the course of the 21st century, the world will need to produce significantly more food in order to deliver a basic, but adequate, diet to everyone. The amount of food required will be even greater if current trends in diets and the management of food systems continue. We need to make concurrent efforts to establish climate-resilient agricultural production systems, make efficient use of resources, develop low-waste supply chains, ensure adequate nutrition and encourage healthy eating choices. Together, these will constitute a sustainable food system. Intensification of food production must be accompanied by concerted action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture to avoid further acceleration of climate change and avert threats to the long-term viability of global agriculture. Making these changes, although technically feasible, requires urgent, collective and substantially increased action internationally, nationally and locally."},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"As climate change amplifies the environmental and socioeconomic drivers of food insecurity, it is imperative that we prioritize where, how and when to act. The threats posed by climate change to food supplies and livelihoods are likely to be spatially variable. We will need to identify global hotspots where the threats are greatest and to develop specific, practical interventions to boost resilience in these areas. For example, some of the world's major foodproducing regions lie in mega-deltas which are threatened by escalating rates of saltwater intrusion. In Africa, the pronounced gaps between actual and potential crop yields and shrinking per capita land base 21 inhibit food security.  In Europe, North America and elsewhere, a combination of intensive agriculture, food storage practices, retail systems and eating habits generates high per capita greenhouse gas emissions and food waste. The environmental and human diversity of the planet forbids the imposition of one-size-fitsall solutions."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Humanitarian, environmental and global security concerns demand a global commitment to improve the lot of the large proportion of the human population that is currently food insecure or vulnerable to food insecurity. This requires that we must build resilience to climate shocks and food price volatility, halt land degradation, and boost productive assets and infrastructure. There are many entry points for action. Many policies and programmes provide ample evidence of multiple benefits for livelihoods and the environment, with meaningful participation at local and regional scales."},{"index":5,"size":137,"text":"Many millions of people around the world depend on agriculture for basic subsistence. Efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture must not have perverse effects on the food security and livelihoods of these people. Techniques for restoring degraded areas and sequestering soil carbon to enhance future productivity should increase or stabilize food production. Where the path to long-term sustainability means reducing productivity in the short term, economic incentives and transitional programmes will be required. Specific actions must be taken to assist those most vulnerable to long-and short-term increases in the price of food rather than relying on trickledown economic effects. Appropriate targeting of a portfolio of interventions at key points of vulnerability, such as meeting the food and nutritional needs of mothers and young children, will have disproportionately positive payoffs in future productivity and development."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"Image: Hugo Ahlenius, UNEP/GRID-Arendal"},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"Traditional maize storage, Yunnan, China."},{"index":8,"size":149,"text":"Photo: E. Phipps (CIMMYT) Source: Cline. 2007. Projections assume a uniform 15% increase in yields due to the fertilization effect of rising CO 2 in the atmosphere on some plant species. (Note that this coarse-grain analysis does not project local-scale impacts which require geographically-specific analysis.)  The multiple emergent challenges -food insecurity and undernutrition, climate change, increasing competition for energy and water, degradation of land and biodiversity -are connected in complex ways and demand an integrated management approach. Adaptive management and governance to improve nutritional security, economic prosperity and environmental outcomes will require a much better global system for integrating spatially explicit information about agriculture, ecosystem services, markets and human populations in real time. Existing and future investments in information and knowledge must be structured to identify limits, inform trade-offs and deliver practical guidance for a sustainable future, not simply to maximize single components of the food system. Such an"},{"index":9,"size":165,"text":"The global community must operate within three limits: the quantity of food that can be produced under a given climate; the quantity needed by a growing and changing population; and the effect of food production on the climate. At present the planet operates outside that safe space, as witnessed by the enormous number of people who are undernourished. If current trends in population growth, diets, crop yields and climate change continue, the world will still be outside this 'safe operating space' in 2050. The situation then will be unsustainable and there will be very little room to maneuver. Various changes can be made to either enlarge the safe space or move ourselves into the safe space. For instance, the global demand for food will increase with population growth, but the amount of food per person that needs to be produced can be brought down by eliminating waste in supply chains, ensuring more equitable access to food and moving to more resource-efficient (and healthier) vegetable-rich diets."},{"index":10,"size":132,"text":"Agricultural innovation, including better water management and careful matching of crops to environments, can help adapt food systems to climate change, but not if the world warms excessively. In a much warmer world it will be impossible to even produce current levels of food. Mitigating emissions of greenhouse gases from activities related to agriculture will allow people to meet their food needs while helping keep the global climate within a tolerable range. Developed in collaboration with University of Minnesota, Global Landscapes Initiative. An animated version of this diagram can be accessed at http://bit.ly/SafeSpaceClimateFood information system will give us a richer understanding of the dynamic systems we depend on and enable us to renew and broaden our efforts to secure a more sustainable and healthy food system for our own and future generations."},{"index":11,"size":103,"text":"As a global community, we need to navigate toward a 'safe operating space' that provides adequate food and nutrition for everyone without crossing critical environmental thresholds. Plotting a course towards this space will require innovative technologies, institutions and policies, and will severely test our social, technological and agricultural ingenuity. In all circumstances, we will need governance at multiple levels that accommodates participation, learning and the ability to correct course. To be successful we will need a robust, widely shared appreciation of agriculture as a multifunctional enterprise that delivers nutritious food, rural development, environmental services and cultural heritage, through and beyond the 21st century."},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"Without a global commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from all sectors, including agriculture, no amount"},{"index":13,"size":6,"text":"Measuring greenhouse gas emissions from rice."},{"index":14,"size":125,"text":"Photo: N. Palmer CIAT of agricultural adaptation will be sufficient under the destabilized climate of the future. While change will have significant costs, the cost of remaining on the current path is already enormous and growing. Given the already intolerable conditions for many livelihoods and ecosystems, and the time lag between research and development and widespread application, we need to take urgent action. 45 The The transition to a global food system that satisfies human needs, reduces its carbon footprint, adapts to climate change and is in balance with planetary resources requires concrete and coordinated actions, implemented at scale, simultaneously and with urgency. Based on robust scientific evidence, the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change has identified critical leverage points and high-priority policy actions."},{"index":15,"size":31,"text":"The Commission proposes the following evidence-based actions to achieve food security in the face of climate change. By taking these steps we can deliver long-term benefits to communities in all countries."}]},{"head":"Integrate food security and sustainable agriculture into global and national policies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":" Establish a work programme on mitigation and adaptation in agriculture in accordance with the principles and provisions of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), based on Article 2, as a first step to inclusion of agriculture in the mainstream of international climate change policy.  Make sustainable, climate-friendly agriculture central to Green Growth 43 and the Rio+20 Earth Summit 44 .  Finance 'early action' to drive change in agricultural production systems towards increasing resilience to weather variability and shocks, while contributing significantly to mitigating climate change. This includes supporting national climate risk assessments, developing mitigation and adaptation strategies, and programme implementation.  Develop common platforms at global, regional and national levels for coherent dialogue and policy action related to climate change, agriculture, crisis response and food security, at global, regional and national levels. These include fostering country-level coalitions for food security and building resilience, particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate shocks."}]},{"head":"Significantly raise the level of global investment in sustainable agriculture and food systems in the next decade","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":" Implement and strengthen the existing G8 L'Aquila programmes and commitments to sustainable agriculture and food security, including long-term commitments for financial and technical assistance in food production and to empower smallholder farmers. sustainable agriculture programmes that deliver food security, improved livelihoods, resilience to climate change and environmental co-benefits. Such programmes should emphasize improving infrastructure and land rehabilitation.  Adjust national research and development budgets, and build integrated scientific capacity, to reflect the significance of sustainable agriculture in economic growth, poverty reduction and long-term environmental sustainability, and focus on key food security issues (for example, developing nutritious non-grain crops and reducing post-harvest losses).  Increase knowledge of best practices and access to innovation by supporting revitalized extension services, technology transfer and communities of practice (for example, North-South, South-South, cross-commodity and farmer-to-farmer exchanges), with emphasis on lowto high-income countries and on women farmers."}]},{"head":"Sustainably intensify agricultural production while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and other negative environmental impacts of agriculture","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":" Develop, facilitate and reward multi-benefit farming systems that enable more productive and resilient livelihoods and ecosystems, with emphasis on closing yield gaps and improving nutrition.  Introduce strategies for minimizing ecosystem degradation and rehabilitating degraded environments, with emphasis on community-designed programmes.  Empower marginalized food producers (particularly women) to increase productivity of a range of appropriate crops by strengthening land and water rights, increasing access to markets, finance and insurance, and enhancing local capacity (for example through farmer and community-based organizations).  Identify and modify subsidies (such as for water and electricity) that provide incentives for farmers to continue agricultural practices that deplete water supplies or destroy native ecosystems. Introduce compensation schemes that target the poor.  Couple economic incentives for sustainable intensification of agriculture with strengthening governance of land tenure and land zoning to prevent further loss of forests, wetlands and grasslands."}]},{"head":"Develop specific programmes and policies to assist populations and sectors that are most vulnerable to climate changes and food insecurity","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":" Develop funds that respond to climate shocks, such as 'index-linked funds ' that provide rapid relief when extreme weather events affect communities, through public-private partnerships based on agreed principles.  Moderate excessive food price fluctuations by sharing country information on production forecasts and stocks, strengthening market databases, promoting open and responsive trade systems, establishing early warning systems and allowing tax-free export and import for humanitarian assistance. This includes embedding safeguards related to import surges and trade distortions in trade agreements.  Create and support safety nets and other programmes to help vulnerable populations in all countries become food secure (for example, cash and in-kind transfers, "}]},{"head":"Reshape food access and consumption patterns to ensure basic nutritional needs are met and to foster healthy and sustainable eating patterns worldwide","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":" Address chronic undernutrition and hunger by harmonizing development policy and coordinating regional programmes to improve livelihoods and access to services among food-insecure rural and urban communities.  Promote positive changes in the variety and quantity of diets through innovative education campaigns, which target young consumers especially, and through economic incentives that align the marketing practices of retailers and processors with public health and environmental goals.  Promote and support a coherent set of evidence-based sustainability metrics and standards to monitor and evaluate food security, nutrition and health, practices and technologies across supply chains, agricultural productivity and efficiency, resource use and environmental impacts, and food system costs and benefits. This should include providing consumers with clear labelling."}]},{"head":"Reduce loss and waste in food systems, targeting infrastructure, farming practices, processing, distribution and household habits","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":" In all sustainable agriculture development programmes, include research and investment components focusing on reducing waste, from production to consumption, by improving harvest and postharvest management and food storage and transport.  Develop integrated policies and programmes that reduce waste in food supply chains, such as economic innovation to enable low-income producers to store food during periods of excess supply and obligations for distributors to separate and reduce food waste.  Promote dialogue and convene working partnerships across food supply chains to ensure that interventions to reduce waste are effective and efficient (for example, redirecting food waste to other purposes), and do not create perverse incentives."}]},{"head":"Create comprehensive, shared, integrated information systems that encompass human and ecological dimensions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":" Sustain and increase investment in regular monitoring, on the ground and by public domain remote sensing networks, to track changes in land use, food production, climate, the environment, human health and well-being worldwide."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":" Support improved transparency and access to information in global food markets and invest in interlinked information systems with common protocols that build on existing institutions.  Develop, validate and implement spatially explicit data and decision-support systems that integrate biophysical and socioeconomic information and that enable policy makers to navigate trade-offs among agricultural intensification, nutritional security and environmental consequences. Only by implementing real changes across the global food system will we be able to achieve food security and a stable climate for the long term. This will require a break from business as usual and a significant shared commitment by policy makers, investors, agricultural producers, consumers, food companies and researchers."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Carbon-rich agricultural landscape, Tasmania, Australia."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Photo: M Castley, Private Forests Tasmania"}]},{"head":"Real-world investment, innovation and action","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Public and private sector leaders around the world are already taking action. This section highlights a diverse set of policies and programmes that are tackling food security in the context of climate change."},{"index":2,"size":222,"text":"Australia: National initiatives and information services support adaptive agriculture Real-time information and forecasting for rainfall, temperature, humidity and drought are critical to successful climate change adaptation and mitigation in agriculture. In Australia, these challenges need to be undertaken in the most variable climate of any inhabited continent. For example, the El Niño Southern Oscillation drives cycles of drought and flood that significantly affect the rural sector. Australian agriculture, including land clearing, accounts for at least 25% of the country's greenhouse gas emissions (similar to the global average), creating the combined imperative of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 50-80% by 2050, while increasing food production by 30-80%. Australia's Carbon Farming Initiative is the world's first national legislation for land-based mitigation and rural income enhancement. To support adaptive agriculture and 'carbon farming' by Australian producers, the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) provides Seasonal Climate Outlooks with detailed forecasts and risk assessments, including a 3-month prediction based on the Troup Southern Oscillation Index and a 6-month El Niño Southern Oscillation prediction 46 . In addition, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the BoM provide longer-term climate projections to help farmers prepare for future changes. In some areas, such as southwest Australia, climate projections are already an important tool for farmers forced to change their farming practices in response to changing climatic conditions. The "}]},{"head":"Bangladesh: Investing in smallholders and food security","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"Despite tripling rice production over the past 40 years, food security in Bangladesh is challenged by population growth, climate change, scarce natural resources, vulnerability to price shocks, persistent poverty and malnutrition. Based on broad consultation, the 5-year Bangladesh Country Investment Plan (BCIP) sets out 12 priority investment programmes that, when implemented together, will improve food security and nutrition. The total cost will be USD 7.8 billion 48 . Key elements include: (1) improving access to and tenure of land and water resources, (2) improving access to credit and other financial resources, (3) enabling private sector involvement, and (4) recognizing the key role of women in household food production. To measure progress against baselines, a set of target indicators were agreed, which included reducing the prevalence of Chronic Energy Deficiency among women from 32% in 2005 to 20% by 2015. With its focus on replication and scaling up successful innovations, the BCIP addresses the need for extension services, such as farmer field schools, to enable agricultural adaptation to climate change, as well as to build awareness of tools like the land and soil guide, Upazila Nirdeshika. The BCIP aims to more effectively target social safety net programmes that currently absorb 15% of the Bangladesh Government's annual budget (2.4% of gross domestic product), and particularly to ensure benefits reach women. The BCIP recognizes the need to improve farmers' access to markets, reduce pre-and postharvest losses, and to add value across whole food chains, including by working with the private sector in publicprivate partnerships."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Irrigation channel, Bangladesh."}]},{"head":"Photo: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"Brazil: Integrated approach to land use policy National governments can stimulate sustainable food production by coordinating policies. In addition to successes in inclusive growth -a reduction in poverty from 20% of the population in 2004 to 7% in 2010 -Brazil has a set of complementary policies and programmes to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture. As the fifth highest greenhouse gas-emitting country in the world, 80% of Brazil's pledge under the Copenhagen Accord will be fulfilled by the agriculture and forestry sectors. These two sectors generate more than 70% of domestic emissions. To meet its target of reducing the rate of deforestation in the Amazon by 80% by 2015, Brazil has established ecological and economic zoning plans, as well as a satellite monitoring system to enable prompt action against illegal logging 49 . Introduced in 2008, Brazil's National Climate Change Plan is credited with successfully reducing deforestation and making the shift to low-emission agriculture. Agroecological zoning laws for sugar cane and palm oil balance competing land uses and address multiple objectives in the agriculture, forest, water and energy sectors 50 . Key policy documents, such as the National Plan, Sustainable Amazon Plan and National Water Resources Plan, prohibit cultivation of sugar cane in protected areas, the Amazon and Pantanal for example 51 . The Forest Code provides for maintaining forest cover on private property in rural areas. The Brazil Development Bank has also restructured its guidelines to make lending conditional on environmental protection measures which avoid deforestation, and land and water pollution."}]},{"head":"China: Research, policies and pilot programmes promote agricultural adaptation and mitigation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":313,"text":"In China, recent advances in agricultural productivity and poverty reduction have been built on a significant domestic agricultural research and development base. With roughly 10% annual increases since 2001, agricultural R&D spending equalled USD 1.8 billion in 2007 and shifted an estimated seven people out of poverty for every USD 1500 of investment 52 . National policies and pilot programmes also catalyse agricultural adaptation and mitigation 53 . The Plan for the Construction of Protective Cultivation Projects will cover 2.7 million hectares in 2009-2015. In addition to enhancing soil resilience to drought, 1.7-2.5 billion cubic meters of irrigation water have been saved. By the end of 2009, 25.6% of Chinese grasslands had been closed to grazing, or had been fallowed or zoned for rotational grazing, while 1.6 million severely degraded hectares of grassland were reseeded 54 . Strategies to improve rice yields while reducing greenhouse gas emissions have been promoted. These include encouraging farmers to grow lowemission and high-yield rice breeds, use intermittent irrigation methods and convert straw to a biomass feedstock for the 49 World Bank. 2011a. 50  Meridian. 2011. 51 World Bank. 2011a. 52  Chen andZhang. 2011. 53 National Development andReform Commission. 2009. 54 Ibid. 55 World Bank. 2010c. 56 IFPRI. 2008. production of fuel, products and power. Subsidies for water-saving irrigation technologies, machinery and equipment, as well as for improving crop varieties and industrial systems, have been established. Under the Special Climate Change Fund, pilot projects to develop alternative water sources, adopt water-saving technology and adaptively manage irrigation and drainage have been launched in the Yellow, Huaihe and Haihe river basins, as well as in the Ningxia Hui Region. Successful strategies will be integrated into future national plans. National climate change targets for 2010, such as 15% non-fossil fuel sources for Chinese energy consumption and forest coverage of 40 million hectares, have been encouraged by subsidies, labelling and tax incentives."},{"index":2,"size":257,"text":"Ethiopia: Complementary, predictable long-term response to food insecurity Support to chronically food insecure populations can be designed to protect and create assets at the household and community level, as an alternative to annual emergency food appeals. In Ethiopia, the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) takes a developmentoriented approach to food aid that creates an assured governmental safety net and greater predictability for smallholders 55 . By combining international donor funding (over USD 1.27 billion over the last six years) with government supplied infrastructure, labour and inputs (USD 500,000 annually), the PSNP ensures food access, stimulates markets and rehabilitates natural resources 56 . Chronically food insecure households with able-bodied adults receive transfers of cash and food for their participation in labour-intensive public works, while other households receive unconditional transfers. The public works initiatives improve soil quality, water supply, ecological condition, infrastructure and social services, as prioritised through a participatory watershed planning approach . Now in its third phase and operational in 317 woredas (administrative districts), PSNP is reaching 7.7 million beneficiaries. The PSNP program is associated with a range of successes including graduation of approximately 1.3 million individuals from food insecurity, rehabilitation of 9 million hectares of land, growth in livestock holdings, better access to clean water, and increase in school attendance as well as enhancing the impact of other food security programs 57 . Complementary programs address household asset building, community infrastructure development and resettlement. The World Food Program (WFP) and other partners have developed a unified stream of technical advice and a stakeholder platform provides oversight."}]},{"head":"France: Public health messages promote healthy eating habits","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"Public policy can be used to change unhealthy eating habits. In France, concern about rising levels of childhood obesity and the influence of the fast food industry on consumption habits led the Government to target food advertising. In 2004, France passed public health legislation requiring advertisements for processed food and drink containing added sugar, salt or artificial sweeteners to include health information 58 . Companies that did not include a public health message in advertisements were required to pay a levy of 1.5% of their advertising budget. The levies were channelled to the national institute for health prevention and education. A 2007 study confirmed the link between advertisements and children's eating habits, noting that 89% of all commercials during children's programmes were for products rich in sugar, fat or salt 59 . The study also found that 57% of children did not notice the health messages -usually flashed as a thin band on the screen or as a notice displayed after the advertisement -in advertisements on television and in the cinema. In 2007, the legislation was amended to require health messages to emphasize eating fruits and vegetables, and avoid snacking and eating too many foods high in fat, sugar or salt."}]},{"head":"Better food labels can promote positive changes in diets.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"Photo: IJ Clark India: National guaranteed employment bestows multiple benefits Poverty alleviation programmes can also address environmental sustainability objectives, particularly when they involve locally appropriate, bottom-up planning. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), launched in 2006, now operates in every district in India. In 2010-2011, MGNREGA provided jobs for over 50 million rural households at a cost of USD 9.1 billion. MGNREGA entitles every adult to 100 days a year of minimum wage, unskilled manual employment on public works, such as water management, drought proofing, tree planting, land development and rural connectivity. Village-level government, the Gram Panchayat, proposes projects based on felt needs of local communities and MGNREGA priorities. Over 80% of the projects have contributed to rejuvenating the natural resource base in some way. MGNREGA jobs deliver local environmental services, such as recharging groundwater, enhancing soil fertility and increasing biomass which, in turn, contribute to climate change resilience and mitigation, as well as conserving biodiversity. The right to employment and flexible access to the scheme help small-scale farmers and landless rural households to manage risk. MGNREGA specifies that at least one-third of workers should be women. Flexible working hours that accommodate women's unpaid work and the mandatory presence of women in Gram Panchayat committees mean that women provide more than 50% of the MGNREGA workforce 60 ."}]},{"head":"Kenya: Improving smallholders' market access and production efficiency","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Poverty among smallholder dairy producers results, in part, from poor access to markets and degradation of grasslands. More efficient production and more opportunities to market their produce can boost smallholders' resilience and create sustainable livelihoods while helping to meet growing demand for food. The East Africa Dairy Development Project (EADD) is a regional industry 60 Mahapatra. 2010."}]},{"head":"Rural women in India benefit from guaranteed national employment.","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Photo: UNDP smaller-scale farmers. In 2010, the public insurance agency, Aseguradora Nacional de la Agricultura y Ganadería (ANAGSA), provided traditional and index-based insurance covering more than 8 million hectares -half of the area sown with annual crops and mostly rainfed maize 63 . Farmers who borrow land from the Government, known as ejidatarios, pay much lower premiums than other farmers. Only non-irrigated major crops are eligible 64 . Indexbased insurance to safeguard the livelihoods and assets of poor producers, such as that provided by ANAGSA, usually needs to be subsidised and requires special delivery channels. Schemes to help viable farm businesses manage risk are usually provided by the private sector 65 ."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"Southern Africa: Land tenure reform to empower women farmers Although women in low-income countries play a significant role in food production, they often do not have clear rights to land. This can inhibit their ability to access credit, improve their yields and economic status, or take up sustainable agricultural methods. Since 2009, the Women and Land Rights Project has been implemented by Action Aid in the five southern African countries of Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe 66 . In South Africa, post-apartheid land reform policies and land-related programmes, such as the Settlement/Land Acquisition Grant and the Land Acquisition and Redistribution Programme, present an opportunity for women farmers to establish their rights to own, reside on and cultivate land. However, women encounter obstacles. For example, they may be barred from participating in local decision-making systems affecting land or there may be gender inequities concerning the rights of survivors to land. Several nongovernment organizations (NGOs), such as the Legal Resources Centre and the Association for Rural Advancement, provide legal assistance to advance women's land rights and challenge laws that disadvantage women. In Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal, NGOs have been specifically addressing land issues affecting women through education and leadership development."}]},{"head":"United Kingdom: Reducing emissions and waste in food chains","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Efforts to improve the environmental footprint of food systems can mobilize public-private partnerships. The Climate Change Act of 2008 commits the United Kingdom to an 80% economy-wide reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels by 2050. The agriculture industry's ambitious Greenhouse Gas Action Plan (GHGAP) aims to reduce annual emissions by 3 million tonnes CO 2equivalent by 2018-2022 through strategic delivery of messages, technical advice and information to agricultural producers in all farming systems 67 . GHGAP builds on existing initiatives (for example, the Dairy Roadmap) and brings together whole supply chains, to encourage adoption of farm practices that are more efficient and reduce greenhouse gas emissions while enabling cost Better systems for collecting and storing milk can help smallholder dairy farmers access markets and boost income."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Photo: Gates Foundation 61 www.eadairy.wordpress.com 62  Barrett et al. 2007.  development programme implemented in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda by Heifer International and a consortium of partners that includes the International Livestock Research Institute, the World Agroforestry Centre, Heifer International, TechnoServe and Nestle 61 . Funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the project enhances services and training to boost farm yields and the incomes of millions of smallholders in East Africa. The project, modelled on the 'hub' concept, increases access to markets and reduces postharvest losses. Twenty-seven collection hubs to store and chill milk are being developed. These will be managed by new business associations. Smallholders will receive training in business and production, such as improved breeding technologies and animal nutrition practices to improve the quality of milk."},{"index":3,"size":291,"text":"Mexico: Index-based insurance spurs investment in sustainable agriculture Extreme weather (for example, droughts, floods and heat waves) can not only trigger crises and cause hardship in farming families, but can also inhibit investment in agriculture. Farmers are reluctant to invest in their enterprises in the face of uncertainty and risk. Index-based insurance automatically pays out to farmers when the weather exceeds an established level. There is no need for insurers to make site visits 62 . Making sure farmers receive insurance payments quickly can minimize distress sales of assets. Indexbased insurance also boosts risk tolerance among farmers, banks, microfinance lenders and agricultural industries. In Mexico, risk insurance products are well-developed, especially those targeting 63 Hazell et al. 1986. 64 Fuchs and Wolff. 2011. 65  Hess and Hazell. 2009. 66  Kachika. 2009. 67 GHG emissions -agriculture's action plan. www.nfuonline.com/ghgap/ savings per unit of production and enhancing landscapes and biodiversity. Another UK initiative, the Waste Resources and Action Programme (WRAP) works with businesses, individuals and communities to reduce food waste. Household food and drink waste represents £12 billion in lost value and 20 million tonnes of CO 2 -equivalent in emissions each year 68 . Research by WRAP focuses on ways to cut down the amount of food thrown away by consumers and covers consumer habits, attitudes and behaviours, appropriate ways of communicating to priority audiences and retail innovation. In partnership with WRAP, the grocery sector has made changes to make it easier for consumers to buy the right amount of food, and to optimize freshness and value, as well as to implement largescale consumer-facing campaigns (for example, Love Food Hate Waste). As a result, 670 000 tonnes of food waste have been diverted from landfills, saving £600 million a year 69 ."}]},{"head":"United States: Standard certification informs consumer choices","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"National governments play a key role in certifying and enforcing food standards and labelling to ensure that consumers receive accurate information about the way agricultural products are grown and processed, their nutritional value and their environmental impact. From 1990 to 2010, sales of organic products in the United States grew from USD 1 billion to nearly USD 27 billion 70 . This made certification to verify the claims of organic producers essential. Organic labelling rules introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) require that organic products, whether produced in the US or abroad, meet established standards. These standards include assurance that organic products are produced 68 WRAP. 2011. www.wrap.org.uk 69 Ibid. 70 Organic Trade Association. www.ota.com without antibiotics, pesticides, hormones or bioengineering, and that they adhere to criteria for soil and water conservation as well as animal welfare. Products must be certified as 95% or more organic to display the voluntary USDA organic sticker, or 70% or more organic to be labelled 'made with organic ingredients' 71 . Individuals or companies that sell products with organic labels but do not meet USDA standards can be fined up to USD 10 000 for each violation. Cumbersome certification processes can exclude small-scale organic farmers so USDA certification exempts producers with less than USD 5000 in organic sales (for example, farmers selling limited quantities at farmer's markets)."},{"index":2,"size":294,"text":"Viet Nam: Upscaling techniques to deliver higher yields and climate benefits Agricultural sustainability hinges on development and uptake of farming techniques that simultaneously deliver robust yields and incomes, climate resilience and greenhouse gas mitigation. With a projected 12-14% decline in global rice production by 2050 due to climate change 72 , Integrated Crop Management (ICM) helps farmers to boost production while adapting to climatic changes and resource scarcity . Developed to benefit smallholder farmers, ICM reduces requirements for inputs and labour. In the ICM method, Alternative Wetting and Drying (AWD) and balanced fertilization on paddy fields lowers methane and nitrous dioxide compared to continuous flooding 73 . There is less need for fertilizers and other inputs and so indirect greenhouse gas emissions are minimized. Yield increases are attributed, in part, to more vigorous root systems, and better resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses. In Viet Nam, the ICM programme began in 2002 and, by 2004, already engaged 103,000 farmers in 13 provinces (i.e. 15% of the Mekong Delta area with two rice crops per year). Compared to control sites, these farms saw higher grain yields and significantly reduced use of nitrogen fertilizer, seeds, water and pesticides, leading to considerably lower production costs and higher profits. A recent survey shows that Vietnamese farmers are implementing ICM on more than 1 million hectares. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) has shown positive results in Viet Nam as an ICM alternative method. Oxfam-funded field trials, demonstrations and dissemination, have mobilized farmers to act as local extension agents, and helped to bring SRI to 21 provinces. A 2008 review found 11% higher average SRI yields, 16% lower urea fertiliser use, 45% less frequent pesticide application, 35% reduction in average irrigation expenses, and 50% increases in income 74 ."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"A small scale farmer harvests organic greens, Virginia, USA."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Photo: L Cheung (USDA) 71 USDA. 2011. 72 Nelson et al. 2009. 73 Nguyen et al. 2007. 74 Africare, Oxfam America, WWF-ICRISAT Project."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"2 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2010.3 Foresight. 2007; WHO / FAO. 2003; Haslam and James. 2005. 4 United Nations Population Division. 2010. 5 UNCCD. 2011; Bai et al. 2008. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Projected changes in agricultural production in 2080 due to climate change. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Regional examples of threats from climate change, population growth and unsustainable resource use. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Safe operating space for interconnected food and climate systems. "},{"text":" Photo: P Casier (CCAFS) "},{"text":" Photo: Mann (ILRI) "},{"text":" Photo: N Palmer (CIAT) "},{"text":" 46 www.bom.gov.au/climate 47 www.daff.gov.au/climatechange/australias-farming-future 48 Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. 2011. initiatives are supported by Australia's Farming Future programme which provides information, funding, training and support to help farmers adapt to climate change, including grants targeted at women farmers and 'next generation' farmers 47 . "},{"text":"A Photo: Trees for the Future "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Status of selected global parameters.  People in the world (2011) 10 People in the world (2011) 10 Undernourished people (2010) 11 Undernourished people (2010) 11 Overweight people over age Overweight people over age 20 (2008) 12 20 (2008) 12  "}],"sieverID":"06d6ff43-297b-4288-a767-6ddf3a78524a","abstract":"Disclaimer This report contains the findings of the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. The findings represent the independent views of the authors and should not be interpreted as the views of their institutions or their funders, nor of the CGIAR or the Global Donor Platform for Rural Development."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c5ca52a33b3f55f54b72b1ecfa46339","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4aab35e-6cf4-4655-ad2a-750a0ef1b6f2/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Population dynamics of the predator Alloeocranum biannulipes Montrouzier and Signoret (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) feeding on the larger grain borer, Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), infesting cassava chips","keywords":["Alloeocranum biannulipes","Prostephanus truncatus","pest of cassava chips","Predator/prey interactions","Reproductive capacity"],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"Cassava, Manihot esculenta Crantz, is the fifth root crop in the world and considered the most important food crop behind maize, rice, wheat, and potatoes (FAO, 2017). Cassava plays a major role in the food security of the poorest people in Africa, who produce more than half of the world cassava production (FAO, 2017). In sub-Saharan Africa, cassava is cultivated under a wide range of ecological and agronomic conditions due to its adaptability to relatively marginal soils and erratic rainfall conditions and to its high productivity per unit of land and labor (Spencer and Ezedinma, 2017). Its roots are rich in calories, and its leaves are a good source of protein and minerals (Burns et al. 2012). In Benin, cassava is one of the main priority crops identified by the government for the development of the agricultural sector. This speculation is of great importance in the diet of people in Benin, where its production is estimated at 4, 341,848 tonnes in 2017 (FAO, 2017). In Benin, cassava is consumed under various forms and therefore has become a commodity crop by marketing many its derivatives, thereby contributing to poverty reduction (Hongbété et al. 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":256,"text":"However, despite its nutritional and economic importance, the cultivation of cassava in Benin remains subject to many abiotic and biotic constraints (Agre et al. 2015). The high perishability of fresh cassava roots remains the main constraint for their post-harvest use (Chijindu and Boateng, 2008) and accounts among the main reasons for the loss of diversity in Benin (Agre et al. 2015). Indeed, after harvest, cassava roots cannot be stored for more than 4 days because of post-harvest physiological deterioration (Buschmann et al. 2000). To overcome these constraints, harvested cassava roots are traditionally processed into many derivatives including chips. Unfortunately, cassava chips are often severely attacked by some stored product insects that can reduce whole stocks of chips into powder in a few months, thereby rendering it unfit for human consumption and sale (Chijindu and Boateng, 2008). Among the diversity of insect pests of stored cassava chips, the larger grain borer Protephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) is the most widespread in Benin and the most important in terms of damage caused (Gnonlonfin et al. 2008). Losses due to P. truncatus are significant and can reach 40 to 50% of stored cassava chips after just 3 months of storage (Hell et al. 2006). To preserve stored cassava chips, farmers usually use synthetic insecticides that apply to cotton (Hell et al. 2006). As a result, farmers and consumers are often poisoned, leading to death as reported by Ton et al. (2000). It urges, therefore, to seek/for alternative control methods that preserve the environment and protect farmers' and consumers' health."},{"index":3,"size":286,"text":"Biological control through the use of predators is widely recognized as an effective control method for regulating insect pest populations (Eneh, 2011). Since P. truncatus is an exotic invasive pest originating from Latin America, there have been attempts in West Africa to introduce biological control agents from the area of origin, notably the predator Teretrius nigrescens Lewis (Borgemeister et al. 2003). However, the introduced predator seemed to be more adapted to forest habitats than storage structures and thus was subsequently unable to disperse and control P. truncatus by itself (Borgemeister et al. 1997), unless used in augmentative releases (Hell et al. 2006). A biological control agent of P. truncatus better adapted to storage structures may well be the generalist predator Alloeocranum biannulipes Montrouzier and Signoret (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). Several studies have shown that A. biannulipes is an important predator of stored commodity insect pests such as Dinoderus porcellus Lesne (Loko et al. 2017) and Tribolium confusum du Val (Awadallah et al. 1984) that also occur in stored cassava chips (Schäfer et al. 2000;Gnonlonfin et al. 2008). It would therefore be interesting to evaluate the potential of A. biannulipes as a biological control agent for P. truncatus. One such evaluation could be through the study of its functional and numerical responses (Lester and Harmsen, 2002;Rahman et al. 2012) to P. truncatus populations in cassava chips. Indeed, functional and numerical responses are used to determine whether a predator can be a good biocontrol agent. The functional response of a predator describes the relationship between the numbers of prey attacked at different prey densities, while the numerical response is defined as the change in the reproductive capacity of a predator at different densities of the prey (Rahman et al. 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"The present study aimed, therefore, at provide such quantitative information on the ability of A. biannulipes to control P. truncatus in stored cassava chips in Benin. The results herein may assist to develop an integrated pest management, IPM, program to control P. truncatus larvae, and pupae in infected cassava chips."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rearing technique","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Adults of the prey pest, P. truncatus, were obtained from samples of cassava chips collected in farmers' storage structures at Lamougo village in the Municipality of Dassa-Zoumé (latitude 7°41′ 33″ N and longitude 2°1 3′ 25″ E), Benin. The collected adult insects were raised in one-ended plastic boxes (9.5 × 6.5 cm 2 , height per diameter) containing sterilized cassava chips. The open-end of the rearing plastic boxes was covered with muslin and held in place by elastic strings to allow adequate ventilation and prevent the insects from escaping."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"The plastic boxes containing the insects were shelved in the laboratory under ambient conditions at 25 ± 2 °C, 45-65% RH, and 12L:12D cycle. After 7 days, the parent-adult P. truncatus was removed from the rearing boxes, and newly emerged adults were collected to be used in the bioassay study."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"Adults of the predator A. biannulipes were collected from stored rice at Magoumi (latitude 8°10′ 26″ N and longitude 2°13′ 59″ E), a village in the Municipality of Glazoué, Benin. They were reared in experimental plastic boxes (9.5 × 6.5 cm 2 height per diameter) containing cassava chips infested with P. truncatus. Five hundred grams of cassava chips was placed in each plastic box in which 100 adult P. truncatus of undetermined age and sex were transferred. Two weeks later, 10 adults A. biannulipes of undetermined age and sex were added to plastic boxes containing the infested cassava chips. Every 2 weeks thereafter, adult female predators were removed from the rearing boxes and used in the experiments."},{"index":4,"size":215,"text":"Functional response of A. biannulipes to P. truncatus Evaluation of the functional response of the predator A. biannulipes feeding on larvae and pupae of P. truncatus was made according to the methodology described by Loko et al. (2017). The larvae and pupae of P. truncatus were collected by breaking infested cassava chips with a handheld mortar and placed in plastic boxes (3.5 cm diameter × 3 cm height). Adults of both sexes of the predator (2-4 days old) were starved for 24 h (Sing and Arbogast, 2008;Rahman et al. 2009) and transferred individually into plastic boxes, where P. truncatus larvae or pupae have been introduced 2 h ago, (Atlıhan et al. 2010). Plastic boxes used for the control treatment were maintained without any predators to record the natural mortality of P. truncatus. Experiments were conducted with P. truncatus at various densities, i.e., 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 for larvae (Rahman et al. 2009;Farhadi et al. 2015) and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 for pupae (Rahman et al. 2009;Sahayaraj et al. 2015). The experiment was repeated 6 times for each prey density. After 24 h, the number of prey killed by the predator was recorded daily for 7 consecutive days, while replacing prey killed at the target density (Rahman et al. 2009)."}]},{"head":"Numerical response of A. biannulipes to P. truncatus","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"The numerical response of A. biannulipes to P. truncatus larvae or pupae was evaluated according to the methodology described by Sabaghi et al. (2011), with slight modifications. Five females of A. biannulipes (2-4 days old) were individually paired with an adult male in Petri dishes (9 cm diameter × 2 cm height) to allow mating (Omkar and Pervez, 2004). The ejection of spermatophore capsules by mated females confirmed successful copulation (Ambrose et al. 2009). After mating, the females were isolated in Petri dishes and starved for 24 h. Subsequently, they were exposed to 6 different densities of P. truncatus larvae (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10)  and of pupae (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) (Rahman et al. 2009). After 24 h, the females were removed from the Petri dishes, and the number of eggs laid and prey consumed were recorded. Observations were made for 7 consecutive days with the same prey densities (Rahman et al. 2012). The number of replicates was 6 at each prey density."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"To determine the type of functional response exhibited by A. biannulipes to P. truncatus, the data were analyzed in 2 steps as suggested by Allahyari et al. (2004) and using the SAS 9.3 Analysis Software (SAS, 2009). In a first step, a logistic regression of the proportion of P. truncatus larvae or pupae killed (N a /N 0 ) as a function of initial density (N 0 ) was used to determine the type of response of A. biannulipes. For this purpose, the cubic model in the logistic regression analysis was used (Juliano, 2001;Xue et al. 2009;Butt and Xaaceph, 2015), according to the following formula:"},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"where P 0 , P 1 , P 2 , and P 3 are the constants of linear, quadratic, and cubic coefficients, respectively. A value of P 1 that does not differ significantly from zero indicates type I functional response (Juliano, 2001). A significant negative P 1 value describes type II functional response, while a positive P 1 value describes a type III functional response (Butt and Xaaceph, 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"The second step consisted of modeling the relationship between the number of prey consumed (N a ) and the initial prey density (N 0 ) in order to estimate the instantaneous searching time or attack rate (a) and the handling time (T h ). Estimations of these two parameters of a functional response were made using the Holling (1959) type I model and the type III model of Hassell et al. (1977):"},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"where a is the instantaneous search time or attack rate, T h is the handling time by prey density, T is the total exposure time of P. truncatus larvae or pupae (24 h), N a represents the number of prey consumed, and N 0 is the initial prey density."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Nonlinear regression was performed to estimate the parameters a and T h (Xue et al. 2009). For this, the values of a and T h required by the nonlinear regression method were found by linear regression of N a /N 0 . The resulting intercept is the initial estimate of T h , and conversely the regression coefficient (slope) is an estimate of a (Livdahl and Stiven, 1983). These first estimates were refined by the NLR method."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"Variation in the number of prey killed by the predator with density was assessed by ANOVA using the IBM SPSS 25 statistical analysis software. The data submitted to ANOVA were log-transformed before by hand to ensure the homogenization of the variances. Significant differences between the means were separated using the Student Newman Keuls test (P ≤ 0.05)."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"The efficiency of conversion of ingested feed (ECI) to egg biomass at different prey densities was calculated using the following formula described by Omkar and Pervez (2004):"},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"Data on oviposition and ECI by A. biannulipes at different prey densities were fitted using regression analysis to determine the relationship between oviposition and prey density and ECI and prey density."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Functional response of A. biannulipes to P. truncatus"},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The predator A. biannulipes feed on P. truncatus larvae and pupae as well as on other stored products insect pests such as Dinoderus porcellus (Loko et al. 2017), Tribolium confusum, Corcyra cephalonica, and Anagasta kuehniella (Awadallah et al. 1984). Predation on P. truncatus larvae by A. biannulipes differed significantly among larval prey densities (Table 1). Though the predation gradually increased along with the increase in prey  density, it decreased beyond the density of 8 (Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":231,"text":"The relationship between the percentage of larvae consumed by A. biannulipes and the different larval densities offered was expressed by a polynomial equation with a regression coefficient of R 2 = 0.858 (Fig. 1). Functional response of A. biannulipes to P. truncatus larvae fitted a Holling's type I functional response (Table 3). The adults A. biannulipes consume a constant proportion of P. truncatus larvae with larval densities increasing until the predator's killing ability is saturated (Ofuya and Akingbohungbe, 1988). Indeed, although the sign of the linear term was negative, it was non-significant (P > 0.05). A type I functional response was also exhibited by other Hemipterans such as Orius insidiosus and Nabis capsiformis fed on bollworm eggs (Parajulee et al. 2006). This type I functional response exhibited by A. biannulipes is surprising, however, because alike the majority of Reduviidae, when this predator feeds on D. porcellus larvae it had exhibited a type II functional response (Loko et al. 2017). However, the negative value of the linear (P 1 ) parameter, which showed that the proportion of prey consumed declines monotonically with the initial prey density, indicated a tendency towards a type II functional response (Patel and Zhang, 2017). In fact, the transition from a type I functional response to type II can be influenced by environmental conditions, temperature and relative humidity, host plant, prey type, and density (Mohaghegh et al. 2001)."},{"index":4,"size":272,"text":"The present results report that A. biannulipes consumed more P. truncatus pupae than larvae. However, this was the reverse when this predator was fed on D. porcellus larvae and pupae (Loko et al. 2017). This  preference for P. truncatus pupae could be due to its large size and high-energy content compared to larvae (Demianyk and Sinha, 1988). Indeed, Cogni et al. (2002) showed that for the predator Zelus longipes, a large prey item represented the most profitable prey in terms of energy gained. The number of P. truncatus pupae consumed by A. biannulipes did not differ significantly among prey densities (Table 2). Percentage of P. truncatus pupae consumed at varying densities was fitted using nonlinear regression of R 2 = 0.3814 (Fig. 2). The percentage of prey consumed was positively densitydependent, and the positive linear parameter (P 1 ) and the negative quadratic parameter (P 2 ) were significant, thereby indicating that the type III functional response would provide the best description of A. biannulipes attack on P. truncatus pupae (Table 3). This type III functional response is characterized by significantly lower proportional prey mortality at low prey densities than at high prey densities. This indicates that in a biological control program, A. biannulipes may be more effective in controlling P. truncatus populations with high densities of pupae. In fact, according to Holling (1965), a type III functional response allows long-term persistence of the predator, which contributes to regulating the population of their prey. A type III functional response was also observed in other reduviid bugs such as Z. longipes feeding on adults and nymphs of Diaphorina citri (Navarrete et al. 2014)."},{"index":5,"size":119,"text":"The estimated parameters of functional response are good indicators of the predation rate, and predatory efficiency respectively are presented in Table 4. Handling time of A. biannulipes estimated was lower than that estimated, when fed on D. porcellus larvae (Loko et al., 2017). Moreover, it has been proven that the difference in handling time may be due to several abiotic factors that influence the time for capturing, paralyzing, killing, and digesting the prey (Cogni et al. 2002). The attack rate of A. biannulipes was lower when it fed on larvae than pupae of P. truncatus (Table 4). These attack rates of A. biannulipes were lower than those reported feeding on D. porcellus larvae and pupae (Loko et al. 2017)."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"These comparisons revealed that A. biannulipes could be a better biological control agent against D. porcellus than P. truncatus. In the present study, the maximum level of attack by A. biannulipes was estimated at 68.18 P. truncatus pupae per individual predator within a 24-h period, giving an indication of the number of predators that have to be introduced in stored cassava chips to improve the control of this pest based on prey density."}]},{"head":"Numerical response of A. biannulipes to P. truncatus","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Oviposition by A. biannulipes increased with larval density, but a declining trend was noticed at higher densities (Table 5). In contrast, the number of egg hatched was 9.50 ± 2.95, and adult emerged were 7.33 ± 1.36 per female predator were higher at the lowest larval density. Although A. biannulipes significantly consumed more P. truncatus larvae with increasing of larvae density, the number of eggs laid by females, eggs hatched, and adult emerged did not significantly change among the  different larval densities (Table 5). The nonlinear regression between the total number of laid by A. biannulipes female and the different densities of P. truncatus larvae was not significant (R 2 = 0.285, P > 0.05) (Fig. 3)."},{"index":2,"size":225,"text":"The number of eggs laid by A. biannulipes feeding on P. truncatus larvae during 24 h reached its peak at the highest prey density (10 larvae/predator). The correlation coefficient between the number of P. truncatus larvae consumed and the number of eggs laid by A. biannulipes was non-significant (Fig. 4). This proves that there was no correlation between the number of P. truncatus larvae consumed and the number of eggs laid by A. biannulipes. The curve of the efficiency of food conversion into eggs by A. biannulipes female showed a significantly varying trend with prey densities (df = 35, F = 20.138, P < 0.000); it increased at low prey density, whereas it decreased at high density of P. truncatus larvae (Fig. 5). The present results showed that when A. biannulipes was fed on P. truncatus larvae there was a rapid and a significant increase in oviposition at low densities, but the oviposition rate declined gradually at high densities. This numerical response of A. biannulipes was also observed in Rhynocoris fuscipes (Ambrose and Claver, 1997). The lower numerical response at higher larval densities implies that A. bannulipes would be unable to keep up with the growth of a P. truncatus population if infestation should occur. Therefore, inoculative releases of A. biannulipes would be required to prevent P. truncatus development in the early cassava chips infestation."},{"index":3,"size":309,"text":"The maximum number of eggs laid by A. biannulipes female fed on P. truncatus pupae was observed at the highest pupal density. The maximum number of hatched eggs and the maximum number of emerged adults per female were recorded (Table 6). It was observed that A. bianulipes consumed significantly more P. truncatus pupae with increasing of pupal density. Likewise, the number of eggs laid and eggs hatched per A. biannulipes female were density-dependant (Table 6). The densitydependent fecundity was also observed in Dicrodiplosis manihoti that fed on eggs of the mealybug Planococcus citri (Al-Zubaidy and Al-Shammari, 2017). However, the number of young A. biannulipes adults that emerged did not significantly differ with increasing pupal density (Table 6). The relationship between number of pupae consumed (x) and number of eggs laid (y) by A. biannulipes  was nonlinear and can be represented by the regression equation presented on Fig. 6. The average number of eggs laid per female per day was negatively correlated with the number of P. truncatus pupae consumed per day (Fig. 7). Moreover, the efficiency of food conversion into eggs for A. biannulipes female did not vary significantly with increasing prey density. The better digestion and assimilation of nutrients contained in P. truncatus pupae could explain the high conversion levels of ingested food into eggs by A. biannulipes (Fig. 8). In fact, it is known that ingested food conversion depends both on the predator's ability to digest and assimilate the consumed food and on the allocation (maintenance, growth, reproduction) of assimilated nutrients (Hodek et al. 2012). The results showed that the functional and numerical responses of A. biannulipes female fed on P. truncatus pupae are inter-linked, in which prey biomass consumed by the predator is directly used for egg production. This also implies that P. truncatus pupae could be used for a longterm mass production of A. biannulipes."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"A. biannulipes predation on P. truncatus larvae and pupae in infested cassava chips were best described by a type I and III functional responses, respectively. A. biannulipes can effectively control P. truncatus larvae at low densities and pupae at low and high densities. The increased P. truncatus pupae consumption tends to enhance the numerical response of A. biannulipes by enhancement of its progeny production. The obtained results conclude that A. biannulipes can be an efficient biological control agent of P. truncatus in stored cassava chips. The predator/prey interaction could be used among the control solutions of large grain borer, as it is eco-environmental friendly method. However, further studies under on-farm storage conditions are needed to evaluate the suppressive of A. biannulipes on P. truncatus populations."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Fig. 8 Relationship between of ingested feed conversion (ECI) to egg biomass of A. biannulipes at varying densities of P. truncatus pupae"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Mean proportion of P. truncatus pupae consumed by A. biannulipes at six different densities "},{"text":"Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Total number of eggs laid by A. biannulipes females at different densities of P. truncatus larvae "},{"text":"Fig. Fig. Relationship between efficiency of ingested feed conversion (ECI) to egg biomass of A. biannulipes at varying densities of P. truncatus larvae "},{"text":"Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Total number of eggs laid A. biannulipes females at different densities of P. truncatus pupae "},{"text":"Table 1 Mean number of P. truncatus larvae killed in 24 h by A. biannulipes in function of density Prey Number of Number of ANOVA PreyNumber ofNumber ofANOVA density prey killed observations  densityprey killedobservations  Mean ± S.E.   Mean ± S.E. 1 0.02 ± 0.12a 60 df = 359 10.02 ± 0.12a60df = 359 2 0.05 ± 0.22a 60 F = 4.418 P < 0.001 20.05 ± 0.22a60F = 4.418 P < 0.001 4 0.15 ± 0.57ab 60  40.15 ± 0.57ab60 6 0.25 ± 0.50b 60  60.25 ± 0.50b60 8 0.32 ± 0.65b 60  80.32 ± 0.65b60 10 0.13 ± 0.38ab 60  100.13 ± 0.38ab60 Mean values followed by different letters within each column differ  Mean values followed by different letters within each column differ significantly (P < 0.05)   significantly (P < 0.05)  "},{"text":"Table 2 Mean number of P. truncatus pupae killed in 24 h by the predator A. biannulipes in function of density Prey Mean number Number of ANOVA PreyMean numberNumber ofANOVA density of prey killed observation  densityof prey killedobservation  Mean ± S.E.   Mean ± S.E. 1 0.10 ± 0.30a 60 df = 359 10.10 ± 0.30a60df = 359 2 0.27 ± 0.57a 60 F = 1.205 P > 0.05 20.27 ± 0.57a60F = 1.205 P > 0.05 3 0.38 ± 0.84a 60  30.38 ± 0.84a60 4 0.38 ± 0.90a 60  40.38 ± 0.90a60 5 0.43 ± 1.09a 60  50.43 ± 1.09a60 6 0.58 ± 1.45a 60  60.58 ± 1.45a60 Mean values followed by different letters within each column differ  Mean values followed by different letters within each column differ significantly (P < 0.05)   significantly (P < 0.05)  "},{"text":"Table 3 Maximum likelihood estimates from logistic regression of the proportion of P. truncatus larvae and pupae eaten by A. biannulipes as a function of initial prey density Stage Parameters Estimates Standard error t value P Best-fit model StageParametersEstimatesStandard errort valuePBest-fit model Larvae Intercept (P 0 ) 3.036 2.598 1.17 0.363  LarvaeIntercept (P 0 )3.0362.5981.170.363  Linear (P 1 ) − 3.160 2.157 − 1.46 0.280  Linear (P 1 )− 3.1602.157− 1.460.280  Quadratic (P 2 ) 1.672 0.454 3.68 0.066 Type I Quadratic (P 2 )1.6720.4543.680.066Type I  Cubic (P 3 ) − 0.130 0.027 − 4.81 0.040  Cubic (P 3 )− 0.1300.027− 4.810.040 Pupae Intercept (P 0 ) − 17.000 4.769 − 3.56 0.070 Type III PupaeIntercept (P 0 )− 17.0004.769− 3.560.070Type III  Linear (P 1 ) 29.638 5.434 5.45 0.032  Linear (P 1 )29.6385.4345.450.032  Quadratic (P 2 ) − 7.666 1.739 − 4.41 0.047  Quadratic (P 2 )− 7.6661.739− 4.410.047  Cubic (P 3 ) 0.694 0.164 4.23 0.051  Cubic (P 3 )0.6940.1644.230.051  "},{"text":"Table 4 Estimated values for A. biannulipes feeding on P. truncatus larvae and pupae  Parameters Type Estimation Standard 95% confidence intervals R 2 ParametersTypeEstimationStandard95% confidence intervalsR 2     error Lower Upper  errorLowerUpper Larvae a (h −1 ) I 0.027 0.010 0.007 0.048 0.10 Larvaea (h −1 )I0.0270.0100.0070.0480.10 Pupae a (h −1 ) III 0.125 0.031 0.064 0.187 0.35 Pupaea (h −1 )III0.1250.0310.0640.1870.35  T h  0.352 0.097 2.017 3.722  T h0.3520.0972.0173.722 a the instantaneous search time or attack, T h the handling time by prey density     a the instantaneous search time or attack, T h the handling time by prey density  "},{"text":"Table 5 Numerical response of predator A. biannulipes feeding on P. truncatus larvae at various densities Prey Mean ± S.E./female    PreyMean ± S.E./female density Prey consumed Eggs laid Eggs hatched Adults densityPrey consumedEggs laidEggs hatchedAdults 1 2.83 ± 0.40a 25.00 ± 3.84a 9.50 ± 2.95a 7.33 ± 1.36a 12.83 ± 0.40a25.00 ± 3.84a9.50 ± 2.95a7.33 ± 1.36a 2 4.33 ± 0.51b 24.83 ± 1.83a 8.00 ± 1.54a 6.17 ± 1.94a 24.33 ± 0.51b24.83 ± 1.83a8.00 ± 1.54a6.17 ± 1.94a 4 5.83 ± 0.98c 26.83 ± 2.78a 7.33 ± 1.63a 4.17 ± 1.72a 45.83 ± 0.98c26.83 ± 2.78a7.33 ± 1.63a4.17 ± 1.72a 6 6.67 ± 0.51cd 27.00 ± 2.60a 8.83 ± 1.72a 6.17 ± 0.98a 66.67 ± 0.51cd27.00 ± 2.60a8.83 ± 1.72a6.17 ± 0.98a 8 7.50 ± 1.04de 23.83 ± 5.11a 6.17 ± 2.48a 4.00 ± 2.19a 87.50 ± 1.04de23.83 ± 5.11a6.17 ± 2.48a4.00 ± 2.19a 10 8.17 ± 0.98e 25.00 ± 8.85a 8.00 ± 1.67a 4.67 ± 1.75a 108.17 ± 0.98e25.00 ± 8.85a8.00 ± 1.67a4.67 ± 1.75a ANOVA df = 35 df = 35 df = 35 df = 35 ANOVAdf = 35df = 35df = 35df = 35  F = 52.414 F = 0.432 F = 2.084 F = 2.576 F = 52.414F = 0.432F = 2.084F = 2.576  P < 0.000 P > 0.05 P > 0.05 P > 0.05 P < 0.000P > 0.05P > 0.05P > 0.05  "},{"text":"Table 6 Numerical response of predator A. biannulipes feeding on P. truncatus pupae at various densities Prey Mean ± S.E./female    PreyMean ± S.E./female density Prey consumed Eggs laid Eggs hatched Adults densityPrey consumedEggs laidEggs hatchedAdults 1 0.50 ± 0.54a 23.83 ± 0.98bc 11.00 ± 1.67ab 9.17 ± 2.78a 10.50 ± 0.54a23.83 ± 0.98bc11.00 ± 1.67ab9.17 ± 2.78a 2 0.83 ± 0.40ab 23.33 ± 3.01abc 9.83 ± 1.72a 8.17 ± 1.16a 20.83 ± 0.40ab23.33 ± 3.01abc9.83 ± 1.72a8.17 ± 1.16a 3 0.83 ± 0.40ab 20.67 ± 1.63a 11.67 ± 2.94ab 8.50 ± 2.58a 30.83 ± 0.40ab20.67 ± 1.63a11.67 ± 2.94ab8.50 ± 2.58a 4 1.00 ± 0.00ab 20.50 ± 2.25a 9.50 ± 2.88a 7.83 ± 1.16a 41.00 ± 0.00ab20.50 ± 2.25a9.50 ± 2.88a7.83 ± 1.16a 5 1.00 ± 0.00ab 21.17 ± 1.16ab 11.67 ± 2.50ab 8.83 ± 1.60a 51.00 ± 0.00ab21.17 ± 1.16ab11.67 ± 2.50ab8.83 ± 1.60a 6 1.67 ± 0.51b 24.83 ± 2.40c 14.67 ± 1.36b 10.33 ± 1.50a 61.67 ± 0.51b24.83 ± 2.40c14.67 ± 1.36b10.33 ± 1.50a ANOVA df = 35 df = 35 df = 35 df = 35 ANOVAdf = 35df = 35df = 35df = 35  F = 4.222 F = 4.989 F = 3.879 F = 1.123 F = 4.222F = 4.989F = 3.879F = 1.123  P < 0.05 P < 0.05 P < 0.05 P > 0.05 P < 0.05P < 0.05P < 0.05P > 0.05  "}],"sieverID":"77a843e3-db5a-4bd0-b5b0-236bf05adc08","abstract":"Functional and numerical responses of adult females of the predatory bug Alloeocranum biannulipes Montrouzier and Signoret (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) to density changes of the larger grain borer, Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), infesting cassava chips were investigated under laboratory conditions. Starved predators were exposed to different prey density as treatments with 6 replicates. Numbers of prey consumed, eggs laid, and adults emerged as well as the hatching rates were recorded daily. When feeding on the larvae of P. truncatus, consumption increased linearly (R 2 = 0.858) with the increase in larval density. At the highest pupal density of 6 P. truncatus pupae per predator, A. biannulipes adult showed the highest consumption rates (1.67 pupae). The Holling's type I and III functional responses were observed when A. biannulipes consumed P. truncatus larvae and pupae, respectively. The attack of the predator estimated to 0.027 h −1 for larvae and 0.125 h −1 for pupae. The handling time spent on pupae by the adult predator was 0.352 h with a theoretical daily maximum predation (T/T h ) of 68.18 pupae of P. truncatus. The numerical response of A. biannulipes was positively linked to pupal density, with more eggs laid per female, and higher hatching rate when exposed to higher prey densities. Efficiency of food conversion into eggs by A. biannulipes increased with decreasing larval densities and remained constant with increasing pupal densities. These functional and numerical responses exhibited by A. biannulipes suggest that this predator can effectively control P. truncatus larvae at low densities and pupae both at low and high densities. Therefore, A. biannulipes could be a good candidate for the biological control of P. truncatus."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c89caa8c7286aa960bd2286d07feb15","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4384/16248383fded06ad998a1b58e798f866.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Strong Women, Strong Nation","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Innovative research in the Southeast Asian island nation of Timor-Leste has obtained data to help close the gender gap and provide food security for the local community"}]},{"head":"Timor-Leste","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"GEnDER","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"This article is by Joctan dos Reis Lopes ([email protected]), Agustinha Duarte ([email protected]), research analysts with WorldFish Center, Timor-Leste, and Alexander Tilley ([email protected]), scientist with WorldFish Center, Malaysia I n October 2018, Leocaldia de Araujo, a fisherwoman from a village of 300 people at the northern tip of Timor-Leste's Atauro Island, stepped quietly but confidently on to a stage in the capital, Dili. She was representing women fishers and fishworkers at the National Fisher Forum, the largest fisheries-focused gathering in Timor-Leste since independence. Her presence in front of a predominantly male crowd represented the start of a change taking place in Timor-Leste and its fisheries. She referred to herself and her community as an example of ami povu ki'ik (the poor and marginalized) that need to be heard."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"\"We understand the need to manage marine resources,\" de Araujo said. \"They provide us with food and income, and we are an important part of this chain. We can help to manage them for our families and for the next generation to come.\""},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Timor-Leste is a half-island nation at the eastern end of the Indonesian archipelago. It gained independence from Indonesia in 1999. More than 80 per cent of the population lives in rural areas, relying on agriculture; about 60 per cent of the population is deprived of food security; and 50 per cent of the children here are malnourished due to poor dietary diversity. The country's fishing fleet is small and almost entirely artisanal, comprising paddle canoes and small motor boats that target reef and nearshore pelagic fish stocks with gillnets and hand lines."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"A local saying was coined to capture the contribution of women in the long and costly journey to independence from portuguese colonization and Indonesian invasion: Feto forte, nasaun forte, meaning 'strong women, strong nation'. yet, the norms that shape Timorese societal interactions contradict this sentiment, representing barriers to gender equality. Fisheries SSF Guidelines reinforce that fisheries actors and programmes at all scales need to recognize women as equal contributors to small-scale fisheries value chains."},{"index":5,"size":121,"text":"are no different. Globally, the smallscale fisheries sector conjures images of men in boats. This is being gradually dismantled as more inclusive systems of fisheries governance come into force. The FAO Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and poverty Eradication (the SSF Guidelines) highlights that gender equality is an essential dimension of effective fisheries governance. In doing so, the SSF Guidelines reinforce that fisheries actors and programmes at all scales need to recognize women as equal contributors to small-scale fisheries and drivers of local economies through their engagement in all nodes of the sector's value chains. This relies on overcoming gender data gaps in fisheries as well as addressing gender barriers at all scales."}]},{"head":"trust and acceptance","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Inclusive governance implies that decision-making does not merely give all stakeholders the opportunity to participate, but rather recognizes that resource users-of all gendersare the end-point at which success or failure is measured. The legitimacy of rules and regulations in fisheries management is directly related to the trust and acceptance in the process of all resource users, from all gender and socioeconomic groups."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Fisheries in Timor-Leste have, until recently, focused exclusively on 'men on boats'. However, new research is t i M o r -l e s t e j. dos reis lopes / worldfish women processing sardines for local fish-based products. fishing provides both a direct source of nutritious food and an income for various members of the household through diverse means of processing."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"helping to close the gap on gender data . The research is highlighting the extensive engagement of women and their contributions to the country's fisheries, and the distributive flows of aquatic foods to households and within social networks. In contrast to the national census data showing five per cent of coastal households were engaged in fishing, new research that includes the activities of women and subsistence fisheries suggests this could be as high as 80 per cent of households in many poor coastal areas."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"This evidence underscores the need for greater gender equality in data, as well as delivering better on gender in policy and programmes. Moreover, the improved gender data is driving a new appreciation of the critical connection between coastal fisheries and rural food security, especially in times of shock. This has brought a new political will and momentum to the Timor-Leste fisheries sector. It is being used to push for broader development goals."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"Five examples illustrate the important types of fishing that the women of Timor-Leste practise. These can be compared to the sector stereotype of offshore fishing by men on boats. As critical as these are, they are often overlooked in sector reporting, policy and programme development."},{"index":6,"size":116,"text":"In Atauro Island, traditional spearfishing with handmade wooden goggles and a Hawaiian sling has been used for over a century by small groups of women targeting reef fish and collecting clams and shells in the fringing reef habitats. These are the 'mermaids' of Timor-Leste, the female divers or Wawata Topu who, for four generations, have been striving to catch their living from the sea. The knowledge and skill of spearfishing has been passed down from generation to generation. Aquatic foods are integral to the diet here, just as fishing is to the culture. Fishing provides both a direct source of nutritious food and an income for various members of the household through different means of processing."},{"index":7,"size":210,"text":"The second example is that of women heavily engaged in cultivating seaweed throughout the year in coastal villages, where the conditions are suitable. They spend hours exposed to the sun while wading along the lines of seaweed, tied to ropes lying parallel to the shore. Their task is to clean up debris and algae that catch on the lines and to tie up the ropes to protect them from strong currents. The seaweed (Kappaphycus and Eucheuma spp.) is harvested regularly, almost weekly, then preserved in bags or baskets made of dried palm leaves or laid out in the sun to dry. Every Saturday it is transported by boat or local motorbike rickshaw (tiga roda) along the rough road to the local market (basar). The women traders who cannot afford to pay for transport have to walk for hours along the coastal cliffs with their products on their heads or shoulders. The seaweeds sold locally are mostly fresh and uncooked (unprocessed), for use in a local recipe called budutasi; it comprises seaweed mixed with local ingredients such as lemon juice, chilli pepper, garlic and tamarind. The export market value for dried seaweed is very low, but represents an important source of income for these isolated communities where cash crops are scarce."},{"index":8,"size":125,"text":"Gleaning is the third example, one of the most popular fishing activities in Timor-Leste. Women and children catch and collect molluscs, crabs, seaweed, fish and octopi found in the intertidal zones, mangroves and other shallow habitats at low tide. A recently published article, titled \"Contribution of women's fisheries substantial, but overlooked, in Timor-Leste,\" highlighted that while gleaners are not landing large catches, they usually come home with something. Traditionally, male fishers, on the other hand, spend much longer at sea and have lower catch rates. The impact of continual gleaning activities on reefs near communities are likely to be substantial, but crucially, the gleaners actively surveying these resources on a daily basis have detailed and unmatched knowledge of their dynamic ecology across space and time."}]},{"head":"Women and children","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"As such, it makes sense that their potential contribution to management of these resources be recognized in the formal structures of governance. One way this can occur is through comanagement, where stewardship of resources is a collaboration between communities and government or other institutions. Recent research evaluated the fit of co-management for Timorese fisheries. There are some very positive indications that it can provide a mechanism for inclusive governance by building on the local practice of setting local laws around the ritual practice of tara bandu, which prohibits nominated activities under threat of spiritual and material sanctions."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"The fisheries sector and its value chains in Timor-Leste are predominantly informal. As such, there is little recognition that many of the traders at the village level are women. Women are active as traders, buying and selling fresh and dried aquatic foods, making and selling local traditional dishes, and making crafts and ornaments from shells (like necklaces and rings from molluscs, bivalves and gastropods). Barbecued fish is the most common accompaniment for Katupa, an iconic local preparation of rice wrapped into woven coconut leaves and cooked with fresh coconut oil. Fish and katupa stands line the main roads through small villages in Timor-Leste. They represent an important node in the value chain between fishers and consumers."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"In Beacou, a small village near the western border of Timor-Leste's north coast, a women's group has developed fish-based products as a social enterprise aimed at improving nutrition through improved access to fish. This is especially important for lactating women and children under two years of age; it ensures a child's diet is diverse enough to provide sufficient micronutrients for development. The fish powder is a combination of fish, marungi leaves (Moringa oleifera), dried shrimp, roasted sesame seeds and spices. Another product from the group is preserved sardines in jars. These products have begun to be bought and distributed by local supermarkets in the capital, Dili, since 2019."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"To track the progress of countries in achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the objectives of the SSF Guidelines, a first step is an evidence-based understanding of Women fish, grow seaweed, trade, manage households and raise children in Timor-Leste."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"t i M o r -l e s t e how all genders, not only men, engage in, and contribute to, the fisheries sector and its outcomes, activities and contributions. The extensive and critical contributions of fisheries activities where women predominate have been overlooked in national data and evidence for policy and programme development to date."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"This highlights the need for genderintegrated instruments in national fisheries monitoring and management. Women fish, grow seaweed, trade, manage households and raise children in Timor-Leste. But gender dynamics and barriers, including constraining norms, continue to drive gender data gaps. Moreover, these power asymmetries and imbalances produce inequalities in governance in the sector from local to national scales."},{"index":7,"size":87,"text":"The work of WorldFish and partners, with fishers like Leocaldia, shows that there is an opportunity to use data and participatory research to highlight these gender barriers and gaps, using evidence and innovative approaches to transform the sector towards one that is inclusive and promotes the improved well-being of all fishers and fishworkers. Feto forte, nasaun forte are words to stand behind as we set our sights on achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. It should be a call to action across all sectors in Timor-Leste, including fisheries. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" j. dos reis lopes / worldfish timorese girls gleaning along the shore. women and children catch and collect molluscs, crabs, seaweed, fish and octopi found in the intertidal zones, mangroves and other shallow habitats at low tide. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/ s13280-020-01335-7 Contribution of women's fisheries substantial, but overlooked, in Timor-Leste http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7419e.pdf Towards genderhttps://extranet.who.int/nutrition/gina/ sites/default/files/tLS%202014%20 national%20nutrition%20Strategy.pdf Timor-Leste national nutrition Strategy 2014-2019 for more "}],"sieverID":"ca97184c-5028-4104-82a1-6b46d38ad2a1","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ce5ade1c0a95361fd4758e03933e68a","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://evergreenagriculture.net/sites/default/files/Conservation%20Agriculture%20Practices%20in%20Malawi%20-%20Opportunities%20and%20Challenges.pdf"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Conservation Agriculture Practices in Malawi: Opportunities and Challenges","keywords":["conservation agriculture","conventional agriculture","extension","stakeholders","smallholder farmers"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":285,"text":"Both during the colonial era and post independence in Malawi, the agricultural extension system advocated ridging and burning of residues (Mloza-Banda, 2002). Therefore, smallholder farmers continue this practice of soil disturbance involving ridging and shifting ridges every year in Malawi. Research in CA in Malawi dates back to the 1980's when Bunda College of Agriculture and Department of Agricultural Research Services (DARS) conducted on-station and on farm trials on the effects on CA practices on maize performance and soil fertility enhancement (Mloza-Banda, 2002). The results of these studies have however been received with mixed reactions amongst scientists, extension workers, farmers and policy makers who raised questions regarding economical feasibility and appropriateness to smallholder farmers to change from conventional tillage to conservation agriculture . CA is promoted for the positive benefits of increased organic matter, improved water retention, water infiltration, improved soil fertility, improved soil structure, reduced soil erosion, reduced weed infestation and increased maize yield (CFU, 2007;Giller et al., 2009). Although CA is increasingly being tested by smallholder farmers and extension workers, there are misconceptions about it (Mloza-Banda and Nanthambwe, 2010). Stakeholders have different technical understanding of CA and consequently promote diverse and sometimes contradictory extension messages. Although there are extension guides on CA for specific agro-ecological zones in neighboring countries including Zimbabwe (ZCATF, 2009) and Zambia (CFU, 2007) such guidelines are nonexistent in Malawi (Mloza-Banda and Nanthabwe, 2010). Most stakeholders do not have systematic research protocols to obtain empirical evidence except in a few cases (Mloza-Banda and Nanthambwe 2010). This study supports the work of ICRAF's Evergreen Agriculture for Food Security project in Malawi which aims at improving food security through agroforestry based conservation agriculture which is termed \"Evergreen Agriculture\" (Garrity et al., 2010)."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"This study involved (1) a stakeholder consultation workshop and (2) a survey. A stakeholder workshop was organized by the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) with the following objectives: (a) sharing experience on CA in Malawi and Zambia and develop a common understanding among stakeholders and (b) identifying technical, institutional and policy challenges to the scaling up of CA in Malawi. Land Resources Conservation Department (LRCD) and Department of Agriculture and Research Services (DARS) both from the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, the Environmental Affairs Department (EAD) and the Forestry Department from the Ministry of Mines and Energy; Total Land Care (TLC), National Smallholder Farmers Association of Malawi (NASFAM), the Conservation Farming Unit (CFU) of Zambia attended the workshop. The survey employed multi tools to collect qualitative data through (a) desk studies (b) questionnaire survey (c) farmer field visits."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"The survey involved interviewing 13 CA stakeholders which were randomly selected. The study reviewed field notes of the CA stakeholders on the pertinent issues such as (a) the key CA practices that are being promoted by different CA stakeholders b) the extent of adoption of CA by farmers (c) the empirical evidence that CA stakeholders possess that CA improves soil health, crop productivity and food security (d) the experiences of CA stakeholders on CA development (e) the technical extension capacity of CA stakeholders to improve the knowledge and skills of farmers and extension workers (f) the policy and extension framework. This study enhanced the knowledge base on CA development in Malawi which NCATF conducted to understand the level of knowledge and practice on conservation agriculture from various CA stakeholders (Mloza-Banda and Nanthambwe, 2010)."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conservation Agriculture Practice in Malawi","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The stakeholder workshop, survey and review of the literature from Malawi revealed that one or more of the principles of CA, namely minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and rotations, are being promoted by different stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"All stakeholders promoted the use of fertilizers in the early years and about 92% promote the use of manure and only 53% promote the use of herbicides (Table 1). There is none who promotes the use of lime in CA fields. Different stakeholders promote minimum soil disturbance through either use of permanent planting basins or use of old ridges or flat culture or ripping (Table 2). About 92% of the stakeholders indicated that their farmers about maize stover from their own fields and 40% from neighbours' fields. Figure 1 shows the type of soil cover promoted by stakeholders with maize stover being the most promoted one."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"The study further revealed that all stakeholders interviewed promoted the use of crop legumes and 76% promoted the use of tree legumes and 15% promoted the use of cereal-legume rotations. It was shown that 84% of the stakeholders are in the technology testing stage and none is doing CA advocacy (Figure 2). Figure 3 shows the methods of enhancing CA adoption; the use of field days (92%) followed by trainings (69%), on-farm demonstrations (61%) and use of lead farmers (23%). Field visits and trainings were the most used methods by the stakeholders to build the capacity of their extension staff (Figure 4). Agroforestry (Figure 5) is the most used complementary practice to CA (84%) followed by crop rotation (62%), soil and water conservation (23%) and manure making (15%). Most common agroforestry fertilizer trees were Tephrosia, Gliricidia and pigeon peas. Only 30% of the stakeholders interviewed had systematic research protocols to obtain empirical evidence from the on-farm trials. "}]},{"head":"Opportunities for Conservation Agriculture Development","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The study unveiled a wealth of knowledge, skills and attitude created by CA stakeholders who have been working with farmers and extension workers in Malawi. Below are the factors that are catalysing the transformational development in tillage system:"}]},{"head":"Research for development and on farm demonstrations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"The numerous on-farm demonstrations mounted by Bunda College of Agriculture through Agricultural Innovation in dryland Africa (AIDA), Farm Income Diversification Programme (FIDP), DARS, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and Total LandCare (TLC) have empirical data comparing maize yield, labour consumption, gross margins under CA and conventional agriculture. NGOs such as Synod of Livingstonia, Evangelical Lutheran Development Services (ELDS), Emmanuel International, Development Aid from People to People (DAPP), Catholic Relief Services, Danish Church Aid, Norwegian Church Aid, Christian Aid, CARE Malawi, Save the Children, World Vision Malawi, National Smallholder Farmer's Association of Malawi (NASFAM) and many others are scaling up CA through the use of on-farm demonstrations with their project beneficiaries. Kamtimaleka (2009) observed that increase in SOM under CA led to increased maize productivity from 4.6 t ha -1 to 3.4 t ha -1 under CA. The same author showed that farmers practicing CA had the highest gross margins of $552 ha -1 yr -1 compared to $316 ha -1 yr -1 for conventional tillage farmers. However, Kamwendo (2009) found that increase in soil organic matter (SOM) under CA did not significantly lead to beneficial changes in soil bulk density, matrix porosity and hydraulic conductivity."}]},{"head":"Institutional extension capacity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"CA stakeholders used different means to build the capacity of their extension workers in CA (Figure 4). FAO has helped build the capacity of CA development in southern Africa as well as in Malawi through the projects it promotes. FAO holds CA annual symposia to share experiences and knowledge in CA in southern Africa. This has built the capacity of most NGOs and Government of Malawi in understanding better the dynamics of CA development. Most NGOs also rely on reading CA materials shared at NCATF and found on the internet. Some NGO's conducted training of trainers on CA for field officers with expertise from CFU and LCRD (see Figure 6)."}]},{"head":"Partnerships and networks","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"National Conservation Agriculture Task Force (NCATF) provides foresight and coordinates CA development in Malawi (Mloza-Banda and Nanthambwe, 2010). The membership of NCATF includes research organizations, government departments, NGO's and Civil Society Organisations.  "}]},{"head":"Policy support","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"CA projects of the stakeholders are in line with the current national development agenda such as Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS), Agriculture Sector Wide Approach (ASwap). Under the focus area of \"Sustainable Agricultural Land and Water Management\", the use of conservation farming technologies that build soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and conserve rain water (contour ridging, application of manure, preparation of compost, minimum tillage, agro-forestry, box ridges, tractor ploughing to break the hard hoe pan and use of herbicides as a labour saving technology) are promoted (GoM, 2010). This paradigm shift of the agricultural extension system creates a conducive environment for CA development. Although there is a strong culture of hoe usage in Malawi, a rather \"slow but sure\" pathway to sustainable soil health improvement will take place. Civil Society for Agriculture Network (CISANET), Landnet and Farmer Union of Malawi (FUM) are the policy advocates in agricultural development to lobby for a change from conventional agriculture to CA."}]},{"head":"Challenges to Conservation Agriculture Development","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Strong culture of ridge based cultivation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Conventional agriculture (Figure 1) is characterized by continuous tillage through ploughing and ridging, monocropping, burning of crop residues and inadequate nutrient application (Mloza Banda, 2002). During the colonial and post independence era, farming system changed gradually to the ridge based system. Most CA demonstration farmers have only allocated less than 5% of their land holding to CA demonstrations without significantly increasing. This indicates that the demo farmers have not been \"transformed\" enough in spite of the CA benefits over non-CA plots. Sosola et al. (2010) found out in a baseline study that 100% of the respondents possessed a hoe used for land preparation and other hoe based tillage including ridging. The same authors found that the reasons for using ridging cultivation were that farmers learnt it from their parents (74%), they use it as a soil and water conservation (48%) and that is the only cultivation practice that they know (24%)."}]},{"head":"Stover mining, livestock problem and multiplicity of maize stover usage","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"Most CA stakeholders promote maximum soil cover but the practice encourages \"stover mining\" from non-CA fields because usually maize stover from CA fields are never adequate to cover the soil in the recommended amounts. The maize stover spreading across the CA fields soon after harvest are fed on by roaming livestock that are set loose after harvest (Figure 6). CA farmers lamented over feeding their stover to other farmers's livestock and of livestock damaging their planting basins. Under smallholder agriculture system, ownership rights do not extend to crop residues but is rather limited to crops produce. Maize stover is often taken away by fellow farmers to be used for fuelwood, fumigating tobacco nurseries, construction purposes and feeding livestock. Most demo farmers have CA plots close to the village where close supervision is guaranteed. This alone would affect the scaling out of CA by the participating farmers to distant fields in fear of theft of stover. It is feared that farmers would start selling maize stovers due scarcity of maize stover and its multiple uses. For instance, FAO project outsourced maize stover from another area to their demonstration farmers in Liwonde due to scarcity."}]},{"head":"Scarcity of CA implements and herbicides","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Following CFU's CA methods, there is a shortage of chaka hoes, jab planter and other support implements. Other CA stakeholders promote the use of the standard hand hoe for constructing planting basins. ICRAF, CARE Malawi, WALA consortium and NASFAM did not promote the use of herbicides in their respective projects (Table 1) whereas FAO, CRS, TLC and Concern Universal provide packages of herbicides. Farmers lamented over the price and scarcity of the herbicides on the local markets."}]},{"head":"Long break-even point of CA benefits","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Research findings indicate that SOM changes in the early stage of CA but bulk density and porosity did not change significantly though over a period of four years or more would lead to physical soil improvements (Mloza-Banda and Nanthambwe, 2010). Farmers are used to \"instant\" or \"click\" technology of improved seed, chemical fertilizer, herbicides and others which yield immediate results. Any technology that takes a relatively longer period of time to yield results would be regarded as a waste of time and resources. A similar syndrome befell agroforestry sector whereby most trees require a longer period of time for the farmers to benefits from soil health improvements (Sosola et al., 2010)."}]},{"head":"Lack of clear guidelines for a specific CA practice","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"From both the stakeholder workshop and the survey results it was clear most of the stakeholders do not have clear guidelines for promoting of CA practice as regards to suitability to agro-ecological zone. CA is not a blueprint technology to be promoted as a \"one-size-fits-all\" approach. Under Evergreen Agriculture project of ICRAF, farmers used both old ridge approach and planting basins depending on the topography and dryness of the areas. The dimensions of the planting basins and the spacing between the basins and rows are not uniform amongst CA stakeholders. One option is 15cm, 30cm and 20 cm for width, length and depth, respectively and the spacing of 90cm and 70cm between the row and planting basins, respectively (CFU, 2007). Others promote 45cm and 55cm whereas others 30cm by 30cm basins for width and length, respectively. FIDP and Government of Malawi promoted that the basins should be staggered to capture water more efficiently as opposed to regular patterned basins."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The paper reveals that a number of stakeholders are promoting CA in Malawi. As such there is urgent need to synergize efforts in CA development and to advocate for radical change in tillage system. The deficiency of information persists despite some adaptive research on CA. Adaptive research is needed to develop practice appropriate for the various farm and agro-ecological conditions. CA should not be practiced as a \"one-size-fits-all\" as such may be counter-productive to CA advocates in the long run if the practical realities of the farmers' are not properly assessed and incorporated in the promotion of CA."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: CA adoption methods to be promoted "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Complementary agricultural practices to CA Figure 6: Livestock feeding on maize stover in a CA field "},{"text":" These NGOs collaborate in implementing CA projects together in order to share experiences and lessons, for example (i) ICRAF with NASFAM, CRS and TLC in scaling up Evergreen Agriculture (agroforestry based conservation agriculture) in Kasungu, Mchinji and Chiladzulu districts (ii) ICRAF with NASFAM, Government of Malawi and Lake Malawi Basin project in implementing an AGRA project on CA in Kasungu, Lilongwe and Salima districts (iii) CARE Malawi works with TLC in scaling (iv) Wellness and Agriculture for Life Advancement (WALA), a consortium project funded by USAID implemented by CRS, Save the Children, Total landcare, World Vision Malawi, Emmanuel International, Africare and Project Concern International in southern Malawi. CIMMYT, Department of Research Services (DARS) and TLC collaborate in CA technology testing and scaling up of CA with demo farmers in Nkhota Kota district under MACC project funded by the Royal Norwegian Embassy.  "}],"sieverID":"b4ea17d3-e0aa-4b25-bb19-50c79a5af2cf","abstract":"Conservation agriculture (CA) benefits include increased organic matter, improved water retention, improved soil fertility, reduced soil erosion, reduced weed infestation, crop productivity and others. In this study, we reviewed the different CA practices to understand the experiences by stakeholders, the opportunities and challenges of CA development in Malawi. Through structured questionnaires, a formal survey was administered to 13 key institutions that are the most important CA players in the country. These institutions were located in different parts of the country and were selected from the National CA Task Force's (NCATF) database of CA stakeholders. The study showed that permanent planting basins (92%), maize stover (92%) and agroforestry (84%) are the most promoted methods by stakeholders for minimizing soil tillage, maximizing soil cover and supplementing CA practice, respectively. The inconsistent research and on-farm demonstrations, extension capacity, policy support from Agriculture Sector Wide Approach's (ASWAp) catalyse CA development in Malawi. Despite livestock and fire damage resulting in scarcity of crop residues and longer gestation period of the benefits, CA has the potential to rejuvenate soil health in the long run. It is recommended that CA should not be promoted in a one-size-fit-all style due to the diverse agro-ecological conditions in Malawi and harmonized extension materials should be devised to avoid confusions amongst farmers and stakeholders."}