Esek

(contention), a well which the herdsmen of Isaac dug in the valley of Gerar. (Genesis 26:20)


Eshbaal

(Baal's man), (1 Chronicles 8:33; 9:39) the same as Ish-bosheth.


Eshban

(wise man), a Horite; one of the four sons of Dishon. (Genesis 36:26; 1 Chronicles 1:41)


Eshcol

(cluster of grapes), brother of Mamre the Amorite and of Aner, and one of Abraham's companions in his pursuit of the four kings who had carried off Lot. (Genesis 14:13,24) (B.C. 1912.).


Eshcol, The Valley

or The brook of, a wady in the neighborhood of Hebron (Mamre), explored by the spies who were sent by Moses from Kadesh-barnea. (Numbers 13:23,24; 1:24) The name is still attached to a spring of fine water called 'Ain Eshkali, in a valley about two miles north of Hebron.


Eshean

(slope), one of the cities of Judah. (Joshua 15:52)


Eshek

(oppression), one of the late descendants of Saul. (1 Chronicles 8:39)


Eshtaol

(a pass), a town in the low country--the Shefelah--of Judah, after wards allotted to Dan. (Joshua 15:33; 19:41) Here Samson spent his boyhood, and hither after his last exploit his body was brought. (Judges 13:25; 16:31; 18:2,8,11,12)


Eshtaulites, The

with the Zareathites, were among the families of Kirjath-jearim. (1 Chronicles 2:53)


Eshtemoa

and in shorter form Eshtemoh (obedience), a town of Judah in the mountains, (Joshua 15:50) allotted to the priest. (Joshua 21:14; 1 Chronicles 6:57) It was one of the places frequented by David and his followers during the long period of their wanderings. (1 Samuel 30:28) comp. 1Sam 30:31 Its site is at Semu'a, a village seven miles south of Hebron.


Eshton

(effeminate), a name which occurs in the genealogies of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:11,12)


Esli

son of Nagge or Naggai, in the genealogy of Christ. (Luke 3:25)


Esril

1 Esd. 9:34. [[494]Azareel, Or Azareel, or [495]Sharai]


Esrom

(enclosed). (Matthew 1:3; Luke 3:33) [[496]Hesron, Hezron, [497]Hezron]


Essenes

a Jewish sect, who, according to the description of Josephus, combined the ascetic virtues of the Pythagoreans and Stoics with a spiritual knowledge of the divine law. It seems probable that the name signifies seer, or the silent, the mysterious. As a sect the Essenes were distinguished by an aspiration after ideal purity rather than by any special code of doctrines. There were isolated communities of Essenes, which were regulated by strict rules, analogous to those of the monastic institutions of a later date. All things were held in common, without distinction of property; and special provision was made for the relief of the poor. Self-denial, temperance and labor--especially agriculture-- were the marks of the outward life of the Essenes; purity and divine communion the objects of their aspiration. Slavery, war and commmerce were alike forbidden. Their best-known settlements were on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea.


Esther

(a star), the Persian name of [498]Hadassah (myrtle), daughter of Abihail, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, a Benjamite. Esther was a beautiful Jewish maiden. She was an orphan, and had been brought up by her cousin Mordecai, who had an office in the household of Ahasuerus king of Persia--supposed to be the Xerxes of history-- and dwelt at "Shushan the palace." When Vashti was dismissed from being queen, the king chose Esther to the place on account of her beauty, not knowing her race or parentage; and on the representation of Haman the Agagite that the Jews scattered through his empire were pernicious race, he gave him full power and authority to kill them all. The means taken by Esther to avert this great calamity from her people and her kindred are fully related in the book of Esther. The Jews still commemorate this deliverance in the yearly festival Purim, on the 14th and 15th of Adar (February, March). History is wholly silent about both Vashti and Esther.


Esther, Book Of

one of the latest of the canonical books of Scripture, having been written late in the reign of Xerxes, or early in that of his son Artaxerxes Longimanus (B.C. 444, 434). The author is not known. The book of Esther is placed among the hagiographa by the Jews, and in that first portion of them which they call "the five rolls." It is written on a single roll, sin a dramatic style, and is read through by the Jews in their synagogues at the feast of Purim, when it is said that the names of Haman's sons are read rapidly all in one breath, to signify that they were all hanged at the same time; while at every mention of Haman the audience stamp and shout and hiss, and the children spring rattles. It has often been remarked as a peculiarity of this book that the name of God does not once occur in it. Schaff gives as the reason for this that it was to permit the reading of the book at the hilarious and noisy festival of Purim, without irreverence. The style of writing is remarkably chaste and simple. It does not in the least savor of romance. The Hebrew is very like that of Ezra and parts of the Chronicles; generally pure, but mixed with some words of Persian origin and some of the Chaldaic affinity. In short it is just what one would expect to find in a work of the age to which the book of Esther professes to belong.


Etam

+ A village of the tribe of Simeon, specified only in the list in (1 Chronicles 4:32) comp. Josh 19:7 + A place in Judah, fortified and garrisoned by Rehoboam. (2 Chronicles 11:6) Here, according to the statements of Josephus and the Talmudists, were the sources of the water from which Solomon's gardens and the pleasure-grounds were fed, and Bethlehem and the temple supplied.


Etam, The Rock

a cliff or lofty rock, into a cleft or chasm of which Samson retired after his slaughter of the Philistines. (Judges 15:8,11) This natural stronghold was in the tribe of Judah; and near it, probably at its foot, were Lehi and Ramath-lehi and Enhakkore. (Judges 15:9,14,17,19) The name Etam was held by a city in the neighborhood of Bethlehem, (2 Chronicles 11:6) which is known to have been situated in the extremely uneven and broken country round the modern Urtas.


Etham

(bounded by the sea), one of the early resting-places of the Israelites when they quitted Egypt; described as "in the edge of the wilderness." (Exodus 13:20; Numbers 33:6,7) Etham may be placed where the cultivable land ceases, near the Seba Biar or Seven Wells, about three miles from the western side of the ancient head of the gulf.


Ethan

+ Ethan the Ezrahite, one of the four sons of Mahol, whose wisdom was excelled by Solomon. (1 Kings 4:31; 1 Chronicles 2:6) His name is in the title of (Psalms 89:1) + Son of Kishi or Kushaiah; a Merarite Levite, head of that family in the time of King David, (1 Chronicles 6:44) and spoken of as a "singer." With Heman and Asaph, the heads of the other two families of Levites, Ethan was appointed to sound with cymbals. (1 Chronicles 15:17,19) + A Gershonite Levite, one of the ancestors of Asaph the singer. (1 Chronicles 6:42) Hebr 27. (B.C. 1420.)


Ethbaal

(with Baal), king of Sidon and father of Jezebel. (1 Kings 16:31) Josephus represents him as a king of the Tyrians as well as of the Sidonians. We may thus identify him with Eithobalus, who, after having assassinated Pheles, usurped the throne of Tyre for thirty-two years. The date of Ethbaal's reign may be given as about B.C. 940-908.


Ether

(abundance), one of the cities of Judah in the low country, the Shefelah, (Joshua 15:42) allotted to Simeon. (Joshua 19:7)


Ethiopia

(burnt faces). The country which the Greeks and Romans described as "AEthiopia" and the Hebrews as "Cush" lay to the south of Egypt, and embraced, in its most extended sense, the modern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan and northern Abyssinia, and in its more definite sense the kingdom of Meroe. (Ezekiel 29:10) The Hebrews do not appear to have had much practical acquaintance with Ethiopia itself, though the Ethiopians were well known to them through their intercourse with Egypt. The inhabitants of Ethiopia were a Hamitic race. (Genesis 10:6) They were divided into various tribes, of which the Sabeans were the most powerful. The history of Ethiopia is closely interwoven with that of Egypt. The two countries were not unfrequently united under the rule of the same sovereign. Shortly before our Saviour's birth a native dynasty of females, holding the official title of Candace (Plin. vi. 35), held sway in Ethiopia, and even resisted the advance of the Roman arms. One of these is the queen noticed in (Acts 8:27)


Ethiopian

properly "Cushite," (Jeremiah 13:23) used of Zerah, (2 Chronicles 14:9) (8), and Ebed-melech. (Jeremiah 38:7,10,12; 39:16)


Ethiopian Eunuch, The

a Jewish proselyte, (Acts 8:26) etc., who was treasurer of Candace queen of Ethiopia, but who was converted to Christianity on a visit to Jerusalem, through philip the evangelist. Nothing is known of him after his return to Ethiopia.


Ethiopian Woman

The wife of Moses is to described in (Numbers 12:1) She is elsewhere said to have been the daughter of a Midianite, and in consequence of this some have supposed that the allusion is to another wife whom Moses married after the death of Zipporah.


Ethnan

(hire), one of the sons of Helah the wife of Ashur. (1 Chronicles 4:7)


Ethni

(munificent), a Gershonite Levite. (1 Chronicles 6:41)


Eubulus

(prudent), a Christian at Rome mentioned by St. Paul. (2 Timothy 4:21) (A.D. 64.)


Eunice

(good victory), mother of Timotheus. (2 Timothy 1:5) (A.D. before 47.)


Eunuch

"The English form of the Greek word which means bed-keeper . In the strict and proper sense they were the persons who had charge of the bed-chambers in palaces and larger houses. But as the jealous and dissolute temperament of the East required this charge to be in the hands of persons who had been deprived of their virility, the word eunuch came naturally to denote persons in that condition. But as some of these rose to be confidential advisers of their royal master or mistresses, the word was occasionally employed to denote persons in such a position, without indicating anything of their proper manhood." -Abbott.


Euodias

(fragrant), a Christian woman at Philippi. (Philemon 4:2) (A.D. 57.) The name is correctly [501]Euodia, as given in the Revised Version.


Euphrates

is probably a word of Aryan origin, signifying "the good and abounding river. " It is most frequently denoted in the Bible by the term "the river." The Euphrates is the largest, the longest and by far the most important of the rivers of western Asia. It rises from two chief sources in the Armenian mountains, and flows into the Persian Gulf. The entire course is 1780 miles, and of this distance more than two-thirds (1200 miles) is navigable for boats. The width of the river is greatest at the distance of 700 or 800 miles from its mouth--that is to say, from it junction with the Khabour to the village of Werai . It there averages 400 yards. The annual inundation of the Euphrates is caused by the melting of the snows in the Armenian highlands. It occurs in the month of May. The great hydraulic works ascribed to Nebuchadnezzar had for their chief object to control the inundation. The Euphrates is first mentioned in Scripture as one of the four rivers of Eden. (Genesis 2:14) We next hear of it in the covenant made with Abraham. (Genesis 15:18) During the reigns of David and Solomon it formed the boundary of the promised land to the northeast. (11:24; Joshua 1:4) Prophetical reference to the Euphrates is found in (Jeremiah 13:4-7; 46:2-10; 51:63; Revelation 9:14; 16:12) "The Euphrates is linked with the most important events in ancient history. On its banks stood the city of Babylon; the army of Necho was defeated on its banks by Nebuchadnezzar; Cyrus the Younger and Crassus perished after crossing it; Alexander crossed it, and Trajan and Severus descended it."--Appleton's Cyc.


Eurcquila

the word used in the Revised Version instead of euroclydon in (Acts 27:14) It is compounded of two words meaning east and north, and means a northeast gale.


Euroclydon

(a violent agitation), a tempestuous wind or hurricane, cyclone, on the Mediterranean, and very dangerous; now called a "levanter." This wind seized the ship in which St. Paul was ultimately wrecked on the coast of Malta. It came down from the island and therefore must have blown more or less from the northward. (Acts 27:14)


Eutychus

(fortunate), a youth at Troas, (Acts 20:9) who sitting in a window, and having fallen asleep while St. Paul was discoursing, fell from the third story, and being taken up dead, was miraculously restored to life by the apostle.


Evangelist

(publisher of glad tidings). In the New Testament the "evangelists" appear on the one hand after the "apostles" and "prophets;" on the other before the "pastors" and "teachers." They probably stood between the two. (Acts 21:8; Ephesians 4:11) The work of the evangelist is the proclamation of the glad tidings to those who have not known them, rather than the instruction and pastoral care of those who have believed and been baptized. It follows also that the name denotes a work rather than an order . Its use is nearly like our word missionary. The evangelist might or might not be a bishop-elder or a deacon. The apostles, so far as they evangelized, (Acts 8:25; 14:7; 1 Corinthians 1:17) might claim the title, though there were many evangelists who were not apostles. If the gospel were a written book, and the office of the evangelists was to read or distribute it, then the writers of such books were pre-eminently THE evangelists. In later liturgical language the word was applied to the reader of the gospel for the day.


Eve

(life), the name given in Scripture to the first woman. The account of Eve's creation is found at (Genesis 2:21,22) Perhaps that which we are chiefly intended to learn from the narrative is the foundation upon which the union between man and wife is built, viz., identity of nature and oneness of origin. Through the subtlety of the serpent Eve was beguiled into a violation of the one commandment which had been imposed upon her and Adam. The Scripture account of Eve closes with the birth of Seth.


Evi

(desire), one of the five kings or princes of Midian slain by the Israelites. (Numbers 31:8; Joshua 13:21)


Evilmerodach

(the fool of Merodach), (2 Kings 25:27) the son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar. He reigned but a short time, having ascended the throne on the death of Nebuchadnezzar in B.C. 561, and being himself succeeded by Neriglissar in B.C. 559. He was murdered by Neriglissar.


Excommunication

+ Jewish excommunication.--The Jewish system of excommunication was threefold. The twenty-four offences for which it was inflicted are various, and range in heinousness from the offence of keeping a fierce dog to that of taking God's name in vain. The offender was first cited to appear in court; and if he refused to appear or to make amends, his sentence was pronounced. The term of this punishment was thirty days; and it was extended to a second and to a third thirty days when necessary. If at the end of that time the offended was still contumacious, he was subjected to the second excommunication. Severer penalties were now attached. The sentence was delivered by a court of ten, and was accompanied by a solemn malediction. The third excommunication was an entire cutting off from the congregation. The punishment of excommunication is not appointed by the law of Moses; it is founded on the natural right of self-protection which all societies enjoy. In the New Testament, Jewish excommunication is brought prominently before us in the case of the man that was born blind. (John 9:1) ... In (Luke 6:22) it has been thought that our Lord referred specifically to the three forms of Jewish excommunication: "Blessed are ye when men shall hate you, and when they shall separate you from their company, and shall reproach you, and cast out your name as evil, for the Son of man's sake." + Christian excommunication.--Excommunication, as exercised by the Christian Church, was instituted by our Lord, (Matthew 18:15,18) and it was practiced and commanded by St. Paul (1 Corinthians 5:11; 1 Timothy 1:20; Titus 3:10) Int he epistles we find St. Paul frequently claiming the right to exercise discipline over his converts; comp. (2 Corinthians 1:23; 13:10) We find, (1) that it is a spiritual penalty, involving no temporal punishment, except accidentally; (2) that it consists in separation from the communion of the Church; (3) that its object is the good of the sufferer, (1 Corinthians 5:5) and the protection of the sound members of the Church, (2 Timothy 3:17) (4) that its subjects are those who are guilty of heresy, (1 Timothy 1:20) or gross immorality, (1 Corinthians 5:1) (5) that it is inflicted by the authority of the Church at large, (Matthew 18:18) wielded by the highest ecclesiastical officer, (1 Corinthians 5:3; Titus 3:10) (6) that this officer's sentence is promulgated by the congregation to which the offender belongs, (1 Corinthians 5:4) in defence to his superior judgment and command, (2 Corinthians 2:9) and in spite of any opposition on the part of a minority, (2 Corinthians 2:6) (7) that the exclusion may be of indefinite duration, or for a period; (8) that its duration may be abridged at the discretion and by the indulgence of the person who has imposed the penalty, (2 Corinthians 2:8) (9) that penitence is the condition on which restoration to communion is granted, (2 Corinthians 2:8) (10) that the sentence is to be publicly reversed as it was publicly promulgated. (2 Corinthians 2:10)


Executioner

The post of executioner was one of high dignity. Potiphar was "captain of the executioners." (Genesis 37:36) see margin. That the "captain of the guard" himself occasionally performed the duty of an executioner appears from (1 Kings 2:25,34)


Exodus

(that is, going out [of Egypt]), the second book of the law or Pentateuch. Its author was Moses. It was written probably during the forty-years wanderings int he wilderness, between B.C. 1491 and 1451. It may be divided into two principal parts:

+ Historical, chs. (Exodus 1:1-18; 27:1) ... and + Legislative, chs. (Exodus 19:40; 38:1) + The first part contains an account of the following particulars: the great increase of Jacob's posterity in the land of Egypt, and their oppression under a new dynasty, which occupied the throne after the death of Joseph; the birth, education, flight and return of Moses; the ineffectual attempts to prevail upon Pharaoh to let the Israelites go; the successive signs and wonders, ending in the death of the first-born, by means of which the deliverance of Israel from the land of bondage is at length accomplished, and the institution of the Passover; finally the departure out of Egypt and the arrival of the Israelites at Mount Sinai. + This part gives a sketch of the early history of Israel as a nation; and the history has three clearly-marked stages. First we see a nation enslaved; next a nation redeemed; lastly a nation set apart, and through the blending of its religious and political life consecrated to the service of God.


Exodus, The

of the Israelites from Egypt. the common chronology places the date of this event at B.C. 1491, deriving it in this way:--In (1 Kings 6:1) it is stated that the building of the temple, in the forth year of Solomon, was in the 480th year after the exodus. The fourth year of Solomon was bout B.C. 1012. Add the 480 years (leaving off one years because neither the fourth nor the 480th was a full year), and we have B.C. 1491 as the date of the exodus. This is probably very nearly correct; but many Egyptologists place it at 215 years later,--about B.C. 1300. Which date is right depends chiefly on the interpretation of the Scripture period of 430 years, as denoting the duration of the bondage of the Israelites. The period of bondage given in (Genesis 15:13,14; Exodus 12:40,41) and Gala 3:17 As 430 years has been interpreted to cover different periods. The common chronology makes it extend from the call of Abraham to the exodus, one-half of it, or 215 years, being spend in Egypt. Others make it to cover only the period of bondage spend in Egypt. St. Paul says in (Galatians 3:17) that from the covenant with (or call of) Abraham the giving of the law (less than a year after the exodus) was 430 years. But in (Genesis 15:13,14) it is said that they should be strangers in a strange land, and be afflicted 400 years, and nearly the same is said in (Exodus 12:40) But, in very truth, the children of Israel were strangers in a strange land from the time that Abraham left his home for the promised land, and during that whole period of 430 years to the exodus they were nowhere rulers in the land. So in (Exodus 12:40) it is said that the sojourning of the children of Israel who dwelt in Egypt was 430 years. But it does not say that the sojourning was all in Egypt, but this people who lived in Egypt had been sojourners for 430 years. (a) This is the simplest way of making the various statements harmonize. (b) The chief difficulty is the great increase of the children of Israel from 70 to 2,000,000 in so short a period as 215 years, while it is very easy in 430 years. But under the circumstances it is perfectly possible in the shorter period. See on ver. 7 (C) If we make the 430 years to include only the bondage in Egypt, we must place the whole chronology of Abraham and the immigration of Jacob into Egypt some 200 years earlier, or else the exodus 200 years later, or B.C. 1300. in either case special difficulty is brought into the reckoning. (d) Therefore, on the whole, it is well to retain the common chronology, though the later dates may yet prove to be correct. The history of the exodus itself commences with the close of that of the ten plagues. [[502]Plagues, The Ten, THE [503]Ten Commandments] In the night in which, at midnight, the firstborn were slain, (Exodus 12:29) Pharaoh urged the departure of the Israelites. vs. (Exodus 12:31,32) They at once set forth from Rameses, vs. (Exodus 12:37,39) apparently during the night v. (Exodus 12:42) but towards morning on the 15th day of the first month. (Numbers 33:3) They made three journeys, and encamped by the Red Sea. Here Pharaoh overtook them, and the great miracle occurred by which they were saved, while the pursuer and his army were destroyed. [[504]Red Sea SEA, [505]Passage OF]


Exorcist

one who pretends to expel evil spirits by conjuration, prayers and ceremonies. Exorcism was frequently practiced among the Jews. (Matthew 12:27; Acts 19:13) David, by playing skillfully on a harp, procured the temporary departure of the evil spirit which troubled Saul. (1 Samuel 16:23) The power of casting out devils was bestowed by Christ while on earth upon the apostles, (Matthew 10:8) and the seventy disciples (Luke 10:17-19) and was, according to his promise, (Mark 16:17) exercised by believers after his ascension. (Acts 16:18)


Eye

(The practice of painting the eyelids to make the eyes look large, lustrous and languishing is often alluded to in the Old Testament, and still extensively prevails among the women of the East, and especially among the Mohammedans. Jezebel, in (2 Kings 9:30) is said to have prepared for her meeting with Jehu by painting her face, or, as it reads in the margin, "put her eyes in paint." See also (Ezekiel 23:40) A small probe of wood, ivory or silver is wet with rose-water and dipped in an impalpable black powder, and is then drawn between the lids of the eye nearly closed, and leaves a narrow black border, which is though a great ornament.--ED.)


Ezbai

(shining), father of Naarai, who was one of David's thirty mighty men. (1 Chronicles 11:37) (B.C. 1046.)


Ezbon

+ Son of Gad, and founder of one of the Gadite families. (Genesis 46:16; Numbers 26:16) + Son of Bela, the son of Benjamin according to (1 Chronicles 7:7)


Ezekiel

(the strength of God), one of the four greater prophets, was the son of a priest named Buzi, and was taken captive in the captivity of Jehoiachin, eleven years before the destruction of Jerusalem. He was a member of a community of Jewish exiles who settled on the banks of the Chebar, a "river' or stream of Babylonia. He began prophesying B.C. 595, and continued until B.C. 573, a period of more than twenty-two years. We learn from an incidental allusion, (Ezekiel 24:18) that he was married, and had a house, (Ezekiel 8:1) in his place of exile, and lost his wife by a sudden and unforeseen stroke. He lived in the highest consideration among his companions in exile, and their elders consulted him on all occasions. He is said to have been buried on the banks of the Euphrates. The tomb, said to have been built by Jehoiachin, is shown, a few days journey from Bagdad. Ezekiel was distinguished by his stern and inflexible energy of will and character and his devoted adherence to the rites and ceremonies of his national religion. The depth of his matter and the marvellous nature of his visions make him occasionally obscure. Prophecy of Ezekiel .--The book is divided into two great parts, of which the destruction of Jerusalem is the turning-point. Chapters 1-24 contain predictions delivered before that event, and chs. 25-48 after it, as we see from ch. (Ezekiel 26:2) Again, chs. 1-32 are mainly occupied with correction, denunciation and reproof, while the remainder deal chiefly in consolation and promise. A parenthetical section in the middle of the book, chs. 25-32, contains a group of prophecies against seven foreign nations, the septenary arrangement being apparently intentional. There are no direct quotations from Ezekiel in the New Testament, but in the Apocalypse there are many parallels and obvious allusions to the later chapters 40-48.


Ezel

(departure), The stone, a well-known stone in the neighborhood of Saul's residence, the scene of the parting of David and Jonathan. (1 Samuel 20:19)


Ezem

(bone), one of the towns of Simeon. (1 Chronicles 4:29)


Ezer

+ A son of Ephraim, who was slain by the aboriginal inhabitants of Gath while engaged in a foray on their cattle. (1 Chronicles 7:21) (B.C. before 1491.) + A priest who assisted in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem under Nehemiah. (Nehemiah 12:42) (B.C. 446.) + Father of Hushah of the sons of Hur. (1 Chronicles 4:4) + One of the Gadite chiefs who fought with David. (1 Chronicles 12:8,9) (B.C. 1054.) + One who aided in repairing the wall at Jerusalem; a Levite. (Nehemiah 3:19)


Eziongaber, Or Eziongeber

(giant's backbone), (Numbers 33:35; 2:8; 1 Kings 9:26; 22:48; 2 Chronicles 8:17) the last station named for the encampment of the Israelites before they came to the wilderness of Zin. It probably stood at Ain el-Ghudyan, about ten miles up what is now the dry bed of the Arabah, but which was probably then the northern end of the gulf.


Eznite, The

According to the statement of (2 Samuel 23:8) Adino the Eznite was another name for Jashobeam, a Tachmonite. (1 Chronicles 11:11) (Probably the words are a corruption for the Hebrew "he lifted up his spear."--Fausset.)


Ezra

(help), called [508]Esdras in the Apocrypha, the famous scribe and priest. He was a learned and pious priest residing at Babylon in the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus. The origin of his influence with the king does not appear, but in the seventh year of his reign he obtained leave to go to Jerusalem, and to take with him a company of Israelites. (B.C. 457.) The journey from Babylon to Jerusalem took just four months; and the company brought with them a large freewill offering of gold and silver, and silver vessels. It appears that Ezra's great design was to effect a religious reformation among the Palestine Jews. His first step was to enforce separation upon all who had married foreign wives. (Ezra 10:1) ... This was effected in little more than six months after his arrival at Jerusalem. With the detailed account of this important transaction Ezra's autobiography ends abruptly, and we hear nothing more of him till, thirteen years afterwards, in the twentieth of Artaxerxes, we find him again at Jerusalem with Nehemiah. It seems probable that after effecting the above reformations he returned to the king of Persia. The functions he executed under Nehemiah's government were purely of a priestly and ecclesiastical character. The date of his death is uncertain. There was a Jewish tradition that he was buried in Persia. The principal works ascribed to him by the Jews are--

+ The instruction of the great synagogue; + The settling the canon of Scripture, and restoring, correcting and editing the whole sacred volume; + The introduction of the Chaldee character instead of the old Hebrew or Samaritan; + The authorship of the books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and, some add, Esther; and, many of the Jews say, also of the books of Ezekiel, Daniel, and the twelve prophets; + The establishment of synagogues.


Ezra, Book Of

is a continuation of the books of Chronicles. The period covered by the book is eighty years, from the first of Cyrus, B.C. 536, to the beginning of the eighth of Artaxerxes, B.C. 456. It consist of the contemporary historical journals kept from time to time, containing, chs. 1-12, and account of the return of the captives under Zerubbabel, and the rebuilding of the temple in the reign of Cyrus and Cambyses. Most of the book is written in Hebrew, but from chs. 4:8 to 6:19 it is written in Chaldee. The last four chapters, beginning with ch. 7, continue the history after a gap of fifty-eight years--from the sixth of Darius to the seventh of Artaxerxes-- narrating his visit to Jerusalem, and giving an account of the reforms there accomplished, referred to under [509]Ezra. Much of the book was written by Ezra himself, though the first chapter was probably written by Daniel; and other hands are evident.


Ezrahite, The

(son of Zerah), a title attached to two persons--Ethan, (1 Kings 4:31; Psalms 89:1) title, and Heman, Psal 88:1 title.


Ezri

(help of Jehovah), son of Chelub, superintendent of King David's farm-laborers. (1 Chronicles 27:26) (B.C. 1014.).


Fable

A fable is a narrative in which being irrational, and sometimes inanimate, are, for the purpose of moral instruction, feigned to act and speak with human interests and passions.--Encyc. Brit. The fable differs from the parable in that--

+ The parable always relates what actually takes place, and is true to fact, which the fable is not; and + The parable teaches the higher heavenly and spiritual truths, but the fable only earthly moralities. Of the fable, as distinguished from the parable [[510]Parable], we have but two examples in the Bible: + That of the trees choosing their king, addressed by Jotham to the men of Shechem, (Judges 9:8-15) + That of the cedar of Lebanon and the thistle, as the answer of Jehoash to the challenge of Amaziah. (2 Kings 14:9) The fables of false teachers claiming to belong to the Christian Church, alluded to by writers of the New Testament, (1 Timothy 1:4; 4:7; Titus 1:14; 2 Peter 1:16) do not appear to have had the character of fables, properly so called.


Fair Havens

a harbor in the island of Crete, (Acts 27:8) though not mentioned in any other ancient writing, is still known by its own Greek name, and appears to have been the harbor of Lasaea.


Fairs

a word which occurs only in (Ezekiel 27:1) ... and there no less than seven times, vs. (Ezekiel 27:12,14,16,19,22,27,33) in the last of these verses it is rendered "wares," and this we believe to be the true meaning of the word throughout.


Fallow Deer

(called fallow from its reddish-brown color) (Heb. yachmur). The Hebrew word, which is mentioned only in (14:5) and 1Kin 4:23 Probably denotes the Alcelaphus bubalis (the bubale or wild cow) of Barbary and North Africa. It is about the size of a stag, and lives in herds. It is almost exactly like the European roebuck, and is valued for its venison.


Famine

In the whole of Syria and Arabia, the fruits of the earth must ever be dependent on rain; the watersheds having few large springs, and the small rivers not being sufficient for the irrigation of even the level lands. If therefore the heavy rains of November and December fail, the sustenance of the people is cut off in the parching drought of harvest-time, when the country is almost devoid of moisture. Egypt, again, owes all its fertility to its mighty river, whose annual rise inundates nearly the whole land. The causes of dearth and famine in Egypt are defective inundation, preceded, accompanied and followed by prevalent easterly and southerly winds. Famine is likewise a natural result in the East when caterpillars, locusts or other insects destroy the products of the earth. The first famine recorded in the Bible is that of Abraham after he had pitched his tent on the east of Bethel, (Genesis 12:10) the second in the days of Isaac, (Genesis 26:1) seq. We hear no more of times of scarcity until the great famine of Egypt, which "was over all the face of the earth." (Genesis 41:53-57) The modern history of Egypt throws some curious light on these ancient records of famines; and instances of their recurrence may be cited to assist us in understanding their course and extent. The most remarkable famine was that of the reign of the Fatimee Khaleefeh, El-Mustansir billah, which is the only instance on record of one of seven years duration in Egypt since the time of Joseph (A.H. 457-464, A.D. 1064-1071). Vehement drought and pestilence continued for seven consecutive years, so that the people ate corpses, and animals that died of themselves. The famine of Samaria resembled it in many particulars; and that very briefly recorded in (2 Kings 8:1,2) affords another instance of one of seven years. In Arabia famines are of frequent occurrence.


Fan

a winnowing-shovel, with which grain was thrown up against the wind to be cleansed from the chaff and straw. (Isaiah 30:24; Matthew 3:12) A large wooden fork is used at the present day.


Farthing

Two names of coins in the New Testament are rendered in the Authorized Version by this word:

+ Quadrans, (Matthew 5:26; Mark 12:42) a coin current in the time of our Lord, equivalent to three-eights of a cent; + The assarion, equal to one cent and a half, (Matthew 10:29; Luke 12:6)


Fasts

+ One fast only was appointed by the Mosaic law, that on the day of atonement. There is no mention of any other periodical fast in the Old Testament except in (Zechariah 7:1-7; 8:19) From these passages it appears that the Jews, during their captivity, observed four annual fasts,--in the fourth, fifth, seventh and tenth months. + Public fasts were occasionally proclaimed to express national humiliation and to supplicate divine favor. In the case of public danger the proclamation appears to have been accompanied with the blowing of trumpets. (Joel 2:1-15) (See (1 Samuel 7:6; 2 Chronicles 20:3; Jeremiah 36:6-10)) Three days after the feast of tabernacles, when the second temple was completed, "the children of Israel assembled with fasting, and with sackclothes and earth upon them," to hear the law read and to confess their sins. (Nehemiah 9:1) + Private occasional fasts are recognized in one passage of the law-- (Numbers 30:13) The instances given of individuals fasting under the influence of grief, vexation or anxiety are numerous. + In the New Testament the only reference to the Jewish fasts are the mention of "the fast" in (Acts 27:9) (generally understood to denote the day of atonement) an the allusions to the weekly fasts. (Matthew 9:14; Mark 2:18; Luke 5:33; 18:12; Acts 10:30) These fasts originated some time after the captivity. + The Jewish fasts were observed with various degrees of strictness. Sometimes there was entire abstinence from food. (Esther 4:16) etc. On other occasions there appears to have been only a restriction to a very plain diet. (Daniel 10:3) Those who fasted frequently dressed in sackcloth or rent their clothes, put ashes on their head and went barefoot. (1 Kings 21:27; Nehemiah 9:1; Psalms 35:13) + The sacrifice of the personal will, which gives to fasting all its value, is expressed in the old term used in the law, afflicting the soul .


Fat

i.e. VAT, the word employed in the Authorized Version to translate the Hebrew term yekeb, in (Joel 2:24; 3:13) The word commonly used for yekeb is "winepress" or "winefat," and once "pressfat." (Haggai 2:16) The "vats" appear to have been excavated out of the native rock of the hills on which the vineyards lay.

The Hebrews distinguished between the suet or pure fat of an animal and the fat which was intermixed with the lean. (Nehemiah 8:10) Certain restrictions were imposed upon them in reference to the former; some parts of the suet, viz., about the stomach, the entrails, the kidneys, and the tail of a sheep, which grows to an excessive size in many eastern countries, and produces a large quantity of rich fat, were forbidden to be eaten in the case of animals offered to Jehovah in sacrifice. (Leviticus 3:3,9,17; 7:3,23) The ground of the prohibition was that the fat was the richest part of the animal, and therefore belonged to him. (Leviticus 3:16) The burning of the fat of sacrifices was particularly specified in each kind of offering.


Father

The position and authority of the father as the head of the family are expressly assumed and sanctioned in Scripture, as a likeness of that of the Almighty over his creatures. It lies of course at the root of that so-called patriarchal government, (Genesis 3:16; 1 Corinthians 11:3) which was introductory to the more definite systems which followed, and which in part, but not wholly, superseded it. The father's blessing was regarded as conferring special benefit, but his malediction special injury, on those on whom it fell, (Genesis 9:25,27; 27:27-40; 48:15,20; 49:1) ... and so also the sin of a parent was held to affect, in certain cases, the welfare of his descendants. (2 Kings 5:27) The command to honor parents is noticed by St. Paul as the only one of the Decalogue which bore a distinct promise, (Exodus 20:12; Ephesians 6:2) and disrespect towards them was condemned by the law as one of the worst crimes. (Exodus 21:15,17; 1 Timothy 1:9) It is to this well-recognized theory of parental authority and supremacy that the very various uses of the term "father" in Scripture are due. "Fathers" is used in the sense of seniors, (Acts 7:2; 22:1) and of parents in general, or ancestors. (Daniel 5:2; Jeremiah 27:7; Matthew 23:30,32)


Fathom

[[511]Weights And Measures AND [512]Measures]


Felix

(happy), a Roman procurator of Judea appointed by the emperor Claudius in A.D. 53. He ruled the province in a mean, cruel and profligate manner. His period of office was full of troubles and seditions. St. Paul was brought before Felix in Caesarea. He was remanded to prison, and kept there two years in hopes of extorting money from him. (Acts 24:26,27) At the end of that time Porcius Festus [[515]Festus, Porcius] was appointed to supersede Felix, who, on his return to Rome, was accused by the Jews in Caesarea, and would have suffered the penalty due to his atrocities had not his brother Pallas prevailed with the emperor Nero to spare him. This was probably about A.D. 60. The wife of Felix was Drusilla, daughter of Herod Agrippa I., who was his third wife and whom he persuaded to leave her husband and marry him.


Fenced Cities

i.e. cities fortified or defended. The fortifications of the cities of Palestine, thus regularly "fenced," consisted of one or more walls (sometimes of thick stones, sometimes of combustible material), crowned with battlemented parapets, having towers at regular intervals, (2 Chronicles 32:5; Jeremiah 31:38) on which in later times engines of war were placed, and watch was kept by day and night in time of war. (Judges 9:45; 2 Kings 9:17; 2 Chronicles 26:9,15)


Ferret

one of the unclean creeping things mentioned in (Leviticus 11:30) The animal referred to was probably a reptile of the lizard tribe (the gecko). The rabbinical writers seen to have identified this animal with the hedgehog.


Festivals

I. The religious times ordained int he law fall under three heads:

+ Those formally connected with the institution of the Sabbath; + This historical or great festivals; + The day of atonement. + Immediately connected with the institution of the Sabbath are-- a. The weekly Sabbath itself. b. The seventh new moon, or feast of trumpets. c. The sabbatical year. d. The year of jubilee. + The great feasts are-- a. The passover. b. The feast of pentecost, of weeks, of wheat-harvest or of the first-fruits. c. The feast of tabernacles or of ingathering. On each of these occasions every male Israelite was commanded to "appear before the Lord," that is, to attend in the court of the tabernacle or the temple, and to make his offering with a joyful heart. (27:7; Nehemiah 8:9-12) The attendance of women was voluntary, but the zealous often went up to the passover. On all the days of holy convocation there was to be an entire suspension of ordinary labor of all kinds, (Exodus 12:16; Leviticus 16:29; 23:21,24,25,35) but on the intervening days of the longer festivals work might be carried on. The agricultural significance of the three great festivals is clearly set forth int he account of the Jewish sacred year contained in (Leviticus 23:1) ... The times of the festivals were evidently ordained in wisdom, so as to interfere as little as possible with the industry of the people. The value of these great religious festivals was threefold. (1) Religious effects.--They preserved the religious faith of the nation and religious unity among the people. They constantly reminded the people of the divinely-wrought deliverances of the past; promoted gratitude and trust; and testified the reverence of the people for the temple and its sacred contents. Besides this was the influence of well-conducted temple services upon the synagogues through the land. (2) Political effects.--The unity of the nation would be insured by this fusion of the tribes; otherwise they would be likely to constitute separate tribal states. They would carry back to the provinces glowing accounts of the wealth, power and resources of the country. (3) Social effects.--They promoted friendly intercourse between travelling companions; distributed information through the country at a time when the transmission of news was slow and imperfect; and imported into remote provincial districts a practical knowledge of all improvements in arts and sciences. + For the day of atonement see that article. II. After the captivity, the feast of purim, (Esther 9:20) seq., and that of the dedication, 1Macc 4:56, were instituted.


Festus, Porcius

(Festus means festival), successor of Felix as procurator of Judea, (Acts 24:27) sent by Nero probably in the autumn of A.D. 60. A few weeks after Festus reached his province he heard the cause of St. Paul, who had been left a prisoner by Felix, in the presence of Herod Agrippa II and Bernice his sister, (Acts 25:11,12) Judea was in the same disturbed state during the procuratorship of Festus which had prevailed through that of his predecessor. He died probably in the summer of A.D. 60, having ruled the province less than two years.


Fetters

Fetters were for the feet only, while chains were for any part of the body. They were usually made of brass, and also in pairs, the word being in the dual number. Iron was occasionally employed for the purpose. (Psalms 105:18; 149:8)


Field

The Hebrew sadeh is applied to any cultivated ground, and in some instances in marked opposition to the neighboring wilderness. On the other hand the sadeh is frequently contrasted with what is enclosed, whether a vineyard, a garden or a walled town. In many passages the term implies what is remote from a house, (Genesis 4:8; 24:63; 22:25) or settled habitation, as in the case of Esau. (Genesis 25:27) The separate plots of ground were marked off by stones, which might easily be removed, (19:14; 27:17) cf. Job 24:2; Prov 22:28; 23:10 The absence of fences rendered the fields liable to damage from straying cattle, (Exodus 22:5) or fire, (Exodus 22:6; 2 Samuel 14:30) hence the necessity of constantly watching flocks and herds. From the absence of enclosures, cultivated land of any size might be termed a field.


Fig, Fig Tree

The fig tree (Ficus carica) is very common in Palestine. (8:8) Mount Olivet was famous for its fig trees in ancient times, and they are still found there. To "sit under one's own vine and one's own fig tree" became a proverbial expression among the Jews to denote peace and prosperity. (1 Kings 4:25; Micah 4:4; Zechariah 3:10) The fig is a pear-shaped fruit, and is much used by the Orientals for food. The young figs are especially prized for their sweetness and flavor. The fruit always appears before the leaves; so that when Christ saw leaves on the fig tree by the wayside, (Mark 11:13) he had a right to expect fruit. The usual summer crop of fruits is not gathered till May or June; but in the sunny ravines of Olivet fig trees could have ripe fruit some weeks earlier (Dr. Thomson), and it was not strange so early as Easter Christ might find the young eatable figs, although it was not the usual season for gathering the fruit.


Fir

(Isaiah 14:8; Ezekiel 27:5) etc. As the term "cedar" is in all probability applicable to more than one tree, so also "fir" in the Authorized Version represents probably one or other of the following trees:

+ Pinus sylvestris, or Scotch fir; + Larch; + Cupressus sempervirens, or cypress, all which are at this day found in the Lebanon. The wood of the fir was used for ship-building, (Ezekiel 27:5) for musical instruments, (2 Samuel 6:5) for beams and rafters of houses, (1 Kings 5:8,10; 2 Chronicles 2:8) It was a tall evergreen tree of vigorous growth.


Fire

is represented as the symbol of Jehovah's presence and the instrument of his power, in the way either of approval or of destruction. (Exodus 3:2; 14:19) etc. There could not be a better symbol for Jehovah than this of fire, it being immaterial, mysterious, but visible, warming, cheering, comforting, but also terrible and consuming. Parallel with this application of fire and with its symbolical meaning are to be noted the similar use for sacrificial purposes and the respect paid to it, or to the heavenly bodies as symbols of deity, which prevailed among so many nations of antiquity, and of which the traces are not even now extinct; e.g. the Sabean and Magian systems of worship. (Isaiah 27:9) Fire for sacred purposes obtained elsewhere than from the altar was called "strange fire," and for the use of such Nadab and Abihu were punished with death by fire from God. (Leviticus 10:1,2; Numbers 3:4; 26:61)


Firepan

one of the vessels of the temple service. (Exodus 27:3; 38:3; 2 Kings 25:15; Jeremiah 52:19) The same word is elsewhere rendered "snuff-dish," (Exodus 25:38; 37:23; Numbers 4:9) and "censer." (Leviticus 10:1; 16:12; Numbers 16:6) ff. There appear, therefore, to have been two articles so called: one, like a chafing-dish, to carry live coals for the purpose of burning incense; another, like a snuffer-dish, to be used in trimming the lamps, in order to carry the snuffers and convey away the snuff.


Firkin

[[516]Weights And Measures AND [517]Measures]


Firmament

In Scripture the word denotes an expanse, a wide extent; for such is the signification of the Hebrew word. The original, therefore, does not convey the sense of solidity, but of stretching, extension; the great arch of expanse over our heads, in which are placed the atmosphere and the clouds, and in which the stars appear to be placed, and are really seen.--Webster.


Firstborn

Under the law, in memory of the exodus (when the first-born of the Egyptians were slain), the eldest son was regarded as devoted to God, and was in very case to be redeemed by an offering not exceeding five shekels, within one month from birth. If he died before the expiration of thirty days, the Jewish doctors held the father excused, but liable to the payment if he outlived that time. (Exodus 13:12-15,16; Leviticus 27:6) The eldest son received a double portion of the father's inheritance, (21:17) but not of the mother's. Under the monarchy the eldest son usually, but no always, as appears in the case of Solomon, succeeded his father in the kingdom. (1 Kings 1:30; 2:22) The male first-born of animals was also devoted to God. (Exodus 13:2,12,13; 22:29; 34:19,20) Unclean animals were to be redeemed with the addition of one-fifth of the value, or else put to death; or, if not redeemed, to be sold, and the price given to the priests. (Leviticus 27:13,27,28)


Firstfruits

+ The law ordered in general that the first of all ripe fruits and of liquors, or, as it is twice expressed, the first of first-fruits, should be offered in God's house. (Exodus 22:29; 23:19; 34:27) It was an act of allegiance to God as the giver of all. No exact quantity was commanded, but it was left to the spiritual and moral sense of each individual. + On the morrow after the passover sabbath, i.e. on the 16th of Nisan, a sheaf of new corn was to be brought to the priest and waved before the altar, in acknowledgment of the gift of fruitfulness. (Leviticus 2:12; 23:5,6,10,12) + At the expiration of seven weeks from this time, i.e. at the feast of pentecost, an oblation was to be made from the new flour, which were to be waved in like manner with the passover sheaf. (Exodus 34:22; Leviticus 23:15,17; Numbers 28:26) + The feast of ingathering, i.e. the feast of tabernacles, in the seventh month, was itself an acknowledgment of the fruits of the harvest. (Exodus 23:16; 34:22; Leviticus 23:39) These four sorts of offerings were national. Besides them, the two following were of an individual kind. + A cake of the first dough that was baked was to be offered as a heave-offering. (Numbers 15:19,21) + The first-fruits of the land were to be brought in a basket to the holy place of God's choice, and there presented to the priest, who was to set the basket down before the altar. (26:2-11) The offerings were the perquisite of the priests. (Numbers 18:11; 18:4) Nehemiah, at the return from captivity, took pains to reorganize the offerings of first-fruits of both kinds, and to appoint places to receive them. (Nehemiah 10:35,37; 12:44) An offering of first-fruits is mentioned as an acceptable one to the prophet Elisha. (2 Kings 4:42)


Fish

The Hebrews recognized fish as one of the great divisions of the animal kingdom, and as such gave them a place in the account of the creation, (Genesis 1:21,28) as well as in other passages where an exhaustive description of living creatures is intended. (Genesis 9:2; Exodus 20:4; 4:18; 1 Kings 4:33) The Mosaic law, (Leviticus 11:9,10) pronounced unclean such fish as were devoid of fins and scales; these were and are regarded as unwholesome in Egypt. Among the Philistines Dagon was represented by a figure half man and half fish. (1 Samuel 5:4) On this account the worship of fish is expressly prohibited. (4:18) In Palestine, the Sea of Galilee was and still is remarkable well stored with fish. (Tristram speaks of fourteen species found there, and thinks the number inhabiting it at least three times as great.) Jerusalem derived its supply chiefly from the Mediterranean. Comp. (Ezekiel 47:10) The existence of a regular fish-market is implied in the notice of the fish-gate, which was probably contiguous to it. (2 Chronicles 33:14; Nehemiah 3:3; 12:39; Zephaniah 1:10) The Orientals are exceedingly fond of fish as an article of diet. Numerous allusions to the art of fishing occur in the Bible. The most usual method of catching fish was by the use of the net, either the casting net, (Ezekiel 26:5,14; 47:10); Habb 1:15 Probably resembling the one used in Egypt, as shown in Wilkinson (iii. 55), or the draw or drag net, (Isaiah 19:8); Habb 1:15 Which was larger, and required the use of a boat. The latter was probably most used on the Sea of Galilee, as the number of boats kept on it was very considerable.


Fitches

(i.e. VETCHES), without doubt the Nigella sativa, an herbaceous annual plant belonging to the natural order Ranunculaceoe (the buttercup family), which grows in the south of Europe and in the north of Africa. Its black seeds are used like pepper, and have almost as pungent a taste. The Syrians sprinkle these seeds over their flat cakes before they are baked. [SEE [518]Rye]


Flag

There are two Hebrew words rendered "flag" in our Bible:

+ A word of Egyptian origin, and denoting "any green and course herbage, such as rushes and reeds, which grows in marshy places." (Genesis 41:2,18) (here translated meadow). It is perhaps the Cyperus esculentus . + A word which appears to be used in a very wide sense to denote "weeds of any kind." (Exodus 2:3,5; Isaiah 19:6)


Flagon

a word employed in the Authorized Version to render two distinct Hebrew terms:

+ Ashishah, (2 Samuel 6:19; 1 Chronicles 16:3; Song of Solomon 2:5; Hosea 3:1) It really means a cake of pressed raisins. Such cakes were considered as delicacies; they were also offered to idols. + Nebel, (Isaiah 22:24) is commonly used for a bottle or vessel, originally probably a skin, but in later times a piece of pottery. (Isaiah 30:14)


Flax

a well-known plant with yellowish stem and bright-blue flowers. Its fibres are employed in the manufacture of linen. The root contains an oil, and after the oil is expressed is sued as a food for cattle. Egypt was celebrated for the culture of flax and the manufacture of linen. The spinning was anciently done by women of noble birth. It seems probable that the cultivation of flax for the purpose of the manufacture of linen was by no means confined to Egypt, but that, originating in India, it spread over Asia at a very early period of antiquity. That it was grown in Palestine even before the conquest of that country by the Israelites appears from (Joshua 2:6) The various processes employed in preparing the flax for manufacture into cloth are indicated:

+ The drying process. + The peeling of the stalks and separation of the fibres. + The hackling. (Isaiah 19:9) That flax was one of the most important crops in Palestine appears from (Hosea 2:5,9)


Flea

an insect but twice mentioned in Scripture, viz., in (1 Samuel 24:14; 26:20) Fleas are abundant in the East, and afford the subject of many proverbial expressions.


Flint

a well-known stone, a variety of quartz. It is extremely hard, and strikes fire. It was very abundant in and about Palestine.


Flute

(1 Kings 1:40) (marg., [523]Pipe), A musical instrument mentioned amongst others, (Daniel 3:5,7,10,15) as used at the worship of the golden image which Nebuchadnezzar had set up. It bore a close resemblance to the modern flute, and was made of reeds, of copper, and other material. It was the principal wind-instrument.


Flux, Bloody

(Acts 28:8) the same as our dysentery, which in the East is, though sometimes sporadic, generally epidemic and infectious, and then assumes its worst form.


Fly, Flies

The two following Hebrew terms denote flies of some kind:

+ Zebub, which occurs only in (Ecclesiastes 10:1) and in Isai 7:18 And is probably a generic name for an insect. + 'Arob ("swarms of flies," "divers sorts of flies," Authorized Version), the name of the insect or insects which God sent to punish Pharaoh; see (Exodus 8:21-31; Psalms 78:45; 105:31) The question as to what particular species is denoted, or whether any one species is to be understood, has long been a matter of dispute. As the arob are said to have filled the houses of the Egyptians, it seems not improbable that common flies (Muscidae) are more especially intended. The arob may include various species of Culicidae (gnats), such as the mosquito; but the common flies are to this day in Egypt regarded as a "plague," and are the great instrument of spreading the well-known ophthalmia, which is conveyed from one individual to another by these dreadful pests. "It is now generally supposed that the dog-fly is meant, which at certain seasons is described as a far worse plague than mosquitos. The bite is exceedingly sharp and painful, causing severe inflammation, especially in the eyelids. Coming in immense swarms, they cover all objects in black and loathsome masses, and attack every exposed part of a traveller's person with incredible pertinacity."--Cook.


Food

The diet of eastern nations has been in all ages light and simple. Vegetable food was more used than animal. The Hebrews used a great variety of articles, (John 21:5) to give a relish to bread. Milk and its preparations hold a conspicuous place in eastern diet, as affording substantial nourishment; generally int he form of the modern leben, i.e. sour milk. Authorized Version "butter;" (Genesis 18:8; Judges 5:25; 2 Samuel 17:29) Fruit was another source of subsistence: figs stood first in point of importance; they were generally dried and pressed into cakes. Grapes were generally eaten in a dried state as raisins. Of vegetables we have most frequent notice of lentils, beans, leeks, onions and garlic, which were and still are of a superior quality in Egypt. (Numbers 11:5) Honey is extensively used, as is also olive oil. The Orientals have been at all times sparing in the use of animal food; not only does the extensive head of the climate render it both unwholesome to eat much meat and expensive from the necessity of immediately consuming a whole animal, but beyond this the ritual regulations of the Mosaic law in ancient, as of the Koran in modern, times have tended to the same result. The prohibition expressed against consuming the blood of any animal, (Genesis 9:4) was more fully developed in the Levitical law, and enforced by the penalty of death. (Leviticus 3:17; 7:26; 19:26; 12:16) Certain portions of the fat of sacrifices were also forbidden, (Leviticus 3:9,10) as being set apart for the altar, (Leviticus 3:16; 7:25) In addition to the above, Christians were forbidden to eat the flesh of animals portions of which had been offered to idols. All beasts and birds classed as unclean, (Leviticus 11:1) ff.; Deuteronomy 14:4 ff., were also prohibited. Under these restrictions the Hebrews were permitted the free use of animal food: generally speaking they only availed themselves of it in the exercise of hospitality or at festivals of a religious, public or private character. It was only in royal households that there was a daily consumption of meat. The animals killed for meat were--calves, lambs, oxen not above three years of age, harts, roebucks and fallow deer; birds of various kinds; fish, with the exception of such as were without scales and fins. Locusts, of which certain species only were esteemed clean, were occasionally eaten, (Matthew 3:4) but were regarded as poor fare.


Footman

a word employed in the English Bible in two senses:

+ Generally, to distinguish those of the fighting men who went on foot from those who were on horseback or in chariots; + In a more special sense, in (1 Samuel 22:17) only, and as the translation of a different term from the above--a body of swift runners in attendance on the king. This body appears to have been afterwards kept up, and to have been distinct from the body-guard--the six hundred and thirty-- who were originated by David. See (1 Kings 14:27,28; 2 Kings 11:4,6,11,13,19; 2 Chronicles 12:10,11) In each of these cases the word is the same as the above, and is rendered "guard," with "runners" in the margin in two instances - (1 Kings 14:27; 2 Kings 11:13)


Forehead

The practice of veiling the face (forehead) in public for women of the high classes, especially married women, in the East, sufficiently stigmatizes with reproach the unveiled face of women of bad character. (Genesis 24:64; Jeremiah 3:3) The custom among many Oriental nations both of coloring the face and forehead and of impressing on the body marks indicative of devotion to some special deity or religious sect is mentioned elsewhere. The "jewels for the forehead," mentioned by Ezekiel, (Ezekiel 16:12) and in margin of Authorized Version, (Genesis 24:22) were in all probability nose-rings. (Isaiah 3:21)


Forest

Although Palestine has never been in historical times a woodland country, yet there can be no doubt that there was much more wood formerly than there is a t present, and that the destruction of the forests was one of the chief causes of the present desolation.


Fortunatus

(fortunate) (1 Corinthians 16:17) one of the three Corinthians the others being Stephanas and Achaicus, who were at Ephesus when St. Paul wrote his first epistle. There is a Fortunatus mentioned in the end of Clement's first epistle to the Corinthians, who was possibly the same person.


Fountain

(a spring in distinction from a well). The springs of Palestine, though short-lived, are remarkable for their abundance and beauty, especially those which fall into the Jordan and into its lakes, of which there are hundreds throughout its whole course. The spring or fountain of living water, the "eye" of the landscape, is distinguished in all Oriental languages from the artificially-sunk and enclosed well. Jerusalem appears to have possessed either more than one perennial spring or one issuing by more than one outlet. In Oriental cities generally public fountains are frequent. Traces of such fountains at Jerusalem may perhaps be found in the names of Enrogel, (2 Samuel 17:17) the "Dragon well" or fountain, and the "gate of the fountain." (Nehemiah 2:13,14)


Fowl

Several distinct Hebrew and Greek words are thus rendered in the English Bible. Of these the most common is 'oph, which is usually a collective term for all kinds of birds. In (1 Kings 4:23) among the daily provisions for Solomon's table "fatted fowl" are included. In the New Testament the word translated "fowls" is most frequently that which comprehends all kinds of birds (including ravens, (Luke 12:24) [[525]Sparrow]


Fox

(Heb. shu'al). Probably the jackal is the animal signified in almost all the passages in the Old Testament where the Hebrew term occurs. Though both foxes and jackals abound in Palestine, the shu'alim (foxes) of (Judges 15:4) are evidently jackals and not foxes, for the former animal is gregarious, whereas the latter is solitary in its habits; and Samson could not, for that reason, have easily caught three hundred foxes, but it was easy to catch that number of jackals, which are concealed by hundreds in caves and ruins of Syria. It is not probable, however, that Samson sent out the whole three hundred at once. With respect to the jackals and foxes of Palestine, there is no doubt that the common jackal of the country is the Canis aureus, which may be heard every night in the villages. It is like a medium-sized dog, with a head like a wolf, and is of a bright-yellow color. These beasts devour the bodies of the dead, and even dig them up from their graves.


Frankincense

a vegetable resin, brittle, glittering, and of a bitter taste, used for the purpose of sacrificial fumigation. (Exodus 30:34-36) It was called frank because of the freeness with which, when burned, it gives forth its odor. It burns for a long time, with a steady flame. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of a tree called Arbor thuris . The first incision yields the purest and whitest resin, while the product of the after incisions is spotted with yellow, and loses its whiteness altogether as it becomes old. The Hebrews imported their frankincense from Arabia, (Isaiah 60:6; Jeremiah 6:20) and more particularly from Saba; but it is remarkable that at present the Arabian libanum or olibanum is a very inferior kind, and that the finest frankincense imported into Turkey comes through Arabia from the islands of the Indian Archipelago. There can be little doubt that the tree which produces the Indian frankincense is the Boswellia serrata of Roxburgh, or Boswellia thurifera of Colebrooke, and bears some resemblance when young to the mountain ash. It grows to be forty feet high.


Frog

a well-known amphibious animal of the genus Rana . The mention of this reptile in the Old Testament is confined to the passage in (Exodus 8:2-7) etc., in which the plague of frogs is described, and to (Psalms 78:45; 105:30) In the New Testament the word occurs once only, in (Revelation 16:13) There is no question as to the animal meant. The only known species of frog which occurs at present in Egypt is the Rana esculenta, the edible frog of the continent.


Frontlets, Or Phylacteries

(Exodus 13:16; 6:8; 11:18; Matthew 23:5) These "frontlets" or "phylacteries" were strips of parchment, on which were written four passages of Scripture, (Exodus 13:2-10,11-17; 6:4-9,13-23) in an ink prepared for the purpose. They were then rolled up in a case of black calfskin, which was attached to a stiffer piece of leather, having a thong one finger broad and one and a half cubits long. They were placed at the bend of the left arm. Those worn on the forehead were written on four strips of parchment, and put into four little cells within a square case on which the letter was written. The square had two thongs, on which Hebrew letters were inscribed. That phylacteries were used as amulets is certain, and was very natural. The expression "they make broad their phylacteries," (Matthew 23:5) refers not so much to the phylactery itself, which seems to have been of a prescribed breadth, as to the case in which the parchment was kept, which the Pharisees, among their other pretentious customs, (Mark 7:3,4; Luke 5:33) etc., made as conspicuous as they could. It is said that the Pharisees wore them always, whereas the common people only used them at prayers.


Fuller

The trade of the fullers, so far as it is mentioned in Scripture, appears to have consisted chiefly in cleansing garments and whitening them. The process of fulling or cleansing clothes consisted in treading or stamping on the garments with the feet or with bats in tubs of water, in which some alkaline substance answering the purpose of soap had been dissolved. The substances used for this purpose which are mentioned in Scripture are natron, (Proverbs 25:20; Jeremiah 2:22) and soap. (Malachi 3:2) Other substances also are mentioned as being employed in cleansing, which, together with alkali, seem to identify the Jewish with the Roman process, as urine and chalk. The process of whitening garments was performed by rubbing into them calk or earth of some kind. Creta cimolia (cimolite) was probably the earth most frequently used. The trade of the fullers, as causing offensive smells, and also as requiring space for drying clothes, appears to have been carried on at Jerusalem outside the city.


Fullers Field, The

a spot near Jerusalem, (2 Kings 8:17; Isaiah 7:3; 36:2) so close to the walls that a person speaking from there could be heard on them. (2 Kings 18:17,26) One resort of the fullers of Jerusalem would seem to have been below the city on the southeast side. But Rabshakeh and his "great host" must have come from the north; and the fuller's field was therefore, to judge from this circumstance, on the table-land on the northern side of the city.


Furlong

[[527]Weights And Measures AND [528]Measures]


Furnace

Various kinds of furnaces are noticed in the Bible, such as a smelting or calcining furnace, (Genesis 19:28; Exodus 9:8,10; 19:18) especially a lime-kiln, (Isaiah 33:12; Amos 2:1) a refining furnace, (Proverbs 17:3) Nebuchadnezzar's furnace, a large furnace built like a brick-kiln, (Daniel 3:22,23) with two openings one at the top for putting in the materials, and another below for removing them; the potter's furnace, Ecclus. 27:5; The blacksmith's furnace. Ecclus. 38:28. The Persians were in the habit of using the furnace as a means of inflicting punishment. (Daniel 3:22,23; Jeremiah 29:22)


Gaal

(contempt), son of Ebed, aided the Shechemites in their rebellion against Abimelech. (Judges 9:1) ... (B.C. 1206.)


Gaash

(earthquake), a hill of Ephraim, where Joshua was buried. The brooks or valley of Gaash, (2 Samuel 23:30; 1 Chronicles 11:32) were probably at the foot of the hill.


Gabatha

(Esther 12:1) [[530]Bigthan, Or Bigthana]


Gabbai

(tax gatherer), apparently the head of an important family of Benjamin resident at Jerusalem. (Nehemiah 11:8) (B.C. before 536.)


Gabbatha

(elevated; a platform) the Hebrew or Chaldee appellation of a place, also called "Pavement," where the judgment-seat or bema was planted, from his place on which Pilate delivered our Lord to death. (John 19:13) It was a tessellated platform outside the praetorium, on the western hill of Jerusalem, for Pilate brought Jesus forth from thence to it.


Gabriel

(man of God), an angel sent by God to announce to Zacharias the birth of John the Baptist, and to Mary the birth of Christ. He was also sent to Daniel to explain his visions. (Daniel 8:16; 9:21)


Gad

+ Jacob's seventh son, the first-born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, and whole-brother to Asher. (Genesis 30:11-13; 46:16,18) (B.C. 1753-1740.) + "The seer," or "the king's seer," i.e. David's (1 Chronicles 29:29; 2 Chronicles 29:25) was a "prophet" who appears to have joined David when in the old. (1 Samuel 22:5) (B.C. 1061.) He reappears in connection with the punishment inflicted for the numbering of the people. (2 Samuel 24:11-19; 1 Chronicles 21:9-19) He wrote a book of the Acts of David, (1 Chronicles 29:29) and also assisted in the arrangements for the musical service of the "house of God." (2 Chronicles 29:25)


Gad, The Tribe Of

The country allotted to the tribe of Gad appears, speaking roughly, to have lain chiefly about the centre of the land east of Jordan. The sought of that district--from the Arnon (Wady Mojeb), about halfway down the Dead Sea, to Heshbon, nearly due east of Jerusalem--was occupied by Reuben, and at or about Heshbon the possessions of Gad commenced. They embraced half Gilead, (3:12) or half the land of the children of Ammon, (Joshua 13:25) probably the mountainous district which is intersected by the torrent Jabbok, including, as its most northern town, the ancient sanctuary of Mahanaim. On the east the furthest landmark given is "Aroer that is before Rabbah," the present Amman . (Joshua 13:25) West was the Jordan. ver. (Joshua 13:27) The character of the tribe is throughout strongly marked--fierce and warlike.


Gadara

a strong city situated near the river Hieromax, six miles southeast of the Sea of Galilee, over against Scythopolis and Tiberias, and 16 Roman miles distant from each of those places. Josephus calls it the capital of Peraea. The ruins of this city, now called Um Keis, are about two miles in circumference. The most interesting remains of Gadara are its tombs, which dot the cliffs for a considerable distance around the city. Godet says there is still a population of 200 souls in these tombs. Gadara was captured by Vespasian on the first outbreak of the war with the Jews, all its inhabitants were massacred, and the town itself, with the surrounding villages, was reduced to ashes.


Gadarenes, Girgesenes, Gerasenes

(These three names are used indiscriminately to designate the place where Jesus healed two demoniacs. The first two are in the Authorized Version. (Matthew 8:28; Mark 5:1; Luke 8:26) In Gerasenes in place of Gadarenes. The miracle referred to took place, without doubt, near the town of Gergesa, the modern Kersa, close by the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee, and hence in the country of Gergesenes. But as Gergesa was a small village, and little known, the evangelists, who wrote for more distant readers, spoke of the event as taking place in the country of the Gadarenes, so named from its largest city, Gadara; and this country included the country of the Gergesenes as a state includes a county. The Gerasenes were the people of the district of which Gerasa was the capital. This city was better known than Gadara or Gergesa; indeed in the Roman age no city of Palestine was better known. "It became one of the proudest cities of Syria." It was situated some 30 miles southeast of Gadara, on the borders of Peraea and a little north of the river Jabbok. It is now called Jerash and is a deserted ruin. The district of the Gerasenes probably included that of the Gadarenes; so that the demoniac of Gergesa belonged to the country of the Gadarenes and also to that of the Gerasenes, as the same person may, with equal truth, be said to live in the city or the state, or in the United States. For those near by the local name would be used; but in writing to a distant people, as the Greeks and Romans, the more comprehensive and general name would be given.--ED.)


Gaddi

(fortunate), son of Susi; the Manassite spy sent by Moses to explore Canaan. (Numbers 13:11) (B.C. 1490.)


Gaddiel

(fortune of God) a Zebulunite, one of the twelve spies. (Numbers 13:10) (B.C. 1490.)


Gadi

A Gadite, father of Menahem a king of Israel. (2 Kings 15:14,17)


Gadites, The

the descendants of Gad, and members of his tribe.


Gaham

(sunburnt), son of Nahor Abraham's brother, by his concubine Reumah. (Genesis 22:24) (B.C. about 1900.)


Gahar

(hiding-place) The Bene-Gahar were among the families of Nethinim who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:47; Nehemiah 7:49) (B.C. before 536.)


Gaius

+ A Macedonian who accompanied Paul in his travels, and whose life was in danger from the mob at Ephesus. (Acts 19:29) (A.D. 54.) + Of Derbe. He went with Paul from Corinth in his last journey to Jerusalem. (Acts 20:4) (A.D. 54.) + Of Corinth, whom Paul baptized and who was his host in his second journey in that city. (1 Corinthians 1:14; Romans 16:23) (These are supposed by some to be only one person.) + John's third epistle is addressed to Christian of this name. We may possibly identify him with No. 2.


Galal

+ A Levite, one of the sons of Asaph. (1 Chronicles 9:15) (B.C. 536.) + Another Levite, of the family of Elkanah. (1 Chronicles 9:16) + A third Levite, son of Jeduthun. (Nehemiah 11:17) (B.C. 536.)


Galatia

(land of the Galli, Gauls). The Roman province of Galatia may be roughly described as the central region of the peninsula of Asia Minor, bounded on the north by Bithynia and Paphlagonia; on the east by Pontus; on the south by Cappadocia and Lycaonia; on the west by Phrygia.--Encyc. Brit. It derived its name from the Gallic or Celtic tribes who, about 280 B.C., made an irruption into Macedonia and Thrace. It finally became a Roman province. The Galatia of the New Testament has really the "Gaul" of the East. The people have always been described as "susceptible of quick impressions and sudden changes, with a fickleness equal to their courage and enthusiasm, and a constant liability to that disunion which is the fruit of excessive vanity.--The Galatian churches were founded by Paul at his first visit, when he was detained among, them by sickness, (Galatians 4:13) during his second missionary journey, about A.D 51. He visited them again on his third missionary tour.


Galatians, The Epistle To The

was written by the apostle St. Paul not long after his journey through Galatia and Phrygia, (Acts 18:23) and probably in the early portion of his two-and-a-half-years stay at Ephesus, which terminated with the Pentecost of A.D. 57 or 58. The epistle appears to have been called forth by the machinations of Judaizing teachers, who, shortly before the date of its composition, had endeavored to seduce the churches of this province into a recognition of circumcision, (Galatians 5:2,11,12; 6:12) seq., and had openly sought to depreciate the apostolic claims of St. Paul. Comp. (Galatians 1:1,11) "Since the days of Luther the Epistle to the Galatians has always been held in high esteem as the gospel's banner of freedom. To it and the Epistle to the Romans we owe most directly the springing up and development of the ideas and energies of the Reformation."--Meyer.


Galbanum

one of the perfumes employed in the preparation of the sacred incense. (Exodus 10:34) The galbanum of commerce is brought chiefly from India and the Levant. It is a resinous gum of a brownish-yellow color and strong disagreeable smell, usually met with in masses, but sometimes found in yellowish tear-like drops. But, though galbanum itself is well known, the plant which yields it has not been exactly determined.


Galeed

(the heap of witness), the name given by Jacob to the heap which he and Laban made on Mount Gilead in witness of the covenant then entered into between them. (Genesis 31:47,48) comp. Genesis31:23,25

(the heap of witness), the name given by Jacob to the heap which he and Laban made on Mount Gilead in witness of the masses, but sometimes found in yellowish tear-like drops. But, though galbanum itself is well known, the plant which yields it has not been exactly determined.


Galileans

the inhabitants of Galilee, the northern province of Palestine. The apostles were all Galileans by either birth or residence. (Acts 1:11) It appears also that the pronunciation of those Jews who resided in Galilee had become peculiar, probably from their contact with their Gentile neighbors. (Matthew 26:73)


Galilee

(circuit). This name, which in the Roman age was applied to a large province, seems to have been originally confined to a little "circuit" of country round Kedesh-Naphtali, in which were situated the twenty towns given by Solomon to Hiram king of Tyre as payment for his work in conveying timber from Lebanon to Jerusalem. (Joshua 20:7; 1 Kings 9:11) In the time of our Lord all Palestine was divided into three provinces, Judea, Samaria and Galilee. (Luke 17:11; Acts 9:31) Joseph. B.J. iii. 3. The latter included the whole northern section of the country, including the ancient territories of Issachar, Zebulun, Asher and Naphtali. On the west it was bounded by the territory of Ptolemais, which probably included the whole plain of Akka to the foot of Carmel. The southern border ran along the base of Carmel and of the hills of Samaria to Mount Gilboa, and then descended the valley of Jezreel by Scythopolis to the Jordan. The river Jordan, the Sea of Galilee, and the upper Jordan to the fountain at Dan, formed the eastern border; and the northern ran from Dan westward across the mountain ridge till it touched the territory of the Phoenicians. Galilee was divided into two sections, "Lower" and "Upper." Lower Galilee included the great plain of Esdraelon with its offshoots, which ran down to the Jordan and the Lake of Tiberias, and the whole of the hill country adjoining it on the north to the foot of the mountain range. It was thus one of the richest and most beautiful sections of Pales-tine. Upper Galilee embraced the whole mountain range lying between the upper Jordan and Phoenicia. To this region the name "Galilee of the Gentiles" is given in the Old and New Testaments. (Isaiah 9:1; Matthew 4:16) Galilee was the scene of the greater part of our Lord's private life and public acts. It is a remarkable fact that the first three Gospels are chiefly taken up with our Lord's ministrations in this province, while the Gospel of John dwells more upon those in Judea. (Galilee in the time of Christ .--From Rev. Selah Merrill's late book (1881) with this title, we glean the following facts: Size .--It is estimated that of the 1000 square miles in Palestine west of the Jordan, nearly one-third, almost 2000 square miles, belongs to Galilee. Population--The population is between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000. Dr. Merrill argues for the general correctness of Josephus' estimates, who says there were 204 cities and villages in Galilee, the smallest of which numbered 15,000 inhabitants. Character of the country . Galilee was a region of great natural fertility. Such is the fertility of the soil that it rejects no plant, for the air is so genial that it suits every variety. The walnut, which delights above other trees in a wintry climate, grows here luxuriantly together with the palm tree, which is flourished by heat. It not only possesses the extraordinary virtue of nourishing fruits of opposite climes, but also maintains a continual supply of them. Here were found all the productions which made Italy rich and beautiful. Forests covered its mountains and hills, while its uplands, gentle slopes and broader valleys were rich in pasture, meadows, cultivated fields, vineyards, olive groves and fruit trees of every kind. Character of the Galileans .--They were thoroughly a Jewish people. With few exceptions they were wealthy and in general an influential class. If one should say the Jews were bigoted in religion, he should remember at the same time that in regard to social, commercial and political relations none were more cosmopolitan in either sentiment or practice than they. The Galileans had many manufactures, fisheries, some commerce, but were chiefly an agricultural people. They were eminent for patriotism and courage, as were their ancestors, with great respect for law and order.--ED.)


Galilee, Sea Of

So called from the province of Galilee, which bordered on the western side. (Matthew 4:18) It was also called the "Sea of Tiberias," from the celebrated city of that name. (John 6:1) At its northwestern angle was a beautiful and fertile plain called "Gennesaret," and from that it derived the name of "Lake of Gennesaret." (Luke 5:1) It was called in the Old Testament "the Sea of Chinnereth" or "Cinneroth," (Numbers 34:11; Joshua 12:3) from a town of that name which stood on or near its shore. (Joshua 19:35) Its modern name is Bahr Tubariyeh . Most of our Lord's public life was spent in the environs of this sea. The surrounding region was then the most densely peopled in all Palestine. no less than nine very populous cities stood on the very shores of the lake. The Sea of Galilee is of an oval long and six broad. It is 60 miles northeast of Jerusalem and 27 east of the Mediterranean Sea. The river Jordan enters it at its northern end and passes out at its southern end. In fact the bed of the lake is just a lower section of the Great Jordan valley. Its more remarkable feature is its deep depression, being no less than 700 feet below the level of the ocean. The scenery is bleak and monotonous, being surrounded by a high and almost unbroken wall of hills, on account of which it is exposed to frequent sudden and violent storms. The great depression makes the climate of the shores almost tropical. This is very sensibly felt by the traveller in going down from the plains of Galilee. In summer the heat is intense, and even in early spring the air has something of an Egyptian balminess. The water of the lake is sweet, cool and transparent; and as the beach is everywhere pebbly is has a beautiful sparkling look. It abounds in fish now as in ancient times. There were large fisheries on the lake, and much commerce was carried on upon it.


Gall

+ Mereerah, denoting "that which is bitter;" hence the term is applied to the "bile" or "gall" (the fluid secreted by the liver), from its intense bitterness, (Job 16:13; 20:25) it is also used of the "poison" of serpents, (Job 20:14) which the ancients erroneously believed was their gall. + Rosh, generally translated "gall" in the English Bible, is in (Hosea 10:4) rendered "hemlock:" in (32:33) and Job 20:16 rosh denotes the "poison" or "venom" of serpents. From (29:18) and Lame 3:19 compared with Hose 10:4 It is evident that the Hebrew term denotes some bitter and perhaps poisonous plant. Other writers have supposed, and with some reason, from (32:32) that some berry-bearing plant must be intended. Gesenius understands poppies; in which case the gall mingled with the wine offered to our Lord at his crucifixion, and refused by him, would be an anaesthetic, and tend to diminish the sense of suffering. Dr. Richardson, "Ten Lectures on Alcohol," p. 23, thinks these drinks were given to the crucified to diminish the suffering through their intoxicating effects.


Gallery

an architectural term describing the porticos or verandas which are not uncommon in eastern houses. It is doubtful, however, whether the Hebrew words so translated have any reference to such an object. (According to the latest researches, the colonnade or else wainscoting is meant. (Song of Solomon 1:17; Ezekiel 41:15)--Schaff.)


Gallim

(fountains). This is given as the native place of the man to whom Michal, David's wife, was given. (1 Samuel 25:44) There is no clue to the situation of the place. The name occurs again in the catalogue of places terrified at the approach of Sennacherib. (Isaiah 10:30)


Gallio

(one who lives on milk), Junius Annaeus Gallio, the Roman proconsul of Achaia when St. Paul was at Corinth, A.D. 53, under the emperor Claudius. (Acts 18:12) He was brother to Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the philosopher. Jerome in the Chronicle of Eusebius says that he committed suicide in 65 A.D. Winer thinks he was put to death by Nero.


Gamaliel

+ Son of Pedahzur; prince or captain of the tribe of Manasseh at the census at Sinai, (Numbers 1:10; 20:20; 7:54,59) and at starting on the march through the wilderness. ch. (Numbers 10:23) (B.C. 1490.) + A pharisee and celebrated doctor of the law, who gave prudent worldly advice in the Sanhedrin respecting the treatment of the followers of Jesus of Nazareth. (Acts 5:34) ff. (A.D. 29.) We learn from (Acts 22:3) that he was the preceptor of St. Paul. He is generally identified with the very celebrated Jewish doctor Gamaliel, grandson of Hillel, and who is referred to as authority in the Jewish Mishna.


Games

Among the Greeks the rage for theatrical exhibitions was such that every city of any size possessed its theatre and stadium. At Ephesus an annual contest was held in honor of Diana. It is probable that St. Paul was present when these games were proceeding. A direct reference to the exhibitions that I took place on such occasions is made in (1 Corinthians 15:32) St. Paul's epistles abound with allusions to the Greek contests, borrowed probably from the Isthmian games, at which he may well have been present during his first visit to Corinth. These contests, (1 Timothy 6:12; 2 Timothy 4:7) were divided into two classes, the pancratium, consisting of boxing and wrestling, and the pentathlon, consisting of leaping, running, quoiting, hurling the spear and wrestling. The competitors, (1 Corinthians 9:25; 2 Timothy 2:5) required a long and severe course of previous training, (1 Timothy 4:8) during which a particular diet was enforced. (1 Corinthians 9:25,27) In the Olympic contests these preparatory exercises extended over a period of ten months, during the last of which they were conducted under the supervision of appointed officers. The contests took place in the presence of a vast multitude of spectators, (Hebrews 12:1) the competitors being the spectacle. (1 Corinthians 4:9; Hebrews 10:33) The games were opened by the proclamation of a herald, (1 Corinthians 9:27) whose office it was to give out the name and country of each candidate, and especially to announce the name of the victor before the assembled multitude. The judge was selected for his spotless integrity; (2 Timothy 4:8) his office was to decide any disputes, (Colossians 3:15) and to give the prize, (1 Corinthians 9:24; Philemon 3:14) consisting of a crown, (2 Timothy 2:6; 4:8) of leaves of wild olive at the Olympic games, and of pine, or at one period ivy, at the Isthmian games. St. Paul alludes to two only out of the five contests, boxing and running, more frequently to the latter. The Jews had no public games, the great feasts of religion supplying them with anniversary occasions of national gatherings.


Gammadim

This word occurs only in (Ezekiel 27:11) A variety of explanations of the term have been offered.

+ One class renders it "pygmies." + A second treats it as a geographical or local term. + A third gives a more general sense to the word "brave warriors." Hitzig suggests "deserters." After all, the rendering in the LXX.--"guards"-- furnishes the simplest explanation.


Gamul

(weaned), a priest, the leader of the twenty-second course in the service at the sanctuary. (1 Chronicles 24:17) (B.C. 535.)


Garden

Gardens in the East, as the Hebrew word indicates, are enclosures on the outskirts of towns, planted with various trees and shrubs. From the allusions in the Bible we learn that they were surrounded by hedges of thorn, (Isaiah 5:5) or walls of stone. (Proverbs 24:31) For further protection lodges, (Isaiah 1:8; Lamentations 2:6) or watchtowers, (Mark 12:1) were built in them, in which sat the keeper, (Job 27:18) to drive away the wild beasts and robbers, as is the case to this day. The gardens of the Hebrews were planted with flowers and aromatic shrubs, (Song of Solomon 6:2; 4:16) besides olives, fig trees, nuts or walnuts, (Song of Solomon 6:12) pomegranates, and others for domestic use. (Exodus 23:11; Jeremiah 29:5; Amos 9:14) Gardens of herbs, or kitchen gardens, are mentioned in (11:10) and 1Kin 21:2 The rose garden in Jerusalem, said to have been situated westward of the temple mount, it is remarkable as having been one of the few gardens which, from the time of the prophets, existed within the city walls. The retirement of gardens rendered them favorite places for devotion.


Gareb

(scabby), one of the heroes of David's army. (2 Samuel 23:38)


Gareb, The Hill

in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, named only in (Jeremiah 31:39)


Garlic

(Numbers 11:5) is the Allium sativum of Linnaeus, which abounds in Egypt.


Garmite, The

Keilah the Garmite, i.e. the descendant of Gerem, is mentioned in the obscure genealogical lists of the families of Judah. (1 Chronicles 4:19)


Garrison

The Hebrew words so rendered in the Authorized Version are derivatives from the root natsab, to "place, erect," which may be applied to a variety of objects.

+ Mattsab and mattsabah undoubtedly mean a "garrison" or fortified post. (1 Samuel 13:23; 14:14; 1 Samuel 15; 2 Samuel 23:14) + Netsib is also used for a "garrison" in (1 Chronicles 11:16) but elsewhere for a "column" erected in an enemy's country as a token of conquest. (1 Samuel 13:3) + The same word elsewhere means "officers" placed over a vanquished people. (2 Samuel 8:6,14; 1 Chronicles 18:13; 2 Chronicles 17:2) + Mattsebah in (Ezekiel 26:11) means a "pillar."


Gashmu

a variation of the name [534]Geshem. (Nehemiah 6:6) (B.C. 446.)


Gatam

(a burnt valley), the fourth son of Eliphaz the son of Esau, (Genesis 36:11; 1 Chronicles 1:36) and one of the "dukes" of Eliphaz. (Genesis 36:16) (B.C. after 1760.)


Gate

The gate and gateways of eastern cities anciently held and still hold an important part, not only in the defence but in the public economy of the place. They are thus sometimes taken as representing the city itself. (Genesis 22:17; 24:60; 12:12; Judges 5:8; Ruth 4:10; Psalms 87:2; 122:2) Among the special purposes for which they were used may be mentioned.

+ As places of public resort. (Genesis 19:1; 23:10; 34:20; 24; 1 Samuel 4:18) etc. + Places for public deliberation, administration of Justice, or of audience for kings and rulers or ambassadors. (16:18; 21:19; 25:7; Joshua 20:4; Judges 9:35) etc. + Public markets. (2 Kings 7:1) In heathen towns the open spaces near the gates appear to have been sometimes used as places for sacrifice. (Acts 14:13) comp 2Kin 23:8 Regarded therefore as positions of great importance, the gates of cities were carefully guarded, and closed at nightfall. (3:5; Joshua 2:5,7; Judges 9:40,44) They contained chambers over the gateway. (2 Samuel 18:24) The doors themselves of the larger gates mentioned in Scripture were two leaved, plated with metal, closed with locks and fastened with metal bars. (3:6; Psalms 107:16; Isaiah 46:1,2) Gates not defended by iron were of course liable to be set on fire by an enemy. (Judges 9:52) The gateways of royal palaces and even of private houses were often richly ornamented. Sentences from the law were inscribed on and above the gates. (6:9; Isaiah 64:12; Revelation 21:21) The gates of Solomon's temple were very massive and costly, being overlaid with gold and carving. (1 Kings 6:34,35; 2 Kings 18:16) Those of the holy place were of olive wood, two-leaved and overlaid with gold; those of the temple of fir. (1 Kings 6:31,32,34; Ezekiel 41:23,24)


Gath

(a wine press), one of the five royal cities of the Philistines; (Joshua 13:3; 1 Samuel 6:17) and the native place of the giant Goliath. (1 Samuel 17:4,23) It probably stood upon the conspicuous hill now called Tell-es-Safieh, upon the side of the plain of Philistia, at the foot of the mountains of Judah; 10 miles east of Ashdod, and about the same distance south by east of Ekron. It is irregular in form, and about 200 feet high. Gath occupied a strong position, (2 Chronicles 11:8) on the border of Judah and Philistia, (1 Samuel 21:10; 1 Chronicles 18:1) and from its strength and resources forming the key of both countries, it was the scene of frequent struggles, and was often captured and recaptured. (2 Kings 12:17; 2 Chronicles 11:8; 26:6; Amos 6:2) The ravages of war to which Gath was exposed appear to have destroyed it at a comparatively early period, as it is not mentioned among the other royal cities by the later prophets. (Zephaniah 2:4; Zechariah 9:5,6) It is familiar to the Bible student as the scene of one of the most romantic incidents in the life of King David. (1 Samuel 21:10-15)


Gathhepher, Or Gittahhepher

(wine-press on the hill), a town on the border of the territory of Zebulun, not far from Japhia, now 'Yafa, (Joshua 19:12,13) celebrated as the native place of the prophet Jonah. (2 Kings 14:25) El-Meshhad, a village two-miles east of Sefurieh, is the ancient Gath-hepher.


Gathrimmon

+ A city given out of the tribe of Dan to the Levites. (Joshua 21:24; 1 Chronicles 6:69) situated on the plain of Philistia, apparently not far from Joppa. (Joshua 19:45) + A town of the half tribe of Manasseh west of the Jordan, assigned to the Levites. (Joshua 21:25) The reading Gath-rimmon is probably an error of the transcribers.


Gaza

(the fortified; the strong) (properly Azzah), one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is remarkable for its continuous existence and importance from the very earliest times. The secret of this unbroken history is to be found in the situation of Gaza. It is the last town in the southwest of Palestine, on the frontier towards Egypt. The same peculiarity of situation has made Gaza important in a military sense. Its name means "the strong;" and this was well elucidated in its siege by Alexander the Great, which lasted five months. In the conquest of Joshua the territory of Gaza is mentioned as one which he was not able to subdue. (Joshua 10:41; 11:22; 13:3) It was assigned to the tribe of Judah, (Joshua 15:47) and that tribe did obtain possession of it, (Judges 1:18) but did not hold it long, (Judges 3:3; 13:1) and apparently it continued through the time of Samuel, Saul and David to be a Philistine city. 1Sam 6:17; 14:52; 31:1; 2Sam 21:15 Solomon became master of "Azzah," (1 Kings 4:24) but in after times the same trouble with the Philistines recurred. (2 Chronicles 21:16; 26:6; 28:18) The passage where Gaza is mentioned in the New Testament (Acts 8:26) is full of interest. It is the account of the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch on his return from Jerusalem to Egypt. Gaza is the modern Ghuzzeh, a Mohammedan town of about 16,000 inhabitants, situated partly on an oblong hill of moderate height and partly on the lower ground. The climate of the place is almost tropical, but it has deep wells of excellent water. There are a few palm trees in the town, and its fruit orchards are very productive; but the chief feature of the neighborhood is the wide-spread olive grove to the north and northeast


Gazer

(2 Samuel 5:25; 1 Chronicles 14:16) [[535]Gezer]


Gazez

(shearer), a name which occurs twice in (1 Chronicles 2:46)--first as son of Caleb by Ephah his concubine, and second as son of Haran, the son of the same woman. The second is possibly only a repetition of the first (B.C. after 1688.)


Gazzam

(devouring). The Bene-Gazzam were among the familiar of the Nethinim who returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel. (Ezra 2:48; Nehemiah 7:51) (B.C. 536.)


Geba

(a hill), a city of Benjamin, with "suburbs," allotted to the priests. (Joshua 21:17; 1 Chronicles 6:60) It is named amongst the first group of the Benjamite towns--apparently those lying near to and along the north boundary. (Joshua 18:24) Here the name is given as [536]Gaba. During the wars of the earlier part of the reign of Saul, Geba was held as a garrison by the Philistines, (1 Samuel 13:3) but they were ejected by Jonathan. It is now the modern village of Jeba, which stands picturesquely on the top of its steep terraced hill, six miles north of Jerusalem, on the very edge of the great Wady Suweinit, looking northward to the opposite village of ancient Michmash, which also retains its old name of Mukhmas .


Gebal

(mountain), a maritime town of Phoenicia, near Tyre, (Ezekiel 27:9) known by the Greeks as Byblus. It is called Jebail by the Arabs, thus reviving the old biblical name.


Geber

+ The son of Geber resided in the fortress of Ramoth-gilead, and had charge of Havoth-jair and the district of Argob. (1 Kings 4:13) (B.C. 1013). + Geber the son of Uri had a district south of the former--the "land of Gilead." (1 Kings 4:19)


Gebim

(grasshoppers), a village north of Jerusalem, (Isaiah 10:31) apparently between Anathoth (the modern Anata) and the ridge on which Nob was situated.


Gedaliah

(God is my greatness), son of Ahikam (Jeremiah's protector, (Jeremiah 26:24) and grandson of Shaphan the secretary of King Josiah. After the destruction of the temple, B.C. 588, Nebuchadnezzar departed from Judea, leaving Gedaliah with a Chaldean guard, (Jeremiah 40:5) at Mizpah to govern the vinedressers and husbandmen, (Jeremiah 52:16) who were exempted from captivity. Jeremiah jointed Gedaliah; and Mizpah became the resort of Jews from various quarters. (Jeremiah 40:6,11) He was murdered by Ishmael two months after his appointment.


Gedeon

The Greek form of the Hebrew name [537]Gideon. (Hebrews 11:32)


Geder

(a wall). The king of Geder was one of the thirty-one kings who were overcome by Joshua on the west of the Jordan. (Joshua 12:13) (B.C. 1445.) It is possible that it may be the same place as the Geder named in (1 Chronicles 4:39)


Gederah

(a sheepfold), a town of Judah in the lowland country, (Joshua 15:36) apparently in its eastern part. No town bearing this name has, however, been yet discovered in this hitherto little-explored district.


Gederathite, The

the native of a place called Gederah, apparently in Benjamin. (1 Chronicles 12:4)


Gederite, The

the native of some place named Geder or Gederah. (1 Chronicles 27:28)


Gederoth

(sheepfolds), a town in the low country of Judah. (Joshua 15:41; 2 Chronicles 28:18)


Gederothaim

(two sheepfolds), a town in the low country of Judah, (Joshua 15:36) named next in order to Gederah.


Gedor

(a wall), a town int he mountainous part of Judah, (Joshua 15:58) a few miles north of Hebron. Robinson discovered a Jedur halfway between Bethlehem and Hebron, about two miles west of the road.


Gehazi

(valley of vision), the servant or boy of Elisha. He was sent as the prophet's messenger on two occasions to the good Shunammite, (2 Kings 4:1) ... (B.C. 889-887); obtained fraudulently money and garments from Naaman, was miraculously smitten with incurable leprosy, and was dismissed from the prophet's service. (2 Kings 5:1) ... Later in the history he is mentioned as being engaged in relating to King Joram all the great things which Elisha had done. (2 Kings 8:4,5)